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id="toc-Number_system_and_geometry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disease_and_healing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease_and_healing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Disease and healing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease_and_healing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calendar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calendar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Calendar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calendar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesopotamia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Mesopotamia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesopotamian_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamian_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Mesopotamian medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamian_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy_and_celestial_divination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy_and_celestial_divination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Astronomy and celestial divination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy_and_celestial_divination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_and_medieval_South_Asia_and_East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_and_medieval_South_Asia_and_East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Ancient and medieval South Asia and East Asia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ancient_and_medieval_South_Asia_and_East_Asia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ancient and medieval South Asia and East Asia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ancient_and_medieval_South_Asia_and_East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mathematics_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mathematics_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 Mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mathematics_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 Astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 Grammar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 Medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Politics_and_state" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_state"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.5 Politics and state </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_state-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.6 Logic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chinese_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Chinese mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Astronomical_observations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Astronomical_observations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Astronomical observations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Astronomical_observations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inventions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inventions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Inventions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inventions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_antiquity_and_Greco-Roman_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_antiquity_and_Greco-Roman_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Classical antiquity and Greco-Roman science </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classical_antiquity_and_Greco-Roman_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Classical antiquity and Greco-Roman science subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Classical_antiquity_and_Greco-Roman_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-socratics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-socratics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Pre-socratics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-socratics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Natural philosophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_astronomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_astronomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Greek astronomy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_astronomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hellenistic_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hellenistic_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Hellenistic medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hellenistic_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Greek mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Other developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_scholarship_under_Roman_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_scholarship_under_Roman_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Greek scholarship under Roman rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_scholarship_under_Roman_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Middle Ages </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Middle Ages subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Byzantine_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Byzantine Empire </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Preservation_of_Greek_heritage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preservation_of_Greek_heritage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Preservation of Greek heritage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preservation_of_Greek_heritage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collapse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collapse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Collapse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collapse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islamic_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamic_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Islamic world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamic_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Translations_and_Hellenization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations_and_Hellenization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Translations and Hellenization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations_and_Hellenization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_scholarly_pursuits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_scholarly_pursuits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Education and scholarly pursuits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_scholarly_pursuits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advancements_in_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advancements_in_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.3 Advancements in mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advancements_in_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Institutionalization_of_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Institutionalization_of_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.4 Institutionalization of medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Institutionalization_of_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.5 Decline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Western Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Medieval universities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Translations_of_Greek_and_Arabic_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Translations_of_Greek_and_Arabic_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Translations of Greek and Arabic sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Translations_of_Greek_and_Arabic_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 Medieval science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Renaissance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Renaissance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Revival_of_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival_of_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Revival of learning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revival_of_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_Revolution_and_birth_of_New_Science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_Revolution_and_birth_of_New_Science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_Revolution_and_birth_of_New_Science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Heliocentrism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heliocentrism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Heliocentrism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heliocentrism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_Enlightenment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Age of Enlightenment </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Age of Enlightenment subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Age_of_Enlightenment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Continuation_of_Scientific_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continuation_of_Scientific_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Continuation of Scientific Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continuation_of_Scientific_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Planets_and_orbits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Planets_and_orbits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Planets and orbits </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Planets_and_orbits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.2 Emergence of chemistry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Calculus_and_Newtonian_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculus_and_Newtonian_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.3 Calculus and Newtonian mechanics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculus_and_Newtonian_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circulatory_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circulatory_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.4 Circulatory system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Circulatory_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_societies_and_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_societies_and_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.5 Scientific societies and journals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_societies_and_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_geology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_geology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.6 Developments in geology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_geology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Scientific_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Scientific_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Post-Scientific Revolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Scientific_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bioelectricity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioelectricity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.1 Bioelectricity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioelectricity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_geology_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_geology_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.2 Developments in geology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_geology_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birth_of_modern_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_of_modern_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.3 Birth of modern economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_of_modern_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2.4 Social science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 19th century </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 19th century subsection </button> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Developments_in_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Developments in physics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery_of_Neptune" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery_of_Neptune"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Discovery of Neptune </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery_of_Neptune-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_mathematics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_mathematics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Developments in mathematics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_mathematics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_chemistry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_chemistry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Developments in chemistry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_chemistry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Age_of_the_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Age_of_the_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Age of the Earth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Age_of_the_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_and_inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_and_inheritance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Evolution and inheritance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_and_inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germ_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germ_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7 Germ theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germ_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools_of_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_of_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.8 Schools of economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_of_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Founding_of_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_of_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.9 Founding of psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_of_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.10 Modern sociology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.11 Romanticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romanticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 20th century </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 20th century subsection </button> <ul id="toc-20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theory_of_relativity_and_quantum_mechanics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_relativity_and_quantum_mechanics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Theory of relativity and quantum mechanics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_relativity_and_quantum_mechanics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Big_Bang" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Big_Bang"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 Big Bang </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Big_Bang-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Big_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Big_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Big science </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Big_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advances_in_genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advances_in_genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.4 Advances in genetics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advances_in_genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_exploration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_exploration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.5 Space exploration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_exploration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuroscience_as_a_distinct_discipline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuroscience_as_a_distinct_discipline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.6 Neuroscience as a distinct discipline </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuroscience_as_a_distinct_discipline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plate_tectonics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plate_tectonics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.7 Plate tectonics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plate_tectonics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.8 Applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_political_science_and_economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_political_science_and_economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.9 Developments in political science and economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_political_science_and_economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Developments_in_psychology,_sociology,_and_anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developments_in_psychology,_sociology,_and_anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.10 Developments in psychology, sociology, and anthropology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developments_in_psychology,_sociology,_and_anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-21st_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#21st_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 21st century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-21st_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of science</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 76 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-76" aria-hidden="true" > 76 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85" title="تاريخ العلوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ العلوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_ciencia" title="Historia de la ciencia – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la ciencia" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elm_tarixi" title="Elm tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Elm tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Гісторыя навукі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя навукі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="История на науката – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на науката" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_ci%C3%A8ncia" title="Història de la ciència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la ciència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_v%C4%9Bdy" title="Dějiny vědy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny vědy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videnskabshistorie" title="Videnskabshistorie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Videnskabshistorie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wissenschaftsgeschichte" title="Wissenschaftsgeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wissenschaftsgeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της επιστήμης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της επιστήμης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_ciencia" title="Historia de la ciencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la ciencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_scienco" title="Historio de scienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de scienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zientziaren_historia" title="Zientziaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zientziaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85" title="تاریخ علم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ علم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_des_sciences" title="Histoire des sciences – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire des sciences" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stair_na_heola%C3%ADochta_agus_na_teicneola%C3%ADochta" title="Stair na heolaíochta agus na teicneolaíochta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stair na heolaíochta agus na teicneolaíochta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shennaghys_yn_oaylleeaght_as_y_%C3%A7haghnoaylleeaght" title="Shennaghys yn oaylleeaght as y çhaghnoaylleeaght – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Shennaghys yn oaylleeaght as y çhaghnoaylleeaght" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_ciencia" title="Historia da ciencia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da ciencia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%82%AC" title="과학사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Գիտության պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտության պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="विज्ञान का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विज्ञान का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_znanosti" title="Povijest znanosti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest znanosti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_la_cienco" title="Historio di la cienco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di la cienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_ilmu" title="Sejarah ilmu – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah ilmu" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_scientia" title="Historia del scientia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del scientia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ADsindasaga" title="Vísindasaga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Vísindasaga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_scienza" title="Storia della scienza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della scienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2" title="היסטוריה של המדע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של המדע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%A7%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಆಧುನಿಕ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಧುನಿಕ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ғылым тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғылым тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istori_Godhonieth" title="Istori Godhonieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Istori Godhonieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istw%C3%A8_d%C3%A9_syans" title="Istwè dé syans – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Istwè dé syans" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%AEroka_zanist%C3%AA" title="Dîroka zanistê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dîroka zanistê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Илим тарыхы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Илим тарыхы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_scientiae" title="Historia scientiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia scientiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tnes_v%C4%93sture" title="Zinātnes vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātnes vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_de_siensa" title="Istoria de siensa – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Istoria de siensa" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1nyt%C3%B6rt%C3%A9net" title="Tudománytörténet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudománytörténet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="विज्ञानके इतिहास – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="विज्ञानके इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ശാസ്ത്രചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ശാസ്ത്രചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sijarah_Ilmu" title="Sijarah Ilmu – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Sijarah Ilmu" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschapsgeschiedenis" title="Wetenschapsgeschiedenis – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschapsgeschiedenis" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="विज्ञानया इतिहास – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="विज्ञानया इतिहास" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="科学史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਗਿਆਨ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_di_siencia" title="Historia di siencia – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Historia di siencia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د علم تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د علم تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri_a_sayans" title="Ischri a sayans – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ischri a sayans" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_nauki" title="Historia nauki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia nauki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_ci%C3%AAncia" title="História da ciência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da ciência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_%C8%99tiin%C8%9Bei" title="Istoria științei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria științei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="История науки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История науки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="विज्ञानेतिहासः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विज्ञानेतिहासः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_shkenc%C3%ABs" title="Historia e shkencës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e shkencës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="නවීන විද්‍යාවේ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="නවීන විද්‍යාවේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of science" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3_%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE" title="سائنس جي تاريخ – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سائنس جي تاريخ" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_vedy" title="Dejiny vedy – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny vedy" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zgodovina_znanosti_in_tehnike" title="Zgodovina znanosti in tehnike – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zgodovina znanosti in tehnike" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="مێژووی زانست – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی زانست" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_nauke" title="Istorija nauke – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija nauke" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_nauke" title="Historija nauke – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija nauke" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieteen_historia" title="Tieteen historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tieteen historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskapshistoria" title="Vetenskapshistoria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskapshistoria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_ng_agham" title="Kasaysayan ng agham – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kasaysayan ng agham" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="அறிவியலின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அறிவியலின் வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ประวัติศาสตร์วิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสตร์วิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilim_tarihi" title="Bilim tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilim tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Історія науки – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія науки" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_khoa_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Lịch sử khoa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử khoa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E8%A5%BF%E6%A0%BC%E8%87%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="泰西格致史 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="泰西格致史" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="科学史 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="科学史" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%A2_%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%A0%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="היסטאריע פון וויסנשאפט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="היסטאריע פון וויסנשאפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><div class="center"><div class="center"> <div style="width: 220px; height: 152px; overflow: hidden;"> <div style="position: relative; top: -78px; left: -120px; width: 400px"><div class="noresize"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Galileo demonstrating his telescope to the Doge of Venice." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/400px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="434" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg/600px-Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Bertini_fresco_of_Galileo_Galilei_and_Doge_of_Venice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></div> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literature" title="Scientific literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">Branches</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">In society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indexes_of_science_articles" title="Category:Indexes of science articles">Article indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_science" title="Category:Glossaries of science">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of science covers the development of <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient times</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Present" title="Present">present</a>. It encompasses all three major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">branches of science</a>: <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cohen2021-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">early sciences</a>, and natural philosophies such as <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> declined during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> after the establishment of formal disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">science in the Age of Enlightenment</a>. Science's earliest roots can be traced to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> around 3000 to 1200 <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-3">[3]</a> These civilizations' contributions to <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> influenced later Greek <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, wherein formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">physical world</a> based on natural causes.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-3">[3]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a>, knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in ancient Greece">Greek conceptions of the world</a> deteriorated in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> during the early centuries (400 to 1000 CE) of <a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">the Middle Ages</a>,<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007i-4">[4]</a> but continued to thrive in the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. Aided by translations of Greek texts, the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> worldview was preserved and absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>-speaking <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> The recovery and assimilation of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek works</a> and <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic inquiries</a> into Western Europe from the 10th to 13th century revived the learning of natural philosophy in the West.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007i-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007j-6">[6]</a> Traditions of early science were also developed in <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">ancient India</a> and separately in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese model</a> having influenced <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Vietnam" title="Science and technology in Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="History of science and technology in Japan">Japan</a> before <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Sail" title="Age of Sail">Western exploration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Among the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">Pre-Columbian</a> peoples of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec civilization</a> established their first known traditions of astronomy and mathematics for <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">producing calendars</a>, followed by other civilizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a>. Natural philosophy was transformed during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> in 16th- to 17th-century Europe,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Principe2011-10">[10]</a> as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution#New_ideas" title="Scientific Revolution">new ideas and discoveries</a> departed from <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution#Ancient_and_medieval_background" title="Scientific Revolution">previous Greek conceptions</a> and traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1990-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007n-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Encyclopedia-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007c-14">[14]</a> The New Science that emerged was more <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanistic</a> in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007n-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-gal2021i-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020b-16">[16]</a> More "revolutions" in subsequent centuries soon followed. The <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">chemical revolution</a> of the 18th century, for instance, introduced new quantitative methods and measurements for <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020c-17">[17]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century</a>, new perspectives regarding the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">conservation of energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">age of Earth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> came into focus.<a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020d-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020e-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020f-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lightman_19th-23">[23]</a> And in the 20th century, new discoveries in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> laid the foundations for new sub disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020h-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020k-25">[25]</a> Moreover, industrial and military concerns as well as the increasing complexity of new research endeavors ushered in the era of "<a href="/wiki/Big_science" title="Big science">big science</a>," particularly after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020h-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020k-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020a-26">[26]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Approaches_to_history_of_science">Approaches to history of science</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Approaches to history of science">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography of science</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></div> The nature of the history of science is a topic of debate (as is, by implication, the definition of science itself). The history of science is often seen as a linear story of progress<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> but historians have come to see the story as more complex.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Edward_Taylor" title="Alfred Edward Taylor">Alfred Edward Taylor</a> has characterised lean periods in the advance of scientific discovery as "periodical bankruptcies of science".<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Science is a human activity, and scientific contributions have come from people from a wide range of different backgrounds and cultures. Historians of science increasingly see their field as part of a global history of exchange, conflict and collaboration.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_science_and_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Relationship between science and religion">relationship between science and religion</a> has been variously characterized in terms of "conflict", "harmony", "complexity", and "mutual independence", among others. Events in Europe such as the <a href="/wiki/Galileo_affair" title="Galileo affair">Galileo affair</a> of the early-17th century – associated with the scientific revolution and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> – led scholars such as <a href="/wiki/John_William_Draper" title="John William Draper">John William Draper</a> to postulate (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1874) a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_thesis" title="Conflict thesis">conflict thesis</a>, suggesting that religion and science have been in conflict methodologically, factually and politically throughout history. The "conflict thesis" has since lost favor among the majority of contemporary scientists and historians of science.<a href="#cite_note-Russel,_C.A._2002_7-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shapin1996-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brooke1991-35">[35]</a> However, some contemporary philosophers and scientists, such as <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a>,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> still subscribe to this thesis. Historians have emphasized[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] that trust is necessary for agreement on claims about nature. In this light, the 1660 establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> and its code of experiment – trustworthy because witnessed by its members – has become an <a href="/wiki/Leviathan_and_the_Air-Pump" title="Leviathan and the Air-Pump">important chapter</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historiography</a> of science.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Many people in modern history (typically <a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">women</a> and persons of color) were excluded from elite scientific communities and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">characterized by the science establishment as inferior</a>. Historians in the 1980s and 1990s described the structural barriers to participation and began to recover the contributions of overlooked individuals.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Historians have also investigated the mundane practices of science such as fieldwork and specimen collection,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> correspondence,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> drawing,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> record-keeping,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> and the use of laboratory and field equipment.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistoric_times">Prehistoric times</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistoric times">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">Science in the ancient world</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">Alchemy</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">prehistoric</a> times, knowledge and technique were passed from generation to generation in an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a>. For instance, the domestication of <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> for agriculture has been dated to about 9,000 years ago in southern <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>, before the development of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> evidence indicates the development of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomical</a> knowledge in preliterate societies.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> The oral tradition of preliterate societies had several features, the first of which was its fluidity.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> New information was constantly absorbed and adjusted to new circumstances or community needs. There were no archives or reports. This fluidity was closely related to the practical need to explain and justify a present state of affairs.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Another feature was the tendency to describe the universe as just sky and earth, with a potential <a href="/wiki/Underworld" title="Underworld">underworld</a>. They were also prone to identify causes with beginnings, thereby providing a historical origin with an explanation. There was also a reliance on a "<a href="/wiki/Medicine_man" title="Medicine man">medicine man</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Cunning_folk" title="Cunning folk">wise woman</a>" for healing, knowledge of divine or demonic causes of diseases, and in more extreme cases, for rituals such as <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, songs, and <a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">incantations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Finally, there was an inclination to unquestioningly accept explanations that might be deemed implausible in more modern times while at the same time not being aware that such credulous behaviors could have posed problems.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> The development of writing enabled humans to store and communicate knowledge across generations with much greater accuracy. Its invention was a prerequisite for the development of philosophy and later <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">science in ancient times</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Moreover, the extent to which philosophy and science would flourish in ancient times depended on the efficiency of a writing system (e.g., use of alphabets).<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earliest_roots_in_the_Ancient_Near_East">Earliest roots in the Ancient Near East</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Earliest roots in the Ancient Near East">edit</a>]</div> The earliest roots of science can be traced to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a>, in particular <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> in around 3000 to 1200 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_Egypt">Ancient Egypt</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Ancient Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Ancient Egyptian mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">Ancient Egyptian medicine</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Number_system_and_geometry">Number system and geometry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Number system and geometry">edit</a>]</div> Starting in around 3000 BCE, the ancient Egyptians developed a numbering system that was decimal in character and had oriented their knowledge of geometry to solving practical problems such as those of surveyors and builders.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Their development of <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> was itself a necessary development of <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a> to preserve the layout and ownership of <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">farmland</a>, which was flooded annually by the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> River. The 3-4-5 <a href="/wiki/Right_triangle" title="Right triangle">right triangle</a> and other rules of <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> were used to build rectilinear structures, and the post and lintel architecture of Egypt. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disease_and_healing">Disease and healing</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Disease and healing">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PEbers_c41-bc.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/PEbers_c41-bc.jpg/170px-PEbers_c41-bc.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/PEbers_c41-bc.jpg/255px-PEbers_c41-bc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/PEbers_c41-bc.jpg/340px-PEbers_c41-bc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1906" data-file-height="1980" /></a><figcaption>The Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE) from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> </figcaption></figure> Egypt was also a center of <a href="/wiki/History_of_alchemy" class="mw-redirect" title="History of alchemy">alchemy</a> research for much of the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean</a>. Based on the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_medical_papyri" title="Egyptian medical papyri">medical papyri</a> written in the 2500–1200 BCE, the ancient Egyptians believed that disease was mainly caused by the invasion of bodies by evil forces or spirits.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Thus, in addition to using <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian medicine">medicines</a>, their healing therapies included <a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Incantation" title="Incantation">incantation</a>, and ritual.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a>, written in around 1600 BCE, contains medical recipes for treating diseases related to the eyes, mouth, skin, internal organs, and extremities, as well as abscesses, wounds, burns, ulcers, swollen glands, tumors, headaches, and even bad breath. The <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Smith_papyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Smith papyrus">Edwin Smith papyrus</a>, written at about the same time, contains a surgical manual for treating wounds, fractures, and dislocations. The Egyptians believed that the effectiveness of their medicines depended on the preparation and administration under appropriate rituals.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Medical historians believe that ancient Egyptian pharmacology, for example, was largely ineffective.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-50">[50]</a> Both the Ebers and Edwin Smith papyri applied the following components to the treatment of disease: examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> which display strong parallels to the basic <a href="/wiki/Empirical_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical method">empirical method</a> of science and, according to G.E.R. Lloyd,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> played a significant role in the development of this methodology. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calendar">Calendar</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Calendar">edit</a>]</div> The ancient Egyptians even developed an official calendar that contained twelve months, thirty days each, and five days at the end of the year.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Unlike the Babylonian calendar or the ones used in Greek city-states at the time, the official Egyptian calendar was much simpler as it was fixed and did not take <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phase" title="Lunar phase">lunar</a> and solar cycles into consideration.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian medicine">Babylonian medicine</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg/130px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="373" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg/195px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg/260px-Divinatory_livers_Louvre_AO19837.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="1686" /></a><figcaption>Clay models of animal livers dating between the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE, found in the royal palace at <a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a> in what is now Syria</figcaption></figure> The ancient Mesopotamians had extensive knowledge about the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_property" title="Chemical property">chemical properties</a> of clay, sand, metal ore, <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a>, stone, and other natural materials, and applied this knowledge to practical use in manufacturing <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faience" title="Faience">faience</a>, glass, soap, metals, <a href="/wiki/Lime_plaster" title="Lime plaster">lime plaster</a>, and waterproofing. <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</a> required knowledge about the properties of metals. Nonetheless, the Mesopotamians seem to have had little interest in gathering information about the natural world for the mere sake of gathering information and were far more interested in studying the manner in which the gods had ordered the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>. Biology of non-human organisms was generally only written about in the context of mainstream academic disciplines. <a href="/wiki/Animal_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal physiology">Animal physiology</a> was studied extensively for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>; the anatomy of the <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a>, which was seen as an important organ in <a href="/wiki/Haruspicy" class="mw-redirect" title="Haruspicy">haruspicy</a>, was studied in particularly intensive detail. <a href="/wiki/Animal_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal behavior">Animal behavior</a> was also studied for divinatory purposes. Most information about the training and domestication of animals was probably transmitted orally without being written down, but one text dealing with the training of horses has survived.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesopotamian_medicine">Mesopotamian medicine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mesopotamian medicine">edit</a>]</div> The ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamians</a> had no distinction between "rational science" and <a href="/wiki/Magic_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Magic (paranormal)">magic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Farber1995-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abusch-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown-56">[56]</a> When a person became ill, doctors prescribed magical formulas to be recited as well as medicinal treatments.<a href="#cite_note-Farber1995-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abusch-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-53">[53]</a> The earliest medical prescriptions appear in <a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Third Dynasty of Ur</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2112 BCE – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2004 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The most extensive <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the ummânū, or chief scholar, <a href="/wiki/Esagil-kin-apli" title="Esagil-kin-apli">Esagil-kin-apli</a> of <a href="/wiki/Borsippa" title="Borsippa">Borsippa</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Stol-99-58">[58]</a> during the reign of the Babylonian king <a href="/wiki/Adad-apla-iddina" title="Adad-apla-iddina">Adad-apla-iddina</a> (1069–1046 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In <a href="/wiki/East_Semitic" class="mw-redirect" title="East Semitic">East Semitic</a> cultures, the main medicinal authority was a kind of exorcist-healer known as an <a href="/wiki/Asipu" class="mw-redirect" title="Asipu">āšipu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Farber1995-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Abusch-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brown-56">[56]</a> The profession was generally passed down from father to son and was held in extremely high regard.<a href="#cite_note-Farber1995-54">[54]</a> Of less frequent recourse was another kind of healer known as an asu, who corresponds more closely to a modern physician and treated physical symptoms using primarily <a href="/wiki/Folk_remedies" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk remedies">folk remedies</a> composed of various herbs, animal products, and minerals, as well as potions, enemas, and ointments or <a href="/wiki/Poultices" class="mw-redirect" title="Poultices">poultices</a>. These physicians, who could be either male or female, also dressed wounds, set limbs, and performed simple surgeries. The ancient Mesopotamians also practiced <a href="/wiki/Prophylaxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylaxis">prophylaxis</a> and took measures to prevent the spread of disease.<a href="#cite_note-McIntosh2005-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Astronomy_and_celestial_divination">Astronomy and celestial divination</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Astronomy and celestial divination">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:-200_Sternenliste_aus_Uruk_star_list_anagoria.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/-200_Sternenliste_aus_Uruk_star_list_anagoria.JPG/220px--200_Sternenliste_aus_Uruk_star_list_anagoria.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/-200_Sternenliste_aus_Uruk_star_list_anagoria.JPG/330px--200_Sternenliste_aus_Uruk_star_list_anagoria.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/-200_Sternenliste_aus_Uruk_star_list_anagoria.JPG/440px--200_Sternenliste_aus_Uruk_star_list_anagoria.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Star list with distance information, <a href="/wiki/Uruk" title="Uruk">Uruk</a> (Iraq), 320-150 BCE, the list gives each constellation, the number of stars and the distance information to the next constellation in ells</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a>, records of the motions of the <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planets</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">moon</a> are left on thousands of <a href="/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablets</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribes</a>. Even today, astronomical periods identified by Mesopotamian proto-scientists are still widely used in <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Western calendars</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Solar_year" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar year">solar year</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_month" title="Lunar month">lunar month</a>. Using this data, they developed mathematical methods to compute the changing length of daylight in the course of the year, predict the appearances and disappearances of the Moon and planets, and eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Only a few astronomers' names are known, such as that of <a href="/wiki/Kidinnu" title="Kidinnu">Kidinnu</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldean</a> astronomer and mathematician. Kiddinu's value for the solar year is in use for today's calendars. Babylonian astronomy was "the first and highly successful attempt at giving a refined mathematical description of astronomical phenomena." According to the historian A. Aaboe, "all subsequent varieties of scientific astronomy, in the Hellenistic world, in India, in Islam, and in the West—if not indeed all subsequent endeavour in the exact sciences—depend upon Babylonian astronomy in decisive and fundamental ways."<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> To the <a href="/wiki/Babylon" title="Babylon">Babylonians</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near Eastern</a> cultures, messages from the gods or omens were concealed in all natural phenomena that could be deciphered and interpreted by those who are adept.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Hence, it was believed that the gods could speak through all terrestrial objects (e.g., animal entrails, dreams, malformed births, or even the color of a dog urinating on a person) and celestial phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> Moreover, Babylonian astrology was inseparable from Babylonian astronomy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mathematics">Mathematics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mathematics">edit</a>]</div> The Mesopotamian <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> tablet <a href="/wiki/Plimpton_322" title="Plimpton 322">Plimpton 322</a>, dating to the eighteenth-century BCE, records a number of <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_triple" title="Pythagorean triple">Pythagorean triplets</a> (3,4,5) (5,12,13) ...,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> hinting that the ancient Mesopotamians might have been aware of the <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a> over a millennium before Pythagoras.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_and_medieval_South_Asia_and_East_Asia">Ancient and medieval South Asia and East Asia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ancient and medieval South Asia and East Asia">edit</a>]</div> Mathematical achievements from Mesopotamia had some influence on the development of mathematics in India, and there were confirmed transmissions of mathematical ideas between India and China, which were bidirectional.<a href="#cite_note-joseph2011a-65">[65]</a> Nevertheless, the mathematical and scientific achievements in India and particularly in China occurred largely independently<a href="#cite_note-sivin1985-66">[66]</a> from those of Europe and the confirmed early influences that these two civilizations had on the development of science in Europe in the pre-modern era were indirect, with Mesopotamia and later the Islamic World acting as intermediaries.<a href="#cite_note-joseph2011a-65">[65]</a> The arrival of modern science, which grew out of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, in India and China and the greater Asian region in general can be traced to the scientific activities of Jesuit missionaries who were interested in studying the region's <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> during the 16th to 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-bartholomew2003-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: India">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mathematics_2">Mathematics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mathematics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian mathematics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg/220px-Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg/330px-Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg/440px-Bakhshali_numerals_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1958" data-file-height="295" /></a><figcaption>The numerical system of the <a href="/wiki/Bakhshali_manuscript" title="Bakhshali manuscript">Bakhshali manuscript</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg/200px-Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg/300px-Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg/400px-Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="234" data-file-height="234" /></a><figcaption>Drawing representing <a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta%27s_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmagupta's theorem">Brahmagupta's theorem</a></figcaption></figure> The earliest traces of mathematical knowledge in the Indian subcontinent appear with the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> (c. 4th millennium BCE ~ c. 3rd millennium BCE). The people of this civilization made bricks whose dimensions were in the proportion 4:2:1, which is favorable for the stability of a brick structure.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> They also tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy. They designed a ruler—the Mohenjo-daro ruler—whose unit of length (approximately 1.32 inches or 3.4 centimeters) was divided into ten equal parts. Bricks manufactured in ancient Mohenjo-daro often had dimensions that were integral multiples of this unit of length.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bakhshali_manuscript" title="Bakhshali manuscript">Bakhshali manuscript</a> contains problems involving <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic" title="Arithmetic">arithmetic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Mensuration_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mensuration (mathematics)">mensuration</a>. The topics covered include fractions, square roots, <a href="/wiki/Arithmetic_progression" title="Arithmetic progression">arithmetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometric_progression" title="Geometric progression">geometric progressions</a>, solutions of simple equations, <a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_linear_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Simultaneous linear equations">simultaneous linear equations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quadratic_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadratic equations">quadratic equations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indeterminate_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indeterminate equations">indeterminate equations</a> of the second degree.<a href="#cite_note-Plofker-70">[70]</a> In the 3rd century BCE, <a href="/wiki/Pingala" title="Pingala">Pingala</a> presents the Pingala-sutras, the earliest known treatise on <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_prosody" title="Sanskrit prosody">Sanskrit prosody</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> He also presents a numerical system by adding one to the sum of <a href="/wiki/Place_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Place value">place values</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Pingala's work also includes material related to the <a href="/wiki/Fibonacci_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibonacci numbers">Fibonacci numbers</a>, called mātrāmeru.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Indian astronomer and mathematician <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a> (476–550), in his <a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Aryabhatiya</a> (499) introduced the <a href="/wiki/Sine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sine">sine</a> function in <a href="/wiki/Trigonometry" title="Trigonometry">trigonometry</a> and the number 0 [mathematics] . In 628 CE, <a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a> suggested that <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> was a force of attraction.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> He also lucidly explained the use of <a href="/wiki/0_(number)" class="mw-redirect" title="0 (number)">zero</a> as both a placeholder and a <a href="/wiki/Decimal_digit" class="mw-redirect" title="Decimal digit">decimal digit</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu–Arabic numeral system</a> now used universally throughout the world. <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> translations of the two astronomers' texts were soon available in the <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Islamic world</a>, introducing what would become <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> to the Islamic world by the 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-ifrah-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-oconnor-77">[77]</a> <a href="/wiki/Narayana_Pandita_(mathematician)" title="Narayana Pandita (mathematician)">Narayana Pandita</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: नारायण पण्डित) (1340–1400<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>) was an Indian <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kim_Plofker" title="Kim Plofker">Plofker</a> writes that his texts were the most significant Sanskrit mathematics treatises after those of <a href="/wiki/Bhaskara_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhaskara II">Bhaskara II</a>, other than the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>: 52  He wrote the <a href="/wiki/Ganita_Kaumudi" title="Ganita Kaumudi">Ganita Kaumudi</a> (lit. "Moonlight of mathematics") in 1356 about mathematical operations.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> The work anticipated many developments in <a href="/wiki/Combinatorics" title="Combinatorics">combinatorics</a>. During the 14th–16th centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a> made significant advances in astronomy and especially mathematics, including fields such as trigonometry and analysis. In particular, <a href="/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama" title="Madhava of Sangamagrama">Madhava of Sangamagrama</a> led advancement in <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">analysis</a> by providing the infinite and taylor series expansion of some trigonometric functions and pi approximation.<a href="#cite_note-katz-81">[81]</a> <a href="/wiki/Parameshvara" class="mw-redirect" title="Parameshvara">Parameshvara</a> (1380–1460), presents a case of the Mean Value theorem in his commentaries on <a href="/wiki/Govindasv%C4%81mi" title="Govindasvāmi">Govindasvāmi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II" title="Bhāskara II">Bhāskara II</a>.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yuktibh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Yuktibhāṣā">Yuktibhāṣā</a> was written by <a href="/wiki/Jyeshtadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyeshtadeva">Jyeshtadeva</a> in 1530.<a href="#cite_note-gybrima-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Astronomy">Astronomy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Astronomy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Page_from_Lilavati,_the_first_volume_of_Siddh%C4%81nta_%C5%9Airoma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB._Use_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem_in_the_corner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Page_from_Lilavati%2C_the_first_volume_of_Siddh%C4%81nta_%C5%9Airoma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB._Use_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem_in_the_corner.jpg/220px-Page_from_Lilavati%2C_the_first_volume_of_Siddh%C4%81nta_%C5%9Airoma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB._Use_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem_in_the_corner.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Page_from_Lilavati%2C_the_first_volume_of_Siddh%C4%81nta_%C5%9Airoma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB._Use_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem_in_the_corner.jpg/330px-Page_from_Lilavati%2C_the_first_volume_of_Siddh%C4%81nta_%C5%9Airoma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB._Use_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem_in_the_corner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Page_from_Lilavati%2C_the_first_volume_of_Siddh%C4%81nta_%C5%9Airoma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB._Use_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem_in_the_corner.jpg/440px-Page_from_Lilavati%2C_the_first_volume_of_Siddh%C4%81nta_%C5%9Airoma%E1%B9%87%C4%AB._Use_of_the_Pythagorean_theorem_in_the_corner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="956" data-file-height="446" /></a><figcaption>Copy of the <a href="/wiki/Siddh%C4%81nta_Shiromani" title="Siddhānta Shiromani">Siddhānta Śiromaṇī.</a> c. 1650 </figcaption></figure> The first textual mention of astronomical concepts comes from the <a href="/wiki/Veda" class="mw-redirect" title="Veda">Vedas</a>, religious literature of India.<a href="#cite_note-Sarma-Ast-Ind-84">[84]</a> According to Sarma (2008): "One finds in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> intelligent speculations about the genesis of the universe from nonexistence, the configuration of the universe, the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">spherical self-supporting earth</a>, and the year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts of 30 days each with a periodical intercalary month.".<a href="#cite_note-Sarma-Ast-Ind-84">[84]</a> The first 12 chapters of the <a href="/wiki/Siddh%C4%81nta_Shiromani" title="Siddhānta Shiromani">Siddhanta Shiromani</a>, written by <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II" title="Bhāskara II">Bhāskara</a> in the 12th century, cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The 13 chapters of the second part cover the nature of the sphere, as well as significant astronomical and trigonometric calculations based on it. In the <a href="/wiki/Tantrasangraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tantrasangraha">Tantrasangraha</a> treatise, <a href="/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji" title="Nilakantha Somayaji">Nilakantha Somayaji</a>'s updated the Aryabhatan model for the interior planets, Mercury, and Venus and the equation that he specified for the center of these planets was more accurate than the ones in European or Islamic astronomy until the time of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> in the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-joseph2011j-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jai_Singh_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Jai Singh II">Jai Singh II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Amber" title="Kingdom of Amber">Jaipur</a> constructed five <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatories</a> called <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar" title="Jantar Mantar">Jantar Mantars</a> in total, in <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_New_Delhi" title="Jantar Mantar, New Delhi">New Delhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar_(Jaipur)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)">Jaipur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Ujjain" title="Jantar Mantar, Ujjain">Ujjain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathura,_Uttar_Pradesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathura, Uttar Pradesh">Mathura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar,_Varanasi" title="Jantar Mantar, Varanasi">Varanasi</a>; they were completed between 1724 and 1735.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Grammar">Grammar</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Grammar">edit</a>]</div> Some of the earliest linguistic activities can be found in <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age India">Iron Age India</a> (1st millennium BCE) with the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> for the purpose of the correct recitation and interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedic</a> texts. The most notable grammarian of Sanskrit was <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> (c. 520–460 BCE), whose grammar formulates close to 4,000 rules for Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">root</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Tolk%C4%81ppiyam" title="Tolkāppiyam">Tolkāppiyam</a> text, composed in the early centuries of the common era,<a href="#cite_note-weiss2009d-87">[87]</a> is a comprehensive text on Tamil grammar, which includes sutras on orthography, phonology, etymology, morphology, semantics, prosody, sentence structure and the significance of context in language. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medicine">Medicine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Medicine">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-Tantra_(A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine)_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_(1_of_8).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-Tantra_%28A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine%29_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_%281_of_8%29.jpg/220px-The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-Tantra_%28A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine%29_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_%281_of_8%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-Tantra_%28A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine%29_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_%281_of_8%29.jpg/330px-The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-Tantra_%28A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine%29_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_%281_of_8%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-Tantra_%28A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine%29_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_%281_of_8%29.jpg/440px-The_Susruta-Samhita_or_Sahottara-Tantra_%28A_Treatise_on_Ayurvedic_Medicine%29_LACMA_M.87.271a-g_%281_of_8%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1554" /></a><figcaption>Palm leaves of the <a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a> or Sahottara-Tantra from <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a>,</figcaption></figure> Findings from <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> graveyards in what is now Pakistan show evidence of proto-dentistry among an early farming culture.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The ancient text <a href="/wiki/Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Suśrutasamhitā</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sushruta" title="Sushruta">Suśruta</a> describes procedures on various forms of surgery, including <a href="/wiki/Rhinoplasty" title="Rhinoplasty">rhinoplasty</a>, the repair of torn ear lobes, perineal <a href="/wiki/Lithotomy" title="Lithotomy">lithotomy</a>, cataract surgery, and several other excisions and other surgical procedures.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Charaka_Samhita" title="Charaka Samhita">Charaka Samhita</a> of <a href="/wiki/Charaka" title="Charaka">Charaka</a> describes ancient theories on human body, <a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">etiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symptom" class="mw-redirect" title="Symptom">symptomology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">therapeutics</a> for a wide range of diseases.<a href="#cite_note-Glucklichtsov141-91">[91]</a> It also includes sections on the importance of diet, hygiene, prevention, medical education, and the teamwork of a physician, nurse and patient necessary for recovery to health.<a href="#cite_note-Svoboda1992-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-valiathan1186-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Politics_and_state">Politics and state</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Politics and state">edit</a>]</div> An ancient Indian treatise on <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">statecraft</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economic</a> policy and <a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">military strategy</a> by Kautilya<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> and Viṣhṇugupta,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> who are traditionally identified with <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Chāṇakya</a> (c. 350–283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analyzed and documented. <a href="/wiki/Roger_Boesche" title="Roger Boesche">Roger Boesche</a> describes the <a href="/wiki/Arthashastra" title="Arthashastra">Arthaśāstra</a> as "a book of political realism, a book analyzing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Logic">Logic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Logic">edit</a>]</div> The development of Indian logic dates back to the Chandahsutra of Pingala and <a href="/wiki/Anviksiki" title="Anviksiki">anviksiki</a> of Medhatithi Gautama (c. 6th century BCE); the <a href="/wiki/Vy%C4%81kara%E1%B9%87a" title="Vyākaraṇa">Sanskrit grammar</a> rules of <a href="/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini" title="Pāṇini">Pāṇini</a> (c. 5th century BCE); the <a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a> school's analysis of <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a> (c. 6th century BCE to 2nd century BCE); the analysis of <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inference</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Gotama</a> (c. 6th century BC to 2nd century CE), founder of the <a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Tetralemma" title="Tetralemma">tetralemma</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a> (c. 2nd century CE). <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a> logic stands as one of the three original traditions of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, alongside the <a href="/wiki/Organon" title="Organon">Greek</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese logic">Chinese logic</a>. The Indian tradition continued to develop through early to modern times, in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a> school of logic. In the 2nd century, the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a> refined the Catuskoti form of logic. The Catuskoti is also often glossed <a href="/wiki/Tetralemma" title="Tetralemma">Tetralemma</a> (Greek) which is the name for a largely comparable, but not equatable, 'four corner argument' within the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical logic</a>. Navya-Nyāya developed a sophisticated language and conceptual scheme that allowed it to raise, analyse, and solve problems in logic and epistemology. It systematised all the Nyāya concepts into four main categories: sense or perception (pratyakşa), inference (anumāna), comparison or similarity (<a href="/wiki/Upam%C4%81na" class="mw-redirect" title="Upamāna">upamāna</a>), and testimony (sound or word; śabda). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">History of science and technology in China</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">List of Chinese discoveries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">List of Chinese inventions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_island_survey.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sea_island_survey.jpg/170px-Sea_island_survey.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sea_island_survey.jpg/255px-Sea_island_survey.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Sea_island_survey.jpg/340px-Sea_island_survey.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1923" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Liu_Hui" title="Liu Hui">Liu Hui</a>'s survey of a sea island from the <a href="/wiki/Haidao_Suanjing" title="Haidao Suanjing">Haidao Suanjing</a>, 3rd century AD</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chinese_mathematics">Chinese mathematics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Chinese mathematics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Chinese mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics#Chinese" title="History of mathematics">History of mathematics § Chinese</a></div> From the earliest the Chinese used a positional decimal system on counting boards in order to calculate. To express 10, a single rod is placed in the second box from the right. The spoken language uses a similar system to English: e.g. four thousand two hundred and seven. No symbol was used for zero. By the 1st century BCE, negative numbers and decimal fractions were in use and <a href="/wiki/The_Nine_Chapters_on_the_Mathematical_Art" title="The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art">The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art</a> included methods for extracting higher order roots by <a href="/wiki/Horner%27s_method" title="Horner's method">Horner's method</a> and solving linear equations and by <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagoras' theorem</a>. Cubic equations were solved in the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> and solutions of equations of order higher than 3 appeared in print in 1245 CE by <a href="/wiki/Ch%27in_Chiu-shao" class="mw-redirect" title="Ch'in Chiu-shao">Ch'in Chiu-shao</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pascal%27s_triangle" title="Pascal's triangle">Pascal's triangle</a> for binomial coefficients was described around 1100 by <a href="/wiki/Jia_Xian" title="Jia Xian">Jia Xian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Although the first attempts at an axiomatization of geometry appear in the <a href="/wiki/Mohist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohist">Mohist</a> canon in 330 BCE, <a href="/wiki/Liu_Hui" title="Liu Hui">Liu Hui</a> developed algebraic methods in geometry in the 3rd century CE and also calculated <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a> to 5 significant figures. In 480, <a href="/wiki/Zu_Chongzhi" title="Zu Chongzhi">Zu Chongzhi</a> improved this by discovering the ratio <math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {355}{113}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0"> <mfrac> <mn>355</mn> <mn>113</mn> </mfrac> </mstyle> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\tfrac {355}{113}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/df922e7123e73f8860527f232ebd41f5c1ba8eea" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.338ex; width:3.302ex; height:3.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\tfrac {355}{113}}}"> which remained the most accurate value for 1200 years. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Astronomical_observations">Astronomical observations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Astronomical observations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/220px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/330px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG/440px-Su_Song_Star_Map_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1372" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>One of the <a href="/wiki/Star_map" class="mw-redirect" title="Star map">star maps</a> from <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a>'s Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao published in 1092, featuring a cylindrical projection similar to <a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">Mercator</a>, and the corrected position of the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> thanks to <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a>'s astronomical observations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986a208-99">[99]</a></figcaption></figure> Astronomical observations from China constitute the longest continuous sequence from any civilization and include records of sunspots (112 records from 364 BCE), supernovas (1054), lunar and solar eclipses. By the 12th century, they could reasonably accurately make predictions of eclipses, but the knowledge of this was lost during the Ming dynasty, so that the Jesuit <a href="/wiki/Matteo_Ricci" title="Matteo Ricci">Matteo Ricci</a> gained much favor in 1601 by his predictions.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CITESHORT" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:CITESHORT">incomplete short citation</a>] By 635 Chinese astronomers had observed that the tails of comets always point away from the sun. From antiquity, the Chinese used an equatorial system for describing the skies and a star map from 940 was drawn using a cylindrical (<a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">Mercator</a>) projection. The use of an <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a> is recorded from the 4th century BCE and a sphere permanently mounted in equatorial axis from 52 BCE. In 125 CE <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a> used water power to rotate the sphere in real time. This included rings for the meridian and ecliptic. By 1270 they had incorporated the principles of the Arab <a href="/wiki/Torquetum" title="Torquetum">torquetum</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Song_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Song Empire">Song Empire</a> (960–1279) of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial China">Imperial China</a>, Chinese <a href="/wiki/Scholar-official" title="Scholar-official">scholar-officials</a> unearthed, studied, and cataloged ancient artifacts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inventions">Inventions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Inventions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">List of Chinese inventions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EastHanSeismograph.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/EastHanSeismograph.JPG/170px-EastHanSeismograph.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/EastHanSeismograph.JPG/255px-EastHanSeismograph.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/EastHanSeismograph.JPG/340px-EastHanSeismograph.JPG 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>A modern replica of Han dynasty polymath scientist <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng" title="Zhang Heng">Zhang Heng</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Seismometer" title="Seismometer">seismometer</a> of 132 CE</figcaption></figure> To better prepare for calamities, Zhang Heng invented a <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Heng#Zhang's_seismoscope" title="Zhang Heng">seismometer</a> in 132 CE which provided instant alert to authorities in the capital Luoyang that an earthquake had occurred in a location indicated by a specific <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_direction" title="Cardinal direction">cardinal or ordinal direction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Although no tremors could be felt in the capital when Zhang told the court that an earthquake had just occurred in the northwest, a message came soon afterwards that an earthquake had indeed struck 400 to 500 km (250 to 310 mi) northwest of Luoyang (in what is now modern <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>).<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Zhang called his device the 'instrument for measuring the seasonal winds and the movements of the Earth' (Houfeng didong yi 候风地动仪), so-named because he and others thought that earthquakes were most likely caused by the enormous compression of trapped air.<a href="#cite_note-needham_volume_3_626-104">[104]</a> There are many notable contributors to early Chinese disciplines, inventions, and practices throughout the ages. One of the best examples would be the medieval Song Chinese <a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a> (1031–1095), a <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> and statesman who was the first to describe the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic">magnetic</a>-needle <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>, discovered the concept of <a href="/wiki/True_north" title="True north">true north</a>, improved the design of the astronomical <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a>, sight tube, and <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">clepsydra</a>, and described the use of <a href="/wiki/Drydock" class="mw-redirect" title="Drydock">drydocks</a> to repair boats. After observing the natural process of the inundation of <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a> and the find of <a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">marine</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Taihang_Mountains" title="Taihang Mountains">Taihang Mountains</a> (hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean), Shen Kuo devised a theory of land formation, or <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a>. He also adopted a theory of gradual <a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">climate change</a> in regions over time, after observing <a href="/wiki/Petrified" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrified">petrified</a> <a href="/wiki/Bamboo" title="Bamboo">bamboo</a> found underground at <a href="/wiki/Yan%27an" title="Yan'an">Yan'an</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> province. If not for Shen Kuo's writing,<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> the architectural works of <a href="/wiki/Yu_Hao" title="Yu Hao">Yu Hao</a> would be little known, along with the inventor of <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> <a href="/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bi_Sheng" title="Bi Sheng">Bi Sheng</a> (990–1051). Shen's contemporary <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> (1020–1101) was also a brilliant polymath, an astronomer who created a celestial atlas of star maps, wrote a treatise related to <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a>, and had erected a large <a href="/wiki/Astronomical" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical">astronomical</a> <a href="/wiki/Clocktower" class="mw-redirect" title="Clocktower">clocktower</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a> city in 1088. To operate the crowning <a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">armillary sphere</a>, his clocktower featured an <a href="/wiki/Escapement" title="Escapement">escapement</a> mechanism and the world's oldest known use of an endless power-transmitting <a href="/wiki/Chain_drive" title="Chain drive">chain drive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedham1986c111,_165,_445,_448,_456–457,_469–471-106">[106]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Jesuit_China_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit China missions">Jesuit China missions</a> of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture."<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, the <a href="/wiki/Hydraulics" title="Hydraulics">water-powered</a> <a href="/wiki/Celestial_globe" title="Celestial globe">celestial globe</a> (Zhang Heng),<a href="#cite_note-auto-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Graving_dock" class="mw-redirect" title="Graving dock">dry docks</a>, sliding <a href="/wiki/Calipers" title="Calipers">calipers</a>, the double-action <a href="/wiki/Piston_pump" title="Piston pump">piston pump</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto-108">[108]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-109">[109]</a> the multi-tube <a href="/wiki/Seed_drill" title="Seed drill">seed drill</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Wheelbarrow" title="Wheelbarrow">wheelbarrow</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-109">[109]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Suspension_bridge" title="Suspension bridge">suspension bridge</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-109">[109]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fengshanche" title="Fengshanche">winnowing machine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-109">[109]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Raised-relief_map" title="Raised-relief map">raised-relief map</a>, toilet paper,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-109">[109]</a> the efficient harness,<a href="#cite_note-auto-108">[108]</a> along with contributions in <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, and other fields. However, cultural factors prevented these Chinese achievements from developing into "modern science". According to Needham, it may have been the religious and philosophical framework of Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to accept the ideas of laws of nature: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The <a href="/wiki/Taoists" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoists">Taoists</a>, indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeedhamWang1954581-110">[110]</a> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pre-Columbian_Mesoamerica">Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_American_engineering" title="Ancient American engineering">Ancient American engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican calendars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">Maya numerals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya calendar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_architecture" title="Maya architecture">Maya architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_medicine" title="Maya medicine">Maya medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aztec_medicine" title="Aztec medicine">Aztec medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Aztec calendar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aztec_architecture" title="Aztec architecture">Aztec architecture</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Mojarra_Estela_1_(Escritura_superior).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/La_Mojarra_Estela_1_%28Escritura_superior%29.jpg/199px-La_Mojarra_Estela_1_%28Escritura_superior%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/La_Mojarra_Estela_1_%28Escritura_superior%29.jpg/299px-La_Mojarra_Estela_1_%28Escritura_superior%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/La_Mojarra_Estela_1_%28Escritura_superior%29.jpg/399px-La_Mojarra_Estela_1_%28Escritura_superior%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Detail showing columns of glyphs from a portion of the 2nd century CE <a href="/wiki/La_Mojarra_Stela_1" title="La Mojarra Stela 1">La Mojarra Stela 1</a> (found near <a href="/wiki/La_Mojarra" title="La Mojarra">La Mojarra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Veracruz" title="Veracruz">Veracruz</a>, Mexico); the left column gives a <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">calendar date</a> of 8.5.16.9.7, or 156 CE. The other columns visible are glyphs from the <a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Epi-Olmec script">Epi-Olmec script</a>.</figcaption></figure> During the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Middle Formative Period</a> (c. 900 BCE – c. 300 BCE) of <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">Pre-Columbian</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec civilization</a>, heavily influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Olmec_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec civilization">Olmec civilization</a>, established the first known <a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">full writing system</a> of the region (possibly predated by <a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">the Olmec</a> <a href="/wiki/Cascajal_Block" title="Cascajal Block">Cascajal Block</a>),<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> as well as the first known astronomical <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">calendar in Mesoamerica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mesoamerican_civilization,_Britannica-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Following a period of initial urban development in the <a href="/wiki/Preclassic_Maya" title="Preclassic Maya">Preclassical period</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Classic_Maya" class="mw-redirect" title="Classic Maya">Classic</a> <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> (c. 250 CE – c. 900 CE) built on the shared heritage of the Olmecs by developing the most sophisticated systems of <a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">writing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">calendrical science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Maya_numerals" title="Maya numerals">mathematics</a> among Mesoamerican peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Mesoamerican_civilization,_Britannica-112">[112]</a> The Maya developed a <a href="/wiki/Positional_numeral_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Positional numeral system">positional numeral system</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Vigesimal" title="Vigesimal">base of 20</a> that included the use of <a href="/wiki/Zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Zero">zero</a> for constructing their calendars.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Maya writing, which was developed by 200 BCE, widespread by 100 BCE, and rooted <a href="/wiki/Epi-Olmec_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Epi-Olmec script">in Olmec</a> and Zapotec scripts, contains easily discernible calendar dates in the form of <a href="/wiki/Logograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Logograph">logographs</a> representing numbers, coefficients, and calendar periods amounting to 20 days and even 20 years for tracking social, religious, political, and economic events in 360-day years.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_antiquity_and_Greco-Roman_science">Classical antiquity and Greco-Roman science</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Classical antiquity and Greco-Roman science">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_classical_antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in classical antiquity">History of science in classical antiquity</a></div> The contributions of the Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians in the areas of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine had entered and shaped <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, whereby formal attempts were made to provide explanations of events in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">physical world</a> based on natural causes.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Grant2007a-3">[3]</a> Inquiries were also aimed at such practical goals such as establishing a reliable calendar or determining how to cure a variety of illnesses. The ancient people who were considered the first <a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">scientists</a> may have thought of themselves as natural philosophers, as practitioners of a skilled profession (for example, <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a>), or as followers of a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious tradition</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/Asclepeion" class="mw-redirect" title="Asclepeion">temple healers</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-socratics">Pre-socratics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pre-socratics">edit</a>]</div> The earliest <a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a>, known as the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Socratics">pre-Socratics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> provided competing answers to the question found in the myths of their neighbors: "How did the ordered <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a> in which we live come to be?"<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The pre-Socratic philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thales" class="mw-redirect" title="Thales">Thales</a> (640–546 BCE) of <a href="/wiki/Miletus" title="Miletus">Miletus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20240406-119">[119]</a> identified by later authors such as Aristotle as the first of the <a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian philosophers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">[2]</a> postulated non-supernatural explanations for natural phenomena. For example, that land floats on water and that earthquakes are caused by the agitation of the water upon which the land floats, rather than the god Poseidon.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Thales' student <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a> of <a href="/wiki/Samos" title="Samos">Samos</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagorean school</a>, which investigated mathematics for its own sake, and was the first to postulate that the Earth is spherical in shape.<a href="#cite_note-dicks-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Leucippus" title="Leucippus">Leucippus</a> (5th century BCE) introduced <a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">atomism</a>, the theory that all <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> is made of indivisible, imperishable units called <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a>. This was greatly expanded on by his pupil <a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_philosophy">Natural philosophy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Natural philosophy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/220px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/330px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg/440px-Plato%27s_Academy_mosaic_from_Pompeii.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1614" data-file-height="1652" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Academy">Plato's Academy</a>. 1st century <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> from <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> produced the first systematic discussions of natural philosophy, which did much to shape later investigations of nature. Their development of <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive reasoning</a> was of particular importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry. Plato founded the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a> in 387 BCE, whose motto was "Let none unversed in geometry enter here," and also turned out many notable philosophers. Plato's student Aristotle introduced <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> and the notion that universal truths can be arrived at via observation and induction, thereby laying the foundations of the scientific method.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Aristotle also produced <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">many biological writings</a> that were empirical in nature, focusing on biological causation and the diversity of life. He made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals on <a href="/wiki/Lesbos" title="Lesbos">Lesbos</a>, classified more than 540 animal species, and dissected at least 50.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Aristotle's writings profoundly influenced subsequent <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">European</a> scholarship, though they were eventually superseded in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> Aristotle also contributed to theories of the elements and the cosmos. He believed that the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial bodies</a> (such as the planets and the Sun) had something called an <a href="/wiki/Unmoved_mover" title="Unmoved mover">unmoved mover</a> that put the celestial bodies in motion. Aristotle tried to explain everything through mathematics and physics, but sometimes explained things such as the motion of celestial bodies through a higher power such as God. Aristotle did not have the technological advancements that would have explained the motion of celestial bodies.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> In addition, Aristotle had many views on the elements. He believed that everything was derived of the elements earth, water, air, fire, and lastly the <a href="/wiki/Aether_(classical_element)" title="Aether (classical element)">Aether</a>. The Aether was a celestial element, and therefore made up the matter of the celestial bodies.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The elements of earth, water, air and fire were derived of a combination of two of the characteristics of hot, wet, cold, and dry, and all had their inevitable place and motion. The motion of these elements begins with earth being the closest to "the Earth," then water, air, fire, and finally Aether. In addition to the makeup of all things, Aristotle came up with theories as to why things did not return to their natural motion. He understood that water sits above earth, air above water, and fire above air in their natural state. He explained that although all elements must return to their natural state, the human body and other living things have a constraint on the elements – thus not allowing the elements making one who they are to return to their natural state.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The important legacy of this period included substantial advances in factual knowledge, especially in <a href="/wiki/Anatomy" title="Anatomy">anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botany</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">mineralogy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>; an awareness of the importance of certain scientific problems, especially those related to the problem of change and its causes; and a recognition of the methodological importance of applying mathematics to natural phenomena and of undertaking empirical research.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20240406-119">[119]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic age">Hellenistic age</a> scholars frequently employed the principles developed in earlier Greek thought: the application of mathematics and deliberate empirical research, in their scientific investigations.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Thus, clear unbroken lines of influence lead from ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophers</a>, to medieval <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Muslim philosophers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">scientists</a>, to the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>, to the secular <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a> of the modern day. Neither reason nor inquiry began with the Ancient Greeks, but the <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a> did, along with the idea of <a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Forms</a>, give great advances in geometry, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and the natural sciences. According to <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Farrington" title="Benjamin Farrington">Benjamin Farrington</a>, former professor of <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classics</a> at <a href="/wiki/Swansea_University" title="Swansea University">Swansea University</a>: <dl><dd>"Men were weighing for thousands of years before <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a> worked out the laws of equilibrium; they must have had practical and intuitional knowledge of the principals involved. What Archimedes did was to sort out the theoretical implications of this practical knowledge and present the resulting body of knowledge as a logically coherent system."</dd></dl> and again: <dl><dd>"With astonishment we find ourselves on the threshold of modern science. Nor should it be supposed that by some trick of translation the extracts have been given an air of modernity. Far from it. The vocabulary of these writings and their style are the source from which our own vocabulary and style have been derived."<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_astronomy">Greek astronomy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Greek astronomy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antikythera_mechanism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Antikythera_mechanism.svg/170px-Antikythera_mechanism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Antikythera_mechanism.svg/255px-Antikythera_mechanism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Antikythera_mechanism.svg/340px-Antikythera_mechanism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="616" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption> Schematic of the <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> (150–100 BCE).</figcaption></figure> The astronomer <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> was the first known person to propose a heliocentric model of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, while the geographer <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> accurately calculated the circumference of the Earth. <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> (c. 190 – c. 120 BCE) produced the first systematic <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomical_maps,_catalogs,_and_surveys" title="Timeline of astronomical maps, catalogs, and surveys">star catalog</a>. The level of achievement in Hellenistic astronomy and <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> is impressively shown by the <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a> (150–100 BCE), an <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a> for calculating the position of planets. Technological artifacts of similar complexity did not reappear until the 14th century, when mechanical <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical clocks</a> appeared in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-insearchoflosttime-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hellenistic_medicine">Hellenistic medicine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Hellenistic medicine">edit</a>]</div> There was not a defined societal structure for healthcare during the age of Hippocrates.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-133">[133]</a> At that time, society was not organized and knowledgeable as people still relied on pure religious reasoning to explain illnesses.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-133">[133]</a> Hippocrates introduced the first healthcare system based on science and clinical protocols.<a href="#cite_note-Kleisiaris_6-134">[134]</a> Hippocrates' theories about physics and medicine helped pave the way in creating an organized medical structure for society.<a href="#cite_note-Kleisiaris_6-134">[134]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> (c. 460 BC – c. 370 BCE) and his followers were the first to describe many diseases and medical conditions and developed the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">Hippocratic Oath</a> for physicians, still relevant and in use today. Hippocrates' ideas are expressed in <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus" title="Hippocratic Corpus">The Hippocratic Corpus</a>. The collection notes descriptions of medical philosophies and how disease and lifestyle choices reflect on the physical body.<a href="#cite_note-Kleisiaris_6-134">[134]</a> Hippocrates influenced a Westernized, professional relationship among physician and patient.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocrates</a> is also known as "the Father of Medicine".<a href="#cite_note-Kleisiaris_6-134">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Herophilos" title="Herophilos">Herophilos</a> (335–280 BCE) was the first to base his conclusions on dissection of the human body and to describe the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>. <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> (129 – c. 200 CE) performed many audacious operations—including brain and eye <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgeries</a>— that were not tried again for almost two millennia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_mathematics">Greek mathematics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Greek mathematics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P._Oxy._I_29.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jpg/220px-P._Oxy._I_29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jpg/330px-P._Oxy._I_29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/P._Oxy._I_29.jpg/440px-P._Oxy._I_29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1694" data-file-height="1032" /></a><figcaption>One of the oldest surviving fragments of Euclid's Elements, found at <a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus" title="Oxyrhynchus">Oxyrhynchus</a> and dated to c. 100 CE.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archimedes_pi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Archimedes_pi.svg/330px-Archimedes_pi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Archimedes_pi.svg/495px-Archimedes_pi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Archimedes_pi.svg/660px-Archimedes_pi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Archimedes used the <a href="/wiki/Method_of_exhaustion" title="Method of exhaustion">method of exhaustion</a> to approximate the value of <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">π</a>.</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Hellenistic Egypt</a>, the mathematician <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> laid down the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_rigor" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical rigor">mathematical rigor</a> and introduced the concepts of definition, axiom, theorem and proof still in use today in his <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Euclid's elements">Elements</a>, considered the most influential textbook ever written.<a href="#cite_note-Boyer_Influence_of_the_Elements-137">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a>, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time,<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> is credited with using the <a href="/wiki/Method_of_exhaustion" title="Method of exhaustion">method of exhaustion</a> to calculate the <a href="/wiki/Area" title="Area">area</a> under the arc of a <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabola</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Series_(mathematics)" title="Series (mathematics)">summation of an infinite series</a>, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of <a href="/wiki/Pi" title="Pi">pi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> He is also known in physics for laying the foundations of <a href="/wiki/Fluid_statics" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid statics">hydrostatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">statics</a>, and the explanation of the principle of the <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_developments">Other developments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Other developments">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> wrote some of the earliest descriptions of plants and animals, establishing the first <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> and looking at minerals in terms of their properties, such as <a href="/wiki/Hardness" title="Hardness">hardness</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> produced one of the largest <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedias</a> of the natural world in 77 CE, and was a successor to Theophrastus. For example, he accurately describes the <a href="/wiki/Octahedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Octahedral">octahedral</a> shape of the <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">diamond</a> and noted that diamond dust is used by <a href="/wiki/Engraver" class="mw-redirect" title="Engraver">engravers</a> to cut and polish other gems owing to its great hardness. His recognition of the importance of <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystal</a> shape is a precursor to modern <a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">crystallography</a>, while notes on other minerals presages mineralogy. He recognizes other minerals have characteristic crystal shapes, but in one example, confuses the <a href="/wiki/Crystal_habit" title="Crystal habit">crystal habit</a> with the work of <a href="/wiki/Lapidaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Lapidaries">lapidaries</a>. Pliny was the first to show <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> was a resin from pine trees, because of trapped insects within them.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> The development of archaeology has its roots in history and with those who were interested in the past, such as kings and queens who wanted to show past glories of their respective nations. The 5th-century-BCE <a href="/wiki/Greek_historiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek historiography">Greek historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> was the first scholar to systematically study the past and perhaps the first to examine artifacts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_scholarship_under_Roman_rule">Greek scholarship under Roman rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Greek scholarship under Roman rule">edit</a>]</div> During the rule of Rome, famous historians such as <a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> documented the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, and the organization and histories of other nations, while statesmen like <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, Cicero, and others provided examples of the politics of the republic and Rome's empire and wars. The study of politics during this age was oriented toward understanding history, understanding methods of governing, and describing the operation of governments. The <a href="/wiki/Greece_in_the_Roman_era" title="Greece in the Roman era">Roman conquest of Greece</a> did not diminish learning and culture in the Greek provinces.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> On the contrary, the appreciation of Greek achievements in literature, philosophy, politics, and the arts by Rome's <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a> coincided with the increased prosperity of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. Greek settlements had existed in Italy for centuries and the ability to read and speak Greek was not uncommon in Italian cities such as Rome.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Moreover, the settlement of Greek scholars in Rome, whether voluntarily or as slaves, gave Romans access to teachers of Greek literature and philosophy. Conversely, young Roman scholars also studied abroad in Greece and upon their return to Rome, were able to convey Greek achievements to their Latin leadership.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> And despite the translation of a few Greek texts into Latin, Roman scholars who aspired to the highest level did so using the Greek language. The Roman <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">statesman</a> and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (106 – 43 BCE) was a prime example. He had studied under Greek teachers in Rome and then in Athens and <a href="/wiki/Rhodes" title="Rhodes">Rhodes</a>. He mastered considerable portions of Greek philosophy, wrote Latin treatises on several topics, and even wrote Greek commentaries of Plato's <a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a> as well as a Latin translation of it, which has not survived.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> In the beginning, support for scholarship in Greek knowledge was almost entirely funded by the Roman upper class.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> There were all sorts of arrangements, ranging from a talented scholar being attached to a wealthy household to owning educated Greek-speaking slaves.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> In exchange, scholars who succeeded at the highest level had an obligation to provide advice or intellectual companionship to their Roman benefactors, or to even take care of their libraries. The less fortunate or accomplished ones would teach their children or perform menial tasks.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> The level of detail and sophistication of Greek knowledge was adjusted to suit the interests of their Roman patrons. That meant popularizing Greek knowledge by presenting information that were of practical value such as medicine or logic (for courts and politics) but excluding subtle details of Greek metaphysics and epistemology. Beyond the basics, the Romans did not value natural philosophy and considered it an amusement for leisure time.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Commentaries and <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedias</a> were the means by which Greek knowledge was popularized for Roman audiences.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> The Greek scholar <a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a> (c. 135-c. 51 BCE), a native of Syria, wrote prolifically on history, geography, moral philosophy, and natural philosophy. He greatly influenced Latin writers such as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a> (116-27 BCE), who wrote the encyclopedia Nine Books of Disciplines, which covered nine arts: grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, musical theory, medicine, and architecture.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> The Disciplines became a model for subsequent Roman encyclopedias and Varro's nine liberal arts were considered suitable education for a Roman gentleman. The first seven of Varro's nine arts would later define the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education#History" title="Liberal arts education">seven liberal arts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">medieval schools</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> The pinnacle of the popularization movement was the Roman scholar <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (23/24–79 CE), a native of northern Italy, who wrote several books on the history of Rome and grammar. His most famous work was his voluminous <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> After the death of the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> in 180 CE, the favorable conditions for scholarship and learning in the Roman Empire were upended by political unrest, civil war, urban decay, and looming economic crisis.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> In around 250 CE, <a href="/wiki/Barbarian#In_classical_Greco-Roman_contexts" title="Barbarian">barbarians</a> began attacking and invading the Roman frontiers. These combined events led to a general decline in political and economic conditions. The living standards of the Roman upper class was severely impacted, and their loss of <a href="/wiki/Leisure" title="Leisure">leisure</a> diminished scholarly pursuits.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Moreover, during the 3rd and 4th centuries CE, the Roman Empire was administratively divided into two halves: <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Greek East and Latin West</a>. These administrative divisions weakened the intellectual contact between the two regions.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Eventually, both halves went their separate ways, with the Greek East becoming the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> was also steadily expanding during this time and soon became a major patron of education in the Latin West. Initially, the Christian church adopted some of the reasoning tools of Greek philosophy in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE to defend its faith against sophisticated opponents.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Nevertheless, Greek philosophy received a mixed reception from leaders and adherents of the Christian faith.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Some such as <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> (c. 155-c. 230 CE) were vehemently opposed to philosophy, denouncing it as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretic</a>. Others such as <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> (354-430 CE) were ambivalent and defended Greek philosophy and science as the best ways to understand the natural world and therefore treated it as a <a href="/wiki/Handmaiden" title="Handmaiden">handmaiden</a> (or servant) of religion.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Education in the West began its gradual decline, along with the rest of <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, due to invasions by Germanic tribes, civil unrest, and economic collapse. Contact with the classical tradition was lost in specific regions such as <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Gaul</a> but continued to exist in Rome, northern Italy, southern Gaul, Spain, and <a href="/wiki/Africa_(Roman_province)" title="Africa (Roman province)">North Africa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> In the Middle Ages, the classical learning continued in three major linguistic cultures and civilizations: Greek (the Byzantine Empire), Arabic (the Islamic world), and Latin (Western Europe). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Byzantine Empire">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine science</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">List of Byzantine inventions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg/170px-ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg/255px-ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg/340px-ViennaDioscoridesFolio3v7Physicians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The frontispiece of the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides" title="Vienna Dioscurides">Vienna Dioscurides</a>, which shows a set of seven famous physicians</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Preservation_of_Greek_heritage">Preservation of Greek heritage</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Preservation of Greek heritage">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> led to a deterioration of the classical tradition in the western part (or <a href="/wiki/Greek_East_and_Latin_West" title="Greek East and Latin West">Latin West</a>) of Europe during the 5th century. In contrast, the Byzantine Empire resisted the barbarian attacks and preserved and improved the learning.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> While the Byzantine Empire still held learning centers such as <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, Alexandria and Antioch, Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> until the development of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">medieval universities</a> in the 12th centuries. The curriculum of monastic schools included the study of the few available ancient texts and of new works on practical subjects like medicine<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> and timekeeping.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> In the sixth century in the Byzantine Empire, <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a> compiled Archimedes' mathematical works in the <a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a>, where all Archimedes' mathematical contributions were collected and studied. <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, another Byzantine scholar, was the first to question Aristotle's teaching of physics, introducing the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_impetus" title="Theory of impetus">theory of impetus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> The theory of impetus was an auxiliary or secondary theory of Aristotelian dynamics, put forth initially to explain projectile motion against gravity. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of inertia, momentum and acceleration in classical mechanics.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The works of John Philoponus inspired <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> ten centuries later.<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1992p162-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Collapse">Collapse</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Collapse">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, a number of Greek scholars fled to North Italy in which they fueled the era later commonly known as the "<a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>" as they brought with them a great deal of classical learning including an understanding of botany, medicine, and zoology. Byzantium also gave the West important inputs: John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian physics, and the works of Dioscorides.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_world">Islamic world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Islamic world">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Science in the medieval Islamic world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_science_and_engineering_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world">Timeline of science and engineering in the Muslim world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg/170px-Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg/255px-Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg/340px-Islamic_MedText_c1500.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1087" /></a><figcaption> 15th-century manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a>.</figcaption></figure> This was the period (8th–14th century CE) of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> where commerce thrived, and new ideas and technologies emerged such as the importation of <a href="/wiki/Papermaking" title="Papermaking">papermaking</a> from China, which made the copying of manuscripts inexpensive. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Translations_and_Hellenization">Translations and Hellenization</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Translations and Hellenization">edit</a>]</div> The eastward transmission of Greek heritage to Western Asia was a slow and gradual process that spanned over a thousand years, beginning with the Asian conquests of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> in 335 BCE to the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">founding of Islam in the 7th century CE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> The birth and expansion of Islam during the 7th century was quickly followed by its <a href="/wiki/Hellenization" title="Hellenization">Hellenization</a>. Knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Greek conceptions of the world</a> was preserved and absorbed into Islamic theology, law, culture, and commerce, which were aided by the translations of traditional Greek texts and some <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a> intermediary sources into <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> during the 8th–9th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Education_and_scholarly_pursuits">Education and scholarly pursuits</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Education and scholarly pursuits">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg/220px-Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg/330px-Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg/440px-Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3301" data-file-height="2840" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Süleymaniye Mosque</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a> were centers for many different religious and scientific studies and were the culmination of different institutions such as mosques based around religious studies, housing for out-of-town visitors, and finally educational institutions focused on the natural sciences.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> Unlike Western universities, students at a madrasa would learn from one specific teacher, who would issue a certificate at the completion of their studies called an <a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a>. An Ijazah differs from a western university degree in many ways one being that it is issued by a single person rather than an institution, and another being that it is not an individual degree declaring adequate knowledge over broad subjects, but rather a license to teach and pass on a very specific set of texts.<a href="#cite_note-barker2017-153">[153]</a> Women were also allowed to attend madrasas, as both students and teachers, something not seen in high western education until the 1800s.<a href="#cite_note-barker2017-153">[153]</a> Madrasas were more than just academic centers. The <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleymaniye_Mosque" title="Süleymaniye Mosque">Suleymaniye Mosque</a>, for example, was one of the earliest and most well-known madrasas, which was built by <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a> in the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-architecturecourses2021-154">[154]</a> The Suleymaniye Mosque was home to a hospital and medical college, a kitchen, and children's school, as well as serving as a temporary home for travelers.<a href="#cite_note-architecturecourses2021-154">[154]</a> Higher education at a madrasa (or college) was focused on Islamic law and religious science and students had to engage in self-study for everything else.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> And despite the occasional theological backlash, many Islamic scholars of science were able to conduct their work in relatively tolerant urban centers (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>) and were protected by powerful patrons.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> They could also travel freely and exchange ideas as there were no political barriers within the unified Islamic state.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> Islamic science during this time was primarily focused on the correction, extension, articulation, and application of Greek ideas to new problems.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Advancements_in_mathematics">Advancements in mathematics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Advancements in mathematics">edit</a>]</div> Most of the achievements by Islamic scholars during this period were in mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Arabic mathematics</a> was a direct descendant of Greek and Indian mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> For instance, what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a> originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians made several key refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Decimal_separator" title="Decimal separator">decimal point</a> notation. Mathematicians such as <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Musa_al-Khwarizmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi">Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi</a> (c. 780–850) gave his name to the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Algorithm" title="Algorithm">algorithm</a>, while the term <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a> is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Islamic trigonometry continued from the works of Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a> and Indian <a href="/wiki/Siddh%C4%81nta_Shiromani" title="Siddhānta Shiromani">Siddhanta</a>, from which they added <a href="/wiki/Trigonometric_functions" title="Trigonometric functions">trigonometric functions</a>, drew up tables, and applied trignometry to spheres and planes. Many of their engineers, instruments makers, and surveyors contributed books in applied mathematics. It was in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">astronomy</a> where Islamic mathematicians made their greatest contributions. <a href="/wiki/Al-Battani" title="Al-Battani">Al-Battani</a> (c. 858–929) improved the measurements of <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>, preserved in the translation of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. Corrections were made to Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> by al-Battani, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a>,<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragha astronomers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Nasir_al-Din_al-Tusi" title="Nasir al-Din al-Tusi">Nasir al-Din al-Tusi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mu%27ayyad_al-Din_al-Urdi" title="Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi">Mu'ayyad al-Din al-Urdi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Scholars with geometric skills made significant improvements to the earlier classical texts on light and sight by Euclid, Aristotle, and Ptolemy.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> The earliest surviving Arabic treatises were written in the 9th century by <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Abū Ishāq al-Kindī</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qusta_ibn_Luqa" title="Qusta ibn Luqa">Qustā ibn Lūqā</a>, and (in fragmentary form) Ahmad ibn Isā. Later in the 11th century, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (known as Alhazen in the West), a mathematician and astronomer, synthesized a new theory of vision based on the works of his predecessors.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> His new theory included a complete system of geometrical optics, which was set in great detail in his <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Optics" title="Book of Optics">Book of Optics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> His book was translated into Latin and was relied upon as a principal source on the science of optics in Europe until the 17th century.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Institutionalization_of_medicine">Institutionalization of medicine</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Institutionalization of medicine">edit</a>]</div> The medical sciences were prominently cultivated in the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> The works of Greek medical theories, especially those of Galen, were translated into Arabic and there was an outpouring of medical texts by Islamic physicians, which were aimed at organizing, elaborating, and disseminating classical medical knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> <a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Medical specialties</a> started to emerge, such as those involved in the treatment of eye diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataracts</a>. Ibn Sina (known as <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> in the West, c. 980–1037) was a prolific Persian medical encyclopedist<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> wrote extensively on medicine,<a href="#cite_note-Jacquart,_Danielle_2008-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> with his two most notable works in medicine being the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a>, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases,<a href="#cite_note-Jacquart,_Danielle_2008-161">[161]</a> and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> Institutionalization of medicine was another important achievement in the Islamic world. Although hospitals as an institution for the sick emerged in the Byzantium empire, the model of institutionalized medicine for all social classes was extensive in the Islamic empire and was scattered throughout. In addition to treating patients, physicians could teach apprentice physicians, as well write and do research. The discovery of the pulmonary transit of blood in the human body by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a> occurred in a hospital setting.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decline">Decline</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Decline">edit</a>]</div> Islamic science began its decline in the 12th–13th century, before the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> in Europe, due in part to the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Christian reconquest of Spain</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_conquests" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol conquests">Mongol conquests</a> in the East in the 11th–13th century. The Mongols <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Baghdad_(1258)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Baghdad (1258)">sacked Baghdad</a>, capital of the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>, in 1258, which ended the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-Erica_Fraser_1600-164">[164]</a> Nevertheless, many of the conquerors became patrons of the sciences. <a href="/wiki/Hulagu_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulagu Khan">Hulagu Khan</a>, for example, who led the siege of Baghdad, became a patron of the <a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh observatory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> Islamic astronomy continued to flourish into the 16th century.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007h-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Western Europe">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">European science in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Medieval technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_European_scientists" title="List of medieval European scientists">List of medieval European scientists</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world_contributions_to_Medieval_Europe" title="Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe">Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Roger-bacon-statue.jpg/220px-Roger-bacon-statue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Roger-bacon-statue.jpg/330px-Roger-bacon-statue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Roger-bacon-statue.jpg/440px-Roger-bacon-statue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="694" /></a><figcaption>Statue of <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Oxford University Museum of Natural History">Oxford University Museum of Natural History</a></figcaption></figure> By the eleventh century, most of Europe had become Christian; stronger monarchies emerged; borders were restored; technological developments and agricultural innovations were made, increasing the food supply and population. Classical Greek texts were translated from Arabic and Greek into Latin, stimulating scientific discussion in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>, Greek and Roman taboos had meant that dissection was usually banned, but in the Middle Ages medical teachers and students at Bologna began to open human bodies, and <a href="/wiki/Mondino_de_Luzzi" title="Mondino de Luzzi">Mondino de Luzzi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1275–1326) produced the first known anatomy textbook based on human dissection.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Mongolica" title="Pax Mongolica">Pax Mongolica</a>, Europeans, such as <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a>, began to venture further and further east. The written accounts of Polo and his fellow travelers inspired other Western European maritime explorers to search for a direct sea route to Asia, ultimately leading to the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-love2006a-168">[168]</a> Technological advances were also made, such as the early flight of <a href="/wiki/Eilmer_of_Malmesbury" title="Eilmer of Malmesbury">Eilmer of Malmesbury</a> (who had studied mathematics in 11th-century England),<a href="#cite_note-Eilmer-169">[169]</a> and the metallurgical achievements of the <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian</a> <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnace</a> at <a href="/wiki/Laskill" title="Laskill">Laskill</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Laskill-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-Derbeyshire-171">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_universities">Medieval universities</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Medieval universities">edit</a>]</div> An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">medieval universities</a> in the 12th century. These urban institutions grew from the informal scholarly activities of learned <a href="/wiki/Friar" title="Friar">friars</a> who visited <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a>, consulted <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">libraries</a>, and conversed with other fellow scholars.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> A friar who became well-known would attract a following of disciples, giving rise to a brotherhood of scholars (or collegium in Latin). A collegium might travel to a town or request a monastery to host them. However, if the number of scholars within a collegium grew too large, they would opt to settle in a town instead.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> As the number of collegia within a town grew, the collegia might request that their king grant them a <a href="/wiki/Charter" title="Charter">charter</a> that would convert them into a universitas.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> Many universities were chartered during this period, with the first in <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a> in 1088, followed by <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a> in 1150, <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> in 1167, and <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a> in 1231.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> The granting of a charter meant that the medieval universities were partially sovereign and independent from local authorities.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> Their independence allowed them to conduct themselves and judge their own members based on their own rules. Furthermore, as initially religious institutions, their faculties and students were protected from capital punishment (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Gallows" title="Gallows">gallows</a>).<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> Such independence was a matter of custom, which could, in principle, be revoked by their respective rulers if they felt threatened. Discussions of various subjects or claims at these medieval institutions, no matter how controversial, were done in a formalized way so as to declare such discussions as being within the bounds of a university and therefore protected by the privileges of that institution's sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> A claim could be described as <a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility#Ex_cathedra" title="Papal infallibility">ex cathedra</a> (literally "from the chair", used within the context of teaching) or <a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin_phrases_(E)#ex_hypothesi" title="List of Latin phrases (E)">ex hypothesi</a> (by hypothesis). This meant that the discussions were presented as purely an intellectual exercise that did not require those involved to commit themselves to the truth of a claim or to proselytize. Modern academic concepts and practices such as <a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">academic freedom</a> or freedom of inquiry are remnants of these medieval privileges that were tolerated in the past.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> The curriculum of these medieval institutions centered on the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education#History" title="Liberal arts education">seven liberal arts</a>, which were aimed at providing beginning students with the skills for reasoning and scholarly language.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> Students would begin their studies starting with the first three liberal arts or <a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a> (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) followed by the next four liberal arts or <a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a> (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music).<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007g-142">[142]</a> Those who completed these requirements and received their <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">baccalaureate</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a>) had the option to join the higher faculty (law, medicine, or theology), which would confer an <a href="/wiki/Legum_Doctor" title="Legum Doctor">LLD</a> for a lawyer, an <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">MD</a> for a physician, or <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Theology" title="Doctor of Theology">ThD</a> for a theologian.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> Students who chose to remain in the lower faculty (arts) could work towards a <a href="/wiki/Magister_degree" title="Magister degree">Magister</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">Master's</a>) degree and would study three philosophies: metaphysics, ethics, and natural philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations</a> of Aristotle's works such as <a href="/wiki/De_Anima" class="mw-redirect" title="De Anima">De Anima</a> (On the Soul) and the commentaries on them were required readings. As time passed, the lower faculty was allowed to confer its own doctoral degree called the <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> Many of the Masters were drawn to encyclopedias and had used them as textbooks. But these scholars yearned for the complete original texts of the Ancient Greek philosophers, mathematicians, and physicians such as <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>, which were not available to them at the time. These Ancient Greek texts were to be found in the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic World.<a href="#cite_note-gal2021d-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Translations_of_Greek_and_Arabic_sources">Translations of Greek and Arabic sources</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Translations of Greek and Arabic sources">edit</a>]</div> Contact with the Byzantine Empire,<a href="#cite_note-Lindberg1992p162-149">[149]</a> and with the Islamic world during the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, allowed Latin Europe access to scientific <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a> texts, including the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a>, <a href="/wiki/J%C4%81bir_ibn_Hayy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Jābir ibn Hayyān">Jābir ibn Hayyān</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_al-Khw%C4%81rizm%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī">al-Khwarizmi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Alhazen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>. European scholars had access to the translation programs of <a href="/wiki/Raymond_of_Toledo" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond of Toledo">Raymond of Toledo</a>, who sponsored the 12th century <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a> from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like <a href="/wiki/Michael_Scotus" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael Scotus">Michael Scotus</a> would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translation and propagation of these texts</a> and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy in these texts began to be extended by <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastics</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste" title="Robert Grosseteste">Robert Grosseteste</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albertus_Magnus" title="Albertus Magnus">Albertus Magnus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Duns Scotus</a>. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his <a href="/wiki/Opus_Majus" title="Opus Majus">Opus Majus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a>'s thesis is that <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Tempier" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen Tempier">Stephen Tempier</a> – the Bishop of Paris – <a href="/wiki/Condemnation_of_1277" class="mw-redirect" title="Condemnation of 1277">Condemnation of 1277</a> led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277".<a href="#cite_note-Stanford-175">[175]</a> However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the mid-late Middle Ages saw important scientific developments.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_science">Medieval science</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Medieval science">edit</a>]</div> The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work, largely within the framework of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_of_Ockham" title="William of Ockham">William of Ockham</a> emphasized the principle of <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">parsimony</a>: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Jean_Buridan" title="Jean Buridan">Jean Buridan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a> started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Calculators" title="Oxford Calculators">Oxford Calculators</a> began to mathematically analyze the <a href="/wiki/Kinematics" title="Kinematics">kinematics</a> of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> In 1348, the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> and other disasters sealed a sudden end to philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was stimulated by the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars sought refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed ideas such as <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a> to propagate more rapidly. These developments paved the way for the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, where scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death, resumed.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Renaissance">Renaissance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Renaissance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Renaissance" title="Science in the Renaissance">Science in the Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Western_alchemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Western alchemy">Decline of Western alchemy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_magic" title="Natural magic">Natural magic</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Revival_of_learning">Revival of learning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Revival of learning">edit</a>]</div> The renewal of learning in Europe began with 12th century <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Renaissance</a> showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristotelian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine).<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>; the discovery of the Americas by <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a>; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a> questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by <a href="/wiki/Vesalius" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesalius">Vesalius</a> on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> The discovery of <a href="/wiki/Cristallo" title="Cristallo">Cristallo</a> contributed to the advancement of science in the period as well with its appearance out of Venice around 1450. The new glass allowed for better spectacles and eventually to the inventions of the <a href="/wiki/Telescope" title="Telescope">telescope</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a>. <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a>' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. During the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italian Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> established the emphasis of modern political science on direct <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> of political <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a> and actors. Later, the expansion of the scientific paradigm during the <a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Enlightenment" class="mw-redirect" title="The Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> further pushed the study of politics beyond normative determinations.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> In particular, the study of <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, to study the subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a>, has been applied to <a href="/wiki/Opinion_poll" title="Opinion poll">polling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">voting</a>. In archaeology, the 15th and 16th centuries saw the rise of <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian" title="Antiquarian">antiquarians</a> in <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Europe">Renaissance Europe</a> who were interested in the collection of artifacts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_Revolution_and_birth_of_New_Science">Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Scientific Revolution and birth of New Science">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/170px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/255px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/340px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3176" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, father of modern science.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a> is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance. There was a willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers. This resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, which led to the emergence of a New Science that was more <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">mechanistic</a> in its worldview, more integrated with mathematics, and more reliable and open as its knowledge was based on a newly defined <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lindberg2007n-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-gal2021i-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-bowlermorus2020b-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics, and is traditionally held to have begun in 1543, when the books <a href="/wiki/De_humani_corporis_fabrica" class="mw-redirect" title="De humani corporis fabrica">De humani corporis fabrica</a> (On the Workings of the Human Body) by <a href="/wiki/Andreas_Vesalius" title="Andreas Vesalius">Andreas Vesalius</a>, and also <a href="/wiki/De_Revolutionibus_Orbium_Coelestium" class="mw-redirect" title="De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium">De Revolutionibus</a>, by the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, were first printed. The period culminated with the publication of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a> in 1687 by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, representative of the unprecedented growth of <a href="/wiki/Antiquarian_science_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiquarian science book">scientific publications</a> throughout Europe. Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Fermat" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Fermat">Pierre Fermat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marin_Mersenne" title="Marin Mersenne">Marin Mersenne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schuster_1996-190">[190]</a> In philosophy, major contributions were made by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon_(philosopher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Bacon (philosopher)">Francis Bacon</a>, Sir <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" title="Thomas Browne">Thomas Browne</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Gassendi" title="Pierre Gassendi">Pierre Gassendi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schuster_1996-190">[190]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Christiaan Huygens</a> derived the centripetal and centrifugal forces and was the first to transfer mathematical inquiry to describe unobservable physical phenomena. <a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(astronomer)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Gilbert (astronomer)">William Gilbert</a> did some of the earliest experiments with electricity and magnetism, establishing that the Earth itself is magnetic. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Heliocentrism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg/170px-Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg/255px-Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg/340px-Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1001" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> astronomical model of the universe was refined by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>. Copernicus proposed the idea that the Earth and all heavenly spheres, containing the planets and other objects in the cosmos, rotated around the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> His heliocentric model also proposed that all stars were fixed and did not rotate on an axis, nor in any motion at all.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> His theory proposed the yearly rotation of the Earth and the other heavenly spheres around the Sun and was able to calculate the distances of planets using deferents and epicycles. Although these calculations were not completely accurate, Copernicus was able to understand the distance order of each heavenly sphere. The Copernican heliocentric system was a revival of the hypotheses of <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus of Seleucia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Aristarchus of Samos did propose that the Earth rotated around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres' order, motion, or rotation.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Seleucus of Seleucia also proposed the rotation of the Earth around the Sun but did not mention anything about the other heavenly spheres. In addition, Seleucus of Seleucia understood that the Moon rotated around the Earth and could be used to explain the tides of the oceans, thus further proving his understanding of the heliocentric idea.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Age_of_Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Age of Enlightenment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Science in the Age of Enlightenment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JKepler.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JKepler.jpg/220px-JKepler.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="316" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JKepler.jpg/330px-JKepler.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/JKepler.jpg/440px-JKepler.jpg 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a>, one of the founders and fathers of modern <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a><a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/170px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/255px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg/340px-GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="1916" /></a><figcaption> Isaac Newton initiated <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continuation_of_Scientific_Revolution">Continuation of Scientific Revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Continuation of Scientific Revolution">edit</a>]</div> The Scientific Revolution continued into the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>, which accelerated the development of modern science. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Planets_and_orbits">Planets and orbits</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Planets and orbits">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a></div> The heliocentric model revived by <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a> was followed by the model of planetary motion given by <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">elliptical</a> orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. In <a href="/wiki/Astronomia_Nova" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomia Nova">Astronomia Nova</a> (A New Astronomy), the first two of the <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">laws of planetary motion</a> were shown by the analysis of the orbit of Mars. Kepler introduced the revolutionary concept of planetary orbit. Because of his work astronomical phenomena came to be seen as being governed by physical laws.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emergence_of_chemistry">Emergence of chemistry</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Emergence of chemistry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">Chemical revolution</a></div> A decisive moment came when "chemistry" was distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a> in his work <a href="/wiki/The_Sceptical_Chymist" title="The Sceptical Chymist">The Sceptical Chymist</a>, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like <a href="/wiki/William_Cullen" title="William Cullen">William Cullen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Black" title="Joseph Black">Joseph Black</a>, <a href="/wiki/Torbern_Bergman" title="Torbern Bergman">Torbern Bergman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Macquer" title="Pierre Macquer">Pierre Macquer</a> and through the work of <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> ("<a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_father_or_mother_of_a_scientific_field" title="List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field">father of modern chemistry</a>") on <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> and the law of <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_mass" title="Conservation of mass">conservation of mass</a>, which refuted <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston theory</a>. Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calculus_and_Newtonian_mechanics">Calculus and Newtonian mechanics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Calculus and Newtonian mechanics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">History of calculus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a></div> In 1687, Isaac Newton published the <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Principia Mathematica</a>, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a>, which led to classical mechanics; and <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">Newton's law of universal gravitation</a>, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Circulatory_system">Circulatory system</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Circulatory system">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/William_Harvey" title="William Harvey">William Harvey</a> published <a href="/wiki/Exercitatio_Anatomica_de_Motu_Cordis_et_Sanguinis_in_Animalibus" title="Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus">De Motu Cordis</a> in 1628, which revealed his conclusions based on his extensive studies of <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schuster_1996-190">[190]</a> He identified the central role of the <a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">heart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">arteries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">veins</a> in producing blood movement in a circuit, and failed to find any confirmation of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>'s pre-existing notions of heating and cooling functions.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> The history of early modern biology and medicine is often told through the search for the seat of the soul.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Galen in his descriptions of his foundational work in medicine presents the distinctions between arteries, veins, and nerves using the vocabulary of the soul.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scientific_societies_and_journals">Scientific societies and journals</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Scientific societies and journals">edit</a>]</div> A critical innovation was the creation of permanent scientific societies and their scholarly journals, which dramatically sped the diffusion of new ideas. Typical was the founding of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in London in 1660 and its journal in 1665 the <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transaction of the Royal Society</a>, the first scientific journal in English.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> 1665 also saw the first journal in French, the <a href="/wiki/Journal_des_s%C3%A7avans" title="Journal des sçavans">Journal des sçavans</a>. Science drawing on the works<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeilbron2003741-207">[207]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Pascal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Gottfried Leibniz">Leibniz</a>, science was on a path to modern <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a> by the time of the generation of <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> (1706–1790), <a href="/wiki/Leonhard_Euler" title="Leonhard Euler">Leonhard Euler</a> (1707–1783), <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a> (1711–1765) and <a href="/wiki/Jean_le_Rond_d%27Alembert" title="Jean le Rond d'Alembert">Jean le Rond d'Alembert</a> (1717–1783). <a href="/wiki/Denis_Diderot" title="Denis Diderot">Denis Diderot</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">Encyclopédie</a>, published between 1751 and 1772 brought this new understanding to a wider audience. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">philosophy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>), <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">religion</a> (the increasingly significant impact of <a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">science upon religion</a>), and society and politics in general (<a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Developments_in_geology">Developments in geology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Developments in geology">edit</a>]</div> Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a> but instead existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> formulated a theory of earthquakes, and <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Steno" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas Steno">Nicholas Steno</a> developed the theory of <a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">superposition</a> and argued that <a href="/wiki/Fossils" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossils">fossils</a> were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Burnet_(theologian)" title="Thomas Burnet (theologian)">Thomas Burnet</a>'s Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Scientific_Revolution">Post-Scientific Revolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Post-Scientific Revolution">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bioelectricity">Bioelectricity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Bioelectricity">edit</a>]</div> During the late 18th century, researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a><a href="#cite_note-VanderVeer_2011-208">[208]</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Walsh_(scientist)" title="John Walsh (scientist)">John Walsh</a> experimented on the effects of electricity on the human body. Further studies by <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Galvani" title="Luigi Galvani">Luigi Galvani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> established the electrical nature of what Volta called <a href="/wiki/Galvanism" title="Galvanism">galvanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Edwards_2021-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bresadola_367–380-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Developments_in_geology_2">Developments in geology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Developments in geology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/220px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/330px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg/440px-Anoplotherium_1812_Skeleton_Sketch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>1812 skeletal and muscular reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Anoplotherium" title="Anoplotherium">Anoplotherium</a> commune by Georges Cuvier based on fossil remains from the Paris Basin</figcaption></figure> Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Beno%C3%AEt_de_Maillet" title="Benoît de Maillet">Benoît de Maillet</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a> saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. <a href="/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne_Guettard" title="Jean-Étienne Guettard">Jean-Étienne Guettard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Desmarest" title="Nicolas Desmarest">Nicolas Desmarest</a> hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's <a href="/wiki/John_Walker_(natural_historian)" title="John Walker (natural historian)">John Walker</a>,<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Werner" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham Werner">Abraham Werner</a> created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Brongniart" title="Alexandre Brongniart">Alexandre Brongniart</a>, following in the steps of <a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Steno" title="Nicolas Steno">Steno</a>, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of <a href="/wiki/Index_fossil" class="mw-redirect" title="Index fossil">index fossils</a> became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Birth_of_modern_economics">Birth of modern economics</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Birth of modern economics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AdamSmith.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/170px-AdamSmith.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/255px-AdamSmith.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg/340px-AdamSmith.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2173" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> wrote <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">The Wealth of Nations</a>, the first modern work of economics</figcaption></figure> The basis for <a href="/wiki/Classical_economics" title="Classical economics">classical economics</a> forms <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</a>, published in 1776. Smith criticized <a href="/wiki/Mercantilism" title="Mercantilism">mercantilism</a>, advocating a system of free trade with <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>. He postulated an "<a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">invisible hand</a>" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the "<a href="/wiki/Wealth_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Wealth of Nations">Wealth of Nations</a>", 1776, advances as Smith's central message. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_science">Social science</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Social science">edit</a>]</div> Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the Age of Enlightenment. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></div> The 19th century saw the birth of science as a profession. <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> had coined the term scientist in 1833,<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> which soon replaced the older term natural philosopher. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_physics">Developments in physics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Developments in physics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painting_of_Volta_by_Bertini_(photo).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Painting_of_Volta_by_Bertini_%28photo%29.jpeg/220px-Painting_of_Volta_by_Bertini_%28photo%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Painting_of_Volta_by_Bertini_%28photo%29.jpeg/330px-Painting_of_Volta_by_Bertini_%28photo%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Painting_of_Volta_by_Bertini_%28photo%29.jpeg/440px-Painting_of_Volta_by_Bertini_%28photo%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> demonstrates the first <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_cell" title="Electrochemical cell">electrical cell</a> to <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> in 1801.</figcaption></figure> In physics, the behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Aldini" title="Giovanni Aldini">Giovanni Aldini</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a>, and others. The experiments, theories and discoveries of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andre-Marie_Ampere" class="mw-redirect" title="Andre-Marie Ampere">Andre-Marie Ampere</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>, and their contemporaries led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetism</a> as described by <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a> led to an understanding of heat and the notion of energy being defined. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery_of_Neptune">Discovery of Neptune</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Discovery of Neptune">edit</a>]</div> In astronomy, the planet Neptune was discovered. Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">1 Ceres</a>) in 1801, and the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> in 1846. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_mathematics">Developments in mathematics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Developments in mathematics">edit</a>]</div> In mathematics, the notion of complex numbers finally matured and led to a subsequent analytical theory; they also began the use of <a href="/wiki/Hypercomplex_number" title="Hypercomplex number">hypercomplex numbers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Weierstrass" title="Karl Weierstrass">Karl Weierstrass</a> and others carried out the <a href="/wiki/Arithmetization_of_analysis" title="Arithmetization of analysis">arithmetization of analysis</a> for functions of <a href="/wiki/Function_of_a_real_variable" title="Function of a real variable">real</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complex_variable" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex variable">complex variables</a>. It also saw rise to <a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">new progress in geometry</a> beyond those classical theories of Euclid, after a period of nearly two thousand years. The mathematical science of logic likewise had revolutionary breakthroughs after a similarly long period of stagnation. But the most important step in science at this time were the ideas formulated by the creators of electrical science. Their work changed the face of physics and made possible for new technology to come about such as electric power, electrical telegraphy, the telephone, and radio. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_chemistry">Developments in chemistry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Developments in chemistry">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DIMendeleevCab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/DIMendeleevCab.jpg/170px-DIMendeleevCab.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/DIMendeleevCab.jpg/255px-DIMendeleevCab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/DIMendeleevCab.jpg/340px-DIMendeleevCab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1134" data-file-height="1593" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a></figcaption></figure> In chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic theory">atomic theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a>, created the first <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a>. Other highlights include the discoveries unveiling the nature of atomic structure and matter, simultaneously with chemistry – and of new kinds of radiation. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> composed his <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a> of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries. The synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler" title="Friedrich Wöhler">Friedrich Wöhler</a> opened a new research field, <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from <a href="/wiki/Whaling" title="Whaling">whaling</a>. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in <a href="/wiki/Physiological_chemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological chemistry">physiological chemistry</a>, the precursor to <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Age_of_the_Earth">Age of the Earth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Age of the Earth">edit</a>]</div> Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adam_Sedgwick" title="Adam Sedgwick">Adam Sedgwick</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Roderick_Murchison" title="Roderick Murchison">Roderick Murchison</a> applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades. Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> and others established the reality of continent-covering <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a>, and "fluvialists" like <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Crombie_Ramsay" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew Crombie Ramsay">Andrew Crombie Ramsay</a> argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">radiometric dating</a> methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a>'s theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s,<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since the 1960s it has served as the unifying principle in geology.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_and_inheritance">Evolution and inheritance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Evolution and inheritance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin_tree.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Darwin_tree.png/170px-Darwin_tree.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Darwin_tree.png/255px-Darwin_tree.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Darwin_tree.png/340px-Darwin_tree.png 2x" data-file-width="695" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption>In mid-July 1837 <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> started his "B" notebook on the Transmutation of Species, and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first <a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree of life (science)">evolutionary tree</a>.</figcaption></figure> Perhaps the most prominent, controversial, and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, which was independently formulated by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Wallace</a>. It was described in detail in Darwin's book <a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a>, which was published in 1859. In it, Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both <a href="/wiki/Social_effect_of_evolutionary_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Social effect of evolutionary theory">opposition and support</a> from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". Separately, <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> formulated in the principles of inheritance in 1866, which became the basis of modern <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germ_theory">Germ theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Germ theory">edit</a>]</div> Another important landmark in medicine and biology were the successful efforts to prove the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a>. Following this, <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> made the first <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccine</a> against <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>, and also made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the <a href="/wiki/Optical_isomerism" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical isomerism">asymmetry of crystals</a>. In 1847, Hungarian physician <a href="/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis" title="Ignaz Semmelweis">Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis</a> dramatically reduced the occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Puerperal_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Puerperal fever">puerperal fever</a> by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a>. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and handwashing came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a>, who in 1865 proved the principles of <a href="/wiki/Antisepsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Antisepsis">antisepsis</a>. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a>. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">preventive medicine</a>, when in 1880 he produced a <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccine</a> against <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>. Pasteur invented the process of <a href="/wiki/Pasteurization" title="Pasteurization">pasteurization</a>, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schools_of_economics">Schools of economics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Schools of economics">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> developed an alternative economic theory, called <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian economics</a>. Marxian economics is based on the <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">labor theory of value</a> and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this axiom, <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a> responded to Marxian economics by viewing <a href="/wiki/Entrepreneurship" title="Entrepreneurship">entrepreneurship</a> as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of <a href="/wiki/Supply_and_demand" title="Supply and demand">supply and demand</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_of_psychology">Founding of psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Founding of psychology">edit</a>]</div> Psychology as a scientific enterprise that was independent from philosophy began in 1879 when <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>). Other important early contributors to the field include <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus" title="Hermann Ebbinghaus">Hermann Ebbinghaus</a> (a pioneer in memory studies), <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> (who discovered <a href="/wiki/Classical_conditioning" title="Classical conditioning">classical conditioning</a>), <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_sociology">Modern sociology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Modern sociology">edit</a>]</div> Modern sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>), the aim of sociology was in <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structuralism</a>, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalization</a>, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, used more <a href="/wiki/Microsociology" title="Microsociology">microsociological</a>, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Blumer" title="Herbert Blumer">Herbert Blumer</a> resulting in the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a> approach to sociology. In particular, just Auguste Comte, illustrated with his work the transition from a theological to a metaphysical stage and, from this, to a positive stage. Comte took care of the classification of the sciences as well as a transit of humanity towards a situation of progress attributable to a re-examination of nature according to the affirmation of 'sociality' as the basis of the scientifically interpreted society.<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romanticism">Romanticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Romanticism">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romantic Movement</a> of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a> whose work formed the basis for the <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial</a> encounters between Western Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">scientific racism</a>. During the late 19th century, battles over the "study of man" took place between those of an "anthropological" persuasion (relying on <a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">anthropometrical</a> techniques) and those of an "<a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">ethnological</a>" persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between <a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, the latter ushered in by the students of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="20th_century">20th century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></div> Science advanced dramatically during the 20th century. There were new and radical developments in the <a href="/wiki/Physical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical science">physical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Life_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Life sciences">life</a> sciences, building on the progress from the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_relativity_and_quantum_mechanics">Theory of relativity and quantum mechanics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Theory of relativity and quantum mechanics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Albert_Einstein_(Nobel).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28Nobel%29.png/170px-Albert_Einstein_%28Nobel%29.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="240" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28Nobel%29.png/255px-Albert_Einstein_%28Nobel%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Albert_Einstein_%28Nobel%29.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>Einstein's official portrait after receiving the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics</figcaption></figure> The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but the theory of <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">spacetime</a>, on which both <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian mechanics">Newtonian mechanics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a> depended, could not exist. In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Erwin Schrödinger</a> formulated <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>, which explained the preceding quantum theories. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Big_Bang">Big Bang</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Big Bang">edit</a>]</div> The observation by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a> in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> theory by <a href="/wiki/Georges_Lema%C3%AEtre" title="Georges Lemaître">Georges Lemaître</a>. <a href="/wiki/George_Gamow" title="George Gamow">George Gamow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Alpher" title="Ralph Alpher">Ralph Alpher</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Herman" title="Robert Herman">Robert Herman</a> had calculated that there should be evidence for a <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> in the background temperature of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> In 1964, <a href="/wiki/Arno_Penzias" class="mw-redirect" title="Arno Penzias">Arno Penzias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">Robert Wilson</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> discovered a 3 Kelvin background hiss in their <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> <a href="/wiki/Radiotelescope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotelescope">radiotelescope</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Holmdel_Horn_Antenna" title="Holmdel Horn Antenna">Holmdel Horn Antenna</a>), which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the universe</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Big_science">Big science</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Big science">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg/220px-Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg/330px-Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg/440px-Trinity_Test_Fireball_25ms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a> ushered in "<a href="/wiki/Big_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Science">Big Science</a>" in physics.</figcaption></figure> In 1938 <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Fritz Strassmann</a> <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_nuclear_fission" title="Discovery of nuclear fission">discovered nuclear fission</a> with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 <a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Lise Meitner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Robert_Frisch" title="Otto Robert Frisch">Otto Robert Frisch</a> wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_A._Wheeler" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Wheeler">John A. Wheeler</a>. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> and the development and use of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>. Around this time, <a href="/wiki/Chien-Shiung_Wu" title="Chien-Shiung Wu">Chien-Shiung Wu</a> was recruited by the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> to help develop a process for separating uranium metal into U-235 and U-238 isotopes by <a href="/wiki/Gaseous_diffusion" title="Gaseous diffusion">Gaseous diffusion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> She was an expert experimentalist in beta decay and weak interaction physics.<a href="#cite_note-biography.com-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> Wu designed an experiment (see <a href="/wiki/Wu_experiment" title="Wu experiment">Wu experiment</a>) that enabled theoretical physicists <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">Tsung-Dao Lee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chen-Ning_Yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Chen-Ning Yang">Chen-Ning Yang</a> to disprove the law of parity experimentally, winning them a Nobel Prize in 1957.<a href="#cite_note-biography.com-224">[224]</a> Though the process had begun with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Cyclotron" title="Cyclotron">cyclotron</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_O._Lawrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernest O. Lawrence">Ernest O. Lawrence</a> in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "<a href="/wiki/Big_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Science">Big Science</a>", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advances_in_genetics">Advances in genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Advances in genetics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Template_from_Crick_and_Watson%E2%80%99s_DNA_molecular_model,_1953._(9660573227).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Template_from_Crick_and_Watson%E2%80%99s_DNA_molecular_model%2C_1953._%289660573227%29.jpg/220px-Template_from_Crick_and_Watson%E2%80%99s_DNA_molecular_model%2C_1953._%289660573227%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Template_from_Crick_and_Watson%E2%80%99s_DNA_molecular_model%2C_1953._%289660573227%29.jpg/330px-Template_from_Crick_and_Watson%E2%80%99s_DNA_molecular_model%2C_1953._%289660573227%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Template_from_Crick_and_Watson%E2%80%99s_DNA_molecular_model%2C_1953._%289660573227%29.jpg/440px-Template_from_Crick_and_Watson%E2%80%99s_DNA_molecular_model%2C_1953._%289660573227%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="971" /></a><figcaption>Watson and Crick used many aluminium templates like this one, which is the single base <a href="/wiki/Adenine" title="Adenine">Adenine</a> (A), to build a physical model of DNA in 1953.</figcaption></figure> In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by <a href="/wiki/Gregor_Mendel" title="Gregor Mendel">Mendel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a>'s book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce <a href="/wiki/Bond_angle" class="mw-redirect" title="Bond angle">bond angles</a> in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, the secret of life (in the words of <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a>, 1953). In the same year, the <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">Miller–Urey experiment</a> demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules, kickstarting decades of research into the <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">chemical origins of life</a>. By 1953, <a href="/wiki/James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James D. Watson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> clarified the basic structure of DNA, the <a href="/wiki/Genetic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic material">genetic material</a> for expressing life in all its forms,<a href="#cite_note-WastonCrick-227">[227]</a> building on the work of <a href="/wiki/Maurice_Wilkins" title="Maurice Wilkins">Maurice Wilkins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin" title="Rosalind Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a>, suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix. In their famous paper "<a href="/wiki/Molecular_structure_of_Nucleic_Acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids">Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids</a>"<a href="#cite_note-WastonCrick-227">[227]</a> In the late 20th century, the possibilities of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">genetic engineering</a> became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a>). The discipline of <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> typically traces its origin to the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Darwinian evolution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian</a> <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were <a href="/wiki/Microbiology" title="Microbiology">microbiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">soil science</a>—particularly the <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">cycle of life</a> concept, prominent in the work <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Cohn" title="Ferdinand Cohn">Ferdinand Cohn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> The word ecology was coined by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> The field of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">ecosystem ecology</a> emerged in the Atomic Age with the use of radioisotopes to visualize food webs and by the 1970s ecosystem ecology deeply influenced global environmental management.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_exploration">Space exploration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Space exploration">edit</a>]</div> In 1925, <a href="/wiki/Cecilia_Payne-Gaposchkin" title="Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin">Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin</a> determined that stars were composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> She was dissuaded by astronomer <a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a> from publishing this finding in her PhD thesis because of the widely held belief that stars had the same composition as the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-newn.cam.ac.uk-233">[233]</a> However, four years later, in 1929, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a> came to the same conclusion through different reasoning and the discovery was eventually accepted.<a href="#cite_note-newn.cam.ac.uk-233">[233]</a> In 1987, supernova <a href="/wiki/SN_1987A" title="SN 1987A">SN 1987A</a> was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for <a href="/wiki/Neutrino_astronomy" title="Neutrino astronomy">neutrino astronomy</a>, by the solar neutrino detectors at <a href="/wiki/Kamiokande" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamiokande">Kamiokande</a>. But the solar neutrino flux was <a href="/wiki/Solar_neutrino_problem" title="Solar neutrino problem">a fraction of its theoretically expected value</a>. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the <a href="/wiki/Standard_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard model">standard model</a> for <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neuroscience_as_a_distinct_discipline">Neuroscience as a distinct discipline</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: Neuroscience as a distinct discipline">edit</a>]</div> The understanding of neurons and the nervous system became increasingly precise and molecular during the 20th century. For example, in 1952, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> presented a mathematical model for transmission of electrical signals in neurons of the giant axon of a squid, which they called "<a href="/wiki/Action_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Action potentials">action potentials</a>", and how they are initiated and propagated, known as the <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model" title="Hodgkin–Huxley model">Hodgkin–Huxley model</a>. In 1961–1962, Richard FitzHugh and J. Nagumo simplified Hodgkin–Huxley, in what is called the <a href="/wiki/FitzHugh%E2%80%93Nagumo_model" title="FitzHugh–Nagumo model">FitzHugh–Nagumo model</a>. In 1962, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> modeled <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmission" title="Neurotransmission">neurotransmission</a> across the space between neurons known as <a href="/wiki/Synapses" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapses">synapses</a>. Beginning in 1966, Eric Kandel and collaborators examined biochemical changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage in <a href="/wiki/Aplysia" title="Aplysia">Aplysia</a>. In 1981 Catherine Morris and Harold Lecar combined these models in the <a href="/wiki/Morris%E2%80%93Lecar_model" title="Morris–Lecar model">Morris–Lecar model</a>. Such increasingly quantitative work gave rise to numerous <a href="/wiki/Biological_neuron_model" title="Biological neuron model">biological neuron models</a> and <a href="/wiki/Models_of_neural_computation" title="Models of neural computation">models of neural computation</a>. <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a> began to be recognized as a distinct academic discipline in its own right. <a href="/wiki/Eric_Kandel" title="Eric Kandel">Eric Kandel</a> and collaborators have cited <a href="/wiki/David_Rioch" title="David Rioch">David Rioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francis_O._Schmitt" title="Francis O. Schmitt">Francis O. Schmitt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Kuffler" title="Stephen Kuffler">Stephen Kuffler</a> as having played critical roles in establishing the field.<a href="#cite_note-Rioch-234">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plate_tectonics">Plate tectonics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Plate tectonics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg/220px-Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg/330px-Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg/440px-Wegener_Expedition-1912_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2880" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> in Greenland in the winter of 1912–13. He is most remembered as the originator of <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a> hypothesis by suggesting in 1912 that the <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> are slowly drifting around the Earth.</figcaption></figure> Geologists' embrace of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> became part of a broadening of the field from a study of rocks into a study of the Earth as a planet. Other elements of this transformation include: <a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">geophysical studies</a> of the interior of the Earth, the grouping of geology with <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a> as one of the "<a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">earth sciences</a>", and comparisons of Earth and the solar system's other rocky planets. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applications">Applications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Applications">edit</a>]</div> In terms of applications, a massive number of new technologies were developed in the 20th century. Technologies such as <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Incandescent_light_bulb" title="Incandescent light bulb">incandescent light bulb</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Automobile" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile">automobile</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Phonograph" title="Phonograph">phonograph</a>, first developed at the end of the 19th century, were perfected and universally deployed. The first car was introduced by Karl Benz in 1885.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">airplane</a> flight occurred in 1903, and by the end of the century <a href="/wiki/Airliner" title="Airliner">airliners</a> flew thousands of miles in a matter of hours. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> and <a href="/wiki/Computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Computers">computers</a> caused massive changes in the dissemination of information. Advances in biology also led to large increases in food production, as well as the elimination of diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Dr. Jonas Salk</a>. Gene mapping and gene sequencing, invented by Drs. Mark Skolnik and Walter Gilbert, respectively, are the two technologies that made the <a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a> feasible. Computer science, built upon a foundation of <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_linguistics" title="Theoretical linguistics">theoretical linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discrete_mathematics" title="Discrete mathematics">discrete mathematics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>, studies the nature and limits of computation. Subfields include <a href="/wiki/Computability_theory_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Computability theory (computer science)">computability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computational_complexity_theory" title="Computational complexity theory">computational complexity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> design, <a href="/wiki/Computer_networking" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer networking">computer networking</a>, artificial intelligence, and the design of <a href="/wiki/Computer_hardware" title="Computer hardware">computer hardware</a>. One area in which advances in computing have contributed to more general scientific development is by facilitating large-scale <a href="/wiki/Scientific_data_archiving" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific data archiving">archiving of scientific data</a>. Contemporary computer science typically distinguishes itself by emphasizing mathematical 'theory' in contrast to the practical emphasis of <a href="/wiki/Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">software engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Einstein's paper "On the Quantum Theory of Radiation" outlined the principles of the stimulated emission of photons. This led to the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">Laser</a> (light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation) and the <a href="/wiki/Optical_amplifier" title="Optical amplifier">optical amplifier</a> which ushered in the <a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a>.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> It is optical amplification that allows <a href="/wiki/Fiber-optic_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-optic network">fiber optic networks</a> to transmit the massive capacity of the <a href="/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>. Based on wireless transmission of electromagnetic radiation and global networks of cellular operation, the mobile phone became a primary means to access the internet.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_political_science_and_economics">Developments in political science and economics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Developments in political science and economics">edit</a>]</div> In political science during the 20th century, the study of ideology, behaviouralism and international relations led to a multitude of 'pol-sci' subdisciplines including <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">rational choice theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Voting_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Voting theory">voting theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theory</a> (also used in economics), <a href="/wiki/Psephology" title="Psephology">psephology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">political geography</a>/<a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">geopolitics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">political anthropology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Political_psychology" title="Political psychology">political psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">political sociology</a>, political economy, <a href="/wiki/Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">policy analysis</a>, public administration, comparative political analysis and <a href="/wiki/Peace_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Peace studies">peace studies</a>/conflict analysis. In economics, <a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a> prompted a division between <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a> in the 1920s. Under <a href="/wiki/Keynesian_economics" title="Keynesian economics">Keynesian economics</a> macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote <a href="/wiki/Aggregate_demand" title="Aggregate demand">aggregate demand</a> for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> created the concept of <a href="/wiki/Monetarism" title="Monetarism">monetarism</a>. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into <a href="/wiki/Supply-side_economics" title="Supply-side economics">supply-side economics</a> which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion. Other modern schools of economic thought are <a href="/wiki/New_Classical_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="New Classical economics">New Classical economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Keynesian_economics" title="New Keynesian economics">New Keynesian economics</a>. New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics. It shows how imperfect competition and market rigidities, means monetary policy has real effects, and enables analysis of different policies.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Developments_in_psychology,_sociology,_and_anthropology">Developments in psychology, sociology, and anthropology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Developments in psychology, sociology, and anthropology">edit</a>]</div> Psychology in the 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against <a href="/wiki/Edward_Titchener" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Titchener">Edward Titchener</a>'s atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_B._Watson" title="John B. Watson">John B. Watson</a>, which was popularized by <a href="/wiki/B.F._Skinner" class="mw-redirect" title="B.F. Skinner">B.F. Skinner</a>. Behaviorism proposed <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologically</a> limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, which considers the mind as once again a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, philosophy, and <a href="/wiki/Neurobiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurobiology">neurobiology</a>. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as <a href="/wiki/PET_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="PET scan">PET scans</a> and <a href="/wiki/CAT_scan" class="mw-redirect" title="CAT scan">CAT scans</a>, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a>. Evolutionary theory was applied to behavior and introduced to anthropology and psychology, through the works of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural anthropologist">cultural anthropologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Chagnon" title="Napoleon Chagnon">Napoleon Chagnon</a>. Physical anthropology would become <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">biological anthropology</a>, incorporating elements of evolutionary biology.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore "functional". This structural functionalism approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theory</a> was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of Karl Marx. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a> saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing "backstage" and attempting to control their audience through <a href="/wiki/Impression_management" title="Impression management">impression management</a>.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> While these theories are currently prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>, rational choice theory, and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">postmodernism</a>. In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of "primitive cultures". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="21st_century">21st century</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: 21st century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/220px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/330px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/CMS_Higgs-event.jpg/440px-CMS_Higgs-event.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1018" /></a><figcaption>One possible signature of a Higgs boson from a simulated <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">proton</a>–proton collision. It decays almost immediately into two jets of <a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">hadrons</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, visible as lines.</figcaption></figure>In the early 21st century, some concepts that originated in 20th century physics were proven. On 4 July 2012, physicists working at CERN's <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a> announced that they had discovered a new subatomic particle greatly resembling the <a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-nytimes.com-242">[242]</a> confirmed as such by the following March.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_wave" title="Gravitational wave">Gravitational waves</a> were first <a href="/wiki/First_observation_of_gravitational_waves" title="First observation of gravitational waves">detected</a> on 14 September 2015.<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> The Human Genome Project was declared complete in 2003.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> The <a href="/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR gene editing technique</a> developed in 2012 allowed scientists to precisely and easily modify DNA and led to the development of new medicine.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> In 2020, <a href="/wiki/Xenobot" title="Xenobot">xenobots</a>, a new class of living robotics, were invented;<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> reproductive capabilities were introduced the following year.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> <a href="/wiki/Positive_psychology" title="Positive psychology">Positive psychology</a> is a branch of psychology founded in 1998 by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Seligman" title="Martin Seligman">Martin Seligman</a> that is concerned with the study of happiness, mental well-being, and positive human functioning, and is a reaction to 20th century psychology's emphasis on mental illness and dysfunction.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/25px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg/37px-Newton%27s_reflecting_telescope.jpg 1.5x, 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and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">History of astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">History of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences#History_of_Earth_science" title="Outline of Earth sciences">History of Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History of the social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_scholarship" title="History of scholarship">History of scholarship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">History of science policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_experiments" title="List of experiments">List of experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">List of Nobel laureates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_societies" title="Category:Scientific societies">List of scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_science" title="List of years in science">List of years in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism_Controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Materialism Controversy">Materialism Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_discovery" title="Multiple discovery">Multiple discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_tourism" title="Science tourism">Science tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines#Science" title="List of timelines">Timelines of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" title="Timeline of scientific discoveries">Timeline of scientific discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_experiments" title="Timeline of scientific experiments">Timeline of scientific experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method" title="Timeline of the history of the scientific method">Timeline of the history of the scientific method</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuasa_Phenomenon" title="Yuasa Phenomenon">Yuasa Phenomenon</a> – Migration of center of activity of world science</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-cohen2021-1"><a href="#cite_ref-cohen2021_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFCohen2021" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Eliel (2021). "The boundary lens: theorising academic activity". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984">The University and its Boundaries</a> (1st ed.). New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 14–41. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0367562984" title="Special:BookSources/978-0367562984"><bdi>978-0367562984</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505045450/https://www.routledge.com/The-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century/Cohen/p/book/9780367562984">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+boundary+lens%3A+theorising+academic+activity&rft.btitle=The+University+and+its+Boundaries&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=14-41&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0367562984&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Eliel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.routledge.com%2FThe-University-and-its-Boundaries-Thriving-or-Surviving-in-the-21st-Century%2FCohen%2Fp%2Fbook%2F9780367562984&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-lindberg2007a-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-lindberg2007a_2-18">s</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindberg2007" class="citation book cs1">Lindberg, David C. 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Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 25–57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+scientific+revolution&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=25-57&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowlermorus2020c-17"><a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020c_17-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerMorus2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The chemical revolution". Making Modern Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 58–82. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+chemical+revolution&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=58-82&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowlermorus2020d-18"><a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020d_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerMorus2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The conservation of energy". Making Modern Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 83–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+conservation+of+energy&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=83-107&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowlermorus2020e-19"><a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020e_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerMorus2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The age of the earth". Making Modern Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 108–133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+age+of+the+earth&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=108-133&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowlermorus2020f-20"><a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020f_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerMorus2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "The Darwinian revolution". Making Modern Science (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. pp. 134–171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Darwinian+revolution&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=134-171&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy-21"><a href="#cite_ref-Cahan_Natural_Philosophy_21-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCahan2003" class="citation book cs1">Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08928-7"><bdi>978-0-226-08928-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Natural+Philosophy+to+the+Sciences%3A+Writing+the+History+of+Nineteenth-Century+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08928-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> The Oxford English Dictionary dates the origin of the word "scientist" to 1834. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lightman_19th-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Lightman_19th_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLightman2011" class="citation book cs1">Lightman, Bernard (2011). "Science and the Public". In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-31783-0"><bdi>978-0-226-31783-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Science+and+the+Public&rft.btitle=Wrestling+with+Nature&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=367&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-226-31783-0&rft.aulast=Lightman&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowlermorus2020h-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020h_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020h_24-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerMorus2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Genetics". Making Modern Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 197–221. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Genetics&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=197-221&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowlermorus2020k-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020k_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020k_25-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerMorus2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Twentieth-century physics". Making Modern Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 262–285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Twentieth-century+physics&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=262-285&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bowlermorus2020a-26"><a href="#cite_ref-bowlermorus2020a_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlerMorus2020" class="citation book cs1">Bowler, Peter J.; Morus, Iwan Rhys (2020). "Introduction: Science, society, and history". Making Modern Science (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1–24. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226365763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226365763"><bdi>978-0226365763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Science%2C+society%2C+and+history&rft.btitle=Making+Modern+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=1-24&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0226365763&rft.aulast=Bowler&rft.aufirst=Peter+J.&rft.au=Morus%2C+Iwan+Rhys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Wright2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Georg_Henrik_von_Wright" title="Georg Henrik von Wright">von Wright, Georg Henrik</a> (25 October 2012) [1997]. "Progress: Fact and Fiction". In Burgen, Arnold; McLaughlin, Peter; <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Mittelstra%C3%9F" title="Jürgen Mittelstraß">Mittelstraß, Jürgen</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kZ8gAAAAQBAJ">The Idea of Progress</a>. Philosophie und Wissenschaft – Volume 13 (reprint ed.). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110820423" title="Special:BookSources/9783110820423"><bdi>9783110820423</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 October 2023. <q>In historic reflections on art, cyclic schemas play a prominent role. This is a difference between art history and science history. The idea of linear progress simply does not apply in the esthetic domain.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Progress%3A+Fact+and+Fiction&rft.btitle=The+Idea+of+Progress&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Philosophie+und+Wissenschaft+%E2%80%93+Volume+13&rft.pages=14&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2012-10-25&rft.isbn=9783110820423&rft.aulast=von+Wright&rft.aufirst=Georg+Henrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkZ8gAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKragh1987" class="citation book cs1">Kragh, Helge (1987). An introduction to the historiography of science. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-33360-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-33360-1"><bdi>0-521-33360-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/14692886">14692886</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+introduction+to+the+historiography+of+science&rft.place=Cambridge+%5BCambridgeshire%5D&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F14692886&rft.isbn=0-521-33360-1&rft.aulast=Kragh&rft.aufirst=Helge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_V._Lightman2016" class="citation book cs1">Bernard V. Lightman (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yQj9CgAAQBAJ">A companion to the history of science</a>. Chichester (GB). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-62077-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-62077-9"><bdi>978-1-118-62077-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/950521936">950521936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+the+history+of+science&rft.place=Chichester+%28GB%29&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F950521936&rft.isbn=978-1-118-62077-9&rft.au=Bernard+V.+Lightman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyQj9CgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGolinski2008" class="citation book cs1">Golinski, Jan (22 July 2008) [1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SZcCElvmF7sC">Making Natural Knowledge: Constructivism and the History of Science</a>. Cambridge history of science (revised ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226302324" title="Special:BookSources/9780226302324"><bdi>9780226302324</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 October 2023. <q>[...] historical writing [...] has largely abandoned the aim of telling a story of science's universal progress.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Natural+Knowledge%3A+Constructivism+and+the+History+of+Science&rft.place=Chicago&rft.series=Cambridge+history+of+science&rft.pages=188&rft.edition=revised&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008-07-22&rft.isbn=9780226302324&rft.aulast=Golinski&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSZcCElvmF7sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1961" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, Norman (1961). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FQ_PyhHvACoC">Great Dissenters</a>. Norton. p. 25. Retrieved 13 October 2023. <q>[...] the brilliant Periclean Age, according to Dr. A. E. Taylor, witnessed one of the periodical bankruptcies of science [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Dissenters&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1961&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFQ_PyhHvACoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoskett2022" class="citation book cs1">Poskett, James (2022). Horizons : a global history of science. [London]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-241-39409-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-241-39409-0"><bdi>978-0-241-39409-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1235416152">1235416152</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Horizons+%3A+a+global+history+of+science&rft.place=%5BLondon%5D&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1235416152&rft.isbn=978-0-241-39409-0&rft.aulast=Poskett&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Russel,_C.A._2002_7-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Russel,_C.A._2002_7_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussel,_C.A.2002" class="citation book cs1">Russel, C.A. (2002). Ferngren, G.B. (ed.). Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. p. 7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-7038-5"><bdi>978-0-8018-7038-5</bdi></a>. <q>The conflict thesis, at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+%26+Religion%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.pages=7&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-7038-5&rft.au=Russel%2C+C.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shapin1996-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Shapin1996_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapin,_S.1996" class="citation book cs1">Shapin, S. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0">The Scientific Revolution</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00shap_0/page/195">195</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226750200" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226750200"><bdi>978-0226750200</bdi></a>. <q>In the late Victorian period it was common to write about the 'warfare between science and religion' and to presume that the two bodies of culture must always have been in conflict. However, it is a very long time since these attitudes have been held by historians of science.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Revolution&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0226750200&rft.au=Shapin%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificrevolu00shap_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brooke1991-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Brooke1991_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooke,_J._H.1991" class="citation book cs1">Brooke, J. H. (1991). Science and Religion: Some Historical Perspectives. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 42. <q>In its traditional forms, the conflict thesis has been largely discredited.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Religion%3A+Some+Historical+Perspectives&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.au=Brooke%2C+J.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaliaferro2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taliaferro" title="Charles Taliaferro">Taliaferro, Charles</a> (11 September 2014) [2009]. "Twentieth-century Philosophy of Religiion: An Introduction". In <a href="/wiki/Graham_Oppy" title="Graham Oppy">Oppy, Graham</a>; <a href="/wiki/Nick_Trakakis" title="Nick Trakakis">Trakakis, N. N.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N2h_BAAAQBAJ">Twentieth-Century Philosophy of Religion</a>. The History of Western Philosophy of Religion, Volume 5 (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317546382" title="Special:BookSources/9781317546382"><bdi>9781317546382</bdi></a>. Retrieved 13 October 2023. <q>At the close of the twentieth century, proponents of the conflict thesis are well represented by Richard Dawkins, E. O. Wilson and Daniel Dennett.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Twentieth-century+Philosophy+of+Religiion%3A+An+Introduction&rft.btitle=Twentieth-Century+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.series=The+History+of+Western+Philosophy+of+Religion%2C+Volume+5&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-09-11&rft.isbn=9781317546382&rft.aulast=Taliaferro&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN2h_BAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShapin2018" class="citation book cs1">Shapin, Steven (2018). Leviathan and the air-pump : Hobbes, Boyle, and the experimental life. Princeton, N.J. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17816-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-17816-5"><bdi>978-0-691-17816-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/984327399">984327399</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leviathan+and+the+air-pump+%3A+Hobbes%2C+Boyle%2C+and+the+experimental+life&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F984327399&rft.isbn=978-0-691-17816-5&rft.aulast=Shapin&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchiebinger2013" class="citation book cs1">Schiebinger, Londa L. (2013). Nature's body : gender in the making of modern science (5th pbk. print ed.). New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3531-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8135-3531-9"><bdi>978-0-8135-3531-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1048657291">1048657291</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nature%27s+body+%3A+gender+in+the+making+of+modern+science&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+N.J.&rft.edition=5th+pbk.+print&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1048657291&rft.isbn=978-0-8135-3531-9&rft.aulast=Schiebinger&rft.aufirst=Londa+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaraway1989" class="citation book cs1">Haraway, Donna Jeanne (1989). Primate visions : gender, race, and nature in the world of modern science. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-60815-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-60815-5"><bdi>978-1-136-60815-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/555643149">555643149</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primate+visions+%3A+gender%2C+race%2C+and+nature+in+the+world+of+modern+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F555643149&rft.isbn=978-1-136-60815-5&rft.aulast=Haraway&rft.aufirst=Donna+Jeanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohler2007" class="citation journal cs1">Kohler, Robert E. (December 2007). "Finders, Keepers: Collecting Sciences and Collecting Practice". History of Science. 45 (4): 428–454. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F007327530704500403">10.1177/007327530704500403</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0073-2753">0073-2753</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147175644">147175644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Finders%2C+Keepers%3A+Collecting+Sciences+and+Collecting+Practice&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=428-454&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147175644%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0073-2753&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F007327530704500403&rft.aulast=Kohler&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSecord1994" class="citation journal cs1">Secord, Anne (December 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087400032416">"Corresponding interests: artisans and gentlemen in nineteenth-century natural history"</a>. The British Journal for the History of Science. 27 (4): 383–408. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087400032416">10.1017/S0007087400032416</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-0874">0007-0874</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144777485">144777485</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Corresponding+interests%3A+artisans+and+gentlemen+in+nineteenth-century+natural+history&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=383-408&rft.date=1994-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144777485%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0007-0874&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087400032416&rft.aulast=Secord&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0007087400032416&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasim2013" class="citation book cs1">Nasim, Omar W. (2013). Observing by hand : sketching the nebulae in the nineteenth century. Chicago. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08440-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-08440-4"><bdi>978-0-226-08440-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/868276095">868276095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Observing+by+hand+%3A+sketching+the+nebulae+in+the+nineteenth+century&rft.place=Chicago&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F868276095&rft.isbn=978-0-226-08440-4&rft.aulast=Nasim&rft.aufirst=Omar+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddy2016" class="citation journal cs1">Eddy, Matthew Daniel (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dro.dur.ac.uk/19136/1/19136.pdf">"The Interactive Notebook: How Students Learned to Keep Notes during the Scottish Enlightenment"</a> (PDF). Book History. 19 (1): 86–131. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fbh.2016.0002">10.1353/bh.2016.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1529-1499">1529-1499</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151427109">151427109</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220615185141/https://dro.dur.ac.uk/19136/1/19136.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Book+History&rft.atitle=The+Interactive+Notebook%3A+How+Students+Learned+to+Keep+Notes+during+the+Scottish+Enlightenment&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=86-131&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A151427109%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1529-1499&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fbh.2016.0002&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Matthew+Daniel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdro.dur.ac.uk%2F19136%2F1%2F19136.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaffer1992" class="citation book cs1">Schaffer, Simon (1 June 1992). "Late Victorian metrology and its instrumentation: A manufactory of Ohms". In Bud, Robert; Cozzens, Susan E. (eds.). Invisible Connections: Instruments, Institutions, and Science. SPIE Conference Series. Vol. 10309. p. 1030904. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992SPIE10309E..04S">1992SPIE10309E..04S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1117%2F12.2283709">10.1117/12.2283709</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:115323404">115323404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Late+Victorian+metrology+and+its+instrumentation%3A+A+manufactory+of+Ohms&rft.btitle=Invisible+Connections%3A+Instruments%2C+Institutions%2C+and+Science&rft.series=SPIE+Conference+Series&rft.pages=1030904&rft.date=1992-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A115323404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1117%2F12.2283709&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992SPIE10309E..04S&rft.aulast=Schaffer&rft.aufirst=Simon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatsuokaVigourouxGoodmanSanchez_G.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Matsuoka, Yoshihiro; Vigouroux, Yves; Goodman, Major M.; Sanchez G., Jesus; Buckler, Edward; Doebley, John (30 April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122905">"A single domestication for maize shown by multilocus microsatellite genotyping"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (9): 6080–6084. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002PNAS...99.6080M">2002PNAS...99.6080M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.052125199">10.1073/pnas.052125199</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC122905">122905</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11983901">11983901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=A+single+domestication+for+maize+shown+by+multilocus+microsatellite+genotyping&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=6080-6084&rft.date=2002-04-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC122905%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11983901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.052125199&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002PNAS...99.6080M&rft.aulast=Matsuoka&rft.aufirst=Yoshihiro&rft.au=Vigouroux%2C+Yves&rft.au=Goodman%2C+Major+M.&rft.au=Sanchez+G.%2C+Jesus&rft.au=Buckler%2C+Edward&rft.au=Doebley%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC122905&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1">Sean B. Carroll (24 May 2010),"Tracking the Ancestry of Corn Back 9,000 Years" New York Times</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170830121104/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/25/science/25creature.html?_r=1">Archived</a> 30 August 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> Francesca Bray (1984), <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a> VI.2 Agriculture pp 299, 453 writes that <a href="/wiki/Teosinte" class="mw-redirect" title="Teosinte">teosinte</a>, 'the father of corn', helps the success and vitality of corn when planted between the rows of its 'children', <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoskin2001" class="citation book cs1">Hoskin, Michael (2001). Tombs, Temples and their Orientations: a New Perspective on Mediterranean Prehistory. Bognor Regis, UK: Ocarina Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9540867-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9540867-1-8"><bdi>978-0-9540867-1-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tombs%2C+Temples+and+their+Orientations%3A+a+New+Perspective+on+Mediterranean+Prehistory&rft.place=Bognor+Regis%2C+UK&rft.pub=Ocarina+Books&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-9540867-1-8&rft.aulast=Hoskin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuggles1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Clive_Ruggles" title="Clive Ruggles">Ruggles, Clive</a> (1999). Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07814-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-07814-5"><bdi>978-0-300-07814-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomy+in+Prehistoric+Britain+and+Ireland&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-300-07814-5&rft.aulast=Ruggles&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-50"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerkins2001" class="citation book cs1">Perkins, Michael D. (2001). "Pharmacological Practices of Ancient Egypt". In W. A. Whitelaw (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080407062556/http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf">Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days</a> (PDF). Calgary: Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary. pp. 5–11. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1880%2F51835">1880/51835</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hom.ucalgary.ca/Dayspapers2001.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 April 2008. Retrieved 9 March 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pharmacological+Practices+of+Ancient+Egypt&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+10th+Annual+History+of+Medicine+Days&rft.place=Calgary&rft.pages=5-11&rft.pub=Faculty+of+Medicine%2C+The+University+of+Calgary&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1880%2F51835&rft.aulast=Perkins&rft.aufirst=Michael+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hom.ucalgary.ca%2FDayspapers2001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus">"Edwin Smith papyrus: Egyptian medical book"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141101084403/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/179901/Edwin-Smith-papyrus">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Edwin+Smith+papyrus%3A+Egyptian+medical+book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FEdwin-Smith-papyrus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Lloyd, G.E.R. "The development of empirical research", in his Magic, Reason and Experience: Studies in the Origin and Development of Greek Science. </li> <li id="cite_note-McIntosh2005-53">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_53-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_53-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McIntosh2005_53-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2005" class="citation book cs1">McIntosh, Jane R. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspectives</a>. Santa Barbara, California, Denver, Colorado, and Oxford, England: ABC-CLIO. pp. 273–276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-966-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-966-9"><bdi>978-1-57607-966-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210205162758/https://books.google.com/books?id=9veK7E2JwkUC&q=science+in+ancient+Mesopotamia">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Mesopotamia%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California%2C+Denver%2C+Colorado%2C+and+Oxford%2C+England&rft.pages=273-276&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-966-9&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Jane+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9veK7E2JwkUC%26q%3Dscience%2Bin%2Bancient%2BMesopotamia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farber1995-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farber1995_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farber1995_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farber1995_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farber1995_54-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarber1995" class="citation book cs1">Farber, Walter (1995). "Witchcraft, Magic, and Divination in Ancient Mesopotamia". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1891">Civilizations of the Ancient Near East</a>. Vol. 3. New York City, New York: Charles Schribner's Sons, MacMillan Library Reference USA, Simon & Schuster MacMillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780684192796/page/1891">1891–1908</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19279-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-19279-6"><bdi>978-0-684-19279-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 12 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Witchcraft%2C+Magic%2C+and+Divination+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.btitle=Civilizations+of+the+Ancient+Near+East&rft.place=New+York+City%2C+New+York&rft.pages=1891-1908&rft.pub=Charles+Schribner%27s+Sons%2C+MacMillan+Library+Reference+USA%2C+Simon+%26+Schuster+MacMillan&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-684-19279-6&rft.aulast=Farber&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780684192796%2Fpage%2F1891&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abusch-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abusch_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abusch_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abusch_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbusch2002" class="citation book cs1">Abusch, Tzvi (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Slhv-0ewLHwC">Mesopotamian Witchcraft: Towards a History and Understanding of Babylonian Witchcraft Beliefs and Literature</a>. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12387-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12387-8"><bdi>978-90-04-12387-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803051833/https://books.google.com/books?id=Slhv-0ewLHwC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mesopotamian+Witchcraft%3A+Towards+a+History+and+Understanding+of+Babylonian+Witchcraft+Beliefs+and+Literature&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12387-8&rft.aulast=Abusch&rft.aufirst=Tzvi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSlhv-0ewLHwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brown-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brown_56-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1995" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Michael (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KCzmNKnLqMkC">Israel's Divine Healer</a>. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-20029-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-310-20029-1"><bdi>978-0-310-20029-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803054328/https://books.google.com/books?id=KCzmNKnLqMkC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 7 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Israel%27s+Divine+Healer&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-310-20029-1&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKCzmNKnLqMkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiggs2005" class="citation journal cs1">Biggs, R D. (2005). "Medicine, Surgery, and Public Health in Ancient Mesopotamia". Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 19 (1): 7–18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Assyrian+Academic+Studies&rft.atitle=Medicine%2C+Surgery%2C+and+Public+Health+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-18&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Biggs&rft.aufirst=R+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stol-99-58"><a href="#cite_ref-Stol-99_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeeßel2004" class="citation book cs1">Heeßel, N. P. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p6rejN-iF0IC&q=Diagnostic+Handbook">"Diagnosis, Divination, and Disease: Towards an Understanding of the Rationale Behind the Babylonian Diagnostic Handbook"</a>. In Horstmanshoff, H.F.J.; Stol, Marten; Tilburg, Cornelis (eds.). Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine. Studies in Ancient Medicine. Vol. 27. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 97–116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13666-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-13666-3"><bdi>978-90-04-13666-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803060925/https://books.google.com/books?id=p6rejN-iF0IC&q=Diagnostic+Handbook">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 12 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Diagnosis%2C+Divination%2C+and+Disease%3A+Towards+an+Understanding+of+the+Rationale+Behind+the+Babylonian+Diagnostic+Handbook&rft.btitle=Magic+and+Rationality+in+Ancient+Near+Eastern+and+Graeco-Roman+Medicine&rft.place=Leiden%2C+The+Netherlands&rft.series=Studies+in+Ancient+Medicine&rft.pages=97-116&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-90-04-13666-3&rft.aulast=Hee%C3%9Fel&rft.aufirst=N.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp6rejN-iF0IC%26q%3DDiagnostic%2BHandbook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-72371-63-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-72371-63-8">978-90-72371-63-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAaboe,_A.1974" class="citation journal cs1">Aaboe, A. (2 May 1974). "Scientific Astronomy in Antiquity". <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society</a>. 276 (1257): 21–42. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974RSPTA.276...21A">1974RSPTA.276...21A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007">10.1098/rsta.1974.0007</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/74272">74272</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122508567">122508567</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Scientific+Astronomy+in+Antiquity&rft.volume=276&rft.issue=1257&rft.pages=21-42&rft.date=1974-05-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsta.1974.0007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122508567%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F74272%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1974RSPTA.276...21A&rft.au=Aaboe%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hoffman_(science_writer)" title="Paul Hoffman (science writer)">Paul Hoffman</a>, The man who loved only numbers: the story of Paul Erdős and the search for mathematical truth, (New York: Hyperion), 1998, p. 187. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7868-6362-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7868-6362-4">978-0-7868-6362-4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkert1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Walter_Burkert" title="Walter Burkert">Burkert, Walter</a> (1 June 1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&q=Pythagoreanism">Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism</a>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 429, 462. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-53918-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-53918-1"><bdi>978-0-674-53918-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180129145253/https://books.google.com/books?id=0qqp4Vk1zG0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Pythagoreanism&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiX4Y3W9bfXAhXBeSYKHfBxCG4Q6AEIMTAC">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2018. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lore+and+Science+in+Ancient+Pythagoreanism&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=429%2C+462&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1972-06-01&rft.isbn=978-0-674-53918-1&rft.aulast=Burkert&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0qqp4Vk1zG0C%26q%3DPythagoreanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahn2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Kahn" title="Charles H. Kahn">Kahn, Charles H.</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&q=Pythagoreanism&pg=PA72">Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans: A Brief History</a>. Indianapolis, Indiana and Cambridge, England: Hackett Publishing Company. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-575-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-575-8"><bdi>978-0-87220-575-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210331100347/https://books.google.com/books?id=GKUtAwAAQBAJ&q=Pythagoreanism&pg=PA72">Archived</a> from the original on 31 March 2021. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pythagoras+and+the+Pythagoreans%3A+A+Brief+History&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Indiana+and+Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-575-8&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGKUtAwAAQBAJ%26q%3DPythagoreanism%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiedweg2005" class="citation book cs1">Riedweg, Christoph (2005) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ixyQJA7_MC&q=Pythagoras">Pythagoras: His Life, Teachings, and Influence</a>. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7452-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-7452-1"><bdi>978-0-8014-7452-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220228161323/https://books.google.com/books?id=A8ixyQJA7_MC&q=Pythagoras">Archived</a> from the original on 28 February 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pythagoras%3A+His+Life%2C+Teachings%2C+and+Influence&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-7452-1&rft.aulast=Riedweg&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA8ixyQJA7_MC%26q%3DPythagoras&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-joseph2011a-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-joseph2011a_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-joseph2011a_65-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2011" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, George G. (2011). "The history of mathematics: Alternative perspectives". The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (3rd ed.). 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The Environmentalist. 5 (1): 39–50. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1985ThEnv...5...39S">1985ThEnv...5...39S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02239866">10.1007/BF02239866</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:45700796">45700796</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210608185003/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02239866">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Environmentalist&rft.atitle=Why+the+Scientific+Revolution+did+not+take+place+in+China+%E2%80%93+or+did+it%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=39-50&rft.date=1985&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A45700796%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF02239866&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1985ThEnv...5...39S&rft.aulast=Sivin&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2FBF02239866&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bartholomew2003-67"><a href="#cite_ref-bartholomew2003_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartholomew2003" class="citation book cs1">Bartholomew, James R. (2003). "Asia". In Heilbron, John L. (ed.). 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(1982). "Excavations at Banawali: 1974–77". In Possehl, Gregory L. (ed.). Harappan Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. pp. 113–124.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Excavations+at+Banawali%3A+1974%E2%80%9377&rft.btitle=Harappan+Civilization%3A+A+Contemporary+Perspective&rft.pages=113-124&rft.pub=Oxford+and+IBH+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Bisht&rft.aufirst=R.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plofker-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Plofker_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlofker2009" class="citation cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kim_Plofker" title="Kim Plofker">Plofker, Kim</a> (2009). <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_India_(book)" title="Mathematics in India (book)">Mathematics in India</a>. 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Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 648–649. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0045-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0045-8"><bdi>978-81-208-0045-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sanskrit+Prosody+and+Important+Literary+and+Geographical+Names+in+the+Ancient+History+of+India&rft.pages=648-649&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0045-8&rft.au=Vaman+Shivaram+Apte&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4ArxvCxV1l4C%26pg%3DPA648&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> B. van Nooten, "Binary Numbers in Indian Antiquity", Journal of Indian Studies, Volume 21, 1993, pp. 31–50 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSusantha_Goonatilake1998" class="citation book cs1">Susantha Goonatilake (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/towardglobalscie0000goon">Toward a Global Science</a>. 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Pickover">Pickover, Clifford</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC&pg=PA105">Archimedes to Hawking: laws of science and the great minds behind them</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University Press US">Oxford University Press US</a>. p. 105. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533611-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533611-5"><bdi>978-0-19-533611-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170118060420/https://books.google.com/books?id=SQXcpvjcJBUC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 7 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Archimedes+to+Hawking%3A+laws+of+science+and+the+great+minds+behind+them&rft.pages=105&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533611-5&rft.aulast=Pickover&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSQXcpvjcJBUC%26pg%3DPA105&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Mainak Kumar Bose, Late Classical India, A. Mukherjee & Co., 1988, p. 277. </li> <li id="cite_note-ifrah-76"><a href="#cite_ref-ifrah_76-0">^</a> Ifrah, Georges. 1999. The Universal History of Numbers : From Prehistory to the Invention of the Computer, Wiley. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-37568-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-37568-5">978-0-471-37568-5</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-oconnor-77"><a href="#cite_ref-oconnor_77-0">^</a> O'Connor, J.J. and E.F. Robertson. 2000. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html">'Indian Numerals'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929131009/http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html">Archived</a> 29 September 2007 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Narayana/">"Narayana - Biography"</a>. Maths History. 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Katz">Katz, Victor J.</a> (June 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0025570X.1995.11996307">"Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mathematics_Magazine" title="Mathematics Magazine">Mathematics Magazine</a>. 68 (3): 163–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0025570X.1995.11996307">10.1080/0025570X.1995.11996307</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0025-570X">0025-570X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2691411">2691411</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mathematics+Magazine&rft.atitle=Ideas+of+Calculus+in+Islam+and+India&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=163-174&rft.date=1995-06&rft.issn=0025-570X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2691411%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0025570X.1995.11996307&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Victor+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F0025570X.1995.11996307&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Paramesvara/">Paramesvara</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_archive" class="mw-redirect" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics archive</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-gybrima-83"><a href="#cite_ref-gybrima_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarmaRamasubramanian,_K.Srinivas,_M.D.Sriram,_M.S.2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/K._V._Sarma" title="K. V. Sarma">Sarma, K.V.</a>; Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M.D.; Sriram, M.S. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.springer.com/math/history+of+mathematics/book/978-1-84882-072-2">Ganita-Yukti-Bhasa (Rationales in Mathematical Astronomy) of Jyesthadeva</a>. Sources and Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Vol. I–II (1st ed.). Springer (jointly with Hindustan Book Agency, New Delhi). pp. LXVIII, 1084. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008rma..book.....S">2008rma..book.....S</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84882-072-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84882-072-2"><bdi>978-1-84882-072-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 December 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ganita-Yukti-Bhasa+%28Rationales+in+Mathematical+Astronomy%29+of+Jyesthadeva&rft.series=Sources+and+Studies+in+the+History+of+Mathematics+and+Physical+Sciences&rft.pages=LXVIII%2C+1084&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Springer+%28jointly+with+Hindustan+Book+Agency%2C+New+Delhi%29&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008rma..book.....S&rft.isbn=978-1-84882-072-2&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=K.V.&rft.au=Ramasubramanian%2C+K.&rft.au=Srinivas%2C+M.D.&rft.au=Sriram%2C+M.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.springer.com%2Fmath%2Fhistory%2Bof%2Bmathematics%2Fbook%2F978-1-84882-072-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sarma-Ast-Ind-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-Ast-Ind_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sarma-Ast-Ind_84-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarma2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sarma, K.V. (2008). "Astronomy in India". In Selin, Helaine (ed.). Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures. Springer, Dordrecht. pp. 317–321. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9554">10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_9554</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4425-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4425-0"><bdi>978-1-4020-4425-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Astronomy+in+India&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.pages=317-321&rft.pub=Springer%2C+Dordrecht&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_9554&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4425-0&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=K.V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-joseph2011j-85"><a href="#cite_ref-joseph2011j_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2011" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, George G. (2011). "A Passage to Infinity: The Kerala Episode". The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 418–449. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691135267" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691135267"><bdi>978-0691135267</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Passage+to+Infinity%3A+The+Kerala+Episode&rft.btitle=The+Crest+of+the+Peacock%3A+Non-European+Roots+of+Mathematics&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=418-449&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0691135267&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=George+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jantarmantar.org/learn/observatories/sites/index.html">"The Observatory Sites"</a>. 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New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 79–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195335231" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195335231"><bdi>978-0195335231</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+invasion+of+utopia%3A+The+corruption+of+Siddha+medicine+by+Ayurveda&rft.btitle=Recipes+for+Immortality%3A+Healing%2C+Religion%2C+and+Community+in+South+India&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pages=79-106&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0195335231&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Richard+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoppa2006" class="citation journal cs1">Coppa, A.; et al. (6 April 2006). "Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry: Flint tips were surprisingly effective for drilling tooth enamel in a prehistoric population". Nature. 440 (7085): 755–756. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006Natur.440..755C">2006Natur.440..755C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F440755a">10.1038/440755a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16598247">16598247</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6787162">6787162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Early+Neolithic+tradition+of+dentistry%3A+Flint+tips+were+surprisingly+effective+for+drilling+tooth+enamel+in+a+prehistoric+population&rft.volume=440&rft.issue=7085&rft.pages=755-756&rft.date=2006-04-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F440755a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6787162%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16598247&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006Natur.440..755C&rft.aulast=Coppa&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> E. Schultheisz (1981), History of Physiology, Pergamon Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080273426" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080273426">978-0080273426</a>, page 60-61, Quote: "(...) the Charaka Samhita and the Susruta Samhita, both being recensions of two ancient traditions of the Hindu medicine". </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> Wendy Doniger (2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199360079" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199360079">978-0199360079</a>, page 79; Sarah Boslaugh (2007), Encyclopedia of Epidemiology, Volume 1, SAGE Publications, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1412928168" title="Special:BookSources/978-1412928168">978-1412928168</a>, page 547, Quote: "The Hindu text known as Sushruta Samhita is possibly the earliest effort to classify diseases and injuries" </li> <li id="cite_note-Glucklichtsov141-91"><a href="#cite_ref-Glucklichtsov141_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel_Glucklich2008" class="citation book cs1">Ariel Glucklich (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stridesvishnuhin00gluc_414">The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective</a>. Oxford University Press, USA. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/stridesvishnuhin00gluc_414/page/n155">141</a>–142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531405-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-531405-2"><bdi>978-0-19-531405-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Strides+of+Vishnu%3A+Hindu+Culture+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=141-142&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-531405-2&rft.au=Ariel+Glucklich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstridesvishnuhin00gluc_414&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Svoboda1992-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Svoboda1992_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Svoboda1992" class="citation book cs1">Robert Svoboda (1992). 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Hassler, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1764939">Caraka Samhita</a>, Science, Vol. 22, No. 545, pages 17-18 </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMabbett1964" class="citation journal cs1">Mabbett, I.W. (1 April 1964). "The Date of the Arthaśāstra". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 84 (2): 162–169. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F597102">10.2307/597102</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/597102">597102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=The+Date+of+the+Artha%C5%9B%C4%81stra&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=162-169&rft.date=1964-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F597102&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F597102%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mabbett&rft.aufirst=I.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrautmann1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Trautmann" title="Thomas Trautmann">Trautmann, Thomas R.</a> (1971). Kauṭilya and the Arthaśāstra: A Statistical Investigation of the Authorship and Evolution of the Text. Brill. p. 10. <q>while in his character as author of an arthaśāstra he is generally referred to by his <a href="/wiki/Gotra" title="Gotra">gotra</a> name, Kauṭilya.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22International+Alphabet+of+Sanskrit+transliteration%22%3E%3Ci+lang%3D%22sa-Latn%22%3EKau%E1%B9%ADilya%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fspan%3E+and+the+Artha%C5%9B%C4%81stra%3A+A+Statistical+Investigation+of+the+Authorship+and+Evolution+of+the+Text&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Trautmann&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Mabbett 1964 Trautmann 1971:5 "the very last verse of the work...is the unique instance of the personal name Viṣṇugupta rather than the <a href="/wiki/Gotra" title="Gotra">gotra</a> name Kauṭilya in the Arthaśāstra. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoesche2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Boesche" title="Roger Boesche">Boesche, Roger</a> (2002). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra. Lexington Books. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0401-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-0401-9"><bdi>978-0-7391-0401-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+First+Great+Political+Realist%3A+Kautilya+and+His+Arthashastra&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-0401-9&rft.aulast=Boesche&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartzloff2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Martzloff, Jean-Claude (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ACK1jreKgCoC&q=jia+xian+pascal+triangle">A History of Chinese Mathematics</a> (in English, Japanese, and Chinese). 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Cornford">F.M. Cornford</a>, Principium Sapientiae: The Origins of Greek Philosophical Thought, (Gloucester, Massachusetts, Peter Smith, 1971), p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20240406-119">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20240406_119-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20240406_119-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBroad2024" class="citation news cs1">Broad, William J. 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Oxford University Press. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285408-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-285408-7"><bdi>978-0-19-285408-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-19-285408-7&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAristotle2009" class="citation book cs1">Aristotle (7 January 2009). "De Caelo" [On the Heavens]. Translated by J. L. 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Lang"</a>. Isis. 95 (4): 687–688. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F432288">10.1086/432288</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288">10.1086/432288</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204052419/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/432288">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2022. 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Perspectives on Science. 7 (3): 349–382. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fposc.1999.7.3.349">10.1162/posc.1999.7.3.349</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1063-6145">1063-6145</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:57571190">57571190</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+Science&rft.atitle=Hippocratic+Medicine+and+the+Greek+Body+Image&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=349-382&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A57571190%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1063-6145&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fposc.1999.7.3.349&rft.aulast=DeHart&rft.aufirst=Scott+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1162%252Fposc.1999.7.3.349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCasselman,_Bill" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bill_Casselman_(mathematician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bill Casselman (mathematician)">Casselman, Bill</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html">"One of the Oldest Extant Diagrams from Euclid"</a>. University of British Columbia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120604095737/http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/Euclid/papyrus/papyrus.html">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 26 September 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=One+of+the+Oldest+Extant+Diagrams+from+Euclid&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia&rft.au=Casselman%2C+Bill&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.math.ubc.ca%2F~cass%2FEuclid%2Fpapyrus%2Fpapyrus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Boyer_Influence_of_the_Elements-137"><a href="#cite_ref-Boyer_Influence_of_the_Elements_137-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyer1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Benjamin_Boyer" title="Carl Benjamin Boyer">Boyer</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye">"Euclid of Alexandria"</a>. A History of Mathematics. 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Press, 1996), pp. 127–131. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> Edward Grant, A Source Book in Medieval Science, (Harvard Univ. Press, 1974), p. 232 </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> David C. Lindberg, Theories of Vision from al-Kindi to Kepler, (Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1976), pp. 140–142. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 95–97. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> Edward Grant, The Foundations of Modern Science in the Middle Ages: Their Religious, Institutional, and Intellectual Contexts, (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1996), pp. 100–103. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzalay2016" class="citation web cs1">Szalay, Jessie (29 June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/55230-renaissance.html">"The Renaissance: The 'Rebirth' of Science & Culture"</a>. Historical development. LiveScience.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181027214636/https://www.livescience.com/55230-renaissance.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 October 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LiveScience.com&rft.atitle=The+Renaissance%3A+The+%27Rebirth%27+of+Science+%26+Culture&rft.date=2016-06-29&rft.aulast=Szalay&rft.aufirst=Jessie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F55230-renaissance.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottfried1985" class="citation book cs1">Gottfried, Robert S. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oK4HTBcdSJsC&pg=PR14">The Black Death: Natural & Human Disaster in Medieval Europe</a>. Free Press. p. xiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-912370-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-912370-6"><bdi>978-0-02-912370-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200803141629/https://books.google.com/books?id=oK4HTBcdSJsC&pg=PR14">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Death%3A+Natural+%26+Human+Disaster+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.pages=xiv&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-02-912370-6&rft.aulast=Gottfried&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DoK4HTBcdSJsC%26pg%3DPR14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Allen_Debus" class="mw-redirect" title="Allen Debus">Allen Debus</a>, Man and Nature in the Renaissance, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1978). </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> Precise titles of these landmark books can be found in the collections of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. A list of these titles can be found in <a href="#CITEREFBruno1989">Bruno 1989</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://world101.cfr.org/contemporary-history/prelude-global-era/what-enlightenment-and-how-did-it-transform-politics">"What Is the Enlightenment and How Did It Transform Politics?"</a>. World101 from the Council on Foreign Relations. 17 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World101+from+the+Council+on+Foreign+Relations&rft.atitle=What+Is+the+Enlightenment+and+How+Did+It+Transform+Politics%3F&rft.date=2023-02-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworld101.cfr.org%2Fcontemporary-history%2Fprelude-global-era%2Fwhat-enlightenment-and-how-did-it-transform-politics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> See, for example, <a href="#CITEREFHeilbron2003">Heilbron 2003</a>, pp. 741–744 </li> <li id="cite_note-Schuster_1996-190">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schuster_1996_190-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuster_1996_190-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schuster_1996_190-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchuster1996" class="citation book cs1">Schuster, John A. (1996) [1990]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217">"Scientific Revolution"</a>. In Cantor, Geoffrey; Olby, Robert; Christie, John; Hodge, Jonathon (eds.). Companion to the History of Modern Science. <a href="/wiki/Abingdon,_Oxfordshire" class="mw-redirect" title="Abingdon, Oxfordshire">Abingdon, Oxfordshire</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. 217–242. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415145787" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415145787"><bdi>978-0415145787</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210927191043/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GIPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217">Archived</a> from the original on 27 September 2021. Retrieved 27 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+Revolution&rft.btitle=Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxfordshire&rft.pages=217-242&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0415145787&rft.aulast=Schuster&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6GIPEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA217&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrincipe2011" class="citation book cs1">Principe, Lawrence M. (2011). The Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956741-6"><bdi>978-0-19-956741-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Revolution%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956741-6&rft.aulast=Principe&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnox1999" class="citation journal cs1">Knox, Dilwyn (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708">"Ficino, Copernicus and Bruno on the Motion of the Earth"</a>. Bruniana & Campanelliana. 5 (2): 333–366. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1125-3819">1125-3819</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708">24331708</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025441/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24331708">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bruniana+%26+Campanelliana&rft.atitle=Ficino%2C+Copernicus+and+Bruno+on+the+Motion+of+the+Earth&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=333-366&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24331708%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=1125-3819&rft.aulast=Knox&rft.aufirst=Dilwyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24331708&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGingerich1973" class="citation journal cs1">Gingerich, Owen (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/986462">"From Copernicus to Kepler: Heliocentrism as Model and as Reality"</a>. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 117 (6): 513–522. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-049X">0003-049X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/986462">986462</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=From+Copernicus+to+Kepler%3A+Heliocentrism+as+Model+and+as+Reality&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=513-522&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F986462%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0003-049X&rft.aulast=Gingerich&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F986462&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeugebauer1945" class="citation journal cs1">Neugebauer, O. (1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542323">"The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods"</a>. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 4 (1): 20–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F370729">10.1086/370729</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2968">0022-2968</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/542323">542323</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39274542">39274542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Near+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+History+of+Ancient+Astronomy+Problems+and+Methods&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=20-23&rft.date=1945&rft.issn=0022-2968&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A39274542%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542323%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F370729&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F542323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarman2018" class="citation journal cs1">Carman, Christián C. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937">"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism"</a>. Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 72 (1): 1–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00407-017-0198-3">10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9519">0003-9519</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937">45211937</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253894214">253894214</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221204025440/https://www.jstor.org/stable/45211937">Archived</a> from the original on 4 December 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archive+for+History+of+Exact+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+first+Copernican+was+Copernicus%3A+the+difference+between+Pre-Copernican+and+Copernican+heliocentrism&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-20&rft.date=2018&rft.issn=0003-9519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253894214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45211937%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00407-017-0198-3&rft.aulast=Carman&rft.aufirst=Christi%C3%A1n+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F45211937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dpma.de/english/our_office/publications/milestones/greatinventors/johanneskepler/index.html">"DPMA | Johannes Kepler"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DPMA+%26%23124%3B+Johannes+Kepler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dpma.de%2Fenglish%2Four_office%2Fpublications%2Fmilestones%2Fgreatinventors%2Fjohanneskepler%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624003856/https://www.nasa.gov/kepler/education/johannes/">"Johannes Kepler: His Life, His Laws and Times | NASA"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/kepler/education/johannes">the original</a> on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Johannes+Kepler%3A+His+Life%2C+His+Laws+and+Times+%26%23124%3B+NASA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasa.gov%2Fkepler%2Feducation%2Fjohannes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/kepler.html">"Molecular Expressions: Science, Optics and You – Timeline – Johannes Kepler"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Molecular+Expressions%3A+Science%2C+Optics+and+You+%E2%80%93+Timeline+%E2%80%93+Johannes+Kepler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmicro.magnet.fsu.edu%2Foptics%2Ftimeline%2Fpeople%2Fkepler.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldsteinHon2005" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstein, Bernard; Hon, Giora (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/246602496">"Kepler's Move from Orbs to Orbits: Documenting a Revolutionary Scientific Concept"</a>. 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Roma. pp. 79–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-6812-497-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-6812-497-7"><bdi>978-88-6812-497-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/913218837">913218837</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natura%2C+cultura+e+induzione+nell%27et%C3%A0+delle+scienze+%3A+fatti+e+idee+del+movimento+scientifico+in+Francia+e+Inghilterra&rft.place=Roma&rft.pages=79-&rft.date=2015-05-18&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F913218837&rft.isbn=978-88-6812-497-7&rft.aulast=Guglielmo&rft.aufirst=Rinzivillo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgar2012" class="citation book cs1">Agar, Jon (2012). 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(1948). "The Evolution of the Universe". Nature. 162 (4122): 680–682. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1948Natur.162..680G">1948Natur.162..680G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F162680a0">10.1038/162680a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18893719">18893719</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4793163">4793163</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+Evolution+of+the+Universe&rft.volume=162&rft.issue=4122&rft.pages=680-682&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F162680a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4793163%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18893719&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1948Natur.162..680G&rft.aulast=Gamow&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf">"Wilson's 1978 Nobel lecture"</a> (PDF). nobelprize.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050413230649/http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 13 April 2005. Retrieved 23 March 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Wilson%27s+1978+Nobel+lecture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fphysics%2Flaureates%2F1978%2Fwilson-lecture.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Ronald K. Smeltzer. "Chien-Shiung Wu." Atomic Heritage Foundation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu">https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190915015223/https://www.atomicheritage.org/profile/chien-shiung-wu">Archived</a> 15 September 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Accessed 26 October 2017. </li> <li id="cite_note-biography.com-224">^ <a href="#cite_ref-biography.com_224-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-biography.com_224-1">b</a> Biography.com Editors. "Chien-Shiung Wu." 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Physics Today. 50 (10): 120–122. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2806727">10.1063/1.2806727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=Chien-Shiung+Wu&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=120-122&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2806727&rft.aulast=Garwin&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft.au=Lee%2C+Tsung-Dao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1063%252F1.2806727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig2000" class="citation book cs1">Henig, Robin Marantz (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/monkingardenlost00heni">The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics</a>. Houghton Mifflin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-97765-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-97765-1"><bdi>978-0-395-97765-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/43648512">43648512</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Monk+in+the+Garden+%3A+The+Lost+and+Found+Genius+of+Gregor+Mendel%2C+the+Father+of+Genetics&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F43648512&rft.isbn=978-0-395-97765-1&rft.aulast=Henig&rft.aufirst=Robin+Marantz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmonkingardenlost00heni&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WastonCrick-227">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WastonCrick_227-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WastonCrick_227-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatsonCrick1953" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, J. D.; Crick, F. H. C. (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024200745/http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf">"Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>. 171 (4356): 737–738. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1953Natur.171..737W">1953Natur.171..737W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F171737a0">10.1038/171737a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13054692">13054692</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4253007">4253007</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Molecular+Structure+of+Nucleic+Acids%3A+A+Structure+for+Deoxyribose+Nucleic+Acid&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=4356&rft.pages=737-738&rft.date=1953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F171737a0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4253007%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F13054692&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1953Natur.171..737W&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=J.+D.&rft.au=Crick%2C+F.+H.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnature%2Fdna50%2Fwatsoncrick.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCittadino2002" class="citation book cs1">Cittadino, Eugene (2002). 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(1 March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6">"The "Cycle of Life" in Ecology: Sergei Vinogradskii's Soil Microbiology, 1885–1940"</a>. Journal of the History of Biology. 40 (1): 109–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10739-006-9104-6">10.1007/s10739-006-9104-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-0387">1573-0387</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:128410978">128410978</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Biology&rft.atitle=The+%22Cycle+of+Life%22+in+Ecology%3A+Sergei+Vinogradskii%27s+Soil+Microbiology%2C+1885%E2%80%931940&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=109-145&rft.date=2007-03-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A128410978%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1573-0387&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10739-006-9104-6&rft.aulast=Ackert&rft.aufirst=Lloyd+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs10739-006-9104-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton2012" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, Frank N. (2012). Roots of ecology: antiquity to Haeckel. Berkeley: University of California press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27174-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-27174-6"><bdi>978-0-520-27174-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roots+of+ecology%3A+antiquity+to+Haeckel&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-520-27174-6&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=Frank+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2022" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Laura J. 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Retrieved 26 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+National+Endowment+for+the+Humanities&rft.atitle=Martin+Seligman+and+the+Rise+of+Positive+Psychology&rft.aulast=Gibbon&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.neh.gov%2Farticle%2Fmartin-seligman-and-rise-positive-psychology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruno1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Leonard_C._Bruno" title="Leonard C. Bruno">Bruno, Leonard C.</a> (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/landmarksofscien0000brun">The Landmarks of Science</a>. Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-2137-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-2137-6"><bdi>978-0-8160-2137-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Landmarks+of+Science&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-2137-6&rft.aulast=Bruno&rft.aufirst=Leonard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flandmarksofscien0000brun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron2003" class="citation book cs1">Heilbron, John L., ed. (2003). The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511229-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511229-0"><bdi>978-0-19-511229-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+the+History+of+Modern+Science&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511229-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamWang1954" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Needham, Joseph</a>; Wang, Ling (1954). Introductory Orientations. <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introductory+Orientations&rft.series=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1954&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Wang%2C+Ling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986a" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1986a). Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>. Vol. 3. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematics+and+the+Sciences+of+the+Heavens+and+the+Earth&rft.place=Taipei&rft.series=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pub=Caves+Books+Ltd.&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedham1986c" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph (1986c). Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>. Vol. 4. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physics+and+Physical+Technology%2C+Part+2%2C+Mechanical+Engineering&rft.place=Taipei&rft.series=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pub=Caves+Books+Ltd.&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeedhamRobinsonHuang2004" class="citation book cs1">Needham, Joseph; Robinson, Kenneth G.; Huang, Jen-Yü (2004). "General Conclusions and Reflections". Science and Chinese society. <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Civilisation_in_China" title="Science and Civilisation in China">Science and Civilisation in China</a>. Vol. 7. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=General+Conclusions+and+Reflections&rft.btitle=Science+and+Chinese+society&rft.series=Science+and+Civilisation+in+China&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Needham&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Robinson%2C+Kenneth+G.&rft.au=Huang%2C+Jen-Y%C3%BC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSambursky1974" class="citation book cs1">Sambursky, Shmuel (1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/physicalthoughtf0000unse/page/584">Physical Thought from the Presocratics to the Quantum Physicists: an anthology selected, introduced and edited by Shmuel Sambursky</a>. Pica Press. p. 584. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87663-712-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87663-712-8"><bdi>978-0-87663-712-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Thought+from+the+Presocratics+to+the+Quantum+Physicists%3A+an+anthology+selected%2C+introduced+and+edited+by+Shmuel+Sambursky&rft.pages=584&rft.pub=Pica+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-87663-712-8&rft.aulast=Sambursky&rft.aufirst=Shmuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphysicalthoughtf0000unse%2Fpage%2F584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Agar, Jon (2012) Science in the Twentieth Century and Beyond, Polity Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3469-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7456-3469-2">978-0-7456-3469-2</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Agassi" title="Joseph Agassi">Agassi, Joseph</a> (2007) Science and Its History: A Reassessment of the Historiography of Science (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 253) Springer. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5631-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5631-4">978-1-4020-5631-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoorstin,_Daniel1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_J._Boorstin" title="Daniel J. Boorstin">Boorstin, Daniel</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/discoverers00boor">The Discoverers : A History of Man's Search to Know His World and Himself</a>. Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-40229-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-40229-1"><bdi>978-0-394-40229-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9645583">9645583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Discoverers+%3A+A+History+of+Man%27s+Search+to+Know+His+World+and+Himself&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9645583&rft.isbn=978-0-394-40229-1&rft.au=Boorstin%2C+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiscoverers00boor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bowler, Peter J. (1993) The Norton History of the Environmental Sciences.</li> <li>Brock, W.H. (1993) The Norton History of Chemistry.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronowski" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronowski">Bronowski, J.</a> (1951) The Common Sense of Science Heinemann. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-297-1380-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-297-1380-0">978-84-297-1380-0</a>. (Includes a description of the history of science in England.)</li> <li>Byers, Nina and Gary Williams, ed. (2006) Out of the Shadows: Contributions of Twentieth-Century Women to Physics, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=978-0521821971">Cambridge University Press</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82197-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82197-1">978-0-521-82197-1</a></li> <li>Herzenberg, Caroline L. (1986). Women Scientists from Antiquity to the Present Locust Hill Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-933951-01-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-933951-01-3">978-0-933951-01-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhn1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Kuhn" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas S. Kuhn">Kuhn, Thomas S.</a> (1996). <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a> (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45807-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-45807-6"><bdi>978-0-226-45807-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Scientific+Revolutions&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-226-45807-6&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepak_Kumar_(historian)" title="Deepak Kumar (historian)">Kumar, Deepak</a> (2006). Science and the Raj: A Study of British India, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-568003-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-568003-4">978-0-19-568003-4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Lakatos, Imre</a> (1978). History of Science and its Rational Reconstructions published in The Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes: Philosophical Papers Volume 1. Cambridge University Press</li> <li>Levere, Trevor Harvey. (2001) Transforming Matter: A History of Chemistry from Alchemy to the Buckyball</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindbergShank2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_C._Lindberg" title="David C. Lindberg">Lindberg, David C.</a>; Shank, Michael H., eds. (2013). Medieval Science. The Cambridge History of Science. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHO9780511974007">10.1017/CHO9780511974007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59448-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-59448-6"><bdi>978-0-521-59448-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Science&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+Science&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHO9780511974007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-59448-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Lipphardt, Veronika/Ludwig, Daniel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/theories-and-methods/knowledge-transfer/veronika-lipphardt-david-ludwig-knowledge-transfer-and-science-transfer?set_language=en&-C=">Knowledge Transfer and Science Transfer</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-ego.eu/">EGO – European History Online</a>, Mainz: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php">Institute of European History</a>, 2011, retrieved: 8 March 2020 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/1036246817/34">pdf</a>).</li> <li>Margolis, Howard (2002). It Started with Copernicus. <a href="/wiki/McGraw-Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="McGraw-Hill">McGraw-Hill</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-138507-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-138507-7">978-0-07-138507-7</a></li> <li>Mayr, Ernst. (1985). The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance.</li> <li>North, John. (1995). The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology.</li> <li>Nye, Mary Jo, ed. (2002). The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 5: The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences</li> <li>Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, eds. (2006) The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 3: Early Modern Science</li> <li>Porter, Roy, ed. (2003). The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 4: The Eighteenth Century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Rousseau" title="George Rousseau">Rousseau, George</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Porter" title="Roy Porter">Roy Porter</a>, eds. 1980). The Ferment of Knowledge: Studies in the Historiography of Science Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22599-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-22599-1">978-0-521-22599-1</a></li> <li>Slotten, Hugh Richard, ed. (2014) The Oxford Encyclopedia of the History of American Science, Medicine, and Technology.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_science&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output 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li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/History_of_science" class="extiw" title="commons:History of science">History of science</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/History_of_science" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/History of science">History of science</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/blog/what-is-the-history-of-science/">'What is the History of Science', British Academy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bshs.org.uk/">British Society for the History of Science</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/s-change">"Scientific Change"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Scientific+Change&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fs-change&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+science" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crhst.cnrs.fr">The CNRS History of Science and Technology Research Center</a> in Paris (France) (in French)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Smith_Williams" title="Henry Smith Williams">Henry Smith Williams</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991006233503/http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/catalogs/bysubject-sci-history.html">History of Science, Vols 1–4</a>, online text</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nistdigitalarchives.contentdm.oclc.org/">Digital Archives of the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/search/collection/astro_early!astro_atlas!color!earththeory!eng_tech!math!nat_hist!physics!philsci/order/title/ad/asc">Digital facsimiles of books from the History of Science Collection</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200113061229/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/search/collection/astro_early!astro_atlas!color!earththeory!eng_tech!math!nat_hist!physics!philsci/order/title/ad/asc">Archived</a> 13 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Linda Hall Library Digital Collections</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dhstweb.org/">Division of History of Science and Technology of the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gigancinauki.pl/ge/">Giants of Science (website of the Institute of National Remembrance)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.lib.usu.edu/cdm/landingpage/collection/History_sci">History of Science Digital Collection: Utah State University</a> – Contains primary sources by such major figures in the history of scientific inquiry as Otto Brunfels, Charles Darwin, Erasmus Darwin, Carolus Linnaeus Antony van Leeuwenhoek, Jan Swammerdam, James Sowerby, Andreas Vesalius, and others.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hssonline.org/">History of Science Society ("HSS")</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200915192429/https://hssonline.org/">Archived</a> 15 September 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.idtc-iuhps.com/">Inter-Divisional Teaching Commission (IDTC) of the International Union for the History and Philosophy of Science (IUHPS)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200113061501/http://www.idtc-iuhps.com/">Archived</a> 13 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120322231834/http://www.aihs-iahs.org/">International Academy of the History of Science</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ihpst.net/">International History, Philosophy and Science Teaching Group</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.isiscb.org/">IsisCB Explore: History of Science Index</a> An open access discovery tool</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.museogalileo.it/">Museo Galileo – Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/">The official site of the Nobel Foundation</a>. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://trailblazing.royalsociety.org">The Royal Society, trailblazing science from 1650 to date</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150818210315/http://trailblazing.royalsociety.org/">Archived</a> 18 August 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vega.org.uk/">The Vega Science Trust</a> Free to view videos of scientists including Feynman, Perutz, Rotblat, Born and many Nobel Laureates.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73605">A Century of Science in America: with special reference to the American Journal of Science, 1818-1918</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style 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.navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_science" title="Template:History of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Theories and sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/80px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/120px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/160px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5880" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">Ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Argentina" title="History of science and technology in Argentina">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="History of science and technology in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Mexico" title="History of science and technology in Mexico">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Russia">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="History of science and technology in Spain">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_natural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="History of natural science">Natural sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences#History_of_Earth_science" title="Outline of Earth sciences">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">Algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_combinatorics" title="History of combinatorics">Combinatorics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">Geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_probability" title="History of probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_statistics" title="History of statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry">Trigonometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">Social sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_science" title="History of political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Human medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_veterinary_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neurology_and_neurosurgery" title="History of neurology and neurosurgery">Neurology and neurosurgery </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pathology" title="History of pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines#Science" title="List of timelines">Timelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science" title="Category:History of science">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Template talk:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science and technology studies"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Category:Science and technology studies">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_associations" title="Category:Science and technology studies associations">Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_journals" title="Category:Science and technology studies journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies_scholars" title="Category:Science and technology studies scholars">Scholars</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="World_history" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_history" title="Template:World history"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_history" title="Template talk:World history"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_history" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World history"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="World_history" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">World history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recorded_history" title="Recorded history">Recorded history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_periods" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historical periods">List of historical periods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timelines_of_world_history" title="Timelines of world history">Timelines of world history</a></li> <li>Major concepts:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></li></ul> <ul><li>World regions:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Eastern culture (disambiguation)">Eastern civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_government" class="mw-redirect" title="History of government">History of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="History of law">History of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="History of economics">History of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="History of trade">History of trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="History of war">History of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li> <li>Science/Technology:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_navigation" title="History of navigation">History of navigation</a></li> <li>Arts:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_art" title="History of art">History of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_drama" class="mw-redirect" title="History of drama">History of drama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History of literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_music" title="History of music">History of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_painting" title="History of painting">History of painting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Chronological world eras:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-age_system" title="Three-age system">Three-age system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern history">Modern history</a></li> <li>Societal eras:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="First Agricultural Revolution">Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Agricultural Revolution">Second Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britain%27s_Imperial_Century" class="mw-redirect" title="Britain's Imperial Century">Britain's Imperial Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Age">Digital Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of societies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">Hunter-gatherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_people" title="Hill people">Montane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumpolar_peoples" title="Circumpolar peoples">Circumpolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Subarctic" title="Indigenous peoples of the Subarctic">Subarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">Nomadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral_society" title="Pastoral society">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrarian_society" title="Agrarian society">Agricultural/Agrarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_society" title="Complex society">Complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Age" title="Industrial Age">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px 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1,\n [\"CITEREFBraterDaly2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBresadola1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroad2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrooke,_J._H.1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruno1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurkert1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCahan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalinger1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbellWilliamsonHeyden2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarman2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasselman,_Bill\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastelvecchiWitze2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCittadino2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoppa2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowanHarterKandel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig,_Edward1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDastrup\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeHart1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDel_Soldato2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDicks1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobzhansky1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuhem1913\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEddy2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgerton2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarber1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlorin_George_Calian\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrede1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuentes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGal2021\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGalen1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalí2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGamow1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarwinLee1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbon\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGingerich1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldsteinHon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGolinski2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGottfried1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrant2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFGuglielmo2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHandley\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaraway1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHecht2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeeßel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeilbron2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHendrix2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHenig2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoskin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHroncek2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoseph2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKahn2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKatz1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim_Plofker2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleisiarisSfakianakisPapathanasiou2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnox1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKohler2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKragh1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuhn1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKusuba2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKüskü2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeroi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLightman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg,_David_C.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindberg2007\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFLindbergShank2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittle2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLove2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMabbett1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMagazineGreene\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarchant2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartzloff2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatsuokaVigourouxGoodmanSanchez_G.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthew_Daniel_Eddy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntosh2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLeishBowerTannerSmithson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoosa2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasim2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedham1986c\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamRobinsonHuang2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeedhamWang1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeugebauer1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewmanMauskopfEddy2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNumbers2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connor,_J.J.Robertson,_E.F.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Leary1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Luanaigh2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOverbye2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOwens2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalka2010\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFPerkins2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPickover2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlofker2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoskett2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPriceGary_M._Feinman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrincipe2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFRabin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiedweg2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert_Svoboda1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosen1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuggles1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussel,_C.A.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaliba1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSambursky1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarma2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarmaRamasubramanian,_K.Srinivas,_M.D.Sriram,_M.S.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaffer1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchiebinger2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuster1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSecord1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapin,_S.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShapin2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShigeru1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinghBatraNaithani2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSivin1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSnyder2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanford2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSusantha_Goonatilake1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzalay2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaliaferro2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThijssen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrautmann1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaman_Shivaram_Apte1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVanderVeer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatsonCrick1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeiss2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinchester2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_Wright2012\"] = 1,\n [\"Indian_astronomy\"] = 1,\n [\"Indian_mathematics\"] = 1,\n [\"Science_in_the_Middle_Ages\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"CS1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 4,\n [\"Citation\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite IEP\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite SEP\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 104,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 45,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 29,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"For-multi\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 16,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 4,\n [\"History of science\"] = 1,\n [\"IAST\"] = 8,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 21,\n [\"In lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Incomplete short citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 8,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"Science\"] = 1,\n [\"Science and technology studies\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfnp\"] = 4,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Social sciences\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 14,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"World history\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","300","15.3"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","240","12.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","180","9.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","8.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","120","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","120","6.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","4.1"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","60","3.1"],["recursiveClone 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