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href="#Fukushima_accident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Fukushima accident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fukushima_accident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_prospects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_prospects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 Current prospects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_prospects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Power plants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fuel_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fuel_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Fuel cycle </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Fuel_cycle-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Fuel cycle subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Fuel_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Uranium_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uranium_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Uranium resources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Uranium_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Waste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-High-level_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-level_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 High-level waste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-level_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low-level_waste" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-level_waste"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Low-level waste </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-level_waste-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste_relative_to_other_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste_relative_to_other_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Waste relative to other types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste_relative_to_other_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Waste_disposal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Waste_disposal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.4 Waste disposal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Waste_disposal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reprocessing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reprocessing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Reprocessing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reprocessing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Breeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decommissioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decommissioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Decommissioning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decommissioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Economics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_in_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_in_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Use in space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_in_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Safety </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Safety-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Safety subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Accidents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Accidents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Accidents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Accidents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attacks_and_sabotage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attacks_and_sabotage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Attacks and sabotage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attacks_and_sabotage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proliferation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proliferation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Proliferation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proliferation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Environmental impact </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_impact-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Environmental impact subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Carbon_emissions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_emissions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Carbon emissions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_emissions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Radiation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Debate </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Debate-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Debate subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparison_with_renewable_energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison_with_renewable_energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Comparison with renewable energy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison_with_renewable_energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Speed_of_transition_and_investment_needed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Speed_of_transition_and_investment_needed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1.1 Speed of transition and investment needed </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Speed_of_transition_and_investment_needed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1.2 Land use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advanced_fission_reactor_designs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advanced_fission_reactor_designs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Advanced fission reactor designs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advanced_fission_reactor_designs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hybrid_fusion-fission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hybrid_fusion-fission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 Hybrid fusion-fission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hybrid_fusion-fission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fusion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fusion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Fusion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fusion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Nuclear power</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 116 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-116" aria-hidden="true" > 116 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernkrag" title="Kernkrag – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kernkrag" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernenergie" title="Kernenergie – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kernenergie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="طاقة نووية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طاقة نووية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerch%C3%ADa_nucleyar" title="Enerchía nucleyar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Enerchía nucleyar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerx%C3%ADa_nuclear" title="Enerxía nuclear – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Enerxía nuclear" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumingue%27a_mbaretekue" title="Tumingue'a mbaretekue – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tumingue'a mbaretekue" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_energetikas%C4%B1" title="Nüvə energetikası – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə energetikası" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="آتوم انرژی‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آتوم انرژی‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="পারমাণবিক শক্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পারমাণবিক শক্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go%C3%A2n-ch%C3%BA-le%CC%8Dk" title="Goân-chú-le̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Goân-chú-le̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Ядро энергетикаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ядро энергетикаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядзерная энергетыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядзерная энергетыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядзерная энэргетыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ядзерная энэргетыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядрена енергетика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядрена енергетика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_energija" title="Nuklearna energija – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Nuklearna energija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energiezh_nukleel" title="Energiezh nukleel – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Energiezh nukleel" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%88%D1%8D%D0%BC" title="Сүмын эршэм – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сүмын эршэм" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nuclear" title="Energia nuclear – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Energia nuclear" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нуклонсарла энергетика – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Нуклонсарла энергетика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadern%C3%A1_energetika" title="Jaderná energetika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jaderná energetika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynni_niwclear" title="Ynni niwclear – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ynni niwclear" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernekraft" title="Kernekraft – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kernekraft" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%A9_%D9%86%D9%88%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="طاقة نووية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="طاقة نووية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1immusf%C3%A1pmu" title="Váimmusfápmu – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Váimmusfápmu" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernenergie" title="Kernenergie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernenergie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81eetsoh_bee_atsinilt%C5%82%CA%BCish_%C3%A1l%CA%BC%C4%AF%CC%81" title="Łeetsoh bee atsiniltłʼish álʼį́ – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Łeetsoh bee atsiniltłʼish álʼį́" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuumaenergia" title="Tuumaenergia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuumaenergia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Πυρηνική ενέργεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρηνική ενέργεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energ%C3%ADa_nuclear" title="Energía nuclear – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Energía nuclear" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklea_energio" title="Nuklea energio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Nuklea energio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nuklear" title="Energia nuklear – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Energia nuklear" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B1%DA%98%DB%8C_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="انرژی هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انرژی هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Nuclear power" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjarnorka" title="Kjarnorka – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Kjarnorka" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89nergie_nucl%C3%A9aire" title="Énergie nucléaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Énergie nucléaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kearnenerzjy" title="Kearnenerzjy – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kearnenerzjy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuinneamh_n%C3%BAicl%C3%A9ach" title="Fuinneamh núicléach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fuinneamh núicléach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerx%C3%ADa_nuclear" title="Enerxía nuclear – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Enerxía nuclear" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E8%83%BD" title="核能 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="核能" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90%EB%A0%A5" title="원자력 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="원자력" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makamashin_nukiliya" title="Makamashin nukiliya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Makamashin nukiliya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A7%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Միջուկային էներգետիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջուկային էներգետիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="नाभिकीय शक्ति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नाभिकीय शक्ति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_energija" title="Nuklearna energija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Nuklearna energija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenaga_nuklir" title="Tenaga nuklir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tenaga nuklir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nuclear" title="Energia nuclear – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Energia nuclear" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjarnorka" title="Kjarnorka – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kjarnorka" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nucleare" title="Energia nucleare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Energia nucleare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אנרגיה גרעינית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנרגיה גרעינית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%81_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಪರಮಾಣು ಶಕ್ತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಮಾಣು ಶಕ್ತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ატომური ენერგეტიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ატომური ენერგეტიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядролық энергетика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ядролық энергетика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/En%C3%A8ji_nikley%C3%A8" title="Enèji nikleyè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Enèji nikleyè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89nerji_nikl%C3%A9y%C3%A8r" title="Énerji nikléyèr – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Énerji nikléyèr" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядролук энергетика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ядролук энергетика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerjiya_nuklear" title="Enerjiya nuklear – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Enerjiya nuklear" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nuclearis" title="Energia nuclearis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Energia nuclearis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodolener%C4%A3ija" title="Kodolenerģija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodolenerģija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomenergie" title="Atomenergie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Atomenergie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branduolin%C4%97_energija" title="Branduolinė energija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Branduolinė energija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nucleara" title="Energia nucleara – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Energia nucleara" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomenergia" title="Atomenergia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Atomenergia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Јадрена енергија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јадрена енергија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angovo_nokleary" title="Angovo nokleary – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Angovo nokleary" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%82" title="ആണവോർജ്ജം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആണവോർജ്ജം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%8A%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE" title="अणुऊर्जा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="अणुऊर्जा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenaga_nuklear" title="Tenaga nuklear – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tenaga nuklear" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%8D%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BC_%D1%85%D2%AF%D1%87" title="Цөмийн эрчим хүч – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн эрчим хүч" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%80%E1%80%9C%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%BD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="နျူကလီးယားစွမ်းအား – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နျူကလီးယားစွမ်းအား" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernenergie" title="Kernenergie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernenergie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE" title="आणविक उर्जा – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="आणविक उर्जा" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E5%8A%9B" title="原子力 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="原子力" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoomstruum" title="Atoomstruum – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Atoomstruum" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjerneenergi" title="Kjerneenergi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjerneenergi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjerneenergi" title="Kjerneenergi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjerneenergi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nucleara" title="Energia nucleara – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Energia nucleara" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annisaa_Atoomii" title="Annisaa Atoomii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Annisaa Atoomii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadro_energetikasi" title="Yadro energetikasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yadro energetikasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A3%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80" title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ ਸ਼ਕਤੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਰਮਾਣੂ ਸ਼ਕਤੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%B9%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="ایٹمی توانائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ایٹمی توانائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90%DA%9A%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%BC" title="اټومي برېښناکوټ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اټومي برېښناکوټ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyuuklier_powa" title="Nyuuklier powa – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Nyuuklier powa" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnkraft" title="Karnkraft – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Karnkraft" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energetyka_j%C4%85drowa" title="Energetyka jądrowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Energetyka jądrowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energia_nuclear" title="Energia nuclear – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Energia nuclear" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energie_nuclear%C4%83" title="Energie nucleară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Energie nucleară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D2%91%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядерна енерґетіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Ядерна енерґетіка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядерная энергетика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядерная энергетика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_pouer" title="Nuclear pouer – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Nuclear pouer" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rryma_b%C3%ABrthamore" title="Rryma bërthamore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Rryma bërthamore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%82%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="න්‍යෂ්ටික ශක්තිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="න්‍යෂ්ටික ශක්තිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Nuclear power" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BD%D9%85%D9%8A_%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%AA" title="ائٽمي طاقت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ائٽمي طاقت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedrska_energija" title="Jedrska energija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jedrska energija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Нуклеарна енергија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нуклеарна енергија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuklearna_energija" title="Nuklearna energija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Nuklearna energija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ydinvoima" title="Ydinvoima – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ydinvoima" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4rnkraft" title="Kärnkraft – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kärnkraft" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerhiyang_nukleyar" title="Enerhiyang nukleyar – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Enerhiyang nukleyar" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="அணுக்கரு ஆற்றல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அணுக்கரு ஆற்றல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC-%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%88_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D0%B5" title="Атом-төш энергиясе – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Атом-төш энергиясе" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%85%E0%B0%A3%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A6%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D" title="అణు విద్యుత్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="అణు విద్యుత్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="พลังงานนิวเคลียร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พลังงานนิวเคลียร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCkleer_enerji" title="Nükleer enerji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nükleer enerji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Ядерна енергетика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ядерна енергетика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="نویاتی توانائی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="نویاتی توانائی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%88_%D8%A6%DB%90%D9%86%DB%90%D8%B1%DA%AF%D9%89%D9%8A%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="يادرو ئېنېرگىيىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="يادرو ئېنېرگىيىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%83ng_l%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3ng_h%E1%BA%A1t_nh%C3%A2n" title="Năng lượng hạt nhân – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Năng lượng hạt nhân" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enerdjeye_nawearinne" title="Enerdjeye nawearinne – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Enerdjeye nawearinne" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusog_Nukleyar" title="Kusog Nukleyar – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kusog Nukleyar" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E5%8A%A8%E5%8A%9B" title="核动力 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="核动力" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A0%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%A2_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="קערנדיקע קראפט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קערנדיקע קראפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%B8%E8%83%BD" title="核能 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="核能" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernenergie" title="Kernenergie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Kernenergie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zeêuws</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Power generated from nuclear reactions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Atomic power" redirects here. For the film, see <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Power_(film)" title="Atomic Power (film)">Atomic Power (film)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For countries with the power or ability to project nuclear weapons, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">List of states with nuclear weapons</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil_crop.jpg/220px-2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil_crop.jpg/330px-2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil_crop.jpg/440px-2011-05-10_18-57-46_Switzerland_-_Wil_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Leibstadt_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant">Leibstadt Nuclear Power Plant</a> in Switzerland</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_power_generation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nuclear_power_generation.svg/350px-Nuclear_power_generation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nuclear_power_generation.svg/525px-Nuclear_power_generation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Nuclear_power_generation.svg/700px-Nuclear_power_generation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Growth of worldwide nuclear power generation</figcaption></figure>Nuclear power is the use of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reaction" title="Nuclear reaction">nuclear reactions</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>. Nuclear power can be obtained from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear decay">nuclear decay</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> reactions. Presently, the vast majority of electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>. Nuclear decay processes are used in niche applications such as <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a> in some space probes such as <a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Reactors producing controlled <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">fusion power</a> have been operated since 1958 but have yet to generate net power and are not expected to be commercially available in the near future.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/First_nuclear_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="First nuclear power plant">first nuclear power plant</a> was built in the 1950s. The global installed nuclear capacity grew to 100 GW in the late 1970s, and then expanded during the 1980s, reaching 300 GW by 1990. The 1979 <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> resulted in increased regulation and public opposition to nuclear power plants. Nuclear power plants supplied 2,602 <a href="/wiki/Terawatt_hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt hour">terawatt hours</a> (TWh) of electricity in 2023, equivalent to about 9% of <a href="/wiki/Global_electricity_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Global electricity generation">global electricity generation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-PerformanceReport-3">[3]</a> and were the second largest <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-carbon power">low-carbon power</a> source after <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</a>. As of November 2024,<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power&action=edit">[update]</a> there are <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear reactors">415 civilian fission reactors in the world</a>, with overall capacity of 374 GW,<a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a> 66 under construction and 87 planned, with a combined capacity of 72 GW and 84 GW, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-WNA-5">[5]</a> The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear reactors, generating almost 800 TWh of low-carbon electricity per year with an average <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a> of 92%. The average global capacity factor is 89%.<a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a> Most new reactors under construction are <a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">generation III reactors</a> in Asia. Nuclear power is a safe, sustainable energy source that reduces <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a>. This is because nuclear power generation causes one of the lowest levels of fatalities per unit of energy generated compared to other energy sources. "Economists estimate that each nuclear plant built could save more than 800,000 life years."<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Coal, petroleum, <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> and hydroelectricity have each caused more fatalities per unit of energy due to <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_accidents" title="Energy accidents">accidents</a>. Nuclear power plants also emit no <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a> and result in less life-cycle carbon emissions than common "renewables". The radiological hazards associated with nuclear power are the primary motivations of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">anti-nuclear movement</a>, which contends that nuclear power poses threats to people and the environment, citing the potential for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">accidents</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a> in Japan in 2011, and is too expensive to deploy when compared to alternative <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a> sources.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_power" title="History of nuclear power">History of nuclear power</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_four_nuclear_lit_bulbs.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_lit_bulbs.jpeg/220px-First_four_nuclear_lit_bulbs.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_lit_bulbs.jpeg/330px-First_four_nuclear_lit_bulbs.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/First_four_nuclear_lit_bulbs.jpeg/440px-First_four_nuclear_lit_bulbs.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="496" data-file-height="373" /></a><figcaption>The first light bulbs ever lit by electricity generated by nuclear power at <a href="/wiki/EBR-1" class="mw-redirect" title="EBR-1">EBR-1</a> at <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>-West, December 20, 1951.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></figcaption></figure> The process of nuclear fission was discovered in 1938 after over four decades of work on the science of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a> and the elaboration of new <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a> that described the components of <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a>. Soon after the discovery of the fission process, it was realized that neutrons released by a fissioning nucleus could, under the right conditions, induce fissions in nearby nuclei, thus initiating a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">self-sustaining chain reaction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Inside_the_Atomic_Patent_Office-8">[8]</a> Once this was experimentally confirmed in 1939, scientists in many countries petitioned their governments for support for nuclear fission research, just on the cusp of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, in order to develop a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> In the United States, these research efforts led to the creation of the first human-made <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">Chicago Pile-1</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Stagg_Field" title="Stagg Field">Stagg Field</a> stadium at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago" title="University of Chicago">University of Chicago</a>, which achieved <a href="/wiki/Criticality_(status)" title="Criticality (status)">criticality</a> on December 2, 1942. The reactor's development was part of the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> effort to create <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bombs">atomic bombs</a> during World War II. It led to the building of larger single-purpose <a href="/wiki/Production_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Production reactor">production reactors</a> for the production of <a href="/wiki/Weapons-grade_plutonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons-grade plutonium">weapons-grade plutonium</a> for use in the first nuclear weapons. The United States tested the first nuclear weapon in July 1945, the <a href="/wiki/Trinity_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinity test">Trinity test</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a> happened one month later. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nautiluscore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Nautiluscore.jpg/220px-Nautiluscore.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Nautiluscore.jpg/330px-Nautiluscore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Nautiluscore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="386" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption> The launching ceremony of <a href="/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS Nautilus</a> January 1954. In 1958 it would become the first vessel to reach the <a href="/wiki/North_Pole" title="North Pole">North Pole</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station_(11823864155).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station_%2811823864155%29.jpg/220px-Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station_%2811823864155%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station_%2811823864155%29.jpg/330px-Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station_%2811823864155%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station_%2811823864155%29.jpg/440px-Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station_%2811823864155%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2558" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station" title="Calder Hall nuclear power station">Calder Hall nuclear power station</a> in the United Kingdom, the world's first commercial nuclear power station</figcaption></figure> Despite the military nature of the first nuclear devices, there was strong optimism in the 1940s and 1950s that nuclear power could provide cheap and endless energy.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the <a href="/wiki/EBR-I" class="mw-redirect" title="EBR-I">EBR-I</a> experimental station near <a href="/wiki/Arco,_Idaho" title="Arco, Idaho">Arco, Idaho</a>, which initially produced about 100 <a href="/wiki/KW" class="mw-redirect" title="KW">kW</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> In 1953, American President <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Eisenhower" class="mw-redirect" title="Dwight Eisenhower">Dwight Eisenhower</a> gave his "<a href="/wiki/Atoms_for_Peace" title="Atoms for Peace">Atoms for Peace</a>" speech at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, emphasizing the need to develop "peaceful" uses of nuclear power quickly. This was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Energy_Act_of_1954" title="Atomic Energy Act of 1954">Atomic Energy Act of 1954</a> which allowed rapid declassification of U.S. reactor technology and encouraged development by the private sector. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_power_generation">First power generation</h3></div> The first organization to develop practical nuclear power was the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">U.S. Navy</a>, with the <a href="/wiki/S1W_reactor" title="S1W reactor">S1W reactor</a> for the purpose of propelling <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carriers</a>. The first nuclear-powered submarine, <a href="/wiki/USS_Nautilus_(SSN-571)" title="USS Nautilus (SSN-571)">USS Nautilus</a>, was put to sea in January 1954.<a href="#cite_note-iaeapdf-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The S1W reactor was a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a>. This design was chosen because it was simpler, more compact, and easier to operate compared to alternative designs, thus more suitable to be used in submarines. This decision would result in the PWR being the reactor of choice also for power generation, thus having a lasting impact on the civilian electricity market in the years to come.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> On June 27, 1954, the <a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant</a> in the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> became the world's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a <a href="/wiki/Power_grid" class="mw-redirect" title="Power grid">power grid</a>, producing around 5 megawatts of electric power.<a href="#cite_note-IAEANews-17">[17]</a> The world's first commercial nuclear power station, <a href="/wiki/Calder_Hall_nuclear_power_station" title="Calder Hall nuclear power station">Calder Hall</a> at Windscale, England was connected to the national power grid on 27 August 1956. In common with a number of other <a href="/wiki/Generation_I_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Generation I reactor">generation I reactors</a>, the plant had the dual purpose of producing <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">plutonium-239</a>, the latter for the nascent <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_and_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom">nuclear weapons program in Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_and_first_opposition">Expansion and first opposition</h3></div> The total global installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">gigawatt</a> (GW) in 1960 to 100 GW in the late 1970s.<a href="#cite_note-iaeapdf-14">[14]</a> During the 1970s and 1980s rising economic costs (related to extended construction times largely due to regulatory changes and pressure-group litigation)<a href="#cite_note-Bernard_L._Cohen_1990-19">[19]</a> and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s in the U.S. and 1990s in Europe, the flat electric grid growth and <a href="/wiki/Electricity_liberalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Electricity liberalization">electricity liberalization</a> also made the addition of large new <a href="/wiki/Baseload" class="mw-redirect" title="Baseload">baseload</a> energy generators economically unattractive. The <a href="/wiki/1973_oil_crisis" title="1973 oil crisis">1973 oil crisis</a> had a significant effect on countries, such as <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, which had relied more heavily on oil for electric generation to invest in nuclear power.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> France would construct 25 nuclear power plants over the next 15 years,<a href="#cite_note-palfreman-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-de_preneuf-22">[22]</a> and as of 2019, 71% of French electricity was generated by nuclear power, the highest percentage by any nation in the world.<a href="#cite_note-:0-23">[23]</a> Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the United States in the early 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-well-24">[24]</a> In the late 1960s, some members of the scientific community began to express pointed concerns.<a href="#cite_note-wolfgang-25">[25]</a> These <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-nuclear">anti-nuclear</a> concerns related to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accidents">nuclear accidents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">nuclear terrorism</a> and <a href="/wiki/High-level_radioactive_waste_management" title="High-level radioactive waste management">radioactive waste disposal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bm-26">[26]</a> In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in <a href="/wiki/Wyhl" title="Wyhl">Wyhl</a>, Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975. The anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America.<a href="#cite_note-pub-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-got-28">[28]</a> By the mid-1970s <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-nuclear">anti-nuclear</a> activism gained a wider appeal and influence, and nuclear power began to become an issue of major public protest.<a href="#cite_note-jimfalk-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-eleven-30">[30]</a> In some countries, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">nuclear power conflict</a> "reached an intensity unprecedented in the history of technology controversies".<a href="#cite_note-marcuse.org-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-kits-32">[32]</a> The increased public hostility to nuclear power led to a longer license procurement process, more regulations and increased requirements for safety equipment, which made new construction much more expensive.<a href="#cite_note-phyast.pitt.edu-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In the United States, over <a href="/wiki/List_of_cancelled_nuclear_reactors_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of cancelled nuclear reactors in the United States">120 Light Water Reactor proposals were ultimately cancelled</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> and the construction of new reactors ground to a halt.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-36">[36]</a> The 1979 <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">accident at Three Mile Island</a> with no fatalities, played a major part in the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-wolfgang-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chernobyl_and_renaissance">Chernobyl and renaissance</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_4_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_4_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/220px-%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_4_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_4_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/330px-%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_4_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_4_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg/440px-%D0%A6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%80_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5_4_%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B0_%D0%A7%D0%90%D0%AD%D0%A1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3852" data-file-height="2167" /></a><figcaption>The town of <a href="/wiki/Pripyat_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pripyat (city)">Pripyat</a> abandoned since 1986, with the Chernobyl plant and the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_New_Safe_Confinement" title="Chernobyl New Safe Confinement">Chernobyl New Safe Confinement</a> arch in the distance</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OL3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/OL3.jpg/220px-OL3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/OL3.jpg/330px-OL3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/OL3.jpg/440px-OL3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2813" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Olkiluoto_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Olkiluoto 3">Olkiluoto 3</a> under construction in 2009. It was the first <a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a>, a modernized PWR design, to start construction. </figcaption></figure> During the 1980s one new nuclear reactor started up every 17 days on average.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> By the end of the decade, global installed nuclear capacity reached 300 GW. Since the late 1980s, new capacity additions slowed significantly, with the installed nuclear capacity reaching 366 GW in 2005. The 1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> in the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>, involving an <a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a> reactor, altered the development of nuclear power and led to a greater focus on meeting international safety and regulatory standards.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> It is considered the worst nuclear disaster in history both in total casualties, with 56 direct deaths, and financially, with the cleanup and the cost estimated at 18 billion <a href="/wiki/Soviet_rouble" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet rouble">Rbls</a> (US$68 billion in 2019, adjusted for inflation).<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-GorbachevBoC-40">[40]</a> The international organization to promote safety awareness and the professional development of operators in nuclear facilities, the <a href="/wiki/World_Association_of_Nuclear_Operators" title="World Association of Nuclear Operators">World Association of Nuclear Operators</a> (WANO), was created as a direct outcome of the 1986 Chernobyl accident. The Chernobyl disaster played a major part in the reduction in the number of new plant constructions in the following years.<a href="#cite_note-wolfgang-25">[25]</a> Influenced by these events, Italy voted against nuclear power in a 1987 referendum,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> becoming the first country to completely phase out nuclear power in 1990. In the early 2000s, nuclear energy was expecting a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_renaissance" title="Nuclear renaissance">nuclear renaissance</a>, an increase in the construction of new reactors, due to concerns about <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide emissions">carbon dioxide emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-42">[42]</a> During this period, newer <a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">generation III reactors</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a> began construction. <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed" style="text-align:left"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 212.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 210.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Global_electricity_generation_by_energy_source.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Net electrical generation by source and growth from 1980. In terms of energy generated between 1980 and 2010, the contribution from fission grew the fastest."><img alt="Net electrical generation by source and growth from 1980. In terms of energy generated between 1980 and 2010, the contribution from fission grew the fastest." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Global_electricity_generation_by_energy_source.png/316px-Global_electricity_generation_by_energy_source.png" decoding="async" width="211" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Global_electricity_generation_by_energy_source.png/474px-Global_electricity_generation_by_energy_source.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Global_electricity_generation_by_energy_source.png/631px-Global_electricity_generation_by_energy_source.png 2x" data-file-width="1785" data-file-height="1104" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Net <a href="/wiki/Electrical_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical generation">electrical generation</a> by source and growth from 1980. In terms of energy generated between 1980 and 2010, the contribution from fission grew the fastest.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 198.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 196.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Electricity_in_France.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Electricity production in France, showing the shift to nuclear power.   thermofossil   hydroelectric   nuclear   Other renewables"><img alt="Electricity production in France, showing the shift to nuclear power.   thermofossil   hydroelectric   nuclear   Other renewables" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Electricity_in_France.svg/295px-Electricity_in_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="197" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Electricity_in_France.svg/443px-Electricity_in_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Electricity_in_France.svg/589px-Electricity_in_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Electricity_sector_in_France" title="Electricity sector in France">Electricity production in France</a>, showing the shift to nuclear power. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  thermofossil</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  hydroelectric</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  nuclear</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Other renewables</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 164.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 162.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear-energy-timeline.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="The rate of new reactor constructions essentially halted in the late 1980s. Increased capacity factor in existing reactors was primarily responsible for the continuing increase in electrical energy produced during this period."><img alt="The rate of new reactor constructions essentially halted in the late 1980s. Increased capacity factor in existing reactors was primarily responsible for the continuing increase in electrical energy produced during this period." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Nuclear-energy-timeline.svg/244px-Nuclear-energy-timeline.svg.png" decoding="async" width="163" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Nuclear-energy-timeline.svg/366px-Nuclear-energy-timeline.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Nuclear-energy-timeline.svg/488px-Nuclear-energy-timeline.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The rate of new reactor constructions essentially halted in the late 1980s. Increased <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a> in existing reactors was primarily responsible for the continuing increase in electrical energy produced during this period.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 186px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 184px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_power_generation_in_different_countries.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Electricity generation trends in the top producing countries (Our World in Data)"><img alt="Electricity generation trends in the top producing countries (Our World in Data)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Nuclear_power_generation_in_different_countries.svg/276px-Nuclear_power_generation_in_different_countries.svg.png" decoding="async" width="184" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Nuclear_power_generation_in_different_countries.svg/415px-Nuclear_power_generation_in_different_countries.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Nuclear_power_generation_in_different_countries.svg/553px-Nuclear_power_generation_in_different_countries.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Electricity generation trends in the top producing countries (Our World in Data)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fukushima_accident">Fukushima accident</h3></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:522px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:520px;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found on <a class="external text" href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/tag/charts/">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Chart" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Chart">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found on <a class="external text" href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/tag/charts/">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Chart" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Chart">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="thumbcaption">Nuclear power generation (TWh) and operational nuclear reactors since 1997<a href="#cite_note-pris-supplied-43">[43]</a></div></div></div> Prospects of a nuclear renaissance were delayed by another nuclear accident.<a href="#cite_note-:1-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-carbonbrief_2016-44">[44]</a> The 2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident</a> was caused by the <a href="/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami">Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami</a>, one of the largest earthquakes ever recorded. The <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant">Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant</a> suffered three core meltdowns due to failure of the emergency cooling system for lack of electricity supply. This resulted in the most serious nuclear accident since the Chernobyl disaster. The accident prompted a re-examination of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear safety">nuclear safety</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">nuclear energy policy</a> in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-sciamer2011-45">[45]</a> Germany approved plans to close all its reactors by 2022, and many other countries reviewed their nuclear power programs.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-piersmorgan.blogs.cnn.com-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-news.xinhuanet.com-49">[49]</a> Following the disaster, Japan shut down all of its nuclear power reactors, some of them permanently, and in 2015 began a gradual process to restart the remaining 40 reactors, following safety checks and based on revised criteria for operations and public approval.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> In 2022, the Japanese government, under the leadership of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fumio_Kishida" title="Fumio Kishida">Fumio Kishida</a>, declared that 10 more nuclear power plants were to be reopened since the 2011 disaster.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Kishida is also pushing for research and construction of new safer nuclear plants to safeguard Japanese consumers from the fluctuating price of the fossil fuel market and reduce Japan's greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-auto-52">[52]</a> Kishida intends to have Japan become a significant exporter of nuclear energy and technology to developing countries around the world.<a href="#cite_note-auto-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_prospects">Current prospects</h3></div> By 2015, the IAEA's outlook for nuclear energy had become more promising, recognizing the importance of low-carbon generation for mitigating <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> As of 2015<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power&action=edit">[update]</a>, the global trend was for new nuclear power stations coming online to be balanced by the number of old plants being retired.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Energy_Information_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Energy Information Administration">U.S. Energy Information Administration</a> projected for its "base case" that world nuclear power generation would increase from 2,344 <a href="/wiki/Terawatt_hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt hour">terawatt hours</a> (TWh) in 2012 to 4,500 TWh in 2040. Most of the predicted increase was expected to be in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> As of 2018, there were over 150 nuclear reactors planned including 50 under construction.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In January 2019, China had 45 reactors in operation, 13 under construction, and planned to build 43 more, which would make it the world's largest generator of nuclear electricity.<a href="#cite_note-china19-57">[57]</a> As of 2021, 17 reactors were reported to be under construction. China built significantly fewer reactors than originally planned. Its share of electricity from nuclear power was 5% in 2019<a href="#cite_note-dwfrance-58">[58]</a> and observers have cautioned that, along with the risks, the changing economics of energy generation may cause new nuclear energy plants to "no longer make sense in a world that is leaning toward cheaper, more reliable renewable energy".<a href="#cite_note-cnnchina-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-francere-60">[60]</a> In October 2021, the Japanese cabinet approved the new Plan for Electricity Generation to 2030 prepared by the Agency for Natural Resources and Energy (ANRE) and an advisory committee, following public consultation. The nuclear target for 2030 requires the restart of another ten reactors. Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fumio_Kishida" title="Fumio Kishida">Fumio Kishida</a> in July 2022 announced that the country should consider building advanced reactors and extending operating licences beyond 60 years.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> As of 2022, with world oil and gas prices on the rise, while Germany is restarting its coal plants to deal with loss of Russian gas that it needs to supplement its <a href="/wiki/Energiewende" title="Energiewende">Energiewende</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> many other countries have announced ambitious plans to reinvigorate ageing nuclear generating capacity with new investments. French President <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Macron" title="Emmanuel Macron">Emmanuel Macron</a> announced his intention to build six new reactors in coming decades, placing nuclear at the heart of France's drive for <a href="/wiki/Carbon_neutrality" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon neutrality">carbon neutrality</a> by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Meanwhile, in the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Energy">Department of Energy</a>, in collaboration with commercial entities, <a href="/wiki/TerraPower" title="TerraPower">TerraPower</a> and <a href="/wiki/X-energy" title="X-energy">X-energy</a>, is planning on building two different advanced nuclear reactors by 2027, with further plans for nuclear implementation in its long term green energy and energy security goals.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Power_plants">Power plants</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm/220px-seek%3D2-PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="64" data-mwtitle="PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-width="960" data-height="540" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/e/e3/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm/PWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm&lang=cs&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="cs" label="čeština ‪(cs)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm&lang=eu&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="eu" label="euskara ‪(eu)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3APWR_nuclear_power_plant_animation.webm&lang=pt-br&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="pt-BR" label="português do Brasil ‪(pt-br)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>An animation of a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> in operation</figcaption></figure> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:220px;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Notice plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-notice" role="presentation" style="width:100%;margin:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/40px-Information_icon4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/60px-Information_icon4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/Information_icon4.svg/80px-Information_icon4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text" style="text-align: left;"><div class="mbox-text-span">Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. Updates on reimplementing the Graph extension, which will be known as the Chart extension, can be found on <a class="external text" href="https://phabricator.wikimedia.org/tag/charts/">Phabricator</a> and on <a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Chart" class="extiw" title="mw:Extension:Chart">MediaWiki.org</a>.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="thumbcaption">Number of electricity-generating civilian reactors by type as of 2014<a href="#cite_note-IAEA_reactors_stats-65">[65]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 4em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">PWR</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">BWR</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">GCR</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">PHWR</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Light_water_graphite-moderated_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Light water graphite-moderated reactor">LWGR</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959">  <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">FBR</a></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactor</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_commercial_nuclear_reactors" title="List of commercial nuclear reactors">List of commercial nuclear reactors</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_stations" title="List of nuclear power stations">List of nuclear power stations</a></div> Nuclear power plants are <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_station" title="Thermal power station">thermal power stations</a> that generate electricity by harnessing the <a href="/wiki/Thermal_energy" title="Thermal energy">thermal energy</a> released from <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">nuclear fission</a>. A fission nuclear power plant is generally composed of: a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>, in which the nuclear reactions generating heat take place; a cooling system, which removes the heat from inside the reactor; a <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a>, which transforms the heat into <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_energy" title="Mechanical energy">mechanical energy</a>; an <a href="/wiki/Electric_generator" title="Electric generator">electric generator</a>, which transforms the mechanical energy into electrical energy.<a href="#cite_note-WNAnuclearreactorbasics-66">[66]</a> When a <a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">neutron</a> hits the nucleus of a <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a> or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> atom, it can split the nucleus into two smaller nuclei, which is a nuclear fission reaction. The reaction releases energy and neutrons. The released neutrons can hit other uranium or plutonium nuclei, causing new fission reactions, which release more energy and more neutrons. This is called a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">chain reaction</a>. In most commercial reactors, the reaction rate is contained by <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a> that absorb excess neutrons. The controllability of nuclear reactors depends on the fact that a small fraction of neutrons resulting from fission are <a href="/wiki/Delayed_neutron" title="Delayed neutron">delayed</a>. The time delay between the fission and the release of the neutrons slows changes in reaction rates and gives time for moving the control rods to adjust the reaction rate.<a href="#cite_note-WNAnuclearreactorbasics-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fuel_cycle">Fuel cycle</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle.png/220px-Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle.png/330px-Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle.png/440px-Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle.png 2x" data-file-width="923" data-file-height="914" /></a><figcaption>The nuclear fuel cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and manufactured into nuclear fuel (1), which is delivered to a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plant</a>. After use, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to a final repository (3). In <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear reprocessing</a>, 95% of spent fuel can potentially be recycled to be returned to use in a power plant (4).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Nuclear fuel cycle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Integrated_Nuclear_Fuel_Cycle_Information_System" title="Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System">Integrated Nuclear Fuel Cycle Information System</a></div> The life cycle of nuclear fuel starts with <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">uranium mining</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Uranium_ore" title="Uranium ore">uranium ore</a> is then converted into a compact <a href="/wiki/Ore_concentrate" title="Ore concentrate">ore concentrate</a> form, known as <a href="/wiki/Yellowcake" title="Yellowcake">yellowcake</a> (U3O8), to facilitate transport.<a href="#cite_note-nrc_fuel-68">[68]</a> Fission reactors generally need <a href="/wiki/Uranium-235" title="Uranium-235">uranium-235</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">fissile</a> <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_uranium" title="Isotopes of uranium">isotope of uranium</a>. The concentration of uranium-235 in natural uranium is low (about 0.7%). Some reactors can use this natural uranium as fuel, depending on their <a href="/wiki/Neutron_economy" title="Neutron economy">neutron economy</a>. These reactors generally have graphite or <a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">heavy water</a> moderators. For light water reactors, the most common type of reactor, this concentration is too low, and it must be increased by a process called <a href="/wiki/Uranium_enrichment" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium enrichment">uranium enrichment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nrc_fuel-68">[68]</a> In civilian light water reactors, uranium is typically enriched to 3.5–5% uranium-235.<a href="#cite_note-wna_fuel-69">[69]</a> The uranium is then generally converted into <a href="/wiki/Uranium_oxide" title="Uranium oxide">uranium oxide</a> (UO2), a ceramic, that is then compressively <a href="/wiki/Sintered" class="mw-redirect" title="Sintered">sintered</a> into fuel pellets, a stack of which forms <a href="/wiki/Fuel_rod" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuel rod">fuel rods</a> of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor.<a href="#cite_note-wna_fuel-69">[69]</a> After some time in the reactor, the fuel will have reduced fissile material and increased fission products, until its use becomes impractical.<a href="#cite_note-wna_fuel-69">[69]</a> At this point, the spent fuel will be moved to a <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">spent fuel pool</a> which provides cooling for the thermal heat and shielding for ionizing radiation. After several months or years, the spent fuel is radioactively and thermally cool enough to be moved to dry storage casks or reprocessed.<a href="#cite_note-wna_fuel-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Uranium_resources">Uranium resources</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Uranium_market" title="Uranium market">Uranium market</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Energy_development#Nuclear" title="Energy development">Energy development § Nuclear</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uranium_enrichment_proportions_(horizontal).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Uranium_enrichment_proportions_%28horizontal%29.svg/440px-Uranium_enrichment_proportions_%28horizontal%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Uranium_enrichment_proportions_%28horizontal%29.svg/660px-Uranium_enrichment_proportions_%28horizontal%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Uranium_enrichment_proportions_%28horizontal%29.svg/880px-Uranium_enrichment_proportions_%28horizontal%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Proportions of the isotopes <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">uranium-238</a> (blue) and uranium-235 (red) found in natural uranium and in <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> for different applications. Light water reactors use 3–5% enriched uranium, while <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a> reactors work with natural uranium.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> is a fairly common <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">element</a> in the Earth's crust: it is approximately as common as <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, and is about 40 times more common than <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Uranium is present in trace concentrations in most rocks, dirt, and ocean water, but is generally economically extracted only where it is present in relatively high concentrations. Uranium mining can be underground, <a href="/wiki/Open-pit_mining" title="Open-pit mining">open-pit</a>, or <a href="/wiki/In-situ_leach" class="mw-redirect" title="In-situ leach">in-situ leach</a> mining. An increasing number of the highest output mines are remote underground operations, such as <a href="/wiki/McArthur_River_uranium_mine" title="McArthur River uranium mine">McArthur River uranium mine</a>, in Canada, which by itself accounts for 13% of global production. As of 2011 the world's known resources of uranium, economically recoverable at the arbitrary price ceiling of US$130/kg, were enough to last for between 70 and 100 years.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Red-73">[73]</a> In 2007, the OECD estimated 670 years of economically recoverable uranium in total conventional resources and <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphate</a> ores assuming the then-current use rate.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Light water reactors make relatively inefficient use of nuclear fuel, mostly using only the very rare uranium-235 isotope.<a href="#cite_note-wna-wmitnfc-75">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Nuclear reprocessing</a> can make this waste reusable, and newer reactors also achieve a more efficient use of the available resources than older ones.<a href="#cite_note-wna-wmitnfc-75">[75]</a> With a pure <a href="/wiki/Fast_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast reactor">fast reactor</a> fuel cycle with a burn up of all the uranium and <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinides</a> (which presently make up the most hazardous substances in nuclear waste), there is an estimated 160,000 years worth of uranium in total conventional resources and phosphate ore at the price of 60–100 US$/kg.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> However, reprocessing is expensive, possibly dangerous and can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-repr-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-future1-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-pluto-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-civlib-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-detect-81">[81]</a> One analysis found that uranium prices could increase by two orders of magnitude between 2035 and 2100 and that there could be a shortage near the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> A 2017 study by researchers from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institution" title="Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution">WHOI</a> found that "at the current consumption rate, global conventional reserves of terrestrial uranium (approximately 7.6 million tonnes) could be depleted in a little over a century".<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Limited uranium-235 supply may inhibit substantial expansion with the current nuclear technology.<a href="#cite_note-sol1-84">[84]</a> While various ways to reduce dependence on such resources are being explored,<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> new nuclear technologies are considered to not be available in time for climate change mitigation purposes or competition with alternatives of renewables in addition to being more expensive and require costly research and development.<a href="#cite_note-sol1-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-mil1-89">[89]</a> A study found it to be uncertain whether identified resources will be developed quickly enough to provide uninterrupted fuel supply to expanded nuclear facilities<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> and various forms of mining may be challenged by ecological barriers, costs, and land requirements.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Researchers also report considerable import dependence of nuclear energy.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2018.12.024-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.anucene.2017.08.019-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1002/ente.201600444-96">[96]</a> Unconventional uranium resources also exist. Uranium is naturally present in seawater at a concentration of about 3 <a href="/wiki/Microgram" title="Microgram">micrograms</a> per liter,<a href="#cite_note-books.google.ie-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> with 4.4 billion tons of uranium considered present in seawater at any time.<a href="#cite_note-gepr.org-100">[100]</a> In 2014 it was suggested that it would be economically competitive to produce nuclear fuel from seawater if the process was implemented at large scale.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Like fossil fuels, over geological timescales, uranium extracted on an industrial scale from seawater would be replenished by both river erosion of rocks and the natural process of uranium <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(metallurgy)" title="Leaching (metallurgy)">dissolved</a> from the surface area of the ocean floor, both of which maintain the <a href="/wiki/Solubility_equilibrium" title="Solubility equilibrium">solubility equilibria</a> of seawater concentration at a stable level.<a href="#cite_note-gepr.org-100">[100]</a> Some commentators have argued that this strengthens the case for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy" title="Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy">nuclear power to be considered a renewable energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Waste">Waste</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">Nuclear waste</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_fuel_composition.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Nuclear_fuel_composition.svg/330px-Nuclear_fuel_composition.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Nuclear_fuel_composition.svg/495px-Nuclear_fuel_composition.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Nuclear_fuel_composition.svg/660px-Nuclear_fuel_composition.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="972" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>Typical composition of <a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">uranium dioxide</a> fuel before and after approximately three years in the <a href="/wiki/Once-through_nuclear_fuel_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Once-through nuclear fuel cycle">once-through nuclear fuel cycle</a> of a <a href="/wiki/LWR" class="mw-redirect" title="LWR">LWR</a><a href="#cite_note-jaif-103">[103]</a></figcaption></figure> The normal operation of nuclear power plants and facilities produce <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a>, or nuclear waste. This type of waste is also produced during plant decommissioning. There are two broad categories of nuclear waste: low-level waste and high-level waste.<a href="#cite_note-nrc_waste-104">[104]</a> The first has low radioactivity and includes contaminated items such as clothing, which poses limited threat. High-level waste is mainly the spent fuel from nuclear reactors, which is very radioactive and must be cooled and then safely disposed of or reprocessed.<a href="#cite_note-nrc_waste-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="High-level_waste">High-level waste</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level waste</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent nuclear fuel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spent_nuclear_fuel_decay_sievert.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Spent_nuclear_fuel_decay_sievert.jpg/330px-Spent_nuclear_fuel_decay_sievert.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Spent_nuclear_fuel_decay_sievert.jpg/495px-Spent_nuclear_fuel_decay_sievert.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Spent_nuclear_fuel_decay_sievert.jpg/660px-Spent_nuclear_fuel_decay_sievert.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1304" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>Activity of spent UOx fuel in comparison to the activity of natural <a href="/wiki/Uranium_ore" title="Uranium ore">uranium ore</a> over time<a href="#cite_note-m.phys.org-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-jaif-103">[103]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_dry_storage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Nuclear_dry_storage.jpg/220px-Nuclear_dry_storage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Nuclear_dry_storage.jpg/330px-Nuclear_dry_storage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Nuclear_dry_storage.jpg/440px-Nuclear_dry_storage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1139" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">Dry cask storage</a> vessels storing spent nuclear fuel assemblies</figcaption></figure> The most important waste stream from nuclear power reactors is <a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">spent nuclear fuel</a>, which is considered <a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">high-level waste</a>. For Light Water Reactors (LWRs), spent fuel is typically composed of 95% uranium, 4% <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a>, and about 1% <a href="/wiki/Transuranic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transuranic">transuranic</a> <a href="/wiki/Actinides" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinides">actinides</a> (mostly <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">neptunium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a>).<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The fission products are responsible for the bulk of the short-term radioactivity, whereas the plutonium and other transuranics are responsible for the bulk of the long-term radioactivity.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> High-level waste (HLW) must be stored isolated from the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> with sufficient shielding so as to limit radiation exposure. After being removed from the reactors, used fuel bundles are stored for six to ten years in <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">spent fuel pools</a>, which provide cooling and shielding against radiation. After that, the fuel is cool enough that it can be safely transferred to <a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">dry cask storage</a>.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> The radioactivity decreases exponentially with time, such that it will have decreased by 99.5% after 100 years.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> The more intensely radioactive short-lived <a href="/wiki/Fission_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission products">fission products</a> (SLFPs) decay into stable elements in approximately 300 years, and after about 100,000 years, the spent fuel becomes less radioactive than natural uranium ore.<a href="#cite_note-jaif-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Commonly suggested methods to isolate LLFP waste from the biosphere include separation and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">transmutation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-jaif-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Synroc" title="Synroc">synroc</a> treatments, or deep geological storage.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thermal-neutron_reactor" title="Thermal-neutron reactor">Thermal-neutron reactors</a>, which presently constitute the majority of the world fleet, cannot burn up the <a href="/wiki/Reactor_grade_plutonium" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor grade plutonium">reactor grade plutonium</a> that is generated during the reactor operation. This limits the life of nuclear fuel to a few years. In some countries, such as the United States, spent fuel is classified in its entirety as a nuclear waste.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> In other countries, such as France, it is largely reprocessed to produce a partially recycled fuel, known as mixed oxide fuel or <a href="/wiki/MOX" class="mw-redirect" title="MOX">MOX</a>. For spent fuel that does not undergo reprocessing, the most concerning isotopes are the medium-lived <a href="/wiki/Transuranic_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Transuranic element">transuranic elements</a>, which are led by reactor-grade plutonium (half-life 24,000 years).<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> Some proposed reactor designs, such as the <a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">integral fast reactor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">molten salt reactors</a>, can use as fuel the plutonium and other actinides in spent fuel from light water reactors, thanks to their <a href="/wiki/Fast_fission" title="Fast fission">fast fission</a> spectrum. This offers a potentially more attractive alternative to deep geological disposal.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">thorium fuel cycle</a> results in similar fission products, though creates a much smaller proportion of transuranic elements from <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> events within a reactor. Spent thorium fuel, although more difficult to handle than spent uranium fuel, may present somewhat lower proliferation risks.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Low-level_waste">Low-level waste</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level waste</a></div> The nuclear industry also produces a large volume of <a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">low-level waste</a>, with low radioactivity, in the form of contaminated items like clothing, hand tools, water purifier resins, and (upon decommissioning) the materials of which the reactor itself is built. Low-level waste can be stored on-site until radiation levels are low enough to be disposed of as ordinary waste, or it can be sent to a low-level waste disposal site.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Waste_relative_to_other_types">Waste relative to other types</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Naturally_occurring_radioactive_material" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste § Naturally occurring radioactive material</a></div> In countries with nuclear power, radioactive wastes account for less than 1% of total industrial toxic wastes, much of which remains hazardous for long periods.<a href="#cite_note-wna-wmitnfc-75">[75]</a> Overall, nuclear power produces far less waste material by volume than fossil-fuel based power plants.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Coal-burning plants, in particular, produce large amounts of toxic and mildly radioactive ash resulting from the concentration of <a href="/wiki/Naturally_occurring_radioactive_material" title="Naturally occurring radioactive material">naturally occurring radioactive materials</a> in coal.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> A 2008 report from <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> concluded that coal power actually results in more radioactivity being released into the environment than nuclear power operation, and that the population <a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_equivalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Effective dose equivalent">effective dose equivalent</a> from radiation from coal plants is 100 times that from the operation of nuclear plants.<a href="#cite_note-colmain-124">[124]</a> Although coal ash is much less radioactive than spent nuclear fuel by weight, coal ash is produced in much higher quantities per unit of energy generated. It is also released directly into the environment as <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a>, whereas nuclear plants use shielding to protect the environment from radioactive materials.<a href="#cite_note-cejournal-125">[125]</a> Nuclear waste volume is small compared to the energy produced. For example, at <a href="/wiki/Yankee_Rowe_Nuclear_Power_Station" title="Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station">Yankee Rowe Nuclear Power Station</a>, which generated 44 billion <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt_hours" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt hours">kilowatt hours</a> of electricity when in service, its complete spent fuel inventory is contained within sixteen casks.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> It is estimated that to produce a lifetime supply of energy for a person at a western <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> (approximately 3 <a href="/wiki/GWh" class="mw-redirect" title="GWh">GWh</a>) would require on the order of the volume of a <a href="/wiki/Soda_can" class="mw-redirect" title="Soda can">soda can</a> of <a href="/wiki/Low_enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Low enriched uranium">low enriched uranium</a>, resulting in a similar volume of spent fuel generated.<a href="#cite_note-Generation_Atomic-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-npr.org-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Waste_disposal">Waste disposal</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_radioactive_waste_treatment_technologies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of radioactive waste treatment technologies">List of radioactive waste treatment technologies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WIPP-04.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Storage of radioactive waste at WIPP" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/WIPP-04.jpeg/220px-WIPP-04.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/WIPP-04.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="192" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_flask" title="Nuclear flask">Nuclear waste flasks</a> generated by the United States during the Cold War are stored underground at the <a href="/wiki/Waste_Isolation_Pilot_Plant" title="Waste Isolation Pilot Plant">Waste Isolation Pilot Plant</a> (WIPP) in <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">New Mexico</a>. The facility is seen as a potential demonstration for storing spent fuel from civilian reactors.</figcaption></figure> Following interim storage in a <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">spent fuel pool</a>, the bundles of used fuel rod assemblies of a typical nuclear power station are often stored on site in <a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">dry cask storage</a> vessels.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Presently, waste is mainly stored at individual reactor sites and there are over 430 locations around the world where radioactive material continues to accumulate. Disposal of nuclear waste is often considered the most politically divisive aspect in the lifecycle of a nuclear power facility.<a href="#cite_note-mont2011-131">[131]</a> The lack of movement of nuclear waste in the 2 billion year old <a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">natural nuclear fission reactors</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oklo" title="Oklo">Oklo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a> is cited as "a source of essential information today."<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Experts suggest that centralized underground repositories which are well-managed, guarded, and monitored, would be a vast improvement.<a href="#cite_note-mont2011-131">[131]</a> There is an "international consensus on the advisability of storing nuclear waste in <a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">deep geological repositories</a>".<a href="#cite_note-go-134">[134]</a> With the advent of new technologies, other methods including <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_drillhole_disposal" title="Horizontal drillhole disposal">horizontal drillhole disposal</a> into geologically inactive areas have been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alpha-Gamma_Hot_Cell_Facility_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Alpha-Gamma_Hot_Cell_Facility_001.jpg/220px-Alpha-Gamma_Hot_Cell_Facility_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Alpha-Gamma_Hot_Cell_Facility_001.jpg/330px-Alpha-Gamma_Hot_Cell_Facility_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Alpha-Gamma_Hot_Cell_Facility_001.jpg/440px-Alpha-Gamma_Hot_Cell_Facility_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Most waste packaging, small-scale experimental fuel recycling chemistry and <a href="/wiki/Radiopharmaceutical" title="Radiopharmaceutical">radiopharmaceutical</a> refinement is conducted within remote-handled <a href="/wiki/Hot_cell" title="Hot cell">hot cells</a>.</figcaption></figure> There are no commercial scale purpose built underground high-level waste repositories in operation.<a href="#cite_note-go-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> However, in Finland the <a href="/wiki/Onkalo_spent_nuclear_fuel_repository" title="Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository">Onkalo spent nuclear fuel repository</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Olkiluoto_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant">Olkiluoto Nuclear Power Plant</a> was under construction as of 2015.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reprocessing">Reprocessing</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Nuclear reprocessing</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_Management_and_Disposition_Agreement" title="Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement">Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement</a></div> Most <a href="/wiki/Thermal-neutron_reactor" title="Thermal-neutron reactor">thermal-neutron reactors</a> run on a <a href="/wiki/Once-through_nuclear_fuel_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Once-through nuclear fuel cycle">once-through nuclear fuel cycle</a>, mainly due to the low price of fresh uranium. However, many reactors are also fueled with recycled fissionable materials that remain in spent nuclear fuel. The most common fissionable material that is recycled is the <a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">reactor-grade plutonium</a> (RGPu) that is extracted from spent fuel. It is mixed with uranium oxide and fabricated into mixed-oxide or <a href="/wiki/MOX_fuel" title="MOX fuel">MOX fuel</a>. Because thermal LWRs remain the most common reactor worldwide, this type of recycling is the most common. It is considered to increase the sustainability of the nuclear fuel cycle, reduce the attractiveness of spent fuel to theft, and lower the volume of high level nuclear waste.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> Spent MOX fuel cannot generally be recycled for use in thermal-neutron reactors. This issue does not affect <a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron reactors</a>, which are therefore preferred in order to achieve the full energy potential of the original uranium.<a href="#cite_note-berrytoll-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-IEEE_Spectrum-142">[142]</a> The main constituent of spent fuel from LWRs is slightly <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a>. This can be recycled into <a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">reprocessed uranium</a> (RepU), which can be used in a fast reactor, used directly as fuel in <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a> reactors, or re-enriched for another cycle through an LWR. Re-enriching of reprocessed uranium is common in France and Russia.<a href="#cite_note-WNA3-143">[143]</a> Reprocessed uranium is also safer in terms of nuclear proliferation potential.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Reprocessing has the potential to recover up to 95% of the uranium and plutonium fuel in spent nuclear fuel, as well as reduce long-term radioactivity within the remaining waste. However, reprocessing has been politically controversial because of the potential for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a> and varied perceptions of increasing the vulnerability to <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">nuclear terrorism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-berrytoll-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-bas2011-147">[147]</a> Reprocessing also leads to higher fuel cost compared to the once-through fuel cycle.<a href="#cite_note-berrytoll-141">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-bas2011-147">[147]</a> While reprocessing reduces the volume of high-level waste, it does not reduce the <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a> that are the primary causes of residual heat generation and radioactivity for the first few centuries outside the reactor. Thus, reprocessed waste still requires an almost identical treatment for the initial first few hundred years. Reprocessing of civilian fuel from power reactors is currently done in France, the United Kingdom, Russia, Japan, and India. In the United States, spent nuclear fuel is currently not reprocessed.<a href="#cite_note-WNA3-143">[143]</a> The <a href="/wiki/La_Hague_site" title="La Hague site">La Hague reprocessing facility</a> in France has operated commercially since 1976 and is responsible for half the world's reprocessing as of 2010.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> It produces MOX fuel from spent fuel derived from several countries. More than 32,000 tonnes of spent fuel had been reprocessed as of 2015, with the majority from France, 17% from Germany, and 9% from Japan.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breeding">Breeding</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear-Fuel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Nuclear-Fuel.jpg/170px-Nuclear-Fuel.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Nuclear-Fuel.jpg/255px-Nuclear-Fuel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Nuclear-Fuel.jpg/340px-Nuclear-Fuel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Nuclear fuel</a> assemblies being inspected before entering a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> in the United States</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">Breeder reactor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_proposed_as_renewable_energy" title="Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy">Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy</a></div> Breeding is the process of converting non-fissile material into fissile material that can be used as nuclear fuel. The non-fissile material that can be used for this process is called <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile material</a>, and constitute the vast majority of current nuclear waste. This breeding process occurs naturally in <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">breeder reactors</a>. As opposed to light water thermal-neutron reactors, which use uranium-235 (0.7% of all natural uranium), fast-neutron breeder reactors use uranium-238 (99.3% of all natural uranium) or thorium. A number of fuel cycles and breeder reactor combinations are considered to be sustainable or renewable sources of energy.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brundtland-151">[151]</a> In 2006 it was estimated that with seawater extraction, there was likely five billion years' worth of uranium resources for use in breeder reactors.<a href="#cite_note-stanford-cohen-152">[152]</a> Breeder technology has been used in several reactors, but as of 2006, the high cost of reprocessing fuel safely requires uranium prices of more than US$200/kg before becoming justified economically.<a href="#cite_note-wna-anpr-153">[153]</a> Breeder reactors are however being developed for their potential to burn all of the actinides (the most active and dangerous components) in the present inventory of nuclear waste, while also producing power and creating additional quantities of fuel for more reactors via the breeding process.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> As of 2017, there are two breeders producing commercial power, <a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600 reactor</a> and the <a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800 reactor</a>, both in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-WNAfast-156">[156]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a> breeder reactor in France was powered down in 2009 after 36 years of operation.<a href="#cite_note-WNAfast-156">[156]</a> Both China and India are building breeder reactors. The Indian 500 MWe <a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor</a> is in the commissioning phase,<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> with plans to build more.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Another alternative to fast-neutron breeders are thermal-neutron breeder reactors that use uranium-233 bred from <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a> as fission fuel in the <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">thorium fuel cycle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wna-thorium-159">[159]</a> Thorium is about 3.5 times more common than uranium in the Earth's crust, and has different geographic characteristics.<a href="#cite_note-wna-thorium-159">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/India%27s_three-stage_nuclear_power_programme" title="India's three-stage nuclear power programme">India's three-stage nuclear power programme</a> features the use of a thorium fuel cycle in the third stage, as it has abundant thorium reserves but little uranium.<a href="#cite_note-wna-thorium-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decommissioning">Decommissioning</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></div> Nuclear decommissioning is the process of dismantling a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_facility" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear facility">nuclear facility</a> to the point that it no longer requires measures for radiation protection,<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> returning the facility and its parts to a safe enough level to be entrusted for other uses.<a href="#cite_note-iaea_decommissioning-161">[161]</a> Due to the presence of radioactive materials, nuclear decommissioning presents technical and economic challenges.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> The costs of decommissioning are generally spread over the lifetime of a facility and saved in a decommissioning fund.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">Nuclear power by country</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear reactors">List of nuclear reactors</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share_of_electricity_production_from_nuclear.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Share_of_electricity_production_from_nuclear.png/350px-Share_of_electricity_production_from_nuclear.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Share_of_electricity_production_from_nuclear.png/525px-Share_of_electricity_production_from_nuclear.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Share_of_electricity_production_from_nuclear.png/700px-Share_of_electricity_production_from_nuclear.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Share of electricity production from nuclear, 2023<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuclear_power_station.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nuclear_power_station.svg/350px-Nuclear_power_station.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nuclear_power_station.svg/525px-Nuclear_power_station.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Nuclear_power_station.svg/700px-Nuclear_power_station.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2754" data-file-height="1398" /></a><figcaption>The status of nuclear power globally (click for legend)</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1275919659">.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:none;position:relative;width:100px;height:100px;border-radius:50%;background-color:yellowgreen;color:black}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie div{position:absolute;transform-origin:left bottom;background-color:#655;color:black;top:0;left:50%;width:50%;height:50%;border-radius:0 500%0 0}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie50{transform-origin:left center;height:100%;border-radius:0 100%100%0/50%}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie12-5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,100%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie5{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,32.49197%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie7{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,47.056428%0%,0 100%)}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie .pie1{clip-path:polygon(0%0%,6.2914667%0%,0 100%)}@supports(clip-path:circle(50%)){.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie{display:block}}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{display:flex;align-items:flex-start;gap:1em;flex-wrap:wrap}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend{list-style-type:none!important;margin:0!important;padding:0!important}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend li{display:flex;align-items:baseline;gap:.5em}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend li span{display:block;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-legend li .l-color{border:1px solid var(--color-base,black);width:.8em;height:.8em;flex-shrink:0}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-container{padding:.5em;padding-bottom:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .pie-thumb .smooth-pie-caption{margin-bottom:1em;font-size:94%}@media print{.mw-parser-output .smooth-pie-container{break-inside:avoid-page}}</style> <div class="pie-thumb thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="smooth-pie-container" style="width: min-content;flex-direction: column-reverse;"> <div class="smooth-pie-legend-container"><div class="smooth-pie-caption">2021 <a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">world electricity generation</a> by source. Total generation was 28 <a href="/wiki/Petawatt-hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Petawatt-hour">petawatt-hours</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ember-165">[165]</a></div> <ol class="smooth-pie-legend"> <li>Coal 36.0%</li> <li>Natural gas 23.0%</li> <li>Hydro 15.0%</li> <li>Nuclear 10.0%</li> <li>Wind 7.00%</li> <li>Solar 4.00%</li> <li>other 5.00%</li> </ol> </div> <div class="smooth-pie" style="width:200px; height:200px;background-color: white;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;" title="other 5.00%" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="pie25" style="background-color: #303030" title="Coal 36.0%"></div> <div class="pie25" style="background-color: #303030; transform: rotate(0.110turn)" title="Coal 36.0%"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background-color: #d0b090; transform: rotate(0.360turn)" title="Natural gas 23.0%"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background-color: #d0b090; transform: rotate(0.465turn)" title="Natural gas 23.0%"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background-color: #009080; transform: rotate(0.590turn)" title="Hydro 15.0%"></div> <div class="pie12-5" style="background-color: #009080; transform: rotate(0.615turn)" title="Hydro 15.0%"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background-color: #0fafff; transform: rotate(0.740turn)" title="Nuclear 10.0%"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background-color: #0fafff; transform: rotate(0.770turn)" title="Nuclear 10.0%"></div> <div class="pie7" style="background-color: #dc8496; transform: rotate(0.840turn)" title="Wind 7.00%"></div> <div style="transform: rotate(0.910turn); background-color: #d8d800; clip-path: polygon(0% 0%, 25.67563604% 0%, 0 100%)" title="Solar 4.00%"></div> </div> </div></div></div> Civilian nuclear power supplied 2,602 <a href="/wiki/Terawatt_hour" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatt hour">terawatt hours</a> (TWh) of electricity in 2023, equivalent to about 9% of <a href="/wiki/Global_electricity_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Global electricity generation">global electricity generation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-PerformanceReport-3">[3]</a> and was the second largest <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-carbon power">low-carbon power</a> source after <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">hydroelectricity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IEA2019-166">[166]</a> Nuclear power's contribution to global energy production was about 4% in 2023. This is a little more than wind power, which provided 3.5% of global energy in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> Nuclear power's share of global electricity production has fallen from 16.5% in 1997, in large part because the economics of nuclear power have become more difficult.<a href="#cite_note-ft-20180903-168">[168]</a> As of November 2024,<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power&action=edit">[update]</a> there are <a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear reactors">415 civilian fission reactors in the world</a>, with a combined electrical capacity of 374 <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">gigawatt</a> (GW).<a href="#cite_note-:3-4">[4]</a> There are also 66 nuclear power reactors under construction and 87 reactors planned, with a combined capacity of 72 GW and 84 GW, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-WNA-5">[5]</a> The United States has the largest fleet of nuclear reactors, generating over 800 TWh per year with an average <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a> of 92%.<a href="#cite_note-:2-169">[169]</a> Most reactors under construction are <a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">generation III reactors</a> in Asia.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Regional differences in the use of nuclear power are large. The United States produces the most nuclear energy in the world, with nuclear power providing 19% of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its electrical energy from nuclear reactors—65% in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-:0-23">[23]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>, nuclear power provides 22% of the electricity as of 2022.<a href="#cite_note-WNA-EU-171">[171]</a> Nuclear power is the single largest low-carbon electricity source in the United States,<a href="#cite_note-issues-172">[172]</a> and accounts for about half of the European Union's low-carbon electricity.<a href="#cite_note-WNA-EU-171">[171]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Nuclear energy policy</a> differs among European Union countries, and some, such as Austria, <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>, Ireland and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Italy" title="Nuclear power in Italy">Italy</a>, have no active nuclear power stations. In addition, there were approximately 140 naval vessels using <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">nuclear propulsion</a> in operation, powered by about 180 reactors.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> These include military and some civilian ships, such as <a href="/wiki/Nuclear-powered_icebreaker" title="Nuclear-powered icebreaker">nuclear-powered icebreakers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> International research is continuing into additional uses of process heat such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_production" title="Hydrogen production">hydrogen production</a> (in support of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_economy" title="Hydrogen economy">hydrogen economy</a>), for <a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">desalinating</a> sea water, and for use in <a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">district heating</a> systems.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economics">Economics</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics of nuclear power plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_in_the_nuclear_sector" title="List of companies in the nuclear sector">List of companies in the nuclear sector</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">cost of electricity by source</a></div> The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject and multi-billion-dollar investments depend on the choice of energy sources. Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant. For this reason, comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants. Fuel costs account for about 30 percent of the operating costs, while prices are subject to the market.<a href="#cite_note-cnnmoney-177">[177]</a> The high cost of construction is one of the biggest challenges for nuclear power plants. A new 1,100 MW plant is estimated to cost between US$6 billion to US$9 billion.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Nuclear power cost trends show large disparity by nation, design, build rate and the establishment of familiarity in expertise. The only two nations for which data is available that saw cost decreases in the 2000s were India and South Korea.<a href="#cite_note-Lovering2016-179">[179]</a> Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must also take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. As of 2010, all operating nuclear power plants have been developed by state-owned or <a href="/wiki/Regulated_market" title="Regulated market">regulated</a> <a href="/wiki/Electric_utility" title="Electric utility">electric utility</a> monopolies.<a href="#cite_note-ft-20100912-180">[180]</a> Many countries have since liberalized the <a href="/wiki/Electricity_market" title="Electricity market">electricity market</a> where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants.<a href="#cite_note-MIT-2003-181">[181]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Levelized_cost_of_electricity" title="Levelized cost of electricity">levelized cost of electricity</a> (LCOE) from a new nuclear power plant is estimated to be 69 USD/MWh, according to an analysis by the <a href="/wiki/International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">International Energy Agency</a> and the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_Agency" title="Nuclear Energy Agency">Nuclear Energy Agency</a>. This represents the median cost estimate for an nth-of-a-kind nuclear power plant to be completed in 2025, at a <a href="/wiki/Discounting" title="Discounting">discount rate</a> of 7%. Nuclear power was found to be the least-cost option among <a href="/wiki/Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">dispatchable technologies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IEA_LCOE_2020-182">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variable renewables</a> can generate cheaper electricity: the median cost of onshore wind power was estimated to be 50 USD/MWh, and utility-scale solar power 56 USD/MWh.<a href="#cite_note-IEA_LCOE_2020-182">[182]</a> At the assumed CO2 emission cost of 30 USD/ton, power from coal (88 USD/MWh) and gas (71 USD/MWh) is more expensive than low-carbon technologies. Electricity from long-term operation of nuclear power plants by lifetime extension was found to be the least-cost option, at 32 USD/MWh.<a href="#cite_note-IEA_LCOE_2020-182">[182]</a> Measures to <a href="/wiki/Mitigation_of_global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitigation of global warming">mitigate global warming</a>, such as a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">carbon tax</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions trading">carbon emissions trading</a>, may favor the economics of nuclear power.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> Extreme weather events, including events made more severe by climate change, are decreasing all energy source reliability including nuclear energy by a small degree, depending on location siting.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> New <a href="/wiki/Small_modular_reactors" class="mw-redirect" title="Small modular reactors">small modular reactors</a>, such as those developed by <a href="/wiki/NuScale_Power" title="NuScale Power">NuScale Power</a>, are aimed at reducing the investment costs for new construction by making the reactors smaller and modular, so that they can be built in a factory. Certain designs had considerable early positive economics, such as the <a href="/wiki/CANDU" class="mw-redirect" title="CANDU">CANDU</a>, which realized a much higher <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factor</a> and reliability when compared to generation II light water reactors up to the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Nuclear power plants, though capable of some grid-<a href="/wiki/Load_following" class="mw-redirect" title="Load following">load following</a>, are typically run as much as possible to keep the cost of the generated electrical energy as low as possible, supplying mostly <a href="/wiki/Base-load" class="mw-redirect" title="Base-load">base-load</a> electricity.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Due to the on-line refueling reactor design, <a href="/wiki/PHWR" class="mw-redirect" title="PHWR">PHWRs</a> (of which the CANDU design is a part) continue to hold many world record positions for longest continual electricity generation, often over 800 days.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> The specific record as of 2019 is held by a PHWR at <a href="/wiki/Kaiga_Atomic_Power_Station" title="Kaiga Atomic Power Station">Kaiga Atomic Power Station</a>, generating electricity continuously for 962 days.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Costs not considered in LCOE calculations include funds for research and development, and disasters (the Fukushima disaster is estimated to cost taxpayers ≈$187 billion).<a href="#cite_note-guardian-20170130-191">[191]</a> In some cases, Governments were found to force "consumers to pay upfront for potential cost overruns"<a href="#cite_note-mil1-89">[89]</a> or subsidize uneconomic nuclear energy<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> or be required to do so.<a href="#cite_note-francere-60">[60]</a> Nuclear operators are liable to pay for the waste management in the European Union.<a href="#cite_note-euwastecosts-193">[193]</a> In the U.S., the Congress reportedly decided 40 years ago that the nation, and not private companies, would be responsible for storing radioactive waste with taxpayers paying for the costs.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> The World Nuclear Waste Report 2019 found that "even in countries in which the polluter-pays-principle is a legal requirement, it is applied incompletely" and notes the case of the German <a href="/wiki/Asse_II_mine" title="Asse II mine">Asse II deep geological disposal facility</a>, where the retrieval of large amounts of waste has to be paid for by taxpayers.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> Similarly, other forms of energy, including fossil fuels and renewables, have a portion of their costs covered by governments.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_in_space">Use in space</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Msl-MMRTG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Msl-MMRTG.jpg/220px-Msl-MMRTG.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Msl-MMRTG.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="230" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator</a> (MMRTG), used in several space missions such as the <a href="/wiki/Curiosity_(rover)" title="Curiosity (rover)">Curiosity Mars rover</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_space" title="Nuclear power in space">Nuclear power in space</a></div> The most common use of nuclear power in space is the use of <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">radioisotope thermoelectric generators</a>, which use <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> to generate power. These power generators are relatively small scale (few kW), and they are mostly used to power <a href="/wiki/Space_mission" class="mw-redirect" title="Space mission">space missions</a> and experiments for long periods where solar power is not available in sufficient quantity, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a> space probe.<a href="#cite_note-WNA_space-197">[197]</a> A few space vehicles have been launched using <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>: 34 reactors belong to the Soviet <a href="/wiki/RORSAT" class="mw-redirect" title="RORSAT">RORSAT</a> series and one was the American <a href="/wiki/SNAP-10A" title="SNAP-10A">SNAP-10A</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WNA_space-197">[197]</a> Both <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission</a> and fusion appear promising for <a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">space propulsion</a> applications, generating higher mission velocities with less <a href="/wiki/Reaction_mass" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction mass">reaction mass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WNA_space-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Safety">Safety</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Nuclear safety and security</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_safety_system" title="Nuclear reactor safety system">Nuclear reactor safety system</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Energy_Production_Death_Rates_per_TWh.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Energy_Production_Death_Rates_per_TWh.png/330px-Energy_Production_Death_Rates_per_TWh.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Energy_Production_Death_Rates_per_TWh.png/495px-Energy_Production_Death_Rates_per_TWh.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Energy_Production_Death_Rates_per_TWh.png/660px-Energy_Production_Death_Rates_per_TWh.png 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2765" /></a><figcaption>Death rates per unit of electricity production for different energy sources</figcaption></figure> Nuclear power plants have three unique characteristics that affect their safety, as compared to other power plants. Firstly, intensely <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive material">radioactive materials</a> are present in a nuclear reactor. Their release to the environment could be hazardous. Secondly, the <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a>, which make up most of the intensely radioactive substances in the reactor, continue to generate a significant amount of <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">decay heat</a> even after the fission <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">chain reaction</a> has stopped. If the heat cannot be removed from the reactor, the fuel rods may overheat and release radioactive materials. Thirdly, a <a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">criticality accident</a> (a rapid increase of the reactor power) is possible in certain reactor designs if the chain reaction cannot be controlled. These three characteristics have to be taken into account when designing nuclear reactors.<a href="#cite_note-IAEAsafety-199">[199]</a> All modern reactors are designed so that an uncontrolled increase of the reactor power is prevented by natural feedback mechanisms, a concept known as negative <a href="/wiki/Void_coefficient" title="Void coefficient">void coefficient</a> of reactivity. If the temperature or the amount of steam in the reactor increases, the fission rate inherently decreases. The chain reaction can also be manually stopped by inserting <a href="/wiki/Control_rod" title="Control rod">control rods</a> into the reactor core. <a href="/wiki/Emergency_core_cooling_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency core cooling system">Emergency core cooling systems</a> (ECCS) can remove the decay heat from the reactor if normal cooling systems fail.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> If the ECCS fails, multiple physical barriers limit the release of radioactive materials to the environment even in the case of an accident. The last physical barrier is the large <a href="/wiki/Containment_building" title="Containment building">containment building</a>.<a href="#cite_note-IAEAsafety-199">[199]</a> With a death rate of 0.03 per <a href="/wiki/TWh" class="mw-redirect" title="TWh">TWh</a>, nuclear power is the second safest energy source per unit of energy generated, after solar power, in terms of mortality when the historical track-record is considered.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Energy produced by coal, petroleum, natural gas and <a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a> has caused more deaths per unit of energy generated due to <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_accidents" title="Energy accidents">energy accidents</a>. This is found when comparing the immediate deaths from other energy sources to both the immediate and the latent, or predicted, indirect cancer deaths from nuclear energy accidents.<a href="#cite_note-without_the_hot_air-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-theage2006-203">[203]</a> When the direct and indirect fatalities (including fatalities resulting from the mining and air pollution) from nuclear power and fossil fuels are compared,<a href="#cite_note-MarkandyaWilkinson2007-204">[204]</a> the use of nuclear power has been calculated to have prevented about 1.84 million deaths from air pollution between 1971 and 2009, by reducing the proportion of energy that would otherwise have been generated by fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kharecha_Pushker_A_2013_4889–4895-206">[206]</a> Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, it has been estimated that if Japan had never adopted nuclear power, accidents and pollution from coal or gas plants would have caused more lost years of life.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> Serious impacts of nuclear accidents are often not directly attributable to radiation exposure, but rather social and psychological effects. Evacuation and long-term displacement of affected populations created problems for many people, especially the elderly and hospital patients.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Forced evacuation from a nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression, psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, and suicide. A comprehensive 2005 study on the aftermath of the Chernobyl disaster concluded that the mental health impact is the largest public health problem caused by the accident.<a href="#cite_note-riv12-209">[209]</a> <a href="/wiki/Frank_N._von_Hippel" title="Frank N. von Hippel">Frank N. von Hippel</a>, an American scientist, commented that a disproportionate fear of ionizing radiation (<a href="/wiki/Radiophobia" title="Radiophobia">radiophobia</a>) could have long-term psychological effects on the population of contaminated areas following the Fukushima disaster.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_N._von_Hippel_27–36-210">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Accidents">Accidents</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe_crop.jpg/260px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe_crop.jpg/390px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe_crop.jpg/520px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="612" /></a><figcaption>Following the 2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster</a>, the world's worst <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accident">nuclear accident</a> since 1986, 50,000 households were displaced after <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a> leaked into the air, soil and sea.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> Radiation checks led to bans of some shipments of vegetables and fish.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG/260px-Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG" decoding="async" width="260" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG/390px-Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG/520px-Decay_heat_illustration2.PNG 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="583" /></a><figcaption>Reactor <a href="/wiki/Decay_heat" title="Decay heat">decay heat</a> as a fraction of full power after the reactor shutdown, using two different correlations. To remove the decay heat, reactors need cooling after the shutdown of the fission reactions. A loss of the ability to remove decay heat caused the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima accident">Fukushima accident</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Energy_accidents" title="Energy accidents">Energy accidents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></div> Some serious <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_by_death_toll" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents by death toll">nuclear and radiation accidents</a> have occurred. The severity of nuclear accidents is generally classified using the <a href="/wiki/International_Nuclear_Event_Scale" class="mw-redirect" title="International Nuclear Event Scale">International Nuclear Event Scale</a> (INES) introduced by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA). The scale ranks anomalous events or accidents on a scale from 0 (a deviation from normal operation that poses no safety risk) to 7 (a major accident with widespread effects). There have been three accidents of level 5 or higher in the civilian nuclear power industry, two of which, the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl accident">Chernobyl accident</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima accident">Fukushima accident</a>, are ranked at level 7. The first major nuclear accidents were the <a href="/wiki/Kyshtym_disaster" title="Kyshtym disaster">Kyshtym disaster</a> in the Soviet Union and the <a href="/wiki/Windscale_fire" title="Windscale fire">Windscale fire</a> in the United Kingdom, both in 1957. The first major accident at a nuclear reactor in the USA occurred in 1961 at the <a href="/wiki/SL-1" title="SL-1">SL-1</a>, a <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army">U.S. Army</a> experimental nuclear power reactor at the <a href="/wiki/Idaho_National_Laboratory" title="Idaho National Laboratory">Idaho National Laboratory</a>. An uncontrolled chain reaction resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Steam_explosion" title="Steam explosion">steam explosion</a> which killed the three crew members and caused a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">meltdown</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ido19313-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Another serious accident happened in 1968, when one of the two <a href="/wiki/Liquid-metal-cooled_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid-metal-cooled reactor">liquid-metal-cooled reactors</a> on board the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-27" title="Soviet submarine K-27">Soviet submarine K-27</a> underwent a <a href="/wiki/Fuel_element_failure" title="Fuel element failure">fuel element failure</a>, with the emission of gaseous <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a> into the surrounding air, resulting in 9 crew fatalities and 83 injuries.<a href="#cite_note-johnston2007-215">[215]</a> The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident was caused by the <a href="/wiki/2011_Tohoku_earthquake_and_tsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami">2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami</a>. The accident has not caused any radiation-related deaths but resulted in radioactive contamination of surrounding areas. The difficult <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_disaster_cleanup" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima disaster cleanup">cleanup operation</a> is expected to cost tens of billions of dollars over 40 or more years.<a href="#cite_note-Richard_Schiffman-216">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-Martin_Fackler-217">[217]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a> in 1979 was a smaller scale accident, rated at INES level 5. There were no direct or indirect deaths caused by the accident.<a href="#cite_note-timenuke-218">[218]</a> The impact of nuclear accidents is controversial. According to <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_K._Sovacool" title="Benjamin K. Sovacool">Benjamin K. Sovacool</a>, fission <a href="/wiki/Energy_accidents" title="Energy accidents">energy accidents</a> ranked first among energy sources in terms of their total economic cost, accounting for 41% of all property damage attributed to energy accidents.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Another analysis found that coal, oil, <a href="/wiki/Liquid_petroleum_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Liquid petroleum gas">liquid petroleum gas</a> and hydroelectric accidents (primarily due to the <a href="/wiki/Banqiao_Dam_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Banqiao Dam disaster">Banqiao Dam disaster</a>) have resulted in greater economic impacts than nuclear power accidents.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> The study compares latent cancer deaths attributable to nuclear power with immediate deaths from other energy sources per unit of energy generated, and does not include fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident" (an accident with more than five fatalities) classification. The Chernobyl accident in 1986 caused approximately 50 deaths from direct and indirect effects, and some temporary serious injuries from <a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute radiation syndrome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-WHO2012-221">[221]</a> The future predicted mortality from increases in cancer rates is estimated at 4000 in the decades to come.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-UNSCEAR_2008_D-223">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> However, the costs have been large and are increasing. Nuclear power works under an <a href="/wiki/Insurance" title="Insurance">insurance</a> framework that limits or structures accident liabilities in accordance with national and international conventions.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> It is often argued that this potential shortfall in liability represents an external cost not included in the cost of nuclear electricity. This cost is small, amounting to about 0.1% of the <a href="/wiki/Levelized_cost_of_electricity" title="Levelized cost of electricity">levelized cost of electricity</a>, according to a study by the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a> in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> These beyond-regular insurance costs for worst-case scenarios are not unique to nuclear power. <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric power">Hydroelectric power</a> plants are similarly not fully insured against a catastrophic event such as <a href="/wiki/Dam_failure" title="Dam failure">dam failures</a>. For example, the failure of the <a href="/wiki/Banqiao_Dam" title="Banqiao Dam">Banqiao Dam</a> caused the death of an estimated 30,000 to 200,000 people, and 11 million people lost their homes. As private insurers base dam insurance premiums on limited scenarios, major disaster insurance in this sector is likewise provided by the state.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attacks_and_sabotage">Attacks and sabotage</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_terrorism" title="Nuclear terrorism">Nuclear terrorism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear safety in the United States">Nuclear safety in the United States</a></div> Terrorists could target <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> in an attempt to release <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> into the community. The United States 9/11 Commission has said that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered for the <a href="/wiki/September_11,_2001_attacks" class="mw-redirect" title="September 11, 2001 attacks">September 11, 2001 attacks</a>. An attack on a reactor's <a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">spent fuel pool</a> could also be serious, as these pools are less protected than the reactor core. The release of radioactivity could lead to thousands of near-term deaths and greater numbers of long-term fatalities.<a href="#cite_note-fas12-228">[228]</a> In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission carries out "Force on Force" (FOF) exercises at all nuclear power plant sites at least once every three years.<a href="#cite_note-fas12-228">[228]</a> In the United States, plants are surrounded by a double row of tall fences which are electronically monitored. The plant grounds are patrolled by a sizeable force of armed guards.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Insider sabotage is also a threat because insiders can observe and work around security measures. Successful insider crimes depended on the perpetrators' observation and knowledge of security vulnerabilities.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> A fire caused 5–10 million dollars worth of damage to New York's <a href="/wiki/Indian_Point_Energy_Center" title="Indian Point Energy Center">Indian Point Energy Center</a> in 1971.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> The arsonist was a plant maintenance worker.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proliferation">Proliferation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Nuclear proliferation</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Plutonium_Management_and_Disposition_Agreement" title="Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement">Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg/260px-US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg/390px-US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg/520px-US_and_USSR_nuclear_stockpiles.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>United States and <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a>/Russian <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons">nuclear weapons</a> stockpiles, 1945–2006. The <a href="/wiki/Megatons_to_Megawatts_Program" title="Megatons to Megawatts Program">Megatons to Megawatts Program</a> was the main driving force behind the sharp reduction in the quantity of nuclear weapons worldwide since the cold war ended.<a href="#cite_note-thebulletin.org-233">[233]</a><a href="#cite_note-usec.com-234">[234]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_060420-N-9621S-004_The_guided-missile_cruiser_USS_Monterey_(CG_61)_conducts_a_fueling_at_sea_(FAS)_with_the_Nimitz-class_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_Washington_(CVN_73).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/US_Navy_060420-N-9621S-004_The_guided-missile_cruiser_USS_Monterey_%28CG_61%29_conducts_a_fueling_at_sea_%28FAS%29_with_the_Nimitz-class_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_Washington_%28CVN_73%29.jpg/260px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/US_Navy_060420-N-9621S-004_The_guided-missile_cruiser_USS_Monterey_%28CG_61%29_conducts_a_fueling_at_sea_%28FAS%29_with_the_Nimitz-class_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_Washington_%28CVN_73%29.jpg/390px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/US_Navy_060420-N-9621S-004_The_guided-missile_cruiser_USS_Monterey_%28CG_61%29_conducts_a_fueling_at_sea_%28FAS%29_with_the_Nimitz-class_aircraft_carrier_USS_George_Washington_%28CVN_73%29.jpg/520px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>The guided-missile cruiser USS Monterey (CG 61) receives fuel at sea (FAS) from the Nimitz-class aircraft carrier USS George Washington (CVN 73).</figcaption></figure> Nuclear proliferation is the spread of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, fissionable material, and weapons-related nuclear technology to states that do not already possess nuclear weapons. Many technologies and materials associated with the creation of a nuclear power program have a dual-use capability, in that they can also be used to make nuclear weapons. For this reason, nuclear power presents proliferation risks. Nuclear power program can become a route leading to a nuclear weapon. An example of this is the concern over <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Iran's nuclear program</a>.<a href="#cite_note-dfall2009-235">[235]</a> The re-purposing of civilian nuclear industries for military purposes would be a breach of the <a href="/wiki/Non-proliferation_treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-proliferation treaty">Non-Proliferation Treaty</a>, to which 190 countries adhere. As of April 2012, there are <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">thirty one countries</a> that have civil nuclear power plants,<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> of which nine have nuclear weapons. The vast majority of these <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear weapons state">nuclear weapons states</a> have produced weapons before commercial nuclear power stations. A fundamental goal for global security is to minimize the nuclear proliferation risks associated with the expansion of nuclear power.<a href="#cite_note-dfall2009-235">[235]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Global_Nuclear_Energy_Partnership" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Nuclear Energy Partnership">Global Nuclear Energy Partnership</a> was an international effort to create a distribution network in which developing countries in need of energy would receive <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> at a discounted rate, in exchange for that nation agreeing to forgo their own indigenous development of a uranium enrichment program. The France-based <a href="/wiki/Eurodif" title="Eurodif">Eurodif</a>/European Gaseous Diffusion Uranium Enrichment Consortium is a program that successfully implemented this concept, with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Spain" title="Nuclear power in Spain">Spain</a> and other countries without enrichment facilities buying a share of the fuel produced at the French-controlled enrichment facility, but without a transfer of technology.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Iran was an early participant from 1974 and remains a shareholder of Eurodif via <a href="/wiki/Sofidif" class="mw-redirect" title="Sofidif">Sofidif</a>. A 2009 United Nations report said that: <blockquote>the revival of interest in nuclear power could result in the worldwide dissemination of uranium enrichment and spent fuel reprocessing technologies, which present obvious risks of proliferation as these technologies can produce fissile materials that are directly usable in nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-bks2011-238">[238]</a></blockquote> On the other hand, power reactors can also reduce nuclear weapon arsenals when military-grade nuclear materials are reprocessed to be used as fuel in nuclear power plants. The <a href="/wiki/Megatons_to_Megawatts_Program" title="Megatons to Megawatts Program">Megatons to Megawatts Program</a> is considered the single most successful <a href="/wiki/Non-proliferation" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-proliferation">non-proliferation</a> program to date.<a href="#cite_note-thebulletin.org-233">[233]</a> Up to 2005, the program had processed $8 billion of high enriched, weapons-grade uranium into <a href="/wiki/Low_enriched_uranium" class="mw-redirect" title="Low enriched uranium">low enriched uranium</a> suitable as nuclear fuel for commercial fission reactors by diluting it with <a href="/wiki/Natural_uranium" title="Natural uranium">natural uranium</a>. This corresponds to the elimination of 10,000 nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> For approximately two decades, this material generated nearly 10 percent of all the electricity consumed in the United States, or about half of all U.S. nuclear electricity, with a total of around 7,000 <a href="/wiki/TWh" class="mw-redirect" title="TWh">TWh</a> of electricity produced.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-240">[240]</a> In total it is estimated to have cost $17 billion, a "bargain for US ratepayers", with Russia profiting $12 billion from the deal.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-240">[240]</a> Much needed profit for the Russian nuclear oversight industry, which after the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet economy">Soviet economy</a>, had difficulties paying for the maintenance and security of the Russian Federation's highly enriched uranium and warheads.<a href="#cite_note-A_Farewell_to_Arms,_2014-241">[241]</a> The Megatons to Megawatts Program was hailed as a major success by anti-nuclear weapon advocates as it has largely been the driving force behind the sharp reduction in the number of nuclear weapons worldwide since the cold war ended.<a href="#cite_note-thebulletin.org-233">[233]</a> However, without an increase in nuclear reactors and greater demand for fissile fuel, the cost of dismantling and down blending has dissuaded Russia from continuing their disarmament. As of 2013, Russia appears to not be interested in extending the program.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_impact">Environmental impact</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">Environmental impact of nuclear power</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ikata_Nuclear_Powerplant.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ikata_Nuclear_Powerplant.JPG/260px-Ikata_Nuclear_Powerplant.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ikata_Nuclear_Powerplant.JPG/390px-Ikata_Nuclear_Powerplant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Ikata_Nuclear_Powerplant.JPG/520px-Ikata_Nuclear_Powerplant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1440" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Ikata_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Ikata Nuclear Power Plant">Ikata Nuclear Power Plant</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">pressurized water reactor</a> that cools by using a secondary coolant <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchanger</a> with a large body of water, an alternative cooling approach to large <a href="/wiki/Cooling_towers" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooling towers">cooling towers</a></figcaption></figure> Being a low-carbon energy source with relatively little land-use requirements, nuclear energy can have a positive environmental impact. It also requires a constant supply of significant amounts of water and affects the environment through mining and milling.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.012-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.3390/ijerph13070700-246">[246]</a> Its largest potential negative impacts on the environment may arise from its transgenerational risks for nuclear weapons proliferation that may increase risks of their use in the future, risks for problems associated with the management of the radioactive waste such as groundwater contamination, risks for accidents and for risks for various forms of attacks on waste storage sites or reprocessing- and power-plants.<a href="#cite_note-repr-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-wi1-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-worldnuclearwastereport-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-risks-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-plane1-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.3390/ijerph13070700-246">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-dont-252">[252]</a> However, these remain mostly only risks as historically there have only been few disasters at nuclear power plants with known relatively substantial environmental impacts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_emissions">Carbon emissions</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse_gas_emissions_of_energy_sources" title="Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources">Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="#Historic_effect_on_carbon_emissions">§ Historic effect on carbon emissions</a></div> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Climate_change_mitigation" title="Category:Climate change mitigation">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Climate_and_energy" title="Climate and energy">Energy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_phase-out" title="Coal phase-out">Coal phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles" title="Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles">Fossil fuel vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_electricity" title="Low-carbon electricity">Low-carbon electricity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Building_insulation" title="Building insulation">Building insulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li> <li><a 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design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_design" title="Environmental impact design">Environmental impact design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_home" title="Green home">Green home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-performance_buildings" title="High-performance buildings">High-performance buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest_design" title="Public interest design">Public interest design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_business" title="Sustainable business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_capitalism" title="Sustainable capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verified_Carbon_Standard" title="Verified Carbon Standard">Verified Carbon Standard</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)">Frameworks and treaties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Climate change litigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_banking" title="Ethical banking">Ethical banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Sustainability accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Sustainability reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">UNFCCC</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid 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title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)">Related content</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscious_business" title="Conscious business">Conscious business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_sustainability" title="Corporate sustainability">Corporate sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_business" title="Socially responsible business">Socially responsible business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organization" title="Sustainability organization">Sustainability organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumer_behaviour" title="Sustainable consumer behaviour">Consumer behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_diet" title="Sustainable diet">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/16px-Climate_change_icon.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/24px-Climate_change_icon.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Climate_change_icon.png/32px-Climate_change_icon.png 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1056" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Climate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Climate_change_mitigation" title="Template:Climate change mitigation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Climate_change_mitigation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Climate change mitigation (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Climate_change_mitigation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Climate change mitigation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CO2_Emissions_from_Electricity_Production_IPCC.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/CO2_Emissions_from_Electricity_Production_IPCC.png/260px-CO2_Emissions_from_Electricity_Production_IPCC.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/CO2_Emissions_from_Electricity_Production_IPCC.png/390px-CO2_Emissions_from_Electricity_Production_IPCC.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/CO2_Emissions_from_Electricity_Production_IPCC.png/520px-CO2_Emissions_from_Electricity_Production_IPCC.png 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="773" /></a><figcaption>Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of electricity supply technologies, median values calculated by <a href="/wiki/IPCC" class="mw-redirect" title="IPCC">IPCC</a><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2014_Annex_III-253">[253]</a></figcaption></figure> Nuclear power is one of the leading <a href="/wiki/Low_carbon_power_generation" class="mw-redirect" title="Low carbon power generation">low carbon power generation</a> methods of producing <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, and in terms of <a href="/wiki/Life-cycle_greenhouse-gas_emissions_of_energy_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources">total life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy generated</a>, has emission values comparable to or lower than <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nrel.gov-254">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> A 2014 analysis of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> literature by the <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) reported that the embodied <a href="/wiki/Life_cycle_assessment" class="mw-redirect" title="Life cycle assessment">total life-cycle</a> <a href="/wiki/Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">emission intensity</a> of nuclear power has a median value of 12 g CO2<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide equivalent">eq</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kilowatt-hour" title="Kilowatt-hour">kWh</a>, which is the lowest among all commercial <a href="/wiki/Baseload" class="mw-redirect" title="Baseload">baseload</a> energy sources.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2014_Annex_III-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-report.mitigation2014.org-256">[256]</a> This is contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> at 820 and 490 g CO2 eq/kWh.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_2014_Annex_III-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-report.mitigation2014.org-256">[256]</a> As of 2021, nuclear reactors worldwide have helped avoid the emission of 72 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide since 1970, compared to coal-fired electricity generation, according to a report.<a href="#cite_note-Kharecha_Pushker_A_2013_4889–4895-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation">Radiation</h3></div> The average dose from natural <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> is 2.4 <a href="/wiki/Millisievert" class="mw-redirect" title="Millisievert">millisievert</a> per year (mSv/a) globally. It varies between 1 mSv/a and 13 mSv/a, depending mostly on the geology of the location. According to the United Nations (<a href="/wiki/UNSCEAR" class="mw-redirect" title="UNSCEAR">UNSCEAR</a>), regular nuclear power plant operations, including the nuclear fuel cycle, increases this amount by 0.0002 mSv/a of public exposure as a global average. The average dose from operating nuclear power plants to the local populations around them is less than 0.0001 mSv/a.<a href="#cite_note-UNSCEAR_GA-258">[258]</a> For comparison, the average dose to those living within 50 miles (80 km) of a <a href="/wiki/Coal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal power plant">coal power plant</a> is over three times this dose, at 0.0003 mSv/a.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> Chernobyl resulted in the most affected surrounding populations and male recovery personnel receiving an average initial 50 to 100 mSv over a few hours to weeks, while the remaining global legacy of the worst nuclear power plant accident in average exposure is 0.002 mSv/a and is continuously dropping at the decaying rate, from the initial high of 0.04 mSv per person averaged over the entire populace of the Northern Hemisphere in the year of the accident in 1986.<a href="#cite_note-UNSCEAR_GA-258">[258]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Debate">Debate</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power debate</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Nuclear energy policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pro-nuclear_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-nuclear movement">Pro-nuclear movement</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:3-Learning-curves-for-electricity-prices.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/3-Learning-curves-for-electricity-prices.png/440px-3-Learning-curves-for-electricity-prices.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="379" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/3-Learning-curves-for-electricity-prices.png/660px-3-Learning-curves-for-electricity-prices.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/3-Learning-curves-for-electricity-prices.png/880px-3-Learning-curves-for-electricity-prices.png 2x" data-file-width="2879" data-file-height="2478" /></a><figcaption>A comparison of prices over time for energy from nuclear fission and from other sources. Over the presented time, thousands of wind turbines and similar were built on assembly lines in mass production resulting in an economy of scale. While nuclear remains bespoke, many first of their kind facilities added in the timeframe indicated and none are in serial production. Our World in Data notes that this cost is the global average, while the 2 projects that drove nuclear pricing upwards were in the US. The organization recognises that the <a href="/wiki/Median" title="Median">median</a> cost of the most exported and produced nuclear energy facility in the 2010s the South Korean <a href="/wiki/APR1400" class="mw-redirect" title="APR1400">APR1400</a>, remained "constant", including in export.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> <a href="/wiki/Levelized_cost_of_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Levelized cost of energy">LCOE</a> is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime. As a metric, it remains controversial as the lifespan of units are not independent but manufacturer projections, not a demonstrated longevity.</figcaption></figure> The nuclear power debate concerns the controversy which has surrounded the deployment and use of nuclear fission reactors to generate electricity from nuclear fuel for civilian purposes.<a href="#cite_note-eleven-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-jstor.org-261">[261]</a><a href="#cite_note-marcuse.org-31">[31]</a> Proponents of nuclear energy regard it as a <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">sustainable energy</a> source that reduces <a href="/wiki/Carbon_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions">carbon emissions</a> and increases <a href="/wiki/Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a> by decreasing dependence on other energy sources that are also<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2018.12.024-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.anucene.2017.08.019-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1002/ente.201600444-96">[96]</a> often dependent on imports.<a href="#cite_note-bloomberg.com-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> For example, proponents note that annually, nuclear-generated electricity reduces 470 million metric tons of carbon dioxide emissions that would otherwise come from fossil fuels.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> Additionally, the amount of comparatively low waste that nuclear energy does create is safely disposed of by the large scale nuclear energy production facilities or it is repurposed/recycled for other energy uses.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> <a href="/wiki/M._King_Hubbert" title="M. King Hubbert">M. King Hubbert</a>, who popularized the concept of <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>, saw oil as a resource that would run out and considered nuclear energy its replacement.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> Proponents also claim that the present quantity of nuclear waste is small and can be reduced through the latest technology of newer reactors and that the operational safety record of fission-electricity in terms of deaths is so far "unparalleled".<a href="#cite_note-Bernard_L._Cohen_1990-19">[19]</a> Kharecha and <a href="/wiki/James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">Hansen</a> estimated that "global nuclear power has prevented an average of 1.84 million air pollution-related deaths and 64 gigatonnes of CO2-equivalent (GtCO2-eq) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that would have resulted from fossil fuel burning" and, if continued, it could prevent up to 7 million deaths and 240 GtCO2-eq emissions by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-Kharecha_Pushker_A_2013_4889–4895-206">[206]</a> Proponents also bring to attention the opportunity cost of using other forms of electricity. For example, the Environmental Protection Agency estimates that coal kills 30,000 people a year,<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> as a result of its environmental impact, while 60 people died in the Chernobyl disaster.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> A real world example of impact provided by proponents is the 650,000 ton increase in carbon emissions in the two months following the closure of the Vermont Yankee nuclear plant.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> Opponents believe that nuclear power poses many threats to people's health and environment<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sturgis-272">[272]</a> such as the risk of nuclear weapons proliferation, long-term safe waste management and terrorism in the future.<a href="#cite_note-gierec-273">[273]</a><a href="#cite_note-protest-274">[274]</a> They also contend that nuclear power plants are complex systems where many things can and have gone wrong.<a href="#cite_note-bksenpol-275">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> Costs of the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a> amount to ≈$68 billion as of 2019 and are increasing,<a href="#cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-39">[39]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima disaster</a> is estimated to cost taxpayers ~$187 billion,<a href="#cite_note-guardian-20170130-191">[191]</a> and radioactive waste management is estimated to cost the Eureopean Union nuclear operators ~$250 billion by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-euwastecosts-193">[193]</a> However, in countries that already use nuclear energy, when not considering reprocessing, intermediate nuclear waste disposal costs could be relatively fixed to certain but unknown degrees<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> "as the main part of these costs stems from the operation of the intermediate storage facility".<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Critics find that one of the largest drawbacks to building new nuclear fission power plants are the large construction and operating costs when compared to alternatives of sustainable energy sources.<a href="#cite_note-cnnchina-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.015-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.012-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1177/2399654418777765-280">[280]</a> Further costs include ongoing research and development, expensive <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessing</a> in cases where such is practiced<a href="#cite_note-repr-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-future1-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-pluto-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-detect-81">[81]</a> and decommissioning.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.rser.2021.110836-283">[283]</a> Proponents note that focussing on the <a href="/wiki/Levelized_cost_of_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Levelized cost of energy">levelized cost of energy</a> (LCOE), however, ignores the value premium associated with 24/7 dispatchable electricity and the cost of storage and backup systems necessary to integrate variable energy sources into a reliable electrical grid.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> "Nuclear thus remains the dispatchable low-carbon technology with the lowest expected costs in 2025. Only large hydro reservoirs can provide a similar contribution at comparable costs but remain highly dependent on the natural endowments of individual countries."<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gr%C3%BCne_protests_against_nuclear_energy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Gr%C3%BCne_protests_against_nuclear_energy.jpg/220px-Gr%C3%BCne_protests_against_nuclear_energy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Gr%C3%BCne_protests_against_nuclear_energy.jpg/330px-Gr%C3%BCne_protests_against_nuclear_energy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Gr%C3%BCne_protests_against_nuclear_energy.jpg/440px-Gr%C3%BCne_protests_against_nuclear_energy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Anti-nuclear protest near <a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">nuclear waste disposal centre</a> at <a href="/wiki/Gorleben" title="Gorleben">Gorleben</a> in northern Germany</figcaption></figure> Overall, many opponents find that nuclear energy cannot meaningfully contribute to climate change mitigation. In general, they find it to be, too dangerous, too expensive, to take too long for deployment, to be an obstacle to achieving a transition towards sustainability and carbon-neutrality,<a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a><a href="#cite_note-slowexpensive-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> effectively being a distracting<a href="#cite_note-gates2-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-cd1-290">[290]</a> competition for resources (i.e. human, financial, time, infrastructure and expertise) for the deployment and development of alternative, sustainable, <a href="/wiki/Energy_system" title="Energy system">energy system</a> technologies<a href="#cite_note-mil1-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-cd1-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> (such as for wind, ocean and solar<a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a> – including e.g. <a href="/wiki/Floating_solar" title="Floating solar">floating solar</a> – as well as ways to manage <a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">their intermittency</a> other than nuclear baseload<a href="#cite_note-MIT2018-292">[292]</a> generation such as <a href="/wiki/Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">dispatchable generation</a>, renewables-diversification,<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.esr.2019.01.007-294">[294]</a> <a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">super grids</a>, flexible energy demand and supply regulating <a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">smart grids</a> and energy storage<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-natgeo-299">[299]</a> technologies).<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2016.04.013-300">[300]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-dont-252">[252]</a> Nevertheless, there is ongoing research and debate over costs of new nuclear, especially in regions where i.a. seasonal energy storage is difficult to provide and which aim to <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">phase out fossil fuels</a> in favor of <a href="/wiki/Low_carbon_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Low carbon power">low carbon power</a> faster than the global average.<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> Some find that financial transition costs for a 100% renewables-based European energy system that has completely phased out nuclear energy could be more costly by 2050 based on current technologies (i.e. not considering potential advances in e.g. <a href="/wiki/Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">green hydrogen</a>, transmission and flexibility capacities, ways to reduce energy needs, geothermal energy and fusion energy) when the grid only extends across Europe.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> Arguments of economics and safety are used by both sides of the debate. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison_with_renewable_energy">Comparison with renewable energy</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_debate" title="Renewable energy debate">Renewable energy debate</a></div> Slowing <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> requires a transition to a <a href="/wiki/Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">low-carbon economy</a>, mainly by burning far less <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a>. Limiting global warming to 1.5 °C is technically possible if no new fossil fuel power plants are built from 2019.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> This has generated considerable interest and dispute in determining the best path forward to rapidly replace fossil-based fuels in the <a href="/wiki/Global_energy_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Global energy consumption">global energy mix</a>,<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> with intense academic debate.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-GTM-NewFront-314">[314]</a> Sometimes the IEA says that countries without nuclear should develop it as well as their renewable power.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> <div class="PieChartTemplate thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px"> <div class="mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white;margin:auto;position:relative;width:200px;height:200px;overflow:hidden;border-radius:100px;border:1px solid black;transform:scaleX(-1)rotate(-90deg)"> <div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:0; top:0; border-width:0 200px 200px 0; border-color:#00CC4B; z-index:-1"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 880.42099845207px; border-left-color:#005CE6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#005CE6"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#005CE6"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 361.07774271147px; border-left-color:#de2821"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#de2821"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#de2821"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 153.28270598844px; border-left-color:#ABFF57"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#ABFF57"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#ABFF57"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;left:100px; top:100px; border-width:100px 0 0 41.789897502735px; border-left-color:#ef8e39"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#ef8e39"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 200px 0;border-color:#ef8e39"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:100px; border-width:54.112125212688px 84.094458229817px 0 0; border-top-color:#313c42"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;left:0;top:0;border-width:0 200px 100px 0;border-color:#313c42"></div><div style="border:solid transparent;background-color:initial;position:absolute;width:100px;line-height:0;right:100px; top:0; border-width:0 47.056428121225px 100px 0; border-right-color:#7C6250"></div> <div style="position:absolute;line-height:0;border-style:solid;right:0;top:0;border-width:0 100px 100px 0;border-color:#7C6250"></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"> World total primary energy supply of 162,494 <a href="/wiki/Kilowatt_hour#Watt-hour_multiples" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilowatt hour">TWh</a> (or 13,792 <a href="/wiki/Tonne_of_oil_equivalent" title="Tonne of oil equivalent">Mtoe</a>) by fuels in 2017 (IEA, 2019)<a href="#cite_note-IEA-Report-keyworld-2019-316">[316]</a>: 6, 8  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Oil (32%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Coal/Peat/Shale (27.1%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Natural Gas (22.2%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Biofuels and waste (9.5%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Nuclear (4.9%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Hydro (2.5%)</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Others (<a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewables</a>) (1.8%)</div> </div> </div></div> Several studies suggest that it might be theoretically possible to cover a majority of world energy generation with new renewable sources. The <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) has said that if governments were supportive, renewable energy supply could account for close to 80% of the world's energy use by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-ipccccc-317">[317]</a> While in developed nations the economically feasible geography for new hydropower is lacking, with every geographically suitable area largely already exploited,<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> some proponents of wind and solar energy claim these resources alone could eliminate the need for nuclear power.<a href="#cite_note-GTM-NewFront-314">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> Nuclear power is comparable to, and in some cases lower, than many renewable energy sources in terms of lives lost in the past per unit of electricity delivered.<a href="#cite_note-MarkandyaWilkinson2007-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-without_the_hot_air-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-Starfelt-320">[320]</a> Depending on recycling of renewable energy technologies, nuclear reactors may produce a much smaller volume of waste, although much more toxic, expensive to manage and longer-lived.<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a><a href="#cite_note-worldnuclearwastereport-248">[248]</a> A nuclear plant also needs to be disassembled and removed and much of the disassembled nuclear plant needs to be stored as low-level nuclear waste for a few decades.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> The disposal and management of the wide variety<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> of radioactive waste, of which there are over one quarter of a million tons as of 2018, can cause future damage and costs across the world <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Fuel_composition_and_long_term_radioactivity" title="Radioactive waste">for over or during hundreds of thousands of years</a><a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a><a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> – possibly over a million years,<a href="#cite_note-spektr-327">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a><a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a><a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> due to issues such as leakage,<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a> malign retrieval, vulnerability to attacks (including of reprocessing<a href="#cite_note-civlib-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-repr-77">[77]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_of_nuclear_plants_to_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack">power plants</a>), groundwater contamination, radiation and leakage to above ground, brine leakage or bacterial corrosion.<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-spektr-327">[327]</a><a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a><a href="#cite_note-statusreport-334">[334]</a> The European Commission Joint Research Centre found that as of 2021 the necessary technologies for geological disposal of nuclear waste are now available and can be deployed.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> Corrosion experts noted in 2020 that putting the problem of storage off any longer "isn't good for anyone".<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a> Separated <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> could be used for <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a>, which – even with the current centralized control (e.g. state-level) and level of prevalence – are considered to be a difficult and <a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk#Warfare_and_mass_destruction" title="Global catastrophic risk">substantial global risk</a> for substantial future impacts on human health, lives, civilization and the environment.<a href="#cite_note-repr-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-wi1-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-worldnuclearwastereport-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-risks-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-plane1-250">[250]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Speed_of_transition_and_investment_needed">Speed of transition and investment needed</h4></div> Analysis in 2015 by professor <a href="/wiki/Barry_Brook_(scientist)" title="Barry Brook (scientist)">Barry W. Brook</a> and colleagues found that nuclear energy could displace or remove fossil fuels from the electric grid completely within 10 years. This finding was based on the historically modest and proven rate at which nuclear energy was added in France and Sweden during their building programs in the 1980s.<a href="#cite_note-journals.plos.org-337">[337]</a><a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> In a similar analysis, Brook had earlier determined that 50% of all <a href="/wiki/World_energy_consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="World energy consumption">global energy</a>, including transportation <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic fuels">synthetic fuels</a> etc., could be generated within approximately 30 years if the global nuclear fission build rate was identical to historical proven installation rates calculated in <a href="/wiki/Gigawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigawatt">GW</a> per year per unit of global <a href="/wiki/GDP" class="mw-redirect" title="GDP">GDP</a> (GW/year/$).<a href="#cite_note-brook_could_2012-339">[339]</a> This is in contrast to the conceptual studies for <a href="/wiki/100%25_renewable_energy" title="100% renewable energy">100% renewable energy</a> systems, which would require an order of magnitude more costly global investment per year, which has no historical precedent.<a href="#cite_note-loftus_critical_2015-340">[340]</a> These renewable scenarios would also need far greater land devoted to onshore wind and onshore solar projects.<a href="#cite_note-brook_could_2012-339">[339]</a><a href="#cite_note-loftus_critical_2015-340">[340]</a> Brook notes that the "principal limitations on nuclear fission are not technical, economic or fuel-related, but are instead linked to complex issues of societal acceptance, fiscal and political inertia, and inadequate critical evaluation of the real-world constraints facing [the other] low-carbon alternatives."<a href="#cite_note-brook_could_2012-339">[339]</a> Scientific data indicates that – assuming 2021 emissions levels – humanity only has a <a href="/wiki/Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">carbon budget</a> equivalent to 11 years of emissions left for limiting warming to 1.5 °C<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> while the construction of new nuclear reactors took a median of 7.2–10.9 years in 2018–2020,<a href="#cite_note-statusreport-334">[334]</a> substantially longer than, alongside other measures, scaling up the deployment of wind and solar – especially for novel reactor types – as well as being more risky, often delayed and more dependent on state-support.<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a><a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-slowexpensive-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-gates2-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-worldnuclearreport-345">[345]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2016.04.013-300">[300]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] Researchers have cautioned that novel nuclear technologies – which have been in development since decades,<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.015-279">[279]</a> are less tested, have higher <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste#Proliferation_concerns" title="Radioactive waste">proliferation risks</a>, have more new safety problems, are often far from commercialization and are more expensive<a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.015-279">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.5281/zenodo.5573718-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.012-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-adva1-347">[347]</a> – are not available in time.<a href="#cite_note-sol1-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-mil1-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a><a href="#cite_note-gates2-289">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1080/00963402.2021.1941600-349">[349]</a><a href="#cite_note-natgeo-299">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] Critics of nuclear energy often only oppose nuclear fission energy but not nuclear fusion; however, fusion energy is unlikely to be commercially widespread before 2050.<a href="#cite_note-ITERorg-351">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusion2-352">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusiongua-353">[353]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusion3-354">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusion4-355">[355]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Land_use">Land use</h4></div> The median land area used by US nuclear power stations per 1 GW installed capacity is 1.3 <a href="/wiki/Square_mile" title="Square mile">square miles</a> (3.4 <a href="/wiki/Square_kilometre" title="Square kilometre">km2</a>).<a href="#cite_note-NEI_news_2015-356">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-Energy_gov_Fast_Facts-357">[357]</a> To generate the same amount of electricity annually (taking into account <a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">capacity factors</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Solar_PV" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar PV">solar PV</a> would require about 60 square miles (160 km2), and from a wind farm about 310 square miles (800 km2).<a href="#cite_note-NEI_news_2015-356">[356]</a><a href="#cite_note-Energy_gov_Fast_Facts-357">[357]</a> Not included in this, is land required for the associated transmission lines, water supply, rail lines, mining and processing of nuclear fuel, and for waste disposal.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advanced_fission_reactor_designs">Advanced fission reactor designs</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV reactor</a></div> Current fission reactors in operation around the world are <a href="/wiki/Generation_II_reactor" title="Generation II reactor">second</a> or <a href="/wiki/Generation_III_reactor" title="Generation III reactor">third generation</a> systems, with most of the first-generation systems having been already retired. Research into advanced <a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">generation IV reactor</a> types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals, including to improve economics, safety, proliferation resistance, natural resource use and the ability to consume existing nuclear waste in the production of electricity. Most of these reactors differ significantly from current operating light water reactors, and are expected to be available for commercial construction after 2030.<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrid_fusion-fission">Hybrid fusion-fission</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion%E2%80%93fission_hybrid" title="Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid">Nuclear fusion–fission hybrid</a></div> Hybrid nuclear power is a proposed means of generating power by the use of a combination of nuclear fusion and fission processes. The concept dates to the 1950s and was briefly advocated by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Hans Bethe</a> during the 1970s, but largely remained unexplored until a revival of interest in 2009, due to delays in the realization of pure fusion. When a sustained nuclear fusion power plant is built, it has the potential to be capable of extracting all the fission energy that remains in spent fission fuel, reducing the volume of nuclear waste by orders of magnitude, and more importantly, eliminating all actinides present in the spent fuel, substances which cause security concerns.<a href="#cite_note-hybrid-360">[360]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fusion">Fusion</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_(9786811206).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg/260px-U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg/390px-U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg/520px-U.S._Department_of_Energy_-_Science_-_425_003_001_%289786811206%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2040" data-file-height="2040" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of the <a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a> <a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">tokamak</a> under construction in France</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion power</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Nuclear fusion</a> reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission.<a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a><a href="#cite_note-WorldEnergyCouncil-362">[362]</a> These reactions appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a> research is underway but fusion energy is not likely to be commercially widespread before 2050.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a><a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> Several experimental nuclear fusion reactors and facilities exist. The largest and most ambitious international nuclear fusion project currently in progress is <a href="/wiki/ITER" title="ITER">ITER</a>, a large <a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">tokamak</a> under construction in France. ITER is planned to pave the way for commercial fusion power by demonstrating self-sustained nuclear fusion reactions with positive energy gain. Construction of the ITER facility began in 2007, but the project has run into many delays and budget overruns. The facility is now not expected to begin operations until the year 2027 – 11 years after initially anticipated.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a> A follow on commercial nuclear fusion power station, <a href="/wiki/DEMOnstration_Power_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="DEMOnstration Power Station">DEMO</a>, has been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-ITERorg-351">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-EFDA_Activities-367">[367]</a> There are also suggestions for a power plant based upon a different fusion approach, that of an <a href="/wiki/Inertial_fusion_power_plant" title="Inertial fusion power plant">inertial fusion power plant</a>. Fusion-powered electricity generation was initially believed to be readily achievable, as fission-electric power had been. However, the extreme requirements for continuous reactions and <a href="/wiki/Plasma_containment" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma containment">plasma containment</a> led to projections being extended by several decades. In 2020, more than 80 years after <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_nuclear_fusion#1930s" title="Timeline of nuclear fusion">the first attempts</a>, commercialization of fusion power production was thought to be unlikely before 2050.<a href="#cite_note-ITERorg-351">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusion2-352">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusiongua-353">[353]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusion3-354">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-fusion4-355">[355]</a> To enhance and accelerate the development of fusion energy, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> (DOE) granted $46 million to eight firms, including <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Fusion_Systems" title="Commonwealth Fusion Systems">Commonwealth Fusion Systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tokamak_Energy" title="Tokamak Energy">Tokamak Energy</a> Inc, in 2023. This ambitious initiative aims to introduce pilot-scale fusion within a decade.<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_battery" title="Atomic battery">Atomic battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">Nuclear power by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-nuclear_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro-nuclear movement">Pro-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power" title="Thorium-based nuclear power">Thorium-based nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://science.nasa.gov/planetary-science/programs/radioisotope-power-systems/power-radioisotope-thermoelectric-generators/">"Power: Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators - NASA Science"</a>. science.nasa.gov. 8 February 2024. 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Social Alternatives. 26 (2): 43–47. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190510124855/https://www.bmartin.cc/pubs/07sa.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-05-10. Retrieved 2011-03-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Social+Alternatives&rft.atitle=Opposing+nuclear+power%3A+past+and+present&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E43-%3C%2Fspan%3E47&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Brian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bmartin.cc%2Fpubs%2F07sa.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pub-27"><a href="#cite_ref-pub_27-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillsWilliams1986" class="citation book cs1">Mills, Stephen; Williams, Roger (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SeMNAAAAQAAJ&q=%22public+acceptance+of+new+technologies%22">Public acceptance of new technologies: an international review</a>. London: Croom Helm. pp. 375–376. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-4319-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7099-4319-8"><bdi>978-0-7099-4319-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+acceptance+of+new+technologies%3A+an+international+review&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E375-%3C%2Fspan%3E376&rft.pub=Croom+Helm&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-7099-4319-8&rft.aulast=Mills&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Williams%2C+Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSeMNAAAAQAAJ%26q%3D%2522public%2Bacceptance%2Bof%2Bnew%2Btechnologies%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-got-28"><a href="#cite_ref-got_28-0">^</a> Robert Gottlieb (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lR0n6oqMNPkC&dq=transofrmation+of+the+american+environmental+gottlieb+revised&pg=PP1">Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement</a>, Revised Edition, Island Press, p. 237. </li> <li id="cite_note-jimfalk-29"><a href="#cite_ref-jimfalk_29-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalk1982" class="citation book cs1">Falk, Jim (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalfissionbat00falk">Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power</a>. Melbourne, Australia: Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/globalfissionbat00falk/page/95">95–96</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-554315-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-554315-5"><bdi>978-0-19-554315-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Fission%3A+The+Battle+Over+Nuclear+Power&rft.place=Melbourne%2C+Australia&rft.pages=95-96&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-19-554315-5&rft.aulast=Falk&rft.aufirst=Jim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fglobalfissionbat00falk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eleven-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eleven_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eleven_30-1">b</a> Walker, J. Samuel (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tf0AfoynG-EC&q=Three+Mile+Island:+A+Nuclear+Crisis+in+Historical+Perspective">Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230323071157/https://books.google.com/books?id=tf0AfoynG-EC&q=Three+Mile+Island:+A+Nuclear+Crisis+in+Historical+Perspective">Archived</a> 2023-03-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (Berkeley, California: University of California Press), pp. 10–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-marcuse.org-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-marcuse.org_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-marcuse.org_31-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerbert_P._Kitschelt1986" class="citation journal cs1">Herbert P. Kitschelt (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marcuse.org/harold/hmimages/seabrook/861KitscheltAntiNuclear4Democracies.pdf">"Political Opportunity and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies"</a> (PDF). British Journal of Political Science. 16 (1): 57. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs000712340000380x">10.1017/s000712340000380x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154479502">154479502</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100821195323/http://www.marcuse.org/harold/hmimages/seabrook/861KitscheltAntiNuclear4Democracies.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2010-08-21. Retrieved 2010-02-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Political+Opportunity+and+Political+Protest%3A+Anti-Nuclear+Movements+in+Four+Democracies&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=57&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs000712340000380x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154479502%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Herbert+P.+Kitschelt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marcuse.org%2Fharold%2Fhmimages%2Fseabrook%2F861KitscheltAntiNuclear4Democracies.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-kits-32"><a href="#cite_ref-kits_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKitschelt1986" class="citation journal cs1">Kitschelt, Herbert P. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marcuse.org/harold/hmimages/seabrook/861KitscheltAntiNuclear4Democracies.pdf">"Political Opportunity and Political Protest: Anti-Nuclear Movements in Four Democracies"</a> (PDF). British Journal of Political Science. 16 (1): 71. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs000712340000380x">10.1017/s000712340000380x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154479502">154479502</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100821195323/http://www.marcuse.org/harold/hmimages/seabrook/861KitscheltAntiNuclear4Democracies.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2010-08-21. Retrieved 2010-02-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Political+Science&rft.atitle=Political+Opportunity+and+Political+Protest%3A+Anti-Nuclear+Movements+in+Four+Democracies&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=71&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs000712340000380x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154479502%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kitschelt&rft.aufirst=Herbert+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.marcuse.org%2Fharold%2Fhmimages%2Fseabrook%2F861KitscheltAntiNuclear4Democracies.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-phyast.pitt.edu-33"><a href="#cite_ref-phyast.pitt.edu_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~blc/book/chapter9.html">"Costs of Nuclear Power Plants – What Went Wrong?"</a>. www.phyast.pitt.edu. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100413204335/http://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~blc/book/chapter9.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-04-13. Retrieved 2007-12-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.phyast.pitt.edu&rft.atitle=Costs+of+Nuclear+Power+Plants+%E2%80%93+What+Went+Wrong%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phyast.pitt.edu%2F~blc%2Fbook%2Fchapter9.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGinnRaia2017" class="citation news cs1">Ginn, Vance; Raia, Elliott (August 18, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/nuclear-energy-may-soon-be-free-from-its-tangled-regulatory-web">"nuclear energy may soon be free from its tangled regulatory web"</a>. Washington Examiner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190106204903/https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/nuclear-energy-may-soon-be-free-from-its-tangled-regulatory-web">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2019. Retrieved January 6, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Examiner&rft.atitle=nuclear+energy+may+soon+be+free+from+its+tangled+regulatory+web&rft.date=2017-08-18&rft.aulast=Ginn&rft.aufirst=Vance&rft.au=Raia%2C+Elliott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonexaminer.com%2Fnuclear-energy-may-soon-be-free-from-its-tangled-regulatory-web&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33442.pdf">"Nuclear Power: Outlook for New U.S. Reactors"</a> (PDF). p. 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924134344/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33442.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-10-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Nuclear+Power%3A+Outlook+for+New+U.S.+Reactors&rft.pages=3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FRL33442.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-36"><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook1985" class="citation journal cs1">Cook, James (1985-02-11). "Nuclear Follies". Forbes Magazine.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forbes+Magazine&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Follies&rft.date=1985-02-11&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorpe2015" class="citation book cs1">Thorpe, Gary S. (2015). AP Environmental Science, 6th ed. Barrons Educational Series. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4380-6728-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4380-6728-5"><bdi>978-1-4380-6728-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=AP+Environmental+Science%2C+6th+ed.&rft.pub=Barrons+Educational+Series&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4380-6728-5&rft.aulast=Thorpe&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4380-6728-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4380-6728-3">1-4380-6728-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/focus/chernobyl">"Chernobyl Nuclear Accident"</a>. www.iaea.org. IAEA. 14 May 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611102751/http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/Chernobyl/">Archived</a> from the original on 11 June 2008. Retrieved 23 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.iaea.org&rft.atitle=Chernobyl+Nuclear+Accident&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.org%2Fnewscenter%2Ffocus%2Fchernobyl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OECD02-Ch2-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OECD02-Ch2_39-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf">"Chernobyl: Assessment of Radiological and Health Impact, 2002 update; Chapter II – The release, dispersion and deposition of radionuclides"</a> (PDF). OECD-NEA. 2002. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150622010856/https://www.oecd-nea.org/rp/reports/2003/nea3508-chernobyl.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2015. Retrieved 3 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chernobyl%3A+Assessment+of+Radiological+and+Health+Impact%2C+2002+update%3B+Chapter+II+%E2%80%93+The+release%2C+dispersion+and+deposition+of+radionuclides&rft.pub=OECD-NEA&rft.date=2002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oecd-nea.org%2Frp%2Freports%2F2003%2Fnea3508-chernobyl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GorbachevBoC-40"><a href="#cite_ref-GorbachevBoC_40-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Johnson, Thomas (author/director) (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.andanafilms.com/catalogueFiche.php?idFiche=255&rub=Toutes%20les%20fiches%20films">The battle of Chernobyl</a>. Play Film / Discovery Channel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210307205137/https://www.andanafilms.com/catalogueFiche.php?idFiche=255&rub=Toutes%20les%20fiches%20films">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-03-07. Retrieved 2021-03-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+battle+of+Chernobyl&rft.pub=Play+Film+%2F+Discovery+Channel&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.andanafilms.com%2FcatalogueFiche.php%3FidFiche%3D255%26rub%3DToutes%2520les%2520fiches%2520films&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> (see 1996 interview with Mikhail Gorbachev.) </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassoon2014" class="citation book cs1">Sassoon, Donald (2014-06-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W8K3AwAAQBAJ&dq=Italy+voted+against+nuclear+power+in+a+1987+referendum&pg=PT179">Contemporary Italy: Politics, Economy and Society Since 1945</a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89377-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-89377-6"><bdi>978-1-317-89377-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Italy%3A+Politics%2C+Economy+and+Society+Since+1945&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-06-03&rft.isbn=978-1-317-89377-6&rft.aulast=Sassoon&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW8K3AwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DItaly%2Bvoted%2Bagainst%2Bnuclear%2Bpower%2Bin%2Ba%2B1987%2Breferendum%26pg%3DPT179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_42-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-quake-nuclear-analysis-idUSTRE72C41W20110314">"Analysis: Nuclear renaissance could fizzle after Japan quake"</a>. Reuters. 2011-03-14. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151208211554/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-japan-quake-nuclear-analysis-idUSTRE72C41W20110314">Archived</a> from the original on 2015-12-08. Retrieved 2011-03-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Analysis%3A+Nuclear+renaissance+could+fizzle+after+Japan+quake&rft.date=2011-03-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-japan-quake-nuclear-analysis-idUSTRE72C41W20110314&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pris-supplied-43"><a href="#cite_ref-pris-supplied_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/WorldTrendinElectricalProduction.aspx">"Trend in Electricity Supplied"</a>. International Atomic Energy Agency. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210111090143/https://pris.iaea.org/PRIS/WorldStatistics/WorldTrendinElectricalProduction.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-11. Retrieved 2021-01-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Trend+in+Electricity+Supplied&rft.pub=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpris.iaea.org%2FPRIS%2FWorldStatistics%2FWorldTrendinElectricalProduction.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-carbonbrief_2016-44"><a href="#cite_ref-carbonbrief_2016_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-the-legacy-of-the-fukushima-nuclear-disaster">"Analysis: The legacy of the Fukushima nuclear disaster"</a>. Carbon Brief. 10 March 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210308035109/https://www.carbonbrief.org/analysis-the-legacy-of-the-fukushima-nuclear-disaster">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2021. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter4.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2007-12-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Energy+Supply&rft.pages=271&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Fpdf%2Fassessment-report%2Far4%2Fwg3%2Far4-wg3-chapter4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> and table 4.10. </li> <li id="cite_note-wna-wmitnfc-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wna-wmitnfc_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wna-wmitnfc_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-wna-wmitnfc_75-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100611201409/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf04.html">"Waste Management in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle"</a>. Information and Issue Briefs. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg3/ar4-wg3-chapter4.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2007-12-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Energy+Supply&rft.pages=271&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ipcc.ch%2Fpdf%2Fassessment-report%2Far4%2Fwg3%2Far4-wg3-chapter4.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> and figure 4.10. </li> <li id="cite_note-repr-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-repr_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-repr_77-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-repr_77-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-repr_77-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-repr_77-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/nuclear-reprocessing-dangerous-dirty-and-expensive">"Nuclear Reprocessing: Dangerous, Dirty, and Expensive"</a>. 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Faculty of Law, Humanities and the Arts – Papers (Archive): 1–6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211125145241/https://ro.uow.edu.au/lhapapers/2126/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2021. 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Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 44 (1): 17–35. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016AREPS..44...17K">2016AREPS..44...17K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-earth-060115-012526">10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012526</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1721.1%2F105171">1721.1/105171</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0084-6597">0084-6597</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211125145230/https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev-earth-060115-012526">Archived</a> from the original on 25 November 2021. Retrieved 26 November 2021. <q>Although commercial reprocessing involves large, expensive facilities, some of which are identifiable in structure, a small, makeshift operation using standard industrial supplies is feasible (Ferguson 1977, US GAO 1978). Such a plant could be constructed to have no visual signatures that would reveal its location by overhead imaging, could be built in several months, and once operational could produce weapon quantities of fissile material in several days</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Earth+and+Planetary+Sciences&rft.atitle=Environmental+Detection+of+Clandestine+Nuclear+Weapon+Programs&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E35&rft.date=2016-06-29&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1721.1%2F105171&rft.issn=0084-6597&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-earth-060115-012526&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016AREPS..44...17K&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=R.+Scott&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.annualreviews.org%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-earth-060115-012526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonnetGabrielPercebois2017" class="citation journal cs1">Monnet, Antoine; Gabriel, Sophie; Percebois, Jacques (1 September 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01530739/file/2016_MONNET_diff.pdf">"Long-term availability of global uranium resources"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 1 December 2021. <q>However, it can be seen that the simulation in scenario A3 stops in 2075 due to a shortage: the R/P ratio cancels itself out. The detailed calculations also show that even though it does not cancel itself out in scenario C2, the R/P ratio constantly deteriorates, falling from 130 years in 2013 to 10 years around 2100, which raises concerns of a shortage around that time. 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The American Physical Society. January 2006. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080516010935/http://www.aps.org/units/fps/newsletters/2006/january/article1.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-06-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Status+of+Nuclear+Waste+Disposal&rft.pub=The+American+Physical+Society&rft.date=2006-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aps.org%2Funits%2Ffps%2Fnewsletters%2F2006%2Fjanuary%2Farticle1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/radiation/docs/yucca/70fr49013.pdf">"Public Health and Environmental Radiation Protection Standards for Yucca Mountain, Nevada; Proposed Rule"</a> (PDF). 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Retrieved 2008-06-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Public+Health+and+Environmental+Radiation+Protection+Standards+for+Yucca+Mountain%2C+Nevada%3B+Proposed+Rule&rft.pub=United+States+Environmental+Protection+Agency&rft.date=2005-08-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fradiation%2Fdocs%2Fyucca%2F70fr49013.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32163.pdf">"CRS Report for Congress. Radioactive Waste Streams: Waste Classification for Disposal"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829231541/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL32163.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-29. Retrieved 2018-12-22. <q>The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 (NWPA) defined irradiated fuel as spent nuclear fuel, and the byproducts as high-level waste.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CRS+Report+for+Congress.+Radioactive+Waste+Streams%3A+Waste+Classification+for+Disposal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffas.org%2Fsgp%2Fcrs%2Fmisc%2FRL32163.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Vandenbosch 2007, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2012" class="citation news cs1">Clark, Duncan (2012-07-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/jul/09/nuclear-waste-burning-reactor">"Nuclear waste-burning reactor moves a step closer to reality"</a>. 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Monbiot.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130601052759/http://www.monbiot.com/2011/12/05/a-waste-of-waste/">Archived</a> from the original on 2013-06-01. Retrieved 2013-06-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Waste+of+Waste&rft.pub=Monbiot.com&rft.date=2011-12-05&rft.aulast=Monbiot&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.monbiot.com%2F2011%2F12%2F05%2Fa-waste-of-waste%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AZR0UKxNPh8">"Energy From Thorium: A Nuclear Waste Burning Liquid Salt Thorium Reactor"</a>. 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Energy Policy. 91: 371–382. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016EnPol..91..371L">2016EnPol..91..371L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2016.01.011">10.1016/j.enpol.2016.01.011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy+Policy&rft.atitle=Historical+construction+costs+of+global+nuclear+power+reactors&rft.volume=91&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E371-%3C%2Fspan%3E382&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.enpol.2016.01.011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016EnPol..91..371L&rft.aulast=Lovering&rft.aufirst=Jessica+R.&rft.au=Yip%2C+Arthur&rft.au=Nordhaus%2C+Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.enpol.2016.01.011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ft-20100912-180"><a href="#cite_ref-ft-20100912_180-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrooks2010" class="citation news cs1">Crooks, Ed (2010-09-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ad15fcfe-bc71-11df-a42b-00144feab49a.html">"Nuclear: New dawn now seems limited to the east"</a>. 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Abundant hydropower allows for a low-cost renewable power system without nuclear.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Energy&rft.atitle=The+cost+of+a+future+low-carbon+electricity+system+without+nuclear+power+%E2%80%93+the+case+of+Sweden&rft.volume=195&rft.pages=117015&rft.date=2020-03-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213083726%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Ene...19517015K&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F2001.03679&rft.issn=0360-5442&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.energy.2020.117015&rft.aulast=Kan&rft.aufirst=Xiaoming&rft.au=Hedenus%2C+Fredrik&rft.au=Reichenberg%2C+Lina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPhersonKarney2017" class="citation journal cs1">McPherson, Madeleine; Karney, Bryan (1 November 2017). 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Energy. 138: 185–196. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017Ene...138..185M">2017Ene...138..185M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.energy.2017.07.027">10.1016/j.energy.2017.07.027</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0360-5442">0360-5442</a>. <q>Several flexibility options have been proposed to facilitate VRE integration, including interconnecting geographically dispersed resources, interconnecting different VRE types, building flexible and dispatchable generation assets, shifting flexible loads through demand response, shifting electricity generation through storage, curtailing excess generation, interconnections to the transport or heating energy sectors, and improving VRE forecasting methodologies (Delucchi and Jacobson 2011). 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Retrieved 25 October 2021. <q>Renewable energy opponents love to highlight the variability of the sun and wind as a way of bolstering support for coal, gas, and nuclear plants, which can more easily operate on-demand or provide "baseload" (continuous) power. The argument is used to undermine large investments in renewable energy, presenting a rhetorical barrier to higher rates of wind and solar adoption. 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Retrieved 13 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+announces+%2446+million+in+funds+to+eight+nuclear+fusion+companies&rft.date=2023-05-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fbusiness%2Fenergy%2Fus-announces-46-million-funds-eight-nuclear-fusion-companies-2023-05-31%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/How_things_work_college_course/Nuclear_power_quizzes" class="extiw" title="v:How things work college course/Nuclear power quizzes">Wikiversity quizzes on nuclear power</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of books about nuclear issues">List of books about nuclear issues</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_films_about_nuclear_issues" title="List of films about nuclear issues">List of films about nuclear issues</a></div> <ul><li>AEC Atom Information Booklets, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osti.gov/opennet/aec_atom">Both series, "Understanding the Atom" and "The World of the Atom"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190107232902/https://www.osti.gov/opennet/aec_atom">Archived</a> 2019-01-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. A total of 75 booklets published by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in the 1960s and 1970s, Authored by scientists and taken together, the booklets comprise the history of nuclear science and its applications at the time.</li> <li>Armstrong, Robert C., Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and <a href="/wiki/M.V._Ramana" class="mw-redirect" title="M.V. Ramana">M.V. Ramana</a> et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/articles/nenergy201520">The Frontiers of Energy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160523065903/http://www.nature.com/articles/nenergy201520">Archived</a> 2016-05-23 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Nature Energy, Vol 1, 11 January 2016.</li> <li>Brown, Kate (2013). <a href="/wiki/Plutopia" title="Plutopia">Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters</a>, Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Clarfield, Gerald H. and Wiecek, William M. (1984). Nuclear America: Military and Civilian Nuclear Power in the United States 1940–1980, Harper & Row.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Cooke" title="Stephanie Cooke">Cooke, Stephanie</a> (2009). <a href="/wiki/In_Mortal_Hands:_A_Cautionary_History_of_the_Nuclear_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age">In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age</a>, Black Inc.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCravens2007" class="citation book cs1">Cravens, Gwyneth (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/powertosaveworld00gwyn_0">Power to Save the World: the Truth about Nuclear Energy</a>. New York: Knopf. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26656-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-307-26656-9"><bdi>978-0-307-26656-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+to+Save+the+World%3A+the+Truth+about+Nuclear+Energy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-307-26656-9&rft.aulast=Cravens&rft.aufirst=Gwyneth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpowertosaveworld00gwyn_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Elliott_(professor)" title="David Elliott (professor)">Elliott, David</a> (2007). <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_or_Not%3F" title="Nuclear or Not?">Nuclear or Not? Does Nuclear Power Have a Place in a Sustainable Energy Future?</a>, Palgrave.</li> <li>Ferguson, Charles D., (2007). Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks <a href="/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations" title="Council on Foreign Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a>.</li> <li>Garwin, Richard L. and Charpak, Georges (2001) <a href="/wiki/Megawatts_and_Megatons" title="Megawatts and Megatons">Megawatts and Megatons</a> A Turning Point in the Nuclear Age?, Knopf.</li> <li>Herbst, Alan M. and George W. Hopley (2007). Nuclear Energy Now: Why the Time has come for the World's Most Misunderstood Energy Source, Wiley.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahaffey2015" class="citation book cs1">Mahaffey, James (2015). Atomic accidents: a history of nuclear meltdowns and disasters: from the Ozark Mountains to Fukushima. Pegasus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60598-680-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60598-680-7"><bdi>978-1-60598-680-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atomic+accidents%3A+a+history+of+nuclear+meltdowns+and+disasters%3A+from+the+Ozark+Mountains+to+Fukushima&rft.pub=Pegasus+Books&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-60598-680-7&rft.aulast=Mahaffey&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPattersonTaylor2024" class="citation journal cs1">Patterson, Eann A.; Taylor, Richard J. (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11285846">"The commoditization of civil nuclear power"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_Open_Science" title="Royal Society Open Science">Royal Society Open Science</a>. 11 (5): 240021. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024RSOS...1140021P">2024RSOS...1140021P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsos.240021">10.1098/rsos.240021</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11285846">11285846</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39076811">39076811</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Royal+Society+Open+Science&rft.atitle=The+commoditization+of+civil+nuclear+power&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=240021&rft.date=2024&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11285846%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F39076811&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsos.240021&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024RSOS...1140021P&rft.aulast=Patterson&rft.aufirst=Eann+A.&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Richard+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC11285846&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANuclear+power" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naomi_Oreskes" title="Naomi Oreskes">Oreskes, Naomi</a>, "Breaking the Techno-Promise: We do not have enough time for nuclear power to save us from the <a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">climate crisis</a>", <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>, vol. 326, no. 2 (February 2022), p. 74.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycle_Schneider" title="Mycle Schneider">Schneider, Mycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Thomas_(economist)" title="Stephen Thomas (economist)">Steve Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antony_Froggatt" title="Antony Froggatt">Antony Froggatt</a>, Doug Koplow (2016). <a href="/wiki/The_World_Nuclear_Industry_Status_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="The World Nuclear Industry Status Report">The World Nuclear Industry Status Report</a>: World Nuclear Industry Status as of 1 January 2016.</li> <li>Walker, J. Samuel (1992). Containing the Atom: Nuclear Regulation in a Changing Environment, 1993–1971, Berkeley, California: University of California Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Weart" class="mw-redirect" title="Spencer Weart">Weart, Spencer R.</a> The Rise of Nuclear Fear. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2012. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-05233-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-05233-1">0-674-05233-1</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Nuclear power at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="q:Nuclear power">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nuclear_power" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Nuclear power">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Nuclear_power" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Nuclear power">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Nuclear_power" 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Template:Nuclear power by country"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Template talk:Nuclear power by country"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear power by country"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_power_by_country461" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">Nuclear power by country</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watt#Electrical_and_thermal_watts" title="Watt">GWe</a> > 10</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Canada" title="Nuclear power in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_China" title="Nuclear power in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_France" title="Nuclear power in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Japan" title="Nuclear power in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Russia" title="Nuclear power in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_South_Korea" title="Nuclear power in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Ukraine" title="Nuclear power in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_States" title="Nuclear power in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Watt#Electrical_and_thermal_watts" title="Watt">GWe</a> > 5</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_India" title="Nuclear power in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Spain" title="Nuclear power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Sweden" title="Nuclear power in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nuclear power in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GWe > 2</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Nuclear power in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Finland" title="Nuclear power in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Germany" title="Nuclear power in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Pakistan" title="Nuclear power in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Switzerland" title="Nuclear power in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Taiwan" title="Nuclear power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Nuclear power in the United Arab Emirates">UAE</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GWe > 1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Argentina" title="Nuclear power in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Bulgaria" title="Nuclear power in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Romania" title="Nuclear power in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">GWe < 1</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_the_Netherlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Slovenia" title="Nuclear energy in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Planned</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Bangladesh" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Egypt" title="Nuclear program of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Ghana" title="Nuclear power in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Indonesia" title="Nuclear power in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Israel" title="Nuclear power in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Kenya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_North_Korea" title="Nuclear power in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_the_Philippines" title="Nuclear power in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Sri_Lanka" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Thailand" title="Nuclear power in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Turkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Abandoned plans for new plants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Australia" title="Nuclear power in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Austria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Azerbaijan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Azerbaijan (page does not exist)">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juragua_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Juragua Nuclear Power Plant">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Georgia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Georgia (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Kuwait&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Kuwait (page does not exist)">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Libya" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Malaysia" title="Nuclear power in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Oman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Oman (page does not exist)">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Peru&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Peru (page does not exist)">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_energy_in_Singapore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nuclear energy in Singapore (page does not exist)">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Taiwan" title="Nuclear power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Phasing-out</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Belgium" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Belgium">Belgium</a> (delayed)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Germany" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Italy" title="Nuclear power in Italy">Italy</a> (already)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Spain" title="Nuclear power in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement_in_Switzerland" title="Anti-nuclear movement in Switzerland">Switzerland</a> (gradually)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_Taiwan" title="Nuclear power in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_power_stations" title="List of nuclear power stations">List of nuclear power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Nuclear energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy_by_country" title="Nuclear energy policy by country">Nuclear energy policy by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accidents">Nuclear accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Nuclear_technology476" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nuclear_technology" title="Template talk:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear_technology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nuclear technology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Nuclear_technology476" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology" title="Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_nuclear_technology" title="Outline of nuclear technology">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chemistry" title="Nuclear chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">Atomic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">braking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">Fuel</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tritium" title="Tritium">Tritium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium" title="Deuterium">Deuterium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium-3" title="Helium-3">Helium-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">Fertile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissile_material" title="Fissile material">Fissile material</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_separation" title="Isotope separation">Isotope separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_material" title="Nuclear material">Nuclear material</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">depleted</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">Thorium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neutron" title="Neutron">Neutron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">Capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">Poison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_cross_section" title="Neutron cross section">Cross section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_generator" title="Neutron generator">Generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">Reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_temperature" title="Neutron temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal neutron">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast neutron">Fast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron#Fusion_neutrons" title="Neutron">Fusion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Power</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_by_country" title="Nuclear power by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_nuclear_power_plants" title="Economics of nuclear power plants">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents_and_incidents" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_policy" title="Nuclear energy policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusion_power" title="Fusion power">Fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Radioisotope thermoelectric generator">Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-mission_radioisotope_thermoelectric_generator" title="Multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator">MMRTG</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_propulsion" title="Nuclear propulsion">Propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_thermal_rocket" title="Nuclear thermal rocket">rocket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety_and_security" title="Nuclear safety and security">Safety and security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown" title="Nuclear meltdown">Nuclear meltdown</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoradiograph" title="Autoradiograph">Autoradiograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadBall" title="RadBall">RadBall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintigraphy" title="Scintigraphy">Scintigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-photon_emission_computed_tomography" title="Single-photon emission computed tomography">Single-photon emission (SPECT)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positron_emission_tomography" title="Positron emission tomography">Positron-emission tomography (PET)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Therapy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_neutron_therapy" title="Fast neutron therapy">Fast-neutron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture_therapy_of_cancer" title="Neutron capture therapy of cancer">Neutron capture therapy of cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">Targeted alpha-particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton_therapy" title="Proton therapy">Proton-beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomotherapy" title="Tomotherapy">Tomotherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brachytherapy" title="Brachytherapy">Brachytherapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosurgery" title="Radiosurgery">Radiosurgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiopharmacology" title="Radiopharmacology">Radiopharmacology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irradiation" title="Irradiation">Processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_gardening" title="Atomic gardening">Atomic gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron-beam_processing" title="Electron-beam processing">Electron-beam processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_irradiation" title="Food irradiation">Food irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Weapons</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_arms_race" title="Nuclear arms race">Arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_delivery" title="Nuclear weapons delivery">Delivery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design" title="Nuclear weapon design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_disarmament" title="Nuclear disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">Explosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_nuclear_explosions" title="Effects of nuclear explosions">effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nuclear_weapons" title="History of nuclear weapons">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">Proliferation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Nuclear weapons testing">Testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High-altitude_nuclear_explosion" title="High-altitude nuclear explosion">high-altitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_nuclear_weapons_testing" title="Underground nuclear weapons testing">underground</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_yield" title="Nuclear weapon yield">Yield</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/TNT_equivalent" title="TNT equivalent">TNTe</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_nuclear_weapons" title="List of states with nuclear weapons">States with nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_nuclear_weapons_stockpiles_and_nuclear_tests_by_country" title="Historical nuclear weapons stockpiles and nuclear tests by country">Historical stockpiles and tests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests" title="List of nuclear weapons tests">Tests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons_tests_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="List of nuclear weapons tests of the United States">Tests in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_mass_destruction_treaties" title="List of weapons of mass destruction treaties">WMD treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear-weapon-free_zone" title="Nuclear-weapon-free zone">Weapon-free zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nuclear_weapons" title="List of nuclear weapons">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Waste</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">Actinide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reprocessed_uranium" title="Reprocessed uranium">Reprocessed uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactor-grade_plutonium" title="Reactor-grade plutonium">Reactor-grade plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minor_actinide" title="Minor actinide">Minor actinide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Activation_product" title="Activation product">Activation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Fission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-lived_fission_product" title="Long-lived fission product">LLFP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actinide_chemistry" title="Actinide chemistry">Actinide chemistry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:4.0em;font-weight:normal;">Disposal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel_cycle" title="Nuclear fuel cycle">Fuel cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-level_waste" title="High-level waste">High-level (HLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_waste" title="Low-level waste">Low-level (LLW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">Nuclear decommissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_geological_repository" title="Deep geological repository">Repository</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">Reprocessing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spent_nuclear_fuel" title="Spent nuclear fuel">Spent fuel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spent_fuel_pool" title="Spent fuel pool">pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_cask_storage" title="Dry cask storage">cask</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transmutation" title="Nuclear transmutation">Transmutation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Debate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_debate" title="Nuclear power debate">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapons_debate" title="Nuclear weapons debate">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Ribbon_Commission_on_America%27s_Nuclear_Future" title="Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future">Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_debate" title="Uranium mining debate">Uranium mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_phase-out" title="Nuclear power phase-out">Nuclear power phase-out</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Nuclear_reactors476" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fission831" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fission" title="Nuclear reactor">Fission</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div style="float: left;"><a href="/wiki/Neutron_moderator" title="Neutron moderator">Moderator</a></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Light-water_reactor" title="Light-water reactor">Light water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueous_homogeneous_reactor" title="Aqueous homogeneous reactor">Aqueous homogeneous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_water_reactor" title="Boiling water reactor">Boiling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/GE_BWR" title="GE BWR">BWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_boiling_water_reactor" title="Advanced boiling water reactor">ABWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Simplified_Boiling_Water_Reactor" title="Economic Simplified Boiling Water Reactor">ESBWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerena_boiling_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerena boiling water reactor">Kerena</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_nuclear_fission_reactor" title="Natural nuclear fission reactor">Natural fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_water_reactor" title="Pressurized water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP1000" title="AP1000">AP1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR-1400" title="APR-1400">APR-1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APR%2B" class="mw-redirect" title="APR+">APR+</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APWR" class="mw-redirect" title="APWR">APWR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ATMEA1" class="mw-redirect" title="ATMEA1">ATMEA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CAP1400" title="CAP1400">CAP1400</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CPR-1000" title="CPR-1000">CPR-1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPR_(nuclear_reactor)" title="EPR (nuclear reactor)">EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualong_One" title="Hualong One">HPR-1000</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ACPR1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACPR1000">ACPR1000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACP1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACP1000">ACP1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VVER" title="VVER">VVER</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPWR-900" title="IPWR-900">IPWR-900</a></li> <li>many others</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supercritical_water_reactor" title="Supercritical water reactor">Supercritical (SCWR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Heavy-water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy-water reactor">Heavy water</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;;background:whitesmoke;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Deuterium_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Deuterium oxide">D2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pressurized_heavy-water_reactor" title="Pressurized heavy-water reactor">Pressurized</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CANDU_reactor" title="CANDU reactor">CANDU</a> <ul><li>CANDU 6</li> <li>CANDU 9</li> <li>EC6</li> <li>AFCR</li> <li><a href="/wiki/ACR-1000" class="mw-redirect" title="ACR-1000">ACR-1000</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolinas%E2%80%93Virginia_Tube_Reactor" title="Carolinas–Virginia Tube Reactor">CVTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR" title="IPHWR">IPHWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-220" title="IPHWR-220">IPHWR-220</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR#IPHWR-540" title="IPHWR">IPHWR-540</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IPHWR-700" title="IPHWR-700">IPHWR-700</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_energy_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear energy in Argentina">PHWR KWU</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MZFR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MZFR (page does not exist)">MZFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%85gestaverket" class="mw-redirect" title="Ågestaverket">R3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R4_nuclear_reactor" title="R4 nuclear reactor">R4 Marviken</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWLWR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWLWR (page does not exist)">HWLWR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugen_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Fugen Nuclear Power Plant">ATR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentilly_Nuclear_Generating_Station#Gentilly-1" title="Gentilly Nuclear Generating Station">HW BLWR 250</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam-generating_heavy_water_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Steam-generating heavy water reactor">Steam-generating (SGHWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_heavy-water_reactor" title="Advanced heavy-water reactor">AHWR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WR-1" title="WR-1">WR-1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=HWGCR&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="HWGCR (page does not exist)">HWGCR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brennilis_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Brennilis Nuclear Power Plant">EL-4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernkraftwerk_Niederaichbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernkraftwerk Niederaichbach (page does not exist)">KKN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KS_150" title="KS 150">KS 150</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucens_reactor" title="Lucens reactor">Lucens</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Graphite-moderated_reactor" title="Graphite-moderated reactor">Graphite</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor_coolant" title="Nuclear reactor coolant">coolant</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="H2O22" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H2O</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Obninsk_Nuclear_Power_Plant" title="Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant">AM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beloyarsk_Nuclear_Power_Station#Early_reactors" title="Beloyarsk Nuclear Power Station">AMB-X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EGP-6" title="EGP-6">EGP-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RBMK" title="RBMK">RBMK</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_reactor" title="Gas-cooled reactor">Gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO2</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNGG_reactor" title="UNGG reactor">Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnox" title="Magnox">Magnox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Gas-cooled_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor">Advanced gas-cooled (AGR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_turbine_modular_helium_reactor" title="Gas turbine modular helium reactor">GTMHR</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MHR-T&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="MHR-T (page does not exist)">MHR-T</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UHTREX" title="UHTREX">UHTREX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very-high-temperature_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Very-high-temperature reactor">VHTR (HTGR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pebble-bed_reactor" title="Pebble-bed reactor">PBR (PBMR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AVR_reactor" title="AVR reactor">AVR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-10" title="HTR-10">HTR-10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HTR-PM" title="HTR-PM">HTR-PM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THTR-300" title="THTR-300">THTR-300</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Prismatic_block_reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prismatic block reactor (page does not exist)">PMR</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">Molten-salt</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Fluorides19" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:2.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/FLiBe" title="FLiBe">Fluorides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuji_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Fuji Molten Salt Reactor">Fuji MSR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_fluoride_thorium_reactor" title="Liquid fluoride thorium reactor">Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molten-Salt_Reactor_Experiment" title="Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment">Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_Molten_Salt_Reactor" title="Integral Molten Salt Reactor">Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-500" class="mw-redirect" title="TMSR-500">TMSR-500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">None (<a href="/wiki/Fast-neutron_reactor" title="Fast-neutron reactor">fast-neutron</a>)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">Breeder (FBR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_fast_reactor" title="Integral fast reactor">Integral (IFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liquid_metal_cooled_reactor" title="Liquid metal cooled reactor">Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small,_sealed,_transportable,_autonomous_reactor" title="Small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor">Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traveling_wave_reactor" title="Traveling wave reactor">Traveling-wave (TWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_Multiplier_Module" title="Energy Multiplier Module">Energy Multiplier Module (EM2)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_moderation_water_reactor" title="Reduced moderation water reactor">Reduced-moderation (RMWR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_Breeder_Test_Reactor" title="Fast Breeder Test Reactor">Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_fluid_reactor" title="Dual fluid reactor">Dual fluid reactor (DFR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Generation_IV_reactor" title="Generation IV reactor">Generation IV</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sodium-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Sodium-cooled fast reactor">Sodium (SFR)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BN-350_reactor" title="BN-350 reactor">BN-350</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-600_reactor" title="BN-600 reactor">BN-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-800_reactor" title="BN-800 reactor">BN-800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BN-1200_reactor" title="BN-1200 reactor">BN-1200</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CFR-600" title="CFR-600">CFR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ph%C3%A9nix" title="Phénix">Phénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superph%C3%A9nix" title="Superphénix">Superphénix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_Fast_Breeder_Reactor" title="Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor">PFBR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBR-600" title="FBR-600">FBR-600</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Experimental_Fast_Reactor" title="China Experimental Fast Reactor">CEFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dounreay#Prototype_Fast_Reactor_(PFR)" title="Dounreay">PFR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRISM_(reactor)" title="PRISM (reactor)">PRISM</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Lead-cooled fast reactor">Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas-cooled_fast_reactor" title="Gas-cooled fast reactor">Helium gas (GFR)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stable_salt_reactor" title="Stable salt reactor">Stable Salt Reactor (SSR)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:none;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_nuclear_reactor" title="Organic nuclear reactor">Organic nuclear reactor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organic_Moderated_Reactor_Experiment" title="Organic Moderated Reactor Experiment">OMRE</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arbus-reactor&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arbus-reactor (page does not exist)">Arbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piqua_Nuclear_Generating_Station" title="Piqua Nuclear Generating Station">Piqua</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_Nuclear_Propulsion" title="Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion">Aircraft Reactor Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fusion214" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor#Fusion_reactors" title="Nuclear reactor">Fusion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>by <a href="/wiki/Thermonuclear_fusion#Confinement" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermonuclear fusion">confinement</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_confinement_fusion" title="Magnetic confinement fusion">Magnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field-reversed_configuration" title="Field-reversed configuration">Field-reversed configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levitated_dipole" title="Levitated dipole">Levitated dipole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversed_field_pinch" title="Reversed field pinch">Reversed field pinch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spheromak" title="Spheromak">Spheromak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stellarator" title="Stellarator">Stellarator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokamak" title="Tokamak">Tokamak</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Inertial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bubble_fusion" title="Bubble fusion">Bubble (acoustic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fusor" title="Fusor">Fusor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_electrostatic_confinement" title="Inertial electrostatic confinement">electrostatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inertial_confinement_fusion" title="Inertial confinement fusion">Laser-driven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetized_target_fusion" title="Magnetized target fusion">Magnetized-target</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-pinch" title="Z-pinch">Z-pinch</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dense_plasma_focus" title="Dense plasma focus">Dense plasma focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migma" title="Migma">Migma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muon-catalyzed_fusion" title="Muon-catalyzed fusion">Muon-catalyzed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polywell" title="Polywell">Polywell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroelectric_fusion" title="Pyroelectric fusion">Pyroelectric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" title="Category:Nuclear technology">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nuclear_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Nuclear technology">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Electricity_delivery729" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Electricity_delivery" title="Template:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Electricity_delivery" title="Template talk:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Electricity_delivery" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Electricity delivery"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Electricity_delivery729" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_generation_control" title="Automatic generation control">Automatic generation control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backfeeding" title="Backfeeding">Backfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_load" title="Base load">Base load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droop_speed_control" title="Droop speed control">Droop speed control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_quality" title="Electric power quality">Electric power quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_fault" title="Electrical fault">Electrical fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_code" title="Grid code">Grid code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid strength">Grid strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">Home energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load-following_power_plant" title="Load-following power plant">Load-following</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_order" title="Merit order">Merit order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">Nameplate capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_demand" title="Peak demand">Peak demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_factor" title="Power factor">Power factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power-flow_study" title="Power-flow study">Power-flow study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repowering" title="Repowering">Repowering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_frequency" title="Utility frequency">Utility frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">Vehicle-to-grid</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Abspannportal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt"><img alt="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/120px-Abspannportal.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/180px-Abspannportal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/240px-Abspannportal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology" title="Category:Power station technology">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_plant" title="Combined cycle power plant">Combined cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_power_plant" title="Virtual power plant">Virtual power plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Transmission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_system" title="Electric power system">Electric power system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_busbar_system" title="Electrical busbar system">Electrical busbar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">Electrical substation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">Electricity retailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_shore_connection" title="High-voltage shore connection">High-voltage shore connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interconnector" title="Interconnector">Interconnector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Mains electricity by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-wire_earth_return" title="Single-wire earth return">Single-wire earth return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">Transmission system operator</a> (TSO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Failure modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascading_failure" title="Cascading failure">Cascading failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Power outage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Protective devices</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter" title="Arc-fault circuit interrupter">Arc-fault circuit interrupter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth-leakage_circuit_breaker" title="Earth-leakage circuit breaker">Earth-leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker" title="Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker">Sulfur hexafluoride</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generator_interlock_kit" title="Generator interlock kit">Generator interlock kit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_relay" title="Numerical relay">Numerical relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_system_protection" title="Power system protection">Power system protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_relay" title="Protective relay">Protective relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual-current_device" title="Residual-current device">Residual-current device</a> (GFI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Economics and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)" title="Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Payments" title="Renewable Energy Payments">Renewable Energy Payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Statistics and production</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">Electric energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_sectors" title="List of electricity sectors">List of electricity sectors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Electric_power_distribution" title="Category:Electric power distribution">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_resources210" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_resources" title="Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_resources" title="Template talk:Natural resources"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_resources" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural resources"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_resources210" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">Natural resources</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act (US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="Land">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict (perpetuation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_resource" title="Renewable resource">Renewable</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oil_war" title="Oil war">Oil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrostate" title="Petrostate">Petrostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_resources" title="Category:Natural resources">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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