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<li id="toc-Rutherford_discovers_the_nucleus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rutherford_discovers_the_nucleus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Rutherford discovers the nucleus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rutherford_discovers_the_nucleus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eddington_and_stellar_nuclear_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eddington_and_stellar_nuclear_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Eddington and stellar nuclear fusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eddington_and_stellar_nuclear_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Studies_of_nuclear_spin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies_of_nuclear_spin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Studies of nuclear spin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies_of_nuclear_spin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-James_Chadwick_discovers_the_neutron" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#James_Chadwick_discovers_the_neutron"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>James Chadwick discovers the neutron</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-James_Chadwick_discovers_the_neutron-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proca's_equations_of_the_massive_vector_boson_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proca's_equations_of_the_massive_vector_boson_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Proca's equations of the massive vector boson field</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proca's_equations_of_the_massive_vector_boson_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Yukawa's_meson_postulated_to_bind_nuclei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Yukawa's_meson_postulated_to_bind_nuclei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Yukawa's_meson_postulated_to_bind_nuclei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_nuclear_physics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_nuclear_physics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Modern nuclear physics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_nuclear_physics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern nuclear physics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_nuclear_physics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nuclear_decay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_decay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Nuclear decay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_decay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Nuclear fusion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_fission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_fission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Nuclear fission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_fission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production_of_"heavy"_elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production_of_"heavy"_elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Production of "heavy" elements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production_of_"heavy"_elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Introductory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introductory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Introductory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introductory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reference_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Reference works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advanced" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advanced"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Advanced</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advanced-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classics_or_Historic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classics_or_Historic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Classics or Historic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classics_or_Historic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nuclear physics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 97 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-97" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">97 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernfisika" title="Kernfisika – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kernfisika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="فيزياء نووية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فيزياء نووية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="নিউক্লীয় পদাৰ্থবিজ্ঞান – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="নিউক্লীয় পদাৰ্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_nuclear" title="Física nuclear – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Física nuclear" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_fizikas%C4%B1" title="Nüvə fizikası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə fizikası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="নিউক্লিয় পদার্থবিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নিউক্লিয় পদার্থবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Ядро физикаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ядро физикаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядзерная фізіка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядзерная фізіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядзерная фізыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ядзерная фізыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядрена физика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядрена физика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_fizika" title="Nuklearna fizika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nuklearna fizika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_nuclear" title="Física nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Física nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Нуклонсар физики – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нуклонсар физики" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_fyzika" title="Jaderná fyzika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná fyzika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffiseg_niwclear" title="Ffiseg niwclear – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffiseg niwclear" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernefysik" title="Kernefysik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kernefysik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernphysik" title="Kernphysik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernphysik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuumaf%C3%BC%C3%BCsika" title="Tuumafüüsika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuumafüüsika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%86%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Πυρηνική φυσική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνική φυσική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_nuclear" title="Física nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Física nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_fiziko" title="Nuklea fiziko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea fiziko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika_nuklear" title="Fisika nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fisika nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="فیزیک هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فیزیک هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physique_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Physique nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Physique nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisic_n%C3%BAicl%C3%A9ach" title="Fisic núicléach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fisic núicléach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_nuclear" title="Física nuclear – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Física nuclear" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B5%EB%AC%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="핵물리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="핵물리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D6%86%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Միջուկային ֆիզիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջուկային ֆիզիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80" title="नाभिकीय भौतिकी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाभिकीय भौतिकी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_fizika" title="Nuklearna fizika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearna fizika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika_nuklir" title="Fisika nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fisika nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjarne%C3%B0lisfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Kjarneðlisfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kjarneðlisfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica_nucleare" title="Fisica nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fisica nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פיזיקה גרעינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פיזיקה גרעינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisika_nuklir" title="Fisika nuklir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fisika nuklir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AC%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%AD%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ಬೈಜಿಕ ಭೌತಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಬೈಜಿಕ ಭೌತಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ბირთვული ფიზიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ბირთვული ფიზიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядролық физика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ядролық физика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizikia_ya_nyuklia" title="Fizikia ya nyuklia – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Fizikia ya nyuklia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reyaksyon_t%C3%A8monikley%C3%A8" title="Reyaksyon tèmonikleyè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Reyaksyon tèmonikleyè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядролук физика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ядролук физика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physica_nuclearis" title="Physica nuclearis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Physica nuclearis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodolfizika" title="Kodolfizika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodolfizika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rphysik" title="Kärphysik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kärphysik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branduolin%C4%97_fizika" title="Branduolinė fizika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Branduolinė fizika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magfizika" title="Magfizika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Magfizika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Јадрена физика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јадрена физика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="അണുകേന്ദ്രഭൗതികം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അണുകേന്ദ്രഭൗതികം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="فيزيا نوويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فيزيا نوويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizik_nuklear" title="Fizik nuklear – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fizik nuklear" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Цөмийн физик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн физик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8_%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="နယူးကလိယား ရူပဗေဒ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နယူးကလိယား ရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernfysica" title="Kernfysica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernfysica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A0%B8%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="原子核物理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子核物理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernefysikk" title="Kjernefysikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjernefysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjernefysikk" title="Kjernefysikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjernefysikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisica_nucleara" title="Fisica nucleara – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fisica nucleara" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Том физике – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Том физике" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_fizikasi" title="Yadro fizikasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yadro fizikasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%B0_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%A8" title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀਅਰ ਭੌਤਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਿਊਕਲੀਅਰ ਭੌਤਿਕ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B1_%D9%81%D8%B2%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="نیوکلئیر فزکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="نیوکلئیر فزکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%8F%E1%80%B9%E1%80%8D:%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ကဏ္ဍ:နျူးကလီးယားရူပဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ကဏ္ဍ:နျူးကလီးယားရူပဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%81%D8%B2%D9%8A%DA%A9" title="هستوي فزيک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هستوي فزيک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnphysik" title="Karnphysik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Karnphysik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizyka_j%C4%85drowa" title="Fizyka jądrowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fizyka jądrowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ADsica_nuclear" title="Física nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Física nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizic%C4%83_nuclear%C4%83" title="Fizică nucleară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fizică nucleară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядрова физика – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ядрова физика" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядерная физика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерная физика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Nuclear physics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika_b%C3%ABrthamore" title="Fizika bërthamore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fizika bërthamore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%ACsica_nucliari" title="Fìsica nucliari – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Fìsica nucliari" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%9E%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="න්‍යෂ්ටික භෞතික විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="න්‍යෂ්ටික භෞතික විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear physics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="فیزیکی ناوکی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فیزیکی ناوکی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нуклеарна физика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нуклеарна физика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_fizika" title="Nuklearna fizika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" 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lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pisikang nuklear" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அணுக்கருவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணுக்கருவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafizikt_ta%C9%A3isant" title="Tafizikt taɣisant – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tafizikt taɣisant" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%A9%D1%88_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Төш физикасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Төш физикасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%AD%E0%B1%8C%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%B6%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%82" title="కేంద్రక భౌతికశాస్త్రం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కేంద్రక భౌతికశాస్త్రం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ฟิสิกส์นิวเคลียร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ฟิสิกส์นิวเคลียร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCkleer_fizik" title="Nükleer fizik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nükleer fizik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядерна фізика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ядерна фізика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="نیوکلیئر طبیعیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نیوکلیئر طبیعیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%E1%BA%ADt_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BA%A1t_nh%C3%A2n" title="Vật lý hạt nhân – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vật lý hạt nhân" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear physics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:NuclearReaction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/200px-NuclearReaction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/300px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/NuclearReaction.svg/400px-NuclearReaction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="350" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">n</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">Nuclear matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">Nuclear force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">Nuclear structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">Nuclear reaction</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear model">Models of the nucleus</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semi-empirical_mass_formula" title="Semi-empirical mass formula">Liquid drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">Nuclear shell model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interacting_boson_model" title="Interacting boson model">Interacting boson model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics)" title="Ab initio methods (nuclear physics)">Ab initio</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclide" title="Nuclide">Nuclides</a>' classification</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">Isotopes</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number"><i>Z</i></a><br /></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isobar_(nuclide)" title="Isobar (nuclide)">Isobars</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number"><i>A</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isotone" title="Isotone">Isotones</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_number" title="Neutron number"><i>N</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isodiapher" class="mw-redirect" title="Isodiapher">Isodiaphers</a> – equal <a href="/wiki/Neutron_excess" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron excess"><i>N</i> − <i>Z</i></a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">Isomers</a> – equal all the above</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mirror_nuclei" title="Mirror nuclei">Mirror nuclei</a> – <i>Z</i> ↔ <i>N</i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">Stable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">Even/odd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halo_nucleus" title="Halo nucleus">Halo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borromean_nucleus" title="Borromean nucleus">Borromean</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Nuclear stability</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_binding_energy" title="Nuclear binding energy">Binding energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93neutron_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Proton–neutron ratio">p–n ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_drip_line" title="Nuclear drip line">Drip line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_of_stability" title="Island of stability">Island of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">Valley of stability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_nuclide" title="Stable nuclide">Stable nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">Alpha α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">Beta β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">2β</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutrinoless_double_beta_decay" title="Neutrinoless double beta decay">0v</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission" title="Positron emission">β<sup>+</sup></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">K/L capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">Isomeric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">Internal conversion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_emission" title="Neutron emission">Neutron emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_emission" title="Proton emission">Proton emission</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decay_energy" title="Decay energy">Decay energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">Decay chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">Decay product</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_nuclide" title="Radiogenic nuclide">Radiogenic nuclide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">Spontaneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Products</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon_pair_breaking_in_fission" title="Nucleon pair breaking in fission">pair breaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photofission" title="Photofission">Photofission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Capturing processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_capture" title="Electron capture">electron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Double_electron_capture" title="Double electron capture">2×</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process">s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_capture" title="Proton capture">proton</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/P-process" title="P-process">p</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rp-process" title="Rp-process">rp</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">High-energy processes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spallation" title="Spallation">Spallation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray_spallation" title="Cosmic ray spallation">by cosmic ray</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photodisintegration" title="Photodisintegration">Photodisintegration</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">Nucleosynthesis</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">nuclear astrophysics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><small>Processes:</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stellar_nucleosynthesis" title="Stellar nucleosynthesis">Stellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova_nucleosynthesis" title="Supernova nucleosynthesis">Supernova</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li>Nuclides: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">Primordial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">Cosmogenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_element" title="Synthetic element">Artificial</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/High-energy_nuclear_physics" title="High-energy nuclear physics">High-energy nuclear physics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">Quark–gluon plasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativistic_Heavy_Ion_Collider" title="Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider">RHIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">LHC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physicists" title="Category:Nuclear physicists">Scientists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Ir. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Fr. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pi. Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Skłodowska-Curie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lise_Meitner" title="Lise Meitner">Meitner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Oliphant" title="Mark Oliphant">Oliphant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer" title="J. Robert Oppenheimer">Oppenheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Proca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Soddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fritz_Strassmann" title="Fritz Strassmann">Strassmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C5%82adys%C5%82aw_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tecki_(physicist)" title="Władysław Świątecki (physicist)">Świątecki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le%C3%B3_Szil%C3%A1rd" class="mw-redirect" title="Leó Szilárd">Szilárd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Teller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/14px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/21px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/28px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Physics" title="Portal:Physics">Physics portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_physics" title="Category:Nuclear physics">Category</a></span></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_physics" title="Template talk:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_physics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear physics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Nuclear physics</b> is the field of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> that studies <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nuclei" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic nuclei">atomic nuclei</a> and their constituents and interactions, in addition to the study of other forms of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_matter" title="Nuclear matter">nuclear matter</a>. </p><p>Nuclear physics should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a>, which studies the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a> as a whole, including its <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>. </p><p>Discoveries in nuclear physics have led to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">applications</a> in many fields. This includes <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a>, industrial and agricultural isotopes, <a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">ion implantation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Materials_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Materials engineering">materials engineering</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon dating</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>. Such applications are studied in the field of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">nuclear engineering</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particle physics</a> evolved out of nuclear physics and the two fields are typically taught in close association. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">Nuclear astrophysics</a>, the application of nuclear physics to <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, is crucial in explaining the inner workings of <a href="/wiki/Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Stars">stars</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">origin of the chemical elements</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Nadar_-_Henri_Becquerel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Paul_Nadar_-_Henri_Becquerel.jpg/220px-Paul_Nadar_-_Henri_Becquerel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Paul_Nadar_-_Henri_Becquerel.jpg/330px-Paul_Nadar_-_Henri_Becquerel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Paul_Nadar_-_Henri_Becquerel.jpg/440px-Paul_Nadar_-_Henri_Becquerel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2481" data-file-height="3553" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg/220px-Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg/330px-Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg/440px-Cloud_chambers_played_an_important_role_of_particle_detectors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1684" /></a><figcaption>Since the 1920s, <a href="/wiki/Cloud_chamber" title="Cloud chamber">cloud chambers</a> played an important role of particle detectors and eventually lead to the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">muon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">kaon</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The history of nuclear physics as a discipline distinct from <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">atomic physics</a>, starts with the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> in 1896,<sup id="cite_ref-brm_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brm-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> made while investigating <a href="/wiki/Phosphorescence" title="Phosphorescence">phosphorescence</a> in <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> salts.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a> by <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a year later was an indication that the atom had internal structure. At the beginning of the 20th century the accepted model of the atom was J. J. Thomson's <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">"plum pudding" model</a> in which the atom was a positively charged ball with smaller negatively charged electrons embedded inside it. </p><p>In the years that followed, radioactivity was extensively investigated, notably by <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>, a Polish physicist whose maiden name was Sklodowska, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> and others. By the turn of the century, physicists had also discovered three types of <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> emanating from atoms, which they named <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma decay">gamma</a> radiation. Experiments by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Hahn" title="Otto Hahn">Otto Hahn</a> in 1911 and by <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> in 1914 discovered that the beta decay <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectrum</a> was continuous rather than discrete. That is, <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> were ejected from the atom with a continuous range of energies, rather than the discrete amounts of energy that were observed in gamma and alpha decays. This was a problem for nuclear physics at the time, because it seemed to indicate that <a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_energy" title="Conservation of energy">energy was not conserved</a> in these decays. </p><p>The 1903 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> in Physics was awarded jointly to Becquerel, for his discovery and to Marie and Pierre Curie for their subsequent research into radioactivity. Rutherford was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1908 for his "investigations into the disintegration of the elements and the chemistry of radioactive substances". </p><p>In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> formulated the idea of <a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">mass–energy equivalence</a>. While the work on radioactivity by <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> predates this, an explanation of the source of the energy of radioactivity would have to wait for the discovery that the nucleus itself was composed of smaller constituents, the <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rutherford_discovers_the_nucleus">Rutherford discovers the nucleus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Rutherford discovers the nucleus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1906, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> published "Retardation of the α Particle from Radium in passing through matter."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> expanded on this work in a communication to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with experiments he and Rutherford had done, passing alpha particles through air, aluminum foil and gold leaf. More work was published in 1909 by Geiger and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiments">further greatly expanded work was published in 1910 by Geiger</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1911–1912 Rutherford went before the Royal Society to explain the experiments and propound the new theory of the atomic nucleus as we now understand it. </p><p>Published in 1909,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the eventual classical analysis by Rutherford published May 1911,<sup id="cite_ref-Radvanyi_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radvanyi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the key preemptive experiment was performed during 1909,<sup id="cite_ref-Radvanyi_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Radvanyi-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Jariskog_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jariskog-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Godenko_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godenko-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>. Ernest Rutherford's assistant, Professor <sup id="cite_ref-Godenko_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godenko-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Johannes <sup id="cite_ref-Jariskog_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jariskog-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Hans" Geiger, and an undergraduate, Marsden,<sup id="cite_ref-Godenko_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godenko-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> performed an <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiment">experiment in which Geiger and Marsden</a> under Rutherford's supervision fired alpha particles (<a href="/wiki/Helium-4_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Helium-4 nucleus">helium 4 nuclei</a><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) at a thin film of <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> foil. The <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a> had predicted that the alpha particles should come out of the foil with their trajectories being at most slightly bent. But Rutherford instructed his team to look for something that shocked him to observe: a few particles were scattered through large angles, even completely backwards in some cases. He likened it to firing a <a href="/wiki/Bullet" title="Bullet">bullet</a> at tissue paper and having it bounce off. The discovery, with Rutherford's analysis of the data in 1911, led to the Rutherford model of the atom, in which the atom had a very small, very dense <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">nucleus</a> containing most of its mass, and consisting of heavy positively charged particles with embedded electrons in order to balance out the charge (since the neutron was unknown). As an example, in this model (which is not the modern one) nitrogen-14 consisted of a nucleus with 14 protons and 7 electrons (21 total particles) and the nucleus was surrounded by 7 more orbiting electrons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eddington_and_stellar_nuclear_fusion">Eddington and stellar nuclear fusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eddington and stellar nuclear fusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Around 1920, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Eddington" title="Arthur Eddington">Arthur Eddington</a> anticipated the discovery and mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> processes in <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>, in his paper <i>The Internal Constitution of the Stars</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-eddington_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eddington-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-eddington2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eddington2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">fusion</a> of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation <i><a href="/wiki/Mass%E2%80%93energy_equivalence" title="Mass–energy equivalence">E = mc<sup>2</sup></a></i>. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Metallicity" title="Metallicity">metallicity</a>), had not yet been discovered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Studies_of_nuclear_spin">Studies of nuclear spin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Studies of nuclear spin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Rutherford model worked quite well until studies of <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">nuclear spin</a> were carried out by <a href="/wiki/Franco_Rasetti" title="Franco Rasetti">Franco Rasetti</a> at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> in 1929. By 1925 it was known that protons and electrons each had a spin of <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac">±<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>. In the Rutherford model of nitrogen-14, 20 of the total 21 nuclear particles should have paired up to cancel each other's spin, and the final odd particle should have left the nucleus with a net spin of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span>. Rasetti discovered, however, that nitrogen-14 had a spin of 1. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="James_Chadwick_discovers_the_neutron">James Chadwick discovers the neutron</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: James Chadwick discovers the neutron"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_the_neutron" title="Discovery of the neutron">Discovery of the neutron</a></div> <p>In 1932 Chadwick realized that radiation that had been observed by <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Walther Bothe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Becker_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Becker (physicist)">Herbert Becker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ir%C3%A8ne_Joliot-Curie" title="Irène Joliot-Curie">Irène</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Joliot-Curie" title="Frédéric Joliot-Curie">Frédéric Joliot-Curie</a> was actually due to a neutral particle of about the same mass as the proton, that he called the <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> (following a suggestion from Rutherford about the need for such a particle).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same year <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Ivanenko" title="Dmitri Ivanenko">Dmitri Ivanenko</a> suggested that there were no electrons in the nucleus — only protons and neutrons — and that neutrons were spin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> particles, which explained the mass not due to protons. The neutron spin immediately solved the problem of the spin of nitrogen-14, as the one unpaired proton and one unpaired neutron in this model each contributed a spin of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> in the same direction, giving a final total spin of 1. </p><p>With the discovery of the neutron, scientists could at last calculate what fraction of <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> each nucleus had, by comparing the nuclear mass with that of the protons and neutrons which composed it. Differences between nuclear masses were calculated in this way. When nuclear reactions were measured, these were found to agree with Einstein's calculation of the equivalence of mass and energy to within 1% as of 1934. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proca's_equations_of_the_massive_vector_boson_field"><span id="Proca.27s_equations_of_the_massive_vector_boson_field"></span>Proca's equations of the massive vector boson field</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Proca's equations of the massive vector boson field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Alexandru_Proca" title="Alexandru Proca">Alexandru Proca</a> was the first to develop and report the massive vector <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">boson</a> <a href="/wiki/Field_equation" title="Field equation">field equations</a> and a theory of the <a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">mesonic</a> field of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear forces</a>. Proca's equations were known to <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Wolfgang Pauli</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who mentioned the equations in his Nobel address, and they were also known to Yukawa, Wentzel, Taketani, Sakata, Kemmer, Heitler, and Fröhlich who appreciated the content of Proca's equations for developing a theory of the atomic nuclei in Nuclear Physics.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Yukawa's_meson_postulated_to_bind_nuclei"><span id="Yukawa.27s_meson_postulated_to_bind_nuclei"></span>Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Yukawa's meson postulated to bind nuclei"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1935 <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Hideki Yukawa</a><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed the first significant theory of the <a href="/wiki/Strong_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong force">strong force</a> to explain how the nucleus holds together. In the <a href="/wiki/Yukawa_interaction" title="Yukawa interaction">Yukawa interaction</a> a <a href="/wiki/Virtual_particle" title="Virtual particle">virtual particle</a>, later called a <a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">meson</a>, mediated a force between all nucleons, including protons and neutrons. This force explained why nuclei did not disintegrate under the influence of proton repulsion, and it also gave an explanation of why the attractive <a href="/wiki/Strong_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Strong force">strong force</a> had a more limited range than the electromagnetic repulsion between protons. Later, the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Pi_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Pi meson">pi meson</a> showed it to have the properties of Yukawa's particle. </p><p>With Yukawa's papers, the modern model of the atom was complete. The center of the atom contains a tight ball of neutrons and protons, which is held together by the strong nuclear force, unless it is too large. Unstable nuclei may undergo alpha decay, in which they emit an energetic helium nucleus, or beta decay, in which they eject an electron (or <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positron</a>). After one of these decays the resultant nucleus may be left in an excited state, and in this case it decays to its ground state by emitting high-energy photons (gamma decay). </p><p>The study of the strong and weak nuclear forces (the latter explained by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> via <a href="/wiki/Fermi%27s_interaction" title="Fermi's interaction">Fermi's interaction</a> in 1934) led physicists to collide nuclei and electrons at ever higher energies. This research became the science of <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a>, the crown jewel of which is the <a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">standard model of particle physics</a>, which describes the strong, weak, and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">electromagnetic forces</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_nuclear_physics">Modern nuclear physics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modern nuclear physics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Liquid-drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-drop model">Liquid-drop model</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">Nuclear shell model</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_structure" title="Nuclear structure">Nuclear structure</a></div> <p>A heavy nucleus can contain hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleons</a>. This means that with some approximation it can be treated as a <a href="/wiki/Newtonian_mechanics" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtonian mechanics">classical system</a>, rather than a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum-mechanical</a> one. In the resulting <a href="/wiki/Liquid-drop_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-drop model">liquid-drop model</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the nucleus has an energy that arises partly from <a href="/wiki/Surface_tension" title="Surface tension">surface tension</a> and partly from electrical repulsion of the protons. The liquid-drop model is able to reproduce many features of nuclei, including the general trend of <a href="/wiki/Binding_energy" title="Binding energy">binding energy</a> with respect to mass number, as well as the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. </p><p>Superimposed on this classical picture, however, are quantum-mechanical effects, which can be described using the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">nuclear shell model</a>, developed in large part by <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Maria Goeppert Mayer</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">J. Hans D. Jensen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nuclei with certain "<a href="/wiki/Magic_number_(physics)" title="Magic number (physics)">magic</a>" numbers of neutrons and protons are particularly stable, because their <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell_model" title="Nuclear shell model">shells</a> are filled. </p><p>Other more complicated models for the nucleus have also been proposed, such as the <a href="/wiki/Interacting_boson_model" title="Interacting boson model">interacting boson model</a>, in which pairs of neutrons and protons interact as <a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">bosons</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ab_initio_methods_(nuclear_physics)" title="Ab initio methods (nuclear physics)">Ab initio methods</a> try to solve the nuclear many-body problem from the ground up, starting from the nucleons and their interactions.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Much of current research in nuclear physics relates to the study of nuclei under extreme conditions such as high <a href="/wiki/Spin_(physics)" title="Spin (physics)">spin</a> and excitation energy. Nuclei may also have extreme shapes (similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Rugby_ball" title="Rugby ball">Rugby balls</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Pear" title="Pear">pears</a>) or extreme neutron-to-proton ratios. Experimenters can create such nuclei using artificially induced fusion or nucleon transfer reactions, employing ion beams from an <a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">accelerator</a>. Beams with even higher energies can be used to create nuclei at very high temperatures, and there are signs that these experiments have produced a <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> from normal nuclear matter to a new state, the <a href="/wiki/Quark%E2%80%93gluon_plasma" title="Quark–gluon plasma">quark–gluon plasma</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">quarks</a> mingle with one another, rather than being segregated in triplets as they are in neutrons and protons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_decay">Nuclear decay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nuclear decay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">Valley of stability</a></div> <p>Eighty elements have at least one <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Stable isotope">stable isotope</a> which is never observed to decay, amounting to a total of about 251 stable nuclides. However, thousands of <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> have been characterized as unstable. These "radioisotopes" decay over time scales ranging from fractions of a second to trillions of years. Plotted on a chart as a function of atomic and neutron numbers, the binding energy of the nuclides forms what is known as the <a href="/wiki/Valley_of_stability" title="Valley of stability">valley of stability</a>. Stable nuclides lie along the bottom of this energy valley, while increasingly unstable nuclides lie up the valley walls, that is, have weaker binding energy. </p><p>The most stable nuclei fall within certain ranges or balances of composition of neutrons and protons: too few or too many neutrons (in relation to the number of protons) will cause it to decay. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decay</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a>-16 atom (7 protons, 9 neutrons) is converted to an <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>-16 atom (8 protons, 8 neutrons)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> within a few seconds of being created. In this decay a neutron in the nitrogen nucleus is converted by the <a href="/wiki/Weak_interaction" title="Weak interaction">weak interaction</a> into a proton, an electron and an <a href="/wiki/Antineutrino" class="mw-redirect" title="Antineutrino">antineutrino</a>. The element is transmuted to another element, with a different number of protons. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a>, which typically occurs in the heaviest nuclei, the radioactive element decays by emitting a helium nucleus (2 protons and 2 neutrons), giving another element, plus <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a>. In many cases this process continues through <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">several steps</a> of this kind, including other types of decays (usually beta decay) until a stable element is formed. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Gamma_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma decay">gamma decay</a>, a nucleus decays from an excited state into a lower energy state, by emitting a <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma ray</a>. The element is not changed to another element in the process (no <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">nuclear transmutation</a> is involved). </p><p>Other more exotic decays are possible (see the first main article). For example, in <a href="/wiki/Internal_conversion" title="Internal conversion">internal conversion</a> decay, the energy from an excited nucleus may eject one of the inner orbital electrons from the atom, in a process which produces high speed electrons but is not beta decay and (unlike beta decay) does not transmute one element to another. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_fusion">Nuclear fusion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Nuclear fusion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a>, two low-mass nuclei come into very close contact with each other so that the strong force fuses them. It requires a large amount of energy for the strong or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_force" title="Nuclear force">nuclear forces</a> to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei in order to fuse them; therefore nuclear fusion can only take place at very high temperatures or high pressures. When nuclei fuse, a very large amount of energy is released and the combined nucleus assumes a lower energy level. The binding energy per nucleon increases with mass number up to <a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">nickel</a>-62. <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">Stars</a> like the Sun are powered by the fusion of four protons into a helium nucleus, two <a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">positrons</a>, and two <a href="/wiki/Neutrinos" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrinos">neutrinos</a>. The uncontrolled fusion of hydrogen into helium is known as thermonuclear runaway. A frontier in current research at various institutions, for example the <a href="/wiki/Joint_European_Torus" title="Joint European Torus">Joint European Torus</a> (JET) and <a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a>, is the development of an economically viable method of using energy from a controlled fusion reaction. Nuclear fusion is the origin of the energy (including in the form of light and other electromagnetic radiation) produced by the core of all stars including our own Sun. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_fission">Nuclear fission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nuclear fission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a> is the reverse process to fusion. For nuclei heavier than nickel-62 the binding energy per nucleon decreases with the mass number. It is therefore possible for energy to be released if a heavy nucleus breaks apart into two lighter ones. </p><p>The process of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> is in essence a special type of spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. It is a highly asymmetrical fission because the four particles which make up the alpha particle are especially tightly bound to each other, making production of this nucleus in fission particularly likely. </p><p>From several of the heaviest nuclei whose fission produces free neutrons, and which also easily absorb neutrons to initiate fission, a self-igniting type of neutron-initiated fission can be obtained, in a <a href="/wiki/Chain_reaction" title="Chain reaction">chain reaction</a>. Chain reactions were known in chemistry before physics, and in fact many familiar processes like fires and chemical explosions are chemical chain reactions. The fission or <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">"nuclear" chain-reaction</a>, using fission-produced neutrons, is the source of energy for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> plants and fission-type nuclear bombs, such as those detonated in <a href="/wiki/Hiroshima" title="Hiroshima">Hiroshima</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nagasaki,_Nagasaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Nagasaki, Nagasaki">Nagasaki</a>, Japan, at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Heavy nuclei such as <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> may also undergo <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a>, but they are much more likely to undergo decay by alpha decay. </p><p>For a neutron-initiated chain reaction to occur, there must be a <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> of the relevant isotope present in a certain space under certain conditions. The conditions for the smallest critical mass require the conservation of the emitted neutrons and also their slowing or <a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">moderation</a> so that there is a greater <a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">cross-section</a> or probability of them initiating another fission. In two regions of <a href="/wiki/Oklo" title="Oklo">Oklo</a>, Gabon, Africa, <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">natural nuclear fission reactors</a> were active over 1.5 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Measurements of natural neutrino emission have demonstrated that around half of the heat emanating from the Earth's core results from radioactive decay. However, it is not known if any of this results from fission chain reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Production_of_"heavy"_elements"><span id="Production_of_.22heavy.22_elements"></span>Production of "heavy" elements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Production of "heavy" elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nucleosynthesis" title="Nucleosynthesis">nucleosynthesis</a></div> <p>According to the theory, as the Universe cooled after the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> it eventually became possible for common subatomic particles as we know them (neutrons, protons and electrons) to exist. The most common particles created in the Big Bang which are still easily observable to us today were protons and electrons (in equal numbers). The protons would eventually form hydrogen atoms. Almost all the neutrons created in the Big Bang were absorbed into <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a> in the first three minutes after the Big Bang, and this helium accounts for most of the helium in the universe today (see <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">Big Bang nucleosynthesis</a>). </p><p>Some relatively small quantities of elements beyond helium (lithium, beryllium, and perhaps some boron) were created in the Big Bang, as the protons and neutrons collided with each other, but all of the "heavier elements" (carbon, element number 6, and elements of greater <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>) that we see today, were created inside stars during a series of fusion stages, such as the <a href="/wiki/Proton%E2%80%93proton_chain" title="Proton–proton chain">proton–proton chain</a>, the <a href="/wiki/CNO_cycle" title="CNO cycle">CNO cycle</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Triple-alpha_process" title="Triple-alpha process">triple-alpha process</a>. Progressively heavier elements are created during the <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">evolution</a> of a star. </p><p>Energy is only released in fusion processes involving smaller atoms than iron because the binding energy per <a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">nucleon</a> peaks around iron (56 nucleons). Since the creation of heavier nuclei by fusion requires energy, nature resorts to the process of neutron capture. Neutrons (due to their lack of charge) are readily absorbed by a nucleus. The heavy elements are created by either a <i>slow</i> neutron capture process (the so-called <a href="/wiki/S-process" title="S-process"><i>s</i>-process</a>) or the <i>rapid</i>, or <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process"><i>r</i>-process</a>. The <i>s</i> process occurs in thermally pulsing stars (called AGB, or asymptotic giant branch stars) and takes hundreds to thousands of years to reach the heaviest elements of lead and bismuth. The <i>r</i>-process is thought to occur in <a href="/wiki/Supernova_explosions" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernova explosions">supernova explosions</a>, which provide the necessary conditions of high temperature, high neutron flux and ejected matter. These stellar conditions make the successive neutron captures very fast, involving very neutron-rich species which then beta-decay to heavier elements, especially at the so-called waiting points that correspond to more stable nuclides with closed neutron shells (magic numbers). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-brm-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-brm_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFB._R._Martin2006" class="citation book cs1">B. 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John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-01999-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-01999-3"><bdi>978-0-470-01999-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+and+Particle+Physics&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-470-01999-3&rft.au=B.+R.+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenri_Becquerel1896" class="citation journal cs1">Henri Becquerel (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer">"Sur les radiations émises par phosphorescence"</a>. <i>Comptes Rendus</i>. <b>122</b>: 420–421. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170904040827/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30780/f422.chemindefer">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-07-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=On+the+retardation+of+the+%CE%B1+particle+from+radium+in+passing+through+matter&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=68&rft.pages=134-146&rft.date=1906&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786440609463525&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1430810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiger1908" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Geiger, Hans</a> (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1908.0067">"On the scattering of α-particles by matter"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society A">Proceedings of the Royal Society A</a></i>. <b>81</b> (546): 174–177. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1908RSPSA..81..174G">1908RSPSA..81..174G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1908.0067">10.1098/rspa.1908.0067</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+A&rft.atitle=On+the+scattering+of+%CE%B1-particles+by+matter&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=546&rft.pages=174-177&rft.date=1908&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1908.0067&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1908RSPSA..81..174G&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frspa.1908.0067&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeigerMarsden1909" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Geiger, Hans</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Marsden, Ernest</a> (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1909.0054">"On the diffuse reflection of the α-particles"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society A">Proceedings of the Royal Society A</a></i>. <b>82</b> (557): 495. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1909RSPSA..82..495G">1909RSPSA..82..495G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1909.0054">10.1098/rspa.1909.0054</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+A&rft.atitle=On+the+diffuse+reflection+of+the+%CE%B1-particles&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=557&rft.pages=495&rft.date=1909&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1909.0054&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1909RSPSA..82..495G&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft.au=Marsden%2C+Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frspa.1909.0054&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeiger1910" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Geiger, Hans</a> (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1910.0038">"The scattering of the α-particles by matter"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society_A" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the Royal Society A">Proceedings of the Royal Society A</a></i>. <b>83</b> (565): 492–504. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1910RSPSA..83..492G">1910RSPSA..83..492G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1910.0038">10.1098/rspa.1910.0038</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+A&rft.atitle=The+scattering+of+the+%CE%B1-particles+by+matter&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=565&rft.pages=492-504&rft.date=1910&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspa.1910.0038&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1910RSPSA..83..492G&rft.aulast=Geiger&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frspa.1910.0038&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Geiger and E. Marsden, PM, 25, 604 1913, <i>citing</i>, H. Geiger and E. Marsden, Roy. Soc. Proc. vol. LXXXII. p. 495 (1909), in, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.utah.edu/~lebohec/P5110/Material/geiger_marsden_1913.pdf">The Laws of Deflexion of α Particles Through Large Angles \\ H. Geiger and E. Marsden</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190501022445/http://www.physics.utah.edu/~lebohec/P5110/Material/geiger_marsden_1913.pdf">Archived</a> 2019-05-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1913), (published subsequently online by – physics.utah.edu (<a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a>)) Retrieved June 13, 2021 (p.1):"..In an earlier paper, however, we pointed out that α particles are sometimes turned through very large angles..."(p.2):"..Professor Rutherford has recently developed a theory to account for the scattering of α particles through these large angles, the assumption being that the deflexions are the result of an intimate encounter of an α particle with a single atom of the matter traversed. In this theory an atom is supposed to consist of a strong positive or negative central charge concentrated within a sphere of less than about 3 × 10–12 cm. radius, and surrounded by electricity of the opposite sigh distributed throughout the remainder of the atom of about 10−8 cm. radius..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Radvanyi-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Radvanyi_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Radvanyi_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRadvanyi2011" class="citation journal cs1">Radvanyi, Pierre (January–February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://publications.iupac.org/publications/ci/2011/3301/8_radvanyi.html">"Physics and Radioactivity after the Discovery of Polonium and Radium"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(electronic)</span>. <i>Chemistry International</i>. <b>33</b> (1). online: <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230709185302/http://publications.iupac.org/publications/ci/2011/3301/8_radvanyi.html">Archived</a> from the original on 9 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>. <q>..Geiger and an English-New Zealand student, E. Marsden, to study their scattering through thin metallic foils. In 1909, the two physicists observe that some alpha-particles are scattered backwards by thin platinum or gold foils (Geiger 1909)...It takes Rutherford one and a half years to understand this result. In 1911, he concludes that the atom contains a very small 'nucleus'...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+International&rft.atitle=Physics+and+Radioactivity+after+the+Discovery+of+Polonium+and+Radium&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2011-01%2F2011-02&rft.aulast=Radvanyi&rft.aufirst=Pierre&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpublications.iupac.org%2Fpublications%2Fci%2F2011%2F3301%2F8_radvanyi.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford_F.R.S.1911" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Rutherford F.R.S., E. (May 1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911.html">"The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and the Structure of the Atom"</a>. <i>Philosophical Magazine</i>. 6. 21 May 1911: 669–688. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200212052356/https://www.chemteam.info/Chem-History/Rutherford-1911/Rutherford-1911.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Scattering+of+%CE%B1+and+%CE%B2+Particles+by+Matter+and+the+Structure+of+the+Atom&rft.volume=21+May+1911&rft.pages=669-688&rft.date=1911-05&rft.aulast=Rutherford+F.R.S.&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chemteam.info%2FChem-History%2FRutherford-1911%2FRutherford-1911.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford1911" class="citation journal cs1">Rutherford, E. (May 1911). "LXXIX. The scattering of α and β particles by matter and the structure of the atom". <i>The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science</i>. <b>21</b> (125): 669–688. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440508637080">10.1080/14786440508637080</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London%2C+Edinburgh%2C+and+Dublin+Philosophical+Magazine+and+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=LXXIX.+The+scattering+of+%CE%B1+and+%CE%B2+particles+by+matter+and+the+structure+of+the+atom&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=125&rft.pages=669-688&rft.date=1911-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786440508637080&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquiring/timeline/03.html">"1911 John Ratcliffe and Ernest Rutherford (smoking) at the Cavendish Laboratory..."</a> <a href="/wiki/Fermilab" title="Fermilab">Fermilab</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210401022934/https://www.fnal.gov/pub/inquiring/timeline/03.html">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1911+John+Ratcliffe+and+Ernest+Rutherford+%28smoking%29+at+the+Cavendish+Laboratory...&rft.pub=Fermilab&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fnal.gov%2Fpub%2Finquiring%2Ftimeline%2F03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span>"..that would become a classic technique of particle physics..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">*<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidson" class="citation web cs1">Davidson, Michael W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/rutherford/">"The Rutherford Experiment"</a>. micro.magnet. <i>micro.magnet.fsu.edu</i>. <a href="/wiki/Florida_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida State">Florida State</a>: <a href="/wiki/Florida_State_University" title="Florida State University">Florida State University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613142921/https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/rutherford/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=micro.magnet.fsu.edu&rft.atitle=The+Rutherford+Experiment&rft.aulast=Davidson&rft.aufirst=Michael+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmicro.magnet.fsu.edu%2Felectromag%2Fjava%2Frutherford%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span> "experiment was conducted 1911" <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cerncourier.com/a/rutherford-transmutation-and-the-proton/">"<small>CULTURE AND HISTORY FEATURE</small> Rutherford, transmutation and the proton 8 May 2019 The events leading to Ernest Rutherford's discovery of the proton, published in 1919"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/CERN_Courier" title="CERN Courier">CERN Courier</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/IOP_Publishing" title="IOP Publishing">IOP Publishing</a>. 8 May 2019. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210418113242/https://cerncourier.com/a/rutherford-transmutation-and-the-proton/">Archived</a> from the original on 18 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CERN+Courier&rft.atitle=%3Csmall%3ECULTURE+AND+HISTORY+FEATURE%3C%2Fsmall%3E+Rutherford%2C+transmutation+and+the+proton+8+May+2019+The+events+leading+to+Ernest+Rutherford%27s+discovery+of+the+proton%2C+published+in+1919.&rft.date=2019-05-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcerncourier.com%2Fa%2Frutherford-transmutation-and-the-proton%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span>"...1909...a couple of years later..."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200605/history.cfm">"This Month in Physics History: May, 1911: Rutherford and the Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/APS_News" class="mw-redirect" title="APS News">APS News</a></i>. <b>15</b> (5). May 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613142920/https://www.aps.org/publications/apsnews/200605/history.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=APS+News&rft.atitle=This+Month+in+Physics+History%3A+May%2C+1911%3A+Rutherford+and+the+Discovery+of+the+Atomic+Nucleus&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2006-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Fpublications%2Fapsnews%2F200605%2Fhistory.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span>"..1909..published – 1911.."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson,_Ashley" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, Ashley. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_spring2005.web.dir/ashley_anderson/atomic_timeline.html">"Timeline"</a>. University of Alaska-Fairbanks. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613142921/http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_spring2005.web.dir/ashley_anderson/atomic_timeline.html">Archived</a> from the original on 13 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Timeline&rft.pub=University+of+Alaska-Fairbanks&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Ashley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fffden-2.phys.uaf.edu%2F212_spring2005.web.dir%2Fashley_anderson%2Fatomic_timeline.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span> "1911 performed "</li> <li>1911 discovers: <ul><li>Leonard, P. and Gehrels, N. (November 28, 2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/history/">A History of Gamma-Ray Astronomy Including Related Discoveries</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613142921/https://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/history/">Archived</a> 2021-06-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="National Aeronautics and Space Administration">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> <a href="/wiki/Goddard_Space_Flight_Center" title="Goddard Space Flight Center">Goddard Space Flight Center</a>: <a href="/wiki/High_Energy_Astrophysics_Science_Archive_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center">High Energy Astrophysics Science Archive Research Center</a> (HEASARC), Retrieved 13 June 2021</li> <li>Rizvi, Eram – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pprc.qmul.ac.uk/~rizvi/Talks/Lecture1.pdf">Quantum Mechanics and Particle Scattering Lecture 1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613142922/http://pprc.qmul.ac.uk/~rizvi/Talks/Lecture1.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-06-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p.9, pprc.qmul.ac.uk <a href="/wiki/Queen_Mary_University_London" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen Mary University London">Queen Mary University London</a>: School of Physics and Astronomy – Particle Physics Research Centre, Retrieved 13 June 2021 "..by Rutherford.."</li></ul></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1908/rutherford/biographical/">rutherford/biographical</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230603075847/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1908/rutherford/biographical/">Archived</a> 2023-06-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>, "..In 1910, his investigations into the scattering of alpha rays and the nature of the inner structure of the atom which caused such scattering led to the postulation of his concept of the 'nucleus'..."</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spark.iop.org/collections/case-studies-history-physics">"Case studies from the history of physics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Physics" title="Institute of Physics">Institute of Physics</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210422133723/https://spark.iop.org/collections/case-studies-history-physics">Archived</a> from the original on 22 April 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>. <q>..It is suggested that, in 1910, the 'plum pudding model' was suddenly overturned by Rutherford's experiment. In fact, Rutherford had already formulated the nuclear model of the atom before the experiment was carried out..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Case+studies+from+the+history+of+physics&rft.pub=Institute+of+Physics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspark.iop.org%2Fcollections%2Fcase-studies-history-physics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Jariskog-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jariskog_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jariskog_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJariskog2008" class="citation web cs1">Jariskog, Cecilia (December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cds.cern.ch/record/1734171/files/vol48-issue10-p019-e.pdf">"<small>ANNIVERSARY</small> The nucleus and more"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=CERN_Courrier&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="CERN Courrier (page does not exist)">CERN Courrier</a></i>. p. 21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210613142922/https://cds.cern.ch/record/1734171/files/vol48-issue10-p019-e.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 13 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>. <q>.. in 1911, Rutherford writes: "I have been working recently on scattering of alpha and beta particles and have devised a new atom to explain the results..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CERN+Courrier&rft.atitle=%3Csmall%3EANNIVERSARY%3C%2Fsmall%3E+The+nucleus+and+more&rft.pages=21&rft.date=2008-12&rft.aulast=Jariskog&rft.aufirst=Cecilia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcds.cern.ch%2Frecord%2F1734171%2Ffiles%2Fvol48-issue10-p019-e.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Godenko-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Godenko_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Godenko_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Godenko_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodenko" class="citation book cs1">Godenko, Lyudmila. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cuny.manifoldapp.org/read/he-making-of-the-atomic-bomb/section/21c33a72-ee12-4198-a0cd-0b618a14b5ff#topic-4-the-nuclear-atom-1911-1920.-alpha-scattering-and-the-discovery-of-the-nucleus.-nuclear-sizes-vs-atomic-sizes.-niels-bohr-and-the-structure-of-the-nuclear-atom.-moseleys-work-with-x-rays-and-the-significance-of-the-atomic-number."><i>The Making of the Atomic Bomb</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(E-Book)</span>. cuny.manifoldapp.org CUNY's Manifold (<a href="/wiki/City_University_of_New_York" title="City University of New York">City University of New York</a>)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2021</span>. <q>The discovery for which Rutherford is most famous is that atoms have nuclei; ...had its beginnings in 1909...Geiger and Marsden published their anomalous result in July, 1909...The first public announcement of this new model of atomic structure seems to have been made on March 7, 1911, when Rutherford addressed the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society;...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.pub=cuny.manifoldapp.org+CUNY%27s+Manifold+%28City+University+of+New+York%29&rft.aulast=Godenko&rft.aufirst=Lyudmila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcuny.manifoldapp.org%2Fread%2Fhe-making-of-the-atomic-bomb%2Fsection%2F21c33a72-ee12-4198-a0cd-0b618a14b5ff%23topic-4-the-nuclear-atom-1911-1920.-alpha-scattering-and-the-discovery-of-the-nucleus.-nuclear-sizes-vs-atomic-sizes.-niels-bohr-and-the-structure-of-the-nuclear-atom.-moseleys-work-with-x-rays-and-the-significance-of-the-atomic-number.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins" class="citation web cs1">Watkins, Thayer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200130165819/http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/He4.htm">"The Structure and Binding Energy of the Alpha Particle, the Helium 4 Nucleus"</a>. <a href="/wiki/San_Jose_University" class="mw-redirect" title="San Jose University">San Jose University</a>. 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(2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567">"Topological properties of a self-assembled electrical network via ab initio calculation"</a>. <i>Scientific Reports</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 932. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...7..932B">2017NatSR...7..932B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-01007-9">10.1038/s41598-017-01007-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5430567">5430567</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28428625">28428625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Topological+properties+of+a+self-assembled+electrical+network+via+ab+initio+calculation&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=932&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5430567%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28428625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-017-01007-9&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatSR...7..932B&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=et.%2C+al.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5430567&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Not a typical example as it results in a "doubly magic" nucleus</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeshik2005" class="citation journal cs1">Meshik, A. P. (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=ancient-nuclear-reactor">"The Workings of an Ancient Nuclear Reactor"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>293</b> (5): 82–91. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005SciAm.293e..82M">2005SciAm.293e..82M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1105-82">10.1038/scientificamerican1105-82</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16318030">16318030</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090227134554/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=ancient-nuclear-reactor">Archived</a> from the original on 2009-02-27<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Workings+of+an+Ancient+Nuclear+Reactor&rft.volume=293&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=82-91&rft.date=2005-11&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16318030&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1105-82&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005SciAm.293e..82M&rft.aulast=Meshik&rft.aufirst=A.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciam.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Dancient-nuclear-reactor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiello2011" class="citation web cs1">Biello, David (July 18, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/nuclear-fission-confirmed-as-source-of-more-than-half-of-earths-heat/">"Nuclear Fission Confirmed as Source of More than Half of Earth's Heat"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230125171628/https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/nuclear-fission-confirmed-as-source-of-more-than-half-of-earths-heat/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Fission+Confirmed+as+Source+of+More+than+Half+of+Earth%27s+Heat&rft.date=2011-07-18&rft.aulast=Biello&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.scientificamerican.com%2Fobservations%2Fnuclear-fission-confirmed-as-source-of-more-than-half-of-earths-heat%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radiochemistry" title="Radiochemistry">Radiochemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Nuclear chemistry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear engineering</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introductory">Introductory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Introductory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelyaevRoss2021" class="citation book cs1">Belyaev, Alexander; Ross, Douglas (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-80116-8"><i>The Basics of Nuclear and Particle Physics</i></a>. Undergraduate Texts in Physics. Cham: Springer International Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021bnpp.book.....B">2021bnpp.book.....B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-80116-8">10.1007/978-3-030-80116-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-80115-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-80115-1"><bdi>978-3-030-80115-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Basics+of+Nuclear+and+Particle+Physics&rft.place=Cham&rft.series=Undergraduate+Texts+in+Physics&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-80116-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021bnpp.book.....B&rft.isbn=978-3-030-80115-1&rft.aulast=Belyaev&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft.au=Ross%2C+Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-030-80116-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPovhRithScholzZetsche2015" class="citation book cs1">Povh, Bogdan; Rith, Klaus; Scholz, Christoph; Zetsche, Frank; Rodejohann, Werner (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-662-46321-5"><i>Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts</i></a>. Graduate Texts in Physics. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-662-46321-5">10.1007/978-3-662-46321-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-46320-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-662-46320-8"><bdi>978-3-662-46320-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-05-27</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Particles+and+Nuclei%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Physical+Concepts&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.series=Graduate+Texts+in+Physics&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-46321-5&rft.isbn=978-3-662-46320-8&rft.aulast=Povh&rft.aufirst=Bogdan&rft.au=Rith%2C+Klaus&rft.au=Scholz%2C+Christoph&rft.au=Zetsche%2C+Frank&rft.au=Rodejohann%2C+Werner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-662-46321-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_works">Reference works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Reference works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-15-8818-1"><i>Handbook of Nuclear Physics</i></a>. Isao Tanihata, Hiroshi Toki, Toshitaka Kajino (eds.). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. 2020. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-981-15-8818-1">10.1007/978-981-15-8818-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789811588181" title="Special:BookSources/9789811588181"><bdi>9789811588181</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-05-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Nuclear+Physics&rft.place=Singapore&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Singapore&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-981-15-8818-1&rft.isbn=9789811588181&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-981-15-8818-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advanced">Advanced</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Advanced"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBohrMottelson1998" class="citation book cs1">Bohr, Aage; Mottelson, Ben R (1998) [1969]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/3530"><i>Nuclear Structure: (In 2 Volumes)</i></a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1142%2F3530">10.1142/3530</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3197-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-3197-2"><bdi>978-981-02-3197-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230120031527/http://www.worldscientific.com/worldscibooks/10.1142/3530">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-20<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-04-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Structure%3A+%28In+2+Volumes%29&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1142%2F3530&rft.isbn=978-981-02-3197-2&rft.aulast=Bohr&rft.aufirst=Aage&rft.au=Mottelson%2C+Ben+R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldscientific.com%2Fworldscibooks%2F10.1142%2F3530&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaetz_gen._Schieck2014" class="citation book cs1">Paetz gen. Schieck, Hans (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-53986-2"><i>Nuclear Reactions: An Introduction</i></a>. Lecture Notes in Physics. Vol. 882. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-53986-2">10.1007/978-3-642-53986-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-53985-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-53985-5"><bdi>978-3-642-53985-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-04-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Reactions%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Berlin%2C+Heidelberg&rft.series=Lecture+Notes+in+Physics&rft.pub=Springer+Berlin+Heidelberg&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-53986-2&rft.isbn=978-3-642-53985-5&rft.aulast=Paetz+gen.+Schieck&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-642-53986-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classics_or_Historic">Classics or Historic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Classics or Historic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMottMassey1949" class="citation book cs1">Mott, N. F.; Massey, H. S. W. (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.3748/"><i>The Theory Of Atomic Collisions</i></a>. The International Series of Monographs on Physics (2. ed.). Oxford: Calrendon Press (OUP).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theory+Of+Atomic+Collisions&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=The+International+Series+of+Monographs+on+Physics&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=Calrendon+Press+%28OUP%29&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Mott&rft.aufirst=N.+F.&rft.au=Massey%2C+H.+S.+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.3748%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlattWeisskopf1979" class="citation book cs1">Blatt, John M.; Weisskopf, Victor F. (1979) [1952]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4612-9959-2"><i>Theoretical Nuclear Physics</i></a>. New York, NY: Springer New York. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-9959-2">10.1007/978-1-4612-9959-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-9961-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4612-9961-5"><bdi>978-1-4612-9961-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-02-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theoretical+Nuclear+Physics&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY&rft.pub=Springer+New+York&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-9959-2&rft.isbn=978-1-4612-9961-5&rft.aulast=Blatt&rft.aufirst=John+M.&rft.au=Weisskopf%2C+Victor+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-9959-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetheMorrison2006" class="citation book cs1">Bethe, Hans A.; Morrison, Philip (2006) [1956]. <i>Elementary Nuclear Theory</i>. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-45048-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-45048-3"><bdi>978-0-486-45048-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elementary+Nuclear+Theory&rft.place=Mineola%2C+NY&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-486-45048-3&rft.aulast=Bethe&rft.aufirst=Hans+A.&rft.au=Morrison%2C+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+physics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_physics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/exhibits/rutherford/">Ernest Rutherford's biography at the American Institute of Physics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160730205247/https://www.aip.org/history/exhibits/rutherford/">Archived</a> 2016-07-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dnp.aps.org">American Physical Society Division of Nuclear Physics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170920212827/http://www.dnp.aps.org/">Archived</a> 2017-09-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ans.org">American Nuclear Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202011858/http://www.ans.org/">Archived</a> 2008-12-02 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190526223700/http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=science%2FNuclear+Physics">Annotated bibliography on nuclear physics from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nucleonica.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page">Nuclear science wiki</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131021113908/http://www.nucleonica.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page">Archived</a> 2013-10-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-nds.iaea.org">Nuclear Data Services – IAEA</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210318000948/http://www-nds.iaea.org/">Archived</a> 2021-03-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054887">Nuclear Physics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171223063411/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0054887">Archived</a> 2017-12-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Jim Al-Khalili, John Gribbin and Catherine Sutton (<i>In Our Time</i>, Jan. 10, 2002)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 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id="Major_branches_of_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Major <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_physics" title="Branches of physics">branches of physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Divisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_physics" title="Applied physics">Applied</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Engineering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_physics" title="Experimental physics">Experimental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_physics" title="Theoretical 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science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">Mathematical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_physics" title="Medical physics">Medical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Ocean physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_information_science" title="Quantum information science">Quantum information science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">History of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_education" title="Physics education">Physics education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_fundamental_physics_discoveries" title="Timeline of fundamental physics discoveries">Timeline of physics discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Particles_in_physics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Particles" title="Template:Particles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Particles" title="Template talk:Particles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Particles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Particles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Particles_in_physics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">Particles in physics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Elementary_particle" title="Elementary particle">Elementary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Quark" title="Quark">Quarks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Up_quark" title="Up quark">Up (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Up antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_quark" title="Down quark">Down (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Down_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Down antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_quark" title="Charm quark">Charm (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charm_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Charm antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_quark" title="Strange quark">Strange (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strange_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Strange antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_quark" title="Top quark">Top (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Top_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Top antiquark">antiquark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_quark" title="Bottom quark">Bottom (quark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_antiquark" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom antiquark">antiquark)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Lepton" title="Lepton">Leptons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron" title="Positron">Positron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Muon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon" title="Muon">Antimuon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Tau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_(particle)" title="Tau (particle)">Antitau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino" title="Neutrino">Neutrino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electron_neutrino" title="Electron neutrino">Electron neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Electron antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon_neutrino" title="Muon neutrino">Muon neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Muon antineutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tau_neutrino" title="Tau neutrino">Tau neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutrino#Antineutrinos" title="Neutrino">Tau antineutrino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Boson" title="Boson">Bosons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gauge_boson" title="Gauge boson">Gauge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">Photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gluon" title="Gluon">Gluon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_bosons" title="W and Z bosons">W and Z bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4em;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Scalar_boson" title="Scalar boson">Scalar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Higgs_boson" title="Higgs boson">Higgs boson </a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Ghost_(physics)" title="Ghost (physics)">Ghost fields</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Faddeev%E2%80%93Popov_ghost" title="Faddeev–Popov ghost">Faddeev–Popov ghosts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothetical particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Superpartner" title="Superpartner">Superpartners</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Gaugino" title="Gaugino">Gauginos</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gluino" title="Gluino">Gluino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitino" title="Gravitino">Gravitino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photino" title="Photino">Photino</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axino" title="Axino">Axino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chargino" title="Chargino">Chargino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Higgsino" title="Higgsino">Higgsino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutralino" title="Neutralino">Neutralino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sfermion" title="Sfermion">Sfermion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stop_squark" title="Stop squark">Stop squark</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axion" title="Axion">Axion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curvaton" title="Curvaton">Curvaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilaton" title="Dilaton">Dilaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_graviton" title="Dual graviton">Dual graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviphoton" title="Graviphoton">Graviphoton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graviton" title="Graviton">Graviton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflaton" title="Inflaton">Inflaton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptoquark" title="Leptoquark">Leptoquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_monopole" title="Magnetic monopole">Magnetic monopole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoron" title="Majoron">Majoron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_photon" title="Dark photon">Dark photon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preon" title="Preon">Preon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterile_neutrino" title="Sterile neutrino">Sterile neutrino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachyon" title="Tachyon">Tachyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%E2%80%B2_and_Z%E2%80%B2_bosons" title="W′ and Z′ bosons">W′ and Z′ bosons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_and_Y_bosons" title="X and Y bosons">X and Y bosons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bound_state" title="Bound state">Composite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Hadrons" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Hadron" title="Hadron">Hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Baryon" title="Baryon">Baryons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleon" title="Nucleon">Nucleon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">Proton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">Antiproton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antineutron" title="Antineutron">Antineutron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta_baryon" title="Delta baryon">Delta baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambda_baryon" title="Lambda baryon">Lambda baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigma_baryon" title="Sigma baryon">Sigma baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi_baryon" title="Xi baryon">Xi baryon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_baryon" title="Omega baryon">Omega baryon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">Mesons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">Pion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rho_meson" title="Rho meson">Rho meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eta_meson" class="mw-redirect" title="Eta meson">Eta and eta prime mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_eta_meson" title="Bottom eta meson">Bottom eta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phi_meson" title="Phi meson">Phi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J/psi_meson" title="J/psi meson">J/psi meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omega_meson" title="Omega meson">Omega meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upsilon_meson" title="Upsilon meson">Upsilon meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaon" title="Kaon">Kaon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_meson" title="B meson">B meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D_meson" title="D meson">D meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarkonium" title="Quarkonium">Quarkonium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Exotic_hadron" title="Exotic hadron">Exotic hadrons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetraquark" title="Tetraquark">Tetraquark</a> (<a href="/wiki/Double-charm_tetraquark" title="Double-charm tetraquark">Double-charm tetraquark</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentaquark" title="Pentaquark">Pentaquark</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_atom" title="Exotic atom">Exotic atoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positronium" title="Positronium">Positronium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muonium" title="Muonium">Muonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tauonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Tauonium">Tauonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onium" title="Onium">Onia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pionium" title="Pionium">Pionium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protonium" title="Protonium">Protonium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superatom" title="Superatom">Superatoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Hypothetical_composite_particles" title="Category:Hypothetical composite particles">Hypothetical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Baryons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hexaquark" title="Hexaquark">Hexaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heptaquark" title="Heptaquark">Heptaquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skyrmion" title="Skyrmion">Skyrmion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Mesons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glueball" title="Glueball">Glueball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theta_meson" title="Theta meson">Theta meson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_meson" title="T meson">T meson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;;font-weight:normal; text-align: center;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesonic_molecule" title="Mesonic molecule">Mesonic molecule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomeron" title="Pomeron">Pomeron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diquark" title="Diquark">Diquark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-hadron" title="R-hadron">R-hadron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">Quasiparticles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anyon" title="Anyon">Anyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davydov_soliton" title="Davydov soliton">Davydov soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dropleton" title="Dropleton">Dropleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">Exciton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracton_(subdimensional_particle)" title="Fracton (subdimensional particle)">Fracton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">Hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnon" title="Magnon">Magnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonon" title="Phonon">Phonon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmaron" title="Plasmaron">Plasmaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmon" title="Plasmon">Plasmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polariton" title="Polariton">Polariton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaron" title="Polaron">Polaron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roton" title="Roton">Roton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trion_(physics)" title="Trion (physics)">Trion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_baryons" title="List of baryons">Baryons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mesons" title="List of mesons">Mesons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_particles" title="List of particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quasiparticles" title="List of quasiparticles">Quasiparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_particle_discoveries" title="Timeline of particle discoveries">Timeline of particle discoveries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_subatomic_physics" title="History of subatomic physics">History of subatomic physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_atomic_and_subatomic_physics" title="Timeline of atomic and subatomic physics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Model" title="Standard Model">Standard Model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_formulation_of_the_Standard_Model" title="Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model">mathematical formulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subatomic_particle" title="Subatomic particle">Subatomic particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparticle" title="Antiparticle">Antiparticles</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eightfold_way_(physics)" title="Eightfold way (physics)">Eightfold way</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quark_model" title="Quark model">Quark model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotic_matter" title="Exotic matter">Exotic matter</a></li> <li><a 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