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vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophic_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Trophic ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trophic_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patch_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patch_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Patch dynamics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patch_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Human use </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Human use subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Human_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-As_carbon_sequesters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_carbon_sequesters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 As carbon sequesters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_carbon_sequesters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Threats_and_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threats_and_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Threats and management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Threats_and_management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Threats and management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Threats_and_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Kelp forest restoration in California </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_conservation_efforts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_conservation_efforts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Global conservation efforts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_conservation_efforts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button 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Available in 39 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-39" aria-hidden="true" > 39 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1" title="غابة أعشاب البحر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غابة أعشاب البحر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Лес водарасцей – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Лес водарасцей" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0ume_algi" title="Šume algi – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Šume algi" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosc_de_varec" title="Bosc de varec – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Bosc de varec" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaluhov%C3%BD_les" title="Chaluhový les – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chaluhový les" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangskov" title="Tangskov – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Tangskov" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpwald" title="Kelpwald – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kelpwald" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosque_de_algas" title="Bosque de algas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Bosque de algas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaro" title="Algaro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Algaro" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84_%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AC%DA%A9" title="جنگل کتانجک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنگل کتانجک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%C3%AAt_de_varech" title="Forêt de varech – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Forêt de varech" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosques_de_algas" title="Bosques de algas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Bosques de algas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8B%A4%EC%8B%9C%EB%A7%88%EC%88%B2" title="다시마숲 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="다시마숲" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0uma_kelpa" title="Šuma kelpa – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Šuma kelpa" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutan_ganggang" title="Hutan ganggang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hutan ganggang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foresta_di_kelp" title="Foresta di kelp – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Foresta di kelp" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A4" title="יערות קלפ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יערות קלפ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Балдырлы орман – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Балдырлы орман" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%BE" title="കെൽപ്പ് വനങ്ങൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കെൽപ്പ് വനങ്ങൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpwoud" title="Kelpwoud – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kelpwoud" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%97%BB%E5%A0%B4" title="藻場 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="藻場" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tareskog" title="Tareskog – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tareskog" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tareskog" title="Tareskog – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tareskog" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpwoold" title="Kelpwoold – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kelpwoold" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_wodorost%C3%B3w" title="Las wodorostów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Las wodorostów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floresta_de_algas" title="Floresta de algas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Floresta de algas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B5%D1%81_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Лес водорослей – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лес водорослей" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tang_forest" title="Tang forest – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Tang forest" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kelp forest" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelpov_gozd" title="Kelpov gozd – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kelpov gozd" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0uma_kelpa" title="Šuma kelpa – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Šuma kelpa" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_skog" title="Marin skog – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Marin skog" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="கெல்ப் காடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="கெல்ப் காடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%8C" title="ป่าเคลป์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ป่าเคลป์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deniz_yosunu_orman%C4%B1" title="Deniz yosunu ormanı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Deniz yosunu ormanı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D1%81_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Ліс водоростей – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ліс водоростей" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%E1%BB%ABng_t%E1%BA%A3o_b%E1%BA%B9" title="Rừng tảo bẹ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Rừng tảo bẹ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Underwater areas highly dense with kelp</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="313" /></a><figcaption>Kelp forest</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a>, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> on Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Mann_(1973)-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Although algal kelp forest combined with <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary productivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar region">polar</a> coastal oceans.<a href="#cite_note-Mann_(1973)-1">[1]</a> In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> waters near <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Graham_et_al._2007-4">[4]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png/244px-Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png" decoding="async" width="244" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png/366px-Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png/488px-Kelp_forest_distribution_map.png 2x" data-file-width="1154" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Global distribution of kelp forests</div></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:252px; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> "I can only compare these great aquatic forests ... with the terrestrial ones in the intertropical regions. Yet if in any country a forest was destroyed, I do not believe so nearly so many species of animals would perish as would here, from the destruction of kelp. Amidst the leaves of this plant numerous species of fish live, which nowhere else could find food or shelter; with their destruction the many cormorants and other fishing birds, the otters, seals and porpoise, would soon perish also; and lastly, the Fuegian[s] ... would ... decrease in numbers and perhaps cease to exist. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">– <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, 1 June 1834, Tierra del Fuego, Chile<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></cite></div> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG/350px-Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG/525px-Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG/700px-Kelp_forest_Cojo_Anchorage.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="967" /></a><figcaption>A kelp forest at Cojo Anchorage near <a href="/wiki/Point_Conception" title="Point Conception">Point Conception</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>.</figcaption></figure> Physically formed by brown <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macroalgae</a>, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Trophic_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic dynamics">trophic</a> ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanographic</a> patterns<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and provide many <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a> However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp <a href="/wiki/Forest_degradation" title="Forest degradation">forest degradation</a>. Of particular concern are the effects of <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> nearshore ecosystems, which can release <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> from their normal population regulation and result in the <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a> of kelp and other algae.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a> This can rapidly result in transitions to <a href="/wiki/Urchin_barren" title="Urchin barren">barren landscapes</a> where relatively few species persist.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Already due to the combined effects of <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> kelp forests have all but disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>'s east coast and the coast of <a href="/wiki/Northern_California" title="Northern California">Northern California</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The implementation of <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine protected areas">marine protected areas</a> is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kelp">Kelp</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Kelp">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">Kelp</a></div> The term <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a> refers to <a href="/wiki/Marine_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine algae">marine algae</a> belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> Laminariales (phylum: <a href="/wiki/Ochrophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochrophyta">Ochrophyta</a>). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally.<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a> The most widely recognized species are the giant kelps (<a href="/wiki/Macrocystis" title="Macrocystis">Macrocystis</a> spp.), although numerous other genera such as <a href="/wiki/Laminaria" title="Laminaria">Laminaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecklonia" title="Ecklonia">Ecklonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lessonia_(alga)" title="Lessonia (alga)">Lessonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nereocystis" title="Nereocystis">Nereocystis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alaria_(alga)" title="Alaria (alga)">Alaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eisenia_(alga)" title="Eisenia (alga)">Eisenia</a> are described. A wide range of sea life uses kelp forests for protection or food, including fish. In the North Pacific kelp forests, particularly <a href="/wiki/Sebastidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastidae">rockfish</a>, and many <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Amphipod" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphipod">amphipods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_snail" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine snail">marine snails</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bristle_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Bristle worm">bristle worms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Brittle_star" title="Brittle star">brittle stars</a>. Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales, <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a>, gulls, terns, <a href="/wiki/Snowy_egret" title="Snowy egret">snowy egrets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_blue_heron" title="Great blue heron">great blue herons</a>, and cormorants, as well as some shore birds.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Frequently considered an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">ecosystem engineer</a>, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In algae (kingdom <a href="/wiki/Protista" class="mw-redirect" title="Protista">Protista</a>), the body of an individual organism is known as a <a href="/wiki/Thallus" title="Thallus">thallus</a> rather than as a plant (kingdom <a href="/wiki/Plantae" class="mw-redirect" title="Plantae">Plantae</a>). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units:<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)" title="Holdfast (biology)">holdfast</a> is a root-like mass that anchors the thallus to the sea floor, though unlike true roots it is not responsible for absorbing and delivering nutrients to the rest of the thallus.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Stipe_(botany)" title="Stipe (botany)">stipe</a> is analogous to a plant stalk, extending vertically from the holdfast and providing a support framework for other morphological features.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Fronds" class="mw-redirect" title="Fronds">fronds</a> are leaf- or blade-like attachments extending from the stipe, sometimes along its full length, and are the sites of nutrient uptake and photosynthetic activity.</li></ul> In addition, many kelp species have <a href="/wiki/Pneumatocyst" title="Pneumatocyst">pneumatocysts</a>, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column. The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock or sand), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> dose > 50 E m−2<a href="#cite_note-Druehl_1981-17">[17]</a>). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a>, a process that delivers cool, nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean's <a href="/wiki/Mixed_layer" title="Mixed layer">mixed surface layer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Druehl_1981-17">[17]</a> Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout the water column.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp (Macrocystis spp.) can grow as much as 30–60 cm vertically per day. Some species, such as Nereocystis, are <a href="/wiki/Annual_plant" title="Annual plant">annuals</a>, while others such as Eisenia are <a href="/wiki/Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennials</a>, living for more than 20 years.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods, and increased storm frequency.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> Kelps are primarily associated with <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arctic" title="Arctic">arctic</a> waters worldwide. Of the more dominant genera, Laminaria is mainly associated with both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> and the coasts of <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>; Ecklonia is found in <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>; and Macrocystis occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Southern Ocean</a> archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> The region with the greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco, California</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>, Alaska. Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of Laminaria have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be mostly due to insufficient nutrient levels associated with warm, <a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">oligotrophic</a> waters.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> One recent study spatially overlaid the requisite physical parameters for kelp with mean oceanographic conditions and produced a model predicting the existence of subsurface kelps throughout the tropics worldwide to depths of 200 m (660 ft). For a hotspot in the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a>, the local model was improved with fine-scale data and tested; the research team found thriving kelp forests in all eight of their sampled sites, all of which had been predicted by the model, thus validating their approach. This suggests that their global model might actually be fairly accurate, and if so, kelp forests would be prolific in tropical subsurface waters worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Graham_et_al._2007-4">[4]</a> The importance of this contribution has been rapidly acknowledged within the scientific community and has prompted an entirely new trajectory of kelp forest research, highlighting the potential for kelp forests to provide marine organisms spatial refuge under climate change and providing possible explanations for evolutionary patterns of kelps worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecosystem_architecture">Ecosystem architecture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ecosystem architecture">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg/220px-Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg/330px-Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg/440px-Rockfish_around_kelp_Monterey_Bay_Aquarium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sebastidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebastidae">Rockfish</a> swimming around <a href="/wiki/Macrocystis_pyrifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocystis pyrifera">giant kelp</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/330px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg/440px-Diver_in_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="359" /></a><figcaption>A diver in a <a href="/wiki/Kelp" title="Kelp">kelp</a> forest off the coast of California</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg/220px-Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg/330px-Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg/440px-Kelp_Forest_off_of_Anacapa_Island_California.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="3089" /></a><figcaption>A kelp forest off of the coast of Anacapa Island, California</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giantkelp2_300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Giantkelp2_300.jpg/220px-Giantkelp2_300.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Giantkelp2_300.jpg/330px-Giantkelp2_300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Giantkelp2_300.jpg/440px-Giantkelp2_300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1271" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giant_kelp" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant kelp">Giant kelp</a> uses gas-filled floats to keep the thallus suspended, allowing the kelp blades near the ocean surface to capture light for photosynthesis.</figcaption></figure> The architecture of a kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure. Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae:<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> <ul><li>Canopy kelps include the largest species and often constitute floating canopies that extend to the ocean surface (e.g., Macrocystis and Alaria).</li> <li>Stipitate kelps generally extend a few meters above the sea floor and can grow in dense aggregations (e.g., Eisenia and Ecklonia).</li> <li>Prostrate kelps lie near and along the sea floor (e.g., Laminaria).</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> assemblage is composed of other algal species (e.g., filamentous and foliose functional groups, articulated corallines) and sessile organisms along the ocean bottom.</li> <li>Encrusting coralline algae directly and often extensively cover geologic substrate.</li></ul> Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a Macrocystis canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps Eisenia and Pterygophora reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical infrastructure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded middle, and darkened seafloor.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a> Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_1985-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Graham2004-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> For example, in California, Macrocystis pyrifera forests, the <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">nudibranch</a> <a href="/wiki/Melibe_leonina" title="Melibe leonina">Melibe leonina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Skeleton_shrimp" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeleton shrimp">skeleton shrimp</a> Caprella californica are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch Brachyistius frenatus, rockfish <a href="/wiki/Sebastes" title="Sebastes">Sebastes</a> spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; <a href="/wiki/Brittle_stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Brittle stars">brittle stars</a> and turban snails <a href="/wiki/Tegula_(gastropod)" title="Tegula (gastropod)">Tegula</a> spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various <a href="/wiki/Gastropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropods">gastropods</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderms" class="mw-redirect" title="Echinoderms">echinoderms</a> live over the encrusting coralline algae.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_1985-23">[23]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">pelagic fishes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine mammals">marine mammals</a> are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Trophic_ecology">Trophic ecology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Trophic ecology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seaurchin_300.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seaurchin_300.jpg/220px-Seaurchin_300.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seaurchin_300.jpg/330px-Seaurchin_300.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Seaurchin_300.jpg/440px-Seaurchin_300.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1273" data-file-height="843" /></a><figcaption>Sea urchins like this <a href="/wiki/Strongylocentrotus_purpuratus" title="Strongylocentrotus purpuratus">purple sea urchin</a> can damage kelp forests by chewing through kelp <a href="/wiki/Holdfast_(biology)" title="Holdfast (biology)">holdfasts</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_(9137174915).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg/220px-Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg/330px-Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg/440px-Mother_sea_otter_with_rare_twin_baby_pups_%289137174915%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2122" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otter</a> is an important predator of <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg/220px-Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg/330px-Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg/440px-Calliostoma_annulatum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="632" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption>The jeweled top snail <a href="/wiki/Calliostoma_annulatum" title="Calliostoma annulatum">Calliostoma annulatum</a> grazing on a blade of giant kelp</figcaption></figure> Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their <a href="/wiki/Food_webs" class="mw-redirect" title="Food webs">food webs</a>), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and the subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dayton1999-27">[27]</a> This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic levels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Carr-28">[28]</a> By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit the biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower-level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are not limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests,<a href="#cite_note-Estes1995-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sea_otters" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea otters">sea otters</a> (Enhydra lutris) control populations of herbivorous <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchins" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea urchins">sea urchins</a> through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of the kelp itself results in the loss of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a> that mediates this <a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">trophic cascade</a>. In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes, such as the <a href="/wiki/California_sheephead" title="California sheephead">California sheephead</a>. The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because redundancy exists in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins.<a href="#cite_note-Graham2004-24">[24]</a> However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation.<a href="#cite_note-Pearse&Hines-30">[30]</a> Similar examples exist in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> South Africa,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Australia,<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> and Chile.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and the strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation.<a href="#cite_note-Sala&Graham-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-Halpern2006-37">[37]</a> The transition from macroalgal (i.e. kelp forest) to denuded landscapes dominated by sea urchins (or ‘<a href="/wiki/Urchin_barrens" class="mw-redirect" title="Urchin barrens">urchin barrens</a>’) is a widespread phenomenon,<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> often resulting from trophic cascades like those described above; the two phases are regarded as alternative stable states of the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The recovery of kelp forests from barren states has been documented following dramatic perturbations, such as urchin disease or large shifts in thermal conditions.<a href="#cite_note-Pearse&Hines-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vasquez-46">[46]</a> Recovery from intermediate states of deterioration is less predictable and depends on a combination of abiotic factors and biotic interactions in each case. Though urchins are usually the dominant herbivores, others with significant interaction strengths include <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">seastars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isopods" class="mw-redirect" title="Isopods">isopods</a>, kelp <a href="/wiki/Crabs" class="mw-redirect" title="Crabs">crabs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herbivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbivorous">herbivorous</a> fishes.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1985a-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala&Graham-35">[35]</a> In many cases, these organisms feed on kelp that has been dislodged from substrate and drifts near the ocean floor rather than expend energy searching for intact thalli on which to feed. When sufficient drift kelp is available, herbivorous grazers do not exert pressure on attached thalli; when drift subsidies are unavailable, grazers directly impact the physical structure of the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ebeling-48">[48]</a> Many studies in Southern California have demonstrated that the availability of drift kelp specifically influences the foraging behavior of sea urchins.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1984-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Drift kelp and kelp-derived particulate matter have also been important in subsidizing adjacent habitats, such as sandy beaches and the rocky intertidal.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patch_dynamics">Patch dynamics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Patch dynamics">edit</a>]</div> Another major area of kelp forest research has been directed at understanding the spatial-temporal patterns of kelp patches. Not only do such dynamics affect the physical landscape, but they also affect species that associate with kelp for refuge or foraging activities.<a href="#cite_note-Foster_1985-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Carr-28">[28]</a> Large-scale environmental disturbances have offered important insights concerning mechanisms and ecosystem <a href="/wiki/Resilience_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resilience (ecology)">resilience</a>. Examples of environmental disturbances include: <ul><li>Acute and chronic <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> events have been shown to impact southern California kelp forests, though the intensity of the impact seems to depend on both the nature of the contaminants and duration of exposure.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Pollution can include sediment deposition and <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> from sewage, industrial byproducts and contaminants like <a href="/wiki/PCBs" class="mw-redirect" title="PCBs">PCBs</a> and heavy metals (for example, copper, zinc), runoff of <a href="/wiki/Organophosphates" class="mw-redirect" title="Organophosphates">organophosphates</a> from agricultural areas, anti-fouling chemicals used in harbors and marinas (for example, <a href="/wiki/Tributyltin" title="Tributyltin">TBT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Creosote" title="Creosote">creosote</a>) and land-based pathogens like <a href="/wiki/Fecal_coliform_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fecal coliform bacteria">fecal coliform bacteria</a>.</li> <li>Catastrophic storms can remove surface kelp canopies through wave activity, but usually leave understory kelps intact; they can also remove urchins when little spatial refuge is available.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ebeling-48">[48]</a> Interspersed canopy clearings create a seascape mosaic where sunlight penetrates deeper into the kelp forest and species that are normally light-limited in the understory can flourish. Similarly, substrate cleared of kelp holdfasts can provide space for other sessile species to establish themselves and occupy the seafloor, sometimes directly competing with juvenile kelp and even inhibiting their settlement.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o-Southern_Oscillation" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño-Southern Oscillation">El Niño-Southern Oscillation</a> (ENSO) events involve the depression of oceanographic thermoclines, severe reductions of nutrient input, and changes in storm patterns.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Stress due to warm water and <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_depletion" title="Nutrient depletion">nutrient depletion</a> can increase the susceptibility of kelp to storm damage and herbivorous grazing, sometimes even prompting phase shifts to urchin-dominated landscapes.<a href="#cite_note-Vasquez-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dayton_1984-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> In general, oceanographic conditions (that is, water temperature, currents) influence the recruitment success of kelp and its competitors, which clearly affect subsequent species interactions and kelp forest dynamics.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a></li> <li>Overfishing higher trophic levels that naturally regulate herbivore populations is also recognized as an important stressor in kelp forests.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Halpern2006-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2001-63">[63]</a> As described in the previous section, the drivers and outcomes of trophic cascades are important for understanding spatial-temporal patterns of kelp forests.<a href="#cite_note-Estes1995-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pearse&Hines-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sala&Graham-35">[35]</a></li></ul> In addition to ecological monitoring of kelp forests before, during, and after such disturbances, scientists try to tease apart the intricacies of kelp forest dynamics using experimental manipulations. By working on smaller spatial-temporal scales, they can control for the presence or absence of specific biotic and abiotic factors to discover the operative mechanisms. For example, in southern Australia, manipulations of kelp canopy types demonstrated that the relative amount of Ecklonia radiata in a canopy could be used to predict understory species assemblages; consequently, the proportion of E. radiata can be used as an indicator of other species occurring in the environment.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_use">Human use</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Human use">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_diver_records_kelp_growth_(9296).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg/220px-A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg/330px-A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg/440px-A_diver_records_kelp_growth_%289296%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>A diver measures kelp growth</figcaption></figure> Kelp forests have been important to human existence for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Indeed, many now theorise that the first colonisation of the Americas was due to fishing communities following the Pacific kelp forests during the last ice age. One theory contends that the kelp forests that would have stretched from northeast Asia to the American Pacific coast would have provided many benefits to ancient boaters <a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The kelp forests would have provided many sustenance opportunities, as well as acting as a type of buffer from rough water. Besides these benefits, researchers believe that the kelp forests might have helped early boaters navigate, acting as a type of "kelp highway". Theorists also suggest that the kelp forests would have helped these ancient colonists by providing a stable way of life and preventing them from having to adapt to new ecosystems and develop new survival methods even as they traveled thousands of miles.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Modern economies are based on <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a> of kelp-associated species such as <a href="/wiki/Lobster" title="Lobster">lobster</a> and rockfish. Humans can also harvest kelp directly to feed aquaculture species such as <a href="/wiki/Abalone" title="Abalone">abalone</a> and to extract the compound <a href="/wiki/Alginic_acid" title="Alginic acid">alginic acid</a>, which is used in products like toothpaste and antacids.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Kelp forests are valued for recreational activities such as <a href="/wiki/SCUBA_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="SCUBA diving">SCUBA diving</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kayaking" title="Kayaking">kayaking</a>; the industries that support these sports represent one benefit related to the ecosystem and the enjoyment derived from these activities represents another. All of these are examples of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> provided specifically by kelp forests. The Monterey Bay aquarium was the first aquarium<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> to exhibit an alive kelp forest. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_carbon_sequesters">As carbon sequesters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: As carbon sequesters">edit</a>]</div> Kelp forests grow in rocky places along the shore that are constantly eroding carrying material out to the deep sea. The kelp then sinks to the ocean floor and store the carbon where is it unlikely to be disturbed by human activity.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Researchers from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Western_Australia" title="University of Western Australia">University of Western Australia</a> estimated kelp forest around Australia sequestered 1.3-2.8 teragrams of carbon per year which is 27–34% of the total annual <a href="/wiki/Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">blue carbon</a> sequestered in the Australian continent by <a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass beds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Every year 200 million tons of carbon dioxide are being sequestered by macroalgae such as kelp.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Threats_and_management">Threats and management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Threats and management">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melibe.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Melibe.2.jpg/220px-Melibe.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Melibe.2.jpg/330px-Melibe.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Melibe.2.jpg/440px-Melibe.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1503" data-file-height="1566" /></a><figcaption>The nudibranch <a href="/wiki/Melibe_leonina" title="Melibe leonina">Melibe leonina</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Macrocystis" title="Macrocystis">Macrocystis</a> frond (California): Marine protected areas are one way to guard kelp forests as an ecosystem. </figcaption></figure> Given the complexity of kelp forests – their variable structure, geography, and interactions – they pose a considerable challenge to environmental managers. Extrapolating even well-studied trends to the future is difficult because interactions within the ecosystem will change under variable conditions, not all relationships in the ecosystem are understood, and the nonlinear thresholds to transitions are not yet recognized.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Major issues of concern include marine pollution and <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a>, kelp harvesting and fisheries, <a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">invasive species</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The most pressing threat to kelp forest preservation may be the overfishing of coastal ecosystems, which by removing higher trophic levels facilitates their shift to depauperate urchin barrens.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a> The maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> is recognized as a way of generally stabilizing ecosystems and their services through mechanisms such as functional compensation and reduced susceptibility to foreign species invasions.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> More recently, the 2022 IPCC report states that kelp and other seaweeds in most regions are undergoing mass mortalities from high temperature extremes and range shifts from warming, as they are stationary and cannot adapt quick enough to deal with the rapidly increasing temperature of the Earth and thus, the ocean.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> In many places, managers have opted to regulate the harvest of kelp<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1999-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> and/or the taking of kelp forest species by fisheries.<a href="#cite_note-Steneck_2002-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jackson2001-63">[63]</a> While these may be effective in one sense, they do not necessarily protect the entirety of the ecosystem. <a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine protected areas">Marine protected areas</a> (MPAs) offer a unique solution that encompasses not only target species for harvesting, but also the interactions surrounding them and the local environment as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Direct benefits of MPAs to fisheries (for example, spillover effects) have been well documented around the world.<a href="#cite_note-Sala1998-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Indirect benefits have also been shown for several cases among species such as abalone and fishes in Central California.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> Most importantly, MPAs can be effective at protecting existing kelp forest ecosystems and may also allow for the regeneration of those that have been affected.<a href="#cite_note-Dayton1992-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kelp_forest_restoration_in_California">Kelp forest restoration in California</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kelp forest restoration in California">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg/220px-Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg/330px-Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg/440px-Fish_swarm_through_the_kelp_forest.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Fish <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">swarming</a> through a kelp forest</figcaption></figure> In the 2010s, Northern California lost 95% of its kelp ecosystems due to marine heatwaves.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Kelp bed recovery efforts in California are primarily focusing on <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchin</a> removal,<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> both by scuba divers,<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Sea_otter" title="Sea otter">sea otters</a>, which are natural predators.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> A brown alga, <a href="/wiki/Sargassum_horneri" title="Sargassum horneri">Sargassum horneri</a>, an invasive species first spotted in 2003, has also been a concern.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sunflower_sea_star" title="Sunflower sea star">Sunflower sea star</a> is an important keystone species which helps control sea urchin abundance, but an outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Sea_star_wasting_disease" title="Sea star wasting disease">Sea star wasting disease</a> and a vulnerability to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> has led to its critical endangerment.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Researchers at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of UC Davis are developing replanting strategies, and volunteers of the Orange County Coastkeeper group are replanting giant kelp.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Humboldt State University began cultivating bull kelp in its research farm in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Research efforts at the state level to prevent kelp forest collapse in California were announced in July 2020.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> At the federal level, H.R. 4458, the Keeping Ecosystems Living and Productive (KELP) Act, introduced July 29, 2021, seeks to establish a new grant program within <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">NOAA</a> for kelp forest restoration.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> Ocean Rainforest, a <a href="/wiki/Faroe_Islands" title="Faroe Islands">Faroe Islands</a>-based company, secured $4.5 million in U.S. government funding to grow giant kelp on an 86-acre farm off the coast of Santa Barbara, California.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_conservation_efforts">Global conservation efforts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Global conservation efforts">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> Norwegian Blue Forests Network 2023 report titled 'Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests' documents a global decline in kelp forests, with an annual reduction rate of 1.8%. Over the past 50 years, 40–60% of these ecosystems have degraded due to factors such as climate change, poor water quality, and <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>. The report underscores the urgency of implementing global conservation efforts and emphasizes the need for international cooperation to adopt area-based management strategies. These strategies aim to mitigate the aforementioned impacts and enhance the resilience and sustainability of kelp forests.<a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[111]</a> Kelp forest restoration, practiced in 16 countries over 300 years, has gained momentum, particularly from 2009 to 2019, involving diverse societal sectors such as academia, governments, and businesses. Large-scale restoration successes demonstrate its feasibility, with the best outcomes often near existing kelp forests, emphasizing the importance of preventing their decline. However, challenges persist, including the need for cost-effective methods, funding mechanisms, and adaptations to climate change. This restoration work not only supports <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> recovery but also offers significant social and economic benefits, aligning with the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">United Nations Sustainable Development Goals</a> (SDGs), and underscores the importance of multi-sector collaboration.<a href="#cite_note-:0-111">[111]</a>: 135  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_giant_kelp" title="Aquaculture of giant kelp">Aquaculture of giant kelp</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mann_(1973)-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_(1973)_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mann_(1973)_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMann1973" class="citation journal cs1">Mann, K. 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Retrieved 2024-07-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Fish+Site&rft.atitle=Ocean+rainforest+secures+%244.5+m+to+ramp+up+Californian+kelp+production&rft.date=2023-10-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fthefishsite.com%2Farticles%2Focean-rainforest-secures-4-5-m-to-ramp-up-californian-kelp-production&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDjampou2023" class="citation book cs1">Djampou, Angeline (April 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/42255">Into the Blue: Securing a Sustainable Future for Kelp Forests</a>. United Nations Environment Programme. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.59117%2F20.500.11822%2F42255">10.59117/20.500.11822/42255</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-807-4007-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-807-4007-3"><bdi>978-92-807-4007-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20241007155044/https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/42255;jsessionid=DA45F46EC5BDA1A7B7C841013EB3538F">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-10-07. Retrieved 2024-04-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Into+the+Blue%3A+Securing+a+Sustainable+Future+for+Kelp+Forests&rft.pub=United+Nations+Environment+Programme&rft.date=2023-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.59117%2F20.500.11822%2F42255&rft.isbn=978-92-807-4007-3&rft.aulast=Djampou&rft.aufirst=Angeline&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwedocs.unep.org%2F20.500.11822%2F42255&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelp_forest&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kelp_forests" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kelp forests">Kelp forests</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070322210905/http://bonita.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov/sitechar/kelp.html">"Kelp Forest & Rocky Subtidal Habitats"</a>. noaa.gov. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bonita.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov/sitechar/kelp.html">the original</a> on 2007-03-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=noaa.gov&rft.atitle=Kelp+Forest+%26+Rocky+Subtidal+Habitats&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbonita.mbnms.nos.noaa.gov%2Fsitechar%2Fkelp.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041204200449/http://www.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au/">"Kelp Watch"</a>. tas.gov.au. <a href="/wiki/Tasmania" title="Tasmania">Tasmania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>: Department of Primary Industries, Water & Environment. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au/">the original</a> on 2004-12-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=tas.gov.au&rft.atitle=Kelp+Watch&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kelpwatch.tas.gov.au%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> Excellent general information on kelp forests, as well as specific information on Tasmanian kelp forests.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/19991128010927/http://www.mbayaq.org/efc/efc_hp/hp_kelp_cam.asp">"Monterey Bay Aquarium Kelp Cam"</a>. mbayaq.org. <a href="/wiki/Monterey_Bay_Aquarium" title="Monterey Bay Aquarium">Monterey Bay Aquarium</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mbayaq.org/efc/efc_hp/hp_kelp_cam.asp">the original</a> on 1999-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mbayaq.org&rft.atitle=Monterey+Bay+Aquarium+Kelp+Cam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mbayaq.org%2Fefc%2Fefc_hp%2Fhp_kelp_cam.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKelp+forest" class="Z3988"> Watch a live feed from the kelp forest exhibit.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General_components_and_freshwater_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General components and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biomes" title="Template:Biomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biomes" title="Template talk:Biomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography#Biogeographic_regionalisations" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and subtropical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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