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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Evolution and fossil record</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_and_fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Characteristics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Characteristics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adaptations_to_life_at_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptations_to_life_at_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Adaptations to life at sea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptations_to_life_at_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet_and_feeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet_and_feeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Diet and feeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet_and_feeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surface_feeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_feeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Surface feeding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_feeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pursuit_diving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pursuit_diving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Pursuit diving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pursuit_diving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plunge_diving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plunge_diving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Plunge diving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plunge_diving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kleptoparasitism,_scavenging_and_predation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kleptoparasitism,_scavenging_and_predation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Kleptoparasitism, scavenging and predation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kleptoparasitism,_scavenging_and_predation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Life history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Breeding_and_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Breeding_and_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Breeding and colonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Breeding_and_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Migration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Migration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Migration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Migration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Away_from_the_sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Away_from_the_sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Away from the sea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Away_from_the_sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_with_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_with_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Relationship with humans</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relationship_with_humans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relationship with humans subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relationship_with_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Seabirds_and_fisheries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seabirds_and_fisheries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Seabirds and fisheries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seabirds_and_fisheries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exploitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exploitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Exploitation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_threats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_threats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Other threats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_threats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Role in culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seabird_families" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seabird_families"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Seabird families</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seabird_families-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Seabird</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B1_%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="طائر بحري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طائر بحري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ave_marina" title="Ave marina – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ave marina" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%96%E0%A6%BF" title="সামুদ্রিক পাখি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সামুদ্রিক পাখি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evn-mor" title="Evn-mor – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Evn-mor" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocells_marins" title="Ocells marins – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ocells marins" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BD%C4%95%D1%81_%D0%B2%C4%95%C3%A7%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%B9%C4%83%D0%BA%C4%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Тинĕс вĕçен кайăкĕсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тинĕс вĕçен кайăкĕсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%C5%99sk%C3%A9_ptactvo" title="Mořské ptactvo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mořské ptactvo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havfugle" title="Havfugle – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Havfugle" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeresvogel" title="Meeresvogel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Meeresvogel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merelind" title="Merelind – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Merelind" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ave_marina" title="Ave marina – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ave marina" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marbirdoj" title="Marbirdoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Marbirdoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="پرنده دریایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پرنده دریایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B3fuglar" title="Sjófuglar – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Sjófuglar" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oiseau_de_mer" title="Oiseau de mer – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Oiseau de mer" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aves_mari%C3%B1as" title="Aves mariñas – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Aves mariñas" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%94%EB%8B%B7%EC%83%88" title="바닷새 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="바닷새" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BE%D5%B8%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A9%D5%BC%D5%B9%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ծովային թռչուններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ծովային թռչուններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mar-ucelo" title="Mar-ucelo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Mar-ucelo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burung_laut" title="Burung laut – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Burung laut" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ave_marin" title="Ave marin – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Ave marin" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B3fuglar" title="Sjófuglar – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sjófuglar" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uccelli_marini" title="Uccelli marini – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Uccelli marini" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="עופות ימיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עופות ימיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D2%A3%D1%96%D0%B7_%D2%9B%D2%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Теңіз құстары – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Теңіз құстары" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avis_maritima" title="Avis maritima – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Avis maritima" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABras_putns" title="Jūras putns – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Jūras putns" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C5%ABriniai_pauk%C5%A1%C4%8Diai" title="Jūriniai paukščiai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Jūriniai paukščiai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%BE" title="കടൽപ്പക്ഷികൾ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കടൽപ്പക്ഷികൾ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeevogel" title="Zeevogel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Zeevogel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E9%B3%A5" title="海鳥 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="海鳥" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B8fugler" title="Sjøfugler – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sjøfugler" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B8fuglar" title="Sjøfuglar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sjøfuglar" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about marine birds. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Seabird_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Seabird (disambiguation)">Seabird (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shark_scare_(535163908).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="black seabird flying against blue sky" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Shark_scare_%28535163908%29.jpg/350px-Shark_scare_%28535163908%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Shark_scare_%28535163908%29.jpg/525px-Shark_scare_%28535163908%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Shark_scare_%28535163908%29.jpg/700px-Shark_scare_%28535163908%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Sooty_tern" title="Sooty tern">sooty tern</a> is highly aerial and marine and spends months flying at sea, returning to land only for breeding.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riviere_au_Tonnerre_033.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Riviere_au_Tonnerre_033.jpg/350px-Riviere_au_Tonnerre_033.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Riviere_au_Tonnerre_033.jpg/525px-Riviere_au_Tonnerre_033.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Riviere_au_Tonnerre_033.jpg/700px-Riviere_au_Tonnerre_033.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Raft of coastal seabirds<sup id="cite_ref-Manx_shearwater_(Puffinus_puffinus)_rafting_behaviour_revealed_by_GPS_tracking_and_behavioural_observations._2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manx_shearwater_(Puffinus_puffinus)_rafting_behaviour_revealed_by_GPS_tracking_and_behavioural_observations.-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_St._Lawrence" title="Gulf of St. Lawrence">Gulf of St. Lawrence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Seabirds</b> (also known as <b>marine birds</b>) are <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapted</a> to life within the <a href="/wiki/Marine_(ocean)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine (ocean)">marine</a> environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>, as the same environmental problems and feeding <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</a> have resulted in similar adaptations. The first seabirds evolved in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> <a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">period</a>, and modern seabird families emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a>. </p><p>Seabirds generally live longer, <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">breed</a> later and have fewer young than other birds, but they invest a great deal of time in their young. Most <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> nest in <a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">colonies</a>, varying in size from a few dozen birds to millions. Many species are famous for undertaking long annual <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">migrations</a>, crossing the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases. They feed both at the ocean's surface and below it, and even on each other. Seabirds can be highly <a href="/wiki/Pelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic">pelagic</a>, coastal, or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely. </p><p>Seabirds and humans have a long history together: They have provided food to <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunters</a>, guided <a href="/wiki/Fishing" title="Fishing">fishermen</a> to fishing stocks, and led <a href="/wiki/Sailor" title="Sailor">sailors</a> to land. Many species are currently <a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">threatened</a> by human activities such as <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">oil spills</a>, nets, <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and severe weather. <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">Conservation</a> efforts include the establishment of wildlife refuges and adjustments to fishing techniques. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There exists no single definition of which groups, families and species are seabirds, and most definitions are in some way arbitrary. Elizabeth Shreiber and Joanna Burger, two seabird scientists, said, "The one common characteristic that all seabirds share is that they feed in <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">saltwater</a>; but, as seems to be true with any statement in biology, some do not."<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by convention all of the <a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">Sphenisciformes (penguins)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albatross" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Petrel" title="Petrel">petrels</a>), all of the <a href="/wiki/Suliformes" title="Suliformes">Suliformes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">gannets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a>) except the <a href="/wiki/Darter" title="Darter">darters</a>, and some of the <a href="/wiki/Charadriiformes" title="Charadriiformes">Charadriiformes</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Skua" title="Skua">skuas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tern" title="Tern">terns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Auk" title="Auk">auks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skimmer_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skimmer (bird)">skimmers</a>) are classified as seabirds. The <a href="/wiki/Phalarope" title="Phalarope">phalaropes</a> are usually included as well, since although they are <a href="/wiki/Wader" title="Wader">waders</a> ("shorebirds" in North America), two of the three species (<a href="/wiki/Red_Phalarope" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Phalarope">Red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Red-necked_Phalarope" class="mw-redirect" title="Red-necked Phalarope">Red-necked</a>) are oceanic for nine months of the year, crossing the equator to feed pelagically.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubega_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubega-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tracy_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tracy-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">Loons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>, which nest on lakes but winter at sea, are usually categorized as water birds, not seabirds. Although there are a number of <a href="/wiki/Merginae" class="mw-redirect" title="Merginae">sea ducks</a> in the family <a href="/wiki/Anatidae" title="Anatidae">Anatidae</a> that are truly marine in the winter, by convention they are usually excluded from the seabird grouping. Many waders (or shorebirds) and <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a> are also highly marine, living on the sea's edge (coast), but are also not treated as seabirds. <a href="/wiki/Sea_eagle" title="Sea eagle">Sea eagles</a> and other fish-eating birds of prey are also typically excluded, however tied to marine environments they may be.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooke511_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooke511-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>German ornithologist <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Mayr" title="Gerald Mayr">Gerald Mayr</a> defined the "core waterbird" clade <a href="/wiki/Aequornithes" title="Aequornithes">Aequornithes</a> in 2010. This lineage gives rise to the <a href="/wiki/Gaviiformes" title="Gaviiformes">Gaviiformes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sphenisciformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphenisciformes">Sphenisciformes</a>, Procellariiformes, <a href="/wiki/Ciconiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciconiiformes">Ciconiiformes</a>, Suliformes and <a href="/wiki/Pelecaniformes" title="Pelecaniformes">Pelecaniformes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burleigh_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burleigh-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tropicbirds are part of a lineage—<a href="/wiki/Eurypygimorphae" title="Eurypygimorphae">Eurypygimorphae</a>—that is a <a href="/wiki/Sister_group" title="Sister group">sister group</a> to the Aequornithes.<sup id="cite_ref-Jarvis2014_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jarvis2014-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_and_fossil_record">Evolution and fossil record</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolution and fossil record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seabirds, by virtue of living in a <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geologically</a> depositional environment (that is, in the sea where <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> are readily laid down), are well represented in the <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> record.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are first known to occur in the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period, the earliest being the <a href="/wiki/Hesperornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hesperornithiformes">Hesperornithiformes</a>, like <i>Hesperornis regalis</i>, a flightless loon-like seabird that could dive in a fashion similar to grebes and loons (using its feet to move underwater)<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="Maybe an earlier one has been found over the last 20 years. (Can't verify information in source either) (April 2021)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> but had a beak filled with sharp teeth.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flying Cretaceous seabirds do not exceed wingspans of two meters; any sizes were taken<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Don't understand sentence structure (April 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> by piscivorous <a href="/wiki/Pterosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterosaurs">pterosaurs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hesperornis.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="skull of ancient seabird with teeth set into bill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Hesperornis.jpeg/220px-Hesperornis.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Hesperornis.jpeg/330px-Hesperornis.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Hesperornis.jpeg/440px-Hesperornis.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption>The Cretaceous seabird <i>Hesperornis</i></figcaption></figure> <p>While <i>Hesperornis</i> is not thought to have left descendants, the earliest <a href="/wiki/Neornithes" class="mw-redirect" title="Neornithes">modern</a> seabirds also occurred in the Cretaceous, with a species called <i><a href="/wiki/Tytthostonyx" title="Tytthostonyx">Tytthostonyx glauconiticus</a></i>, which has features suggestive of Procellariiformes and Fregatidae.<sup id="cite_ref-olson1987_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-olson1987-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a clade, the Aequornithes either became seabirds in a single transition in the Cretaceous or some lineages such as pelicans and frigatebirds adapted to sea living independently from freshwater-dwelling ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-Vermeij2018_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vermeij2018-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> both pterosaurs and marine reptiles became extinct, allowing seabirds to expand ecologically. These post-extinction seas were dominated by early <a href="/wiki/Procellariidae" title="Procellariidae">Procellariidae</a>, giant <a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">penguins</a> and two <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinct</a> <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pelagornithidae" title="Pelagornithidae">Pelagornithidae</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Plotopteridae" title="Plotopteridae">Plotopteridae</a> (a group of large seabirds that looked like the penguins).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern genera began their wide radiation in the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>, although the <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Puffinus" title="Puffinus">Puffinus</a></i> (which includes today's <a href="/wiki/Manx_shearwater" title="Manx shearwater">Manx shearwater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sooty_shearwater" title="Sooty shearwater">sooty shearwater</a>) might date back to the <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the Charadriiformes, the gulls and allies (<a href="/wiki/Lari_(bird)" title="Lari (bird)">Lari</a>) became seabirds in the late Eocene, and then waders in the middle Miocene (<a href="/wiki/Langhian" title="Langhian">Langhian</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Vermeij2018_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vermeij2018-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest diversity of seabirds apparently existed during the Late Miocene and the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>. At the end of the latter, the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a> had undergone a period of upheaval due to extinction of considerable numbers of marine species; subsequently, the spread of marine mammals seems to have prevented seabirds from reaching their erstwhile diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="Apparently conveys uncertainty, which may have been resolved (April 2021)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptations_to_life_at_sea">Adaptations to life at sea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Adaptations to life at sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seabirds have made numerous adaptations to living on and feeding in the sea. <a href="/wiki/Wing" title="Wing">Wing</a> morphology has been shaped by the <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a> an individual species or family has <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a>, so that looking at a wing's shape and <a href="/wiki/Wing_loading" title="Wing loading">loading</a> can tell a scientist about its life feeding behaviour. Longer wings and low wing loading are typical of more <a href="/wiki/Pelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelagic">pelagic</a> species, while diving species have shorter wings.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaston_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaston-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Species such as the <a href="/wiki/Wandering_albatross" class="mw-redirect" title="Wandering albatross">wandering albatross</a>, which forage over huge areas of sea, have a reduced capacity for powered flight and are dependent on a type of <a href="/wiki/Gliding_flight" title="Gliding flight">gliding</a> called <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_soaring" title="Dynamic soaring">dynamic soaring</a> (where the wind deflected by waves provides lift) as well as slope soaring.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seabirds also almost always have <a href="/wiki/Bird_feet_and_legs#Webbing_and_lobation" title="Bird feet and legs">webbed feet</a>, to aid movement on the surface as well as assisting diving in some species. The <a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes</a> are unusual among birds in having a strong <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">sense of smell</a>, which is used to find widely distributed food in a vast ocean,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and help distinguish familiar nest odours from unfamiliar ones.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg/220px-Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg/330px-Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg/440px-Phalacrocorax-auritus-007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Cormorants, like this <a href="/wiki/Double-crested_cormorant" title="Double-crested cormorant">double-crested cormorant</a>, have plumage that is partly wettable. This functional adaptation balances the competing requirement for <a href="/wiki/Thermoregulation" title="Thermoregulation">thermoregulation</a> against that of the need to reduce buoyancy.<sup id="cite_ref-JAB2005_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAB2005-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Supraorbital_gland" class="mw-redirect" title="Supraorbital gland">Salt glands</a> are used by seabirds to deal with the <a href="/wiki/Edible_salt" class="mw-redirect" title="Edible salt">salt</a> they ingest by drinking and feeding (particularly on <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a>), and to help them <a href="/wiki/Osmoregulation" title="Osmoregulation">osmoregulate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Excretion" title="Excretion">excretions</a> from these glands (which are positioned in the head of the birds, emerging from the <a href="/wiki/Nasal_cavity" title="Nasal cavity">nasal cavity</a>) are almost pure <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chloride" title="Sodium chloride">sodium chloride</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schmidt-Nielson_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schmidt-Nielson-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a> and some terns, and in common with most other birds, all seabirds have waterproof <a href="/wiki/Plumage" title="Plumage">plumage</a>. However, compared to land birds, they have far more feathers protecting their bodies. This dense plumage is better able to protect the bird from getting wet, and cold is kept out by a dense layer of <a href="/wiki/Down_feather" title="Down feather">down feathers</a>. The cormorants possess a layer of unique feathers that retain a smaller layer of air (compared to other diving birds) but otherwise soak up water.<sup id="cite_ref-JAB2005_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JAB2005-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This allows them to swim without fighting the <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> that retaining air in the feathers causes, yet retain enough air to prevent the bird losing excessive heat through contact with water.<sup id="cite_ref-King233_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-King233-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The plumage of most seabirds is less colourful than that of land birds, restricted in the main to variations of black, white or grey.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaston_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaston-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few species sport colourful plumes (such as the tropicbirds and some penguins), but most of the colour in seabirds appears in the bills and legs. The plumage of seabirds is thought in many cases to be for <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>, both defensive (the colour of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">US Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a> is the same as that of <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_prion" title="Antarctic prion">Antarctic prions</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Gaston_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaston-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in both cases it reduces visibility at sea) and aggressive (the white underside possessed by many seabirds helps hide them from prey below). The usually black wing tips help prevent wear, as they contain melanins that help the feathers resist abrasion.<sup id="cite_ref-Elphick2016_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elphick2016-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet_and_feeding">Diet and feeding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Diet and feeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seabirds evolved to exploit different food resources in the world's seas and oceans, and to a great extent, their <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">behaviour</a> have been shaped by their <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diet</a>. These evolutionary forces have often caused species in different families and even orders to evolve similar strategies and adaptations to the same problems, leading to remarkable <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>, such as that between auks and penguins. There are four basic feeding strategies, or ecological guilds, for feeding at sea: surface feeding, pursuit diving, plunge-diving, and predation of <a href="/wiki/Higher_vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Higher vertebrates">higher vertebrates</a>; within these guilds, there are multiple variations on the theme.<sup id="cite_ref-Castro_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castro-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Surface_feeding">Surface feeding</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Surface feeding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many seabirds feed on the ocean's surface, as the action of marine <a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">currents</a> often concentrates food such as <a href="/wiki/Krill" title="Krill">krill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forage_fish" title="Forage fish">forage fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a>, or other prey items within reach of a dipped head. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wilson%27s_storm_petrel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Wilson%27s_storm_petrel.jpg/220px-Wilson%27s_storm_petrel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Wilson%27s_storm_petrel.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="210" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilson%27s_storm_petrel" title="Wilson's storm petrel">Wilson's storm petrels</a> pattering on the water's surface</figcaption></figure> <p>Surface feeding itself can be broken up into two different approaches, surface feeding while <a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">flying</a> (for example as practiced by <a href="/wiki/Gadfly_petrel" title="Gadfly petrel">gadfly petrels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frigatebird" title="Frigatebird">frigatebirds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Storm_petrel" title="Storm petrel">storm petrels</a>), and surface feeding while swimming (examples of which are practiced by <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fulmar" title="Fulmar">fulmars</a>, many of the <a href="/wiki/Shearwater" title="Shearwater">shearwaters</a> and gadfly petrels). Surface feeders in flight include some of the most acrobatic of seabirds, which either snatch morsels from the water (as do frigate-birds and some terns), or "walk", pattering and hovering on the water's surface, as some of the storm-petrels do.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many of these do not ever land in the water, and some, such as the frigatebirds, have difficulty getting airborne again should they do so.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another seabird family that does not land while feeding is the <a href="/wiki/Skimmer_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skimmer (bird)">skimmer</a>, which has a unique fishing method: flying along the surface with the lower mandible in the water—this shuts automatically when the bill touches something in the water. The skimmer's bill reflects its unusual lifestyle, with the lower mandible uniquely being longer than the upper one.<sup id="cite_ref-HBW_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HBW-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surface feeders that swim often have unique bills as well, adapted for their specific prey. <a href="/wiki/Prion_(bird)" title="Prion (bird)">Prions</a> have special bills with filters called <a href="/wiki/Lamella_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamella (zoology)">lamellae</a> to filter out <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> from mouthfuls of water,<sup id="cite_ref-Brooke_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooke-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many albatrosses and petrels have hooked bills to snatch fast-moving prey. On the other hand, most gulls are versatile and opportunistic feeders who will eat a wide variety of prey, both at sea and on land.<sup id="cite_ref-Davenport_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davenport-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pursuit_diving">Pursuit diving</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pursuit diving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African_Penguin_Skeleton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/African_Penguin_Skeleton.jpg/220px-African_Penguin_Skeleton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/African_Penguin_Skeleton.jpg/330px-African_Penguin_Skeleton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/African_Penguin_Skeleton.jpg/440px-African_Penguin_Skeleton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3041" data-file-height="5184" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/African_penguin" title="African penguin">African penguin</a> skeleton, showing the sternal keel that makes the species a strong diver and swimmer</figcaption></figure> <p>Pursuit diving exerts greater pressures (both evolutionary and physiological) on seabirds, but the reward is a greater area in which to feed than is available to surface feeders. Underwater <a href="/wiki/Marine_propulsion" title="Marine propulsion">propulsion</a> is provided by wings (as used by penguins, auks, <a href="/wiki/Diving_petrel" title="Diving petrel">diving petrels</a> and some other species of petrel) or <a href="/wiki/Bird_feet_and_legs" title="Bird feet and legs">feet</a> (as used by cormorants, <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">loons</a> and several types of fish-eating <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>). Wing-propelled divers are generally faster than foot-propelled divers.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of wings or feet for diving has limited their utility in other situations: loons and grebes walk with extreme difficulty (if at all), penguins cannot fly, and auks have sacrificed flight efficiency in favour of diving. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Razorbill" title="Razorbill">razorbill</a> (an Atlantic auk) requires 64% more energy to fly than a petrel of equivalent size.<sup id="cite_ref-Auk_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Auk-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/Shearwater" title="Shearwater">shearwaters</a> are intermediate between the two, having longer wings than typical wing-propelled divers but heavier wing loadings than the other surface-feeding <a href="/wiki/Procellariidae" title="Procellariidae">procellariids</a>, leaving them capable of diving to considerable depths while still being efficient long-distance travellers. The <a href="/wiki/Short-tailed_shearwater" title="Short-tailed shearwater">short-tailed shearwater</a> is the deepest diver of the shearwaters, having been recorded diving below 70 metres (230 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some albatross species are also capable of limited diving, with <a href="/wiki/Light-mantled_sooty_albatross" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-mantled sooty albatross">light-mantled sooty albatrosses</a> holding the record at 12 metres (40 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of all the wing-propelled pursuit divers, the most efficient in the air are the albatrosses, and they are also the poorest divers. This is the dominant guild in polar and subpolar environments, but it is energetically inefficient in warmer waters. With their poor flying ability, many wing-propelled pursuit divers are more limited in their foraging range than other guilds.<sup id="cite_ref-Ulanski_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ulanski-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plunge_diving">Plunge diving</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Plunge diving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">Gannets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Booby" title="Booby">boobies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tropicbird" title="Tropicbird">tropicbirds</a>, some terns, and <a href="/wiki/Brown_pelican" title="Brown pelican">brown pelicans</a> all engage in plunge diving, taking fast-moving prey by diving into the water from the flight. Plunge diving allows birds to use the energy from the momentum of the dive to combat natural buoyancy (caused by air trapped in plumage),<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thus uses less energy than the dedicated pursuit divers, allowing them to utilise more widely distributed food resources, for example, in impoverished <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical</a> seas. In general, this is the most specialised method of hunting employed by seabirds; other non-specialists (such as gulls and skuas) may employ it but do so with less skill and from lower heights. In brown pelicans, the skills of plunge-diving take several years to fully develop—once mature, they can dive from 20 m (66 ft) above the water's surface, shifting the body before impact to avoid injury.<sup id="cite_ref-elliot_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elliot-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It may be that plunge divers are restricted in their hunting grounds to clear waters that afford a view of their prey from the air.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While they are the dominant <a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">guild</a> in the tropics, the link between plunge diving and <a href="/wiki/Water_clarity" title="Water clarity">water clarity</a> is inconclusive.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some plunge divers (as well as some surface feeders) are dependent on <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">tuna</a> to push shoaling fish up towards the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-AU_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AU-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kleptoparasitism,_scavenging_and_predation"><span id="Kleptoparasitism.2C_scavenging_and_predation"></span>Kleptoparasitism, scavenging and predation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Kleptoparasitism, scavenging and predation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This catch-all category refers to other seabird strategies that involve the next <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">trophic level</a> up. <a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">Kleptoparasites</a> are seabirds that make a part of their living stealing food of other seabirds. Most famously, <a href="/wiki/Frigatebird" title="Frigatebird">frigatebirds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skua" title="Skua">skuas</a> engage in this behaviour, although gulls, terns and other species will steal food opportunistically.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Nocturnal_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nocturnal animal">nocturnal</a> nesting behaviour of some seabirds has been interpreted as arising due to pressure from this aerial piracy.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species, and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study of <a href="/wiki/Great_frigatebird" title="Great frigatebird">great frigatebirds</a> stealing from <a href="/wiki/Masked_booby" title="Masked booby">masked boobies</a> estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40% of the food they needed, and on average obtained only 5%.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many species of gull will feed on seabird and sea mammal <a href="/wiki/Carrion" title="Carrion">carrion</a> when the opportunity arises, as will <a href="/wiki/Giant_petrel" title="Giant petrel">giant petrels</a>. Some species of albatross also engage in scavenging: an analysis of regurgitated <a href="/wiki/Squid" title="Squid">squid</a> beaks has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive, and include mid-water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatrosses.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some species will also feed on other seabirds; for example, gulls, skuas and pelicans will often take eggs, chicks and even small adult seabirds from nesting colonies, while the giant petrels can kill prey up to the size of small penguins and seal pups.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_history">Life history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Life history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seabirds' life histories are dramatically different from those of land birds. In general, they are <a href="/wiki/K-selected" class="mw-redirect" title="K-selected">K-selected</a>, live much longer (anywhere between twenty and sixty years), delay breeding for longer (for up to ten years), and invest more effort into fewer young.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most species will only have one <a href="/wiki/Clutch_(eggs)" title="Clutch (eggs)">clutch</a> a year, unless they lose the first (with a few exceptions, like the <a href="/wiki/Cassin%27s_auklet" title="Cassin's auklet">Cassin's auklet</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many species (like the <a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">tubenoses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulidae" title="Sulidae">sulids</a>) will only lay one egg a year.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooke_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooke-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morus_bassanus_billing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Morus_bassanus_billing.jpg/220px-Morus_bassanus_billing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Morus_bassanus_billing.jpg/330px-Morus_bassanus_billing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Morus_bassanus_billing.jpg/440px-Morus_bassanus_billing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Northern_gannet" title="Northern gannet">Northern gannet</a> pair "billing" during courtship; like all seabirds except the phalaropes they maintain a pair bond throughout the breeding season.</figcaption></figure> <p>Care of young is protracted, extending for as long as six months, among the longest for birds. For example, once <a href="/wiki/Common_guillemot" class="mw-redirect" title="Common guillemot">common guillemot</a> chicks <a href="/wiki/Fledge" title="Fledge">fledge</a>, they remain with the male parent for several months at sea.<sup id="cite_ref-Auk_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Auk-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frigatebirds have the longest period of parental care of any bird except a few raptors and the <a href="/wiki/Southern_ground_hornbill" title="Southern ground hornbill">southern ground hornbill</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with each chick fledging after four to six months and continued assistance after that for up to fourteen months.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the extended period of care, breeding occurs every two years rather than annually for some species. This life-history strategy has probably evolved both in response to the challenges of living at sea (collecting widely scattered prey items), the frequency of breeding failures due to unfavourable marine conditions, and the relative lack of predation compared to that of land-living birds.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of the greater investment in raising the young and because foraging for food may occur far from the nest site, in all seabird species except the phalaropes, both parents participate in caring for the young, and pairs are typically at least seasonally <a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">monogamous</a>. Many species, such as gulls, auks and penguins, retain the same mate for several seasons, and many <a href="/wiki/Petrel" title="Petrel">petrel</a> species mate for life.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooke_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooke-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Albatrosses and <a href="/wiki/Procellariid" class="mw-redirect" title="Procellariid">procellariids</a>, which mate for life, take many years to form a pair bond before they breed, and the albatrosses have an elaborate breeding dance that is part of pair-bond formation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Breeding_and_colonies">Breeding and colonies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Breeding and colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">Bird colony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seabird_breeding_behavior" title="Seabird breeding behavior">Seabird breeding behavior</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Murre_colony.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Murre_colony.jpg/220px-Murre_colony.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Murre_colony.jpg/330px-Murre_colony.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Murre_colony.jpg/440px-Murre_colony.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Common_guillemot" class="mw-redirect" title="Common guillemot">Common murres</a> breed on densely packed colonies on offshore rocks, islands and cliffs.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ninety-five percent of seabirds are colonial,<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and seabird colonies are among the largest bird colonies in the world, providing one of Earth's great wildlife spectacles. Colonies of over a million birds have been recorded, both in the tropics (such as <a href="/wiki/Kiritimati" title="Kiritimati">Kiritimati</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a>) and in the polar latitudes (as in <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>). Seabird colonies occur exclusively for the purpose of breeding; non-breeding birds will only collect together outside the breeding season in areas where prey species are densely aggregated.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seabird colonies are highly variable. Individual nesting sites can be widely spaced, as in an albatross colony, or densely packed as with a <a href="/wiki/Murre" class="mw-redirect" title="Murre">murre</a> colony. In most seabird colonies, several different species will nest on the same colony, often exhibiting some <a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">niche separation</a>. Seabirds can nest in trees (if any are available), on the ground (with or without <a href="/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest">nests</a>), on cliffs, in <a href="/wiki/Burrow" title="Burrow">burrows</a> under the ground and in rocky crevices. Competition can be strong both within species and between species, with aggressive species such as <a href="/wiki/Sooty_tern" title="Sooty tern">sooty terns</a> pushing less dominant species out of the most desirable nesting spaces.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tropical <a href="/wiki/Bonin_petrel" title="Bonin petrel">Bonin petrel</a> nests during the winter to avoid competition with the more aggressive <a href="/wiki/Wedge-tailed_shearwater" title="Wedge-tailed shearwater">wedge-tailed shearwater</a>. When the seasons overlap, the wedge-tailed shearwaters will kill young Bonin petrels in order to use their burrows.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many seabirds show remarkable site <a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">fidelity</a>, returning to the same burrow, nest or site for many years, and they will defend that site from rivals with great vigour.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increases breeding success, provides a place for returning mates to reunite, and reduces the costs of prospecting for a new site.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Young adults breeding for the first time usually return to their natal colony, and often nest close to where they hatched. This tendency, known as <a href="/wiki/Philopatry" title="Philopatry">philopatry</a>, is so strong that a study of <a href="/wiki/Laysan_albatross" title="Laysan albatross">Laysan albatrosses</a> found that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 metres (72 ft);<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> another study, this time on <a href="/wiki/Cory%27s_shearwater" title="Cory's shearwater">Cory's shearwaters</a> nesting near <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, found that of nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony bred in the burrow they were raised in, and two actually bred with their own mother.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonies are usually situated on islands, cliffs or headlands, which land mammals have difficulty accessing.<sup id="cite_ref-Moors_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moors-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is thought to provide protection to seabirds, which are often very clumsy on land. Coloniality often arises in types of bird that do not defend feeding territories (such as <a href="/wiki/Swift_(bird)" title="Swift (bird)">swifts</a>, which have a very variable prey source); this may be a reason why it arises more frequently in seabirds.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are other possible advantages: colonies may act as information centres, where seabirds returning to the sea to forage can find out where prey is by studying returning individuals of the same species. There are disadvantages to colonial life, particularly the spread of disease. Colonies also attract the attention of <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a>, principally other birds, and many species attend their colonies nocturnally to avoid predation.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birds from different colonies often forage in different areas to avoid competition.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Migration">Migration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Migration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:352px;max-width:352px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:178px;max-width:178px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:117px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PelicanosFlock.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/PelicanosFlock.jpg/176px-PelicanosFlock.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/PelicanosFlock.jpg/264px-PelicanosFlock.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/PelicanosFlock.jpg/352px-PelicanosFlock.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="1381" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Pelicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelicans">Pelican</a> flock flying over <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> Bay area. These birds come to <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a> every year from North America in the northern hemisphere winter season.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:170px;max-width:170px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:117px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Smallarctern.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Smallarctern.jpg/168px-Smallarctern.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Smallarctern.jpg/252px-Smallarctern.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Smallarctern.jpg/336px-Smallarctern.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2886" data-file-height="2014" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Arctic_tern" title="Arctic tern">Arctic terns</a> breed in the arctic and subarctic and winter in Antarctica.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Like many birds, seabirds often <a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">migrate</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Breeding_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Breeding season">breeding season</a>. Of these, the trip taken by the <a href="/wiki/Arctic_tern" title="Arctic tern">Arctic tern</a> is the farthest of any bird, crossing the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equator</a> in order to spend the Austral summer in Antarctica. Other species also undertake trans-equatorial trips, both from the north to the south, and from south to north. The population of <a href="/wiki/Elegant_tern" title="Elegant tern">elegant terns</a>, which nest off <a href="/wiki/Baja_California" title="Baja California">Baja California</a>, splits after the breeding season with some birds travelling north to the <a href="/wiki/Central_Coast_of_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Coast of California">Central Coast of California</a> and some travelling as far south as Peru and Chile to feed in the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sooty_shearwater" title="Sooty shearwater">sooty shearwater</a> undertakes an annual migration cycle that rivals that of the Arctic tern; birds that nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan, Alaska and California, an annual round trip of 64,000 kilometres (40,000 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other species also migrate shorter distances away from the breeding sites, their distribution at sea determined by the availability of food. If oceanic conditions are unsuitable, seabirds will emigrate to more productive areas, sometimes permanently if the bird is young.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After fledging, juvenile birds often disperse further than adults, and to different areas, so are commonly sighted far from a species' normal range. Some species, such as the auks, do not have a concerted migration effort, but drift southwards as the winter approaches.<sup id="cite_ref-Auk_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Auk-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other species, such as some of the storm petrels, diving petrels and cormorants, never disperse at all, staying near their breeding colonies year round.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Away_from_the_sea">Away from the sea</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Away from the sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the definition of seabirds suggests that the birds in question spend their lives on the ocean, many seabird families have many species that spend some or even most of their lives inland away from the sea. Most strikingly, many species breed tens, hundreds or even thousands of miles inland. Some of these species still return to the ocean to feed; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Snow_petrel" title="Snow petrel">snow petrel</a>, the nests of which have been found 480 kilometres (300 mi) inland on the Antarctic mainland, are unlikely to find anything to eat around their breeding sites.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Marbled_murrelet" title="Marbled murrelet">marbled murrelet</a> nests inland in <a href="/wiki/Old_growth_forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Old growth forest">old growth forest</a>, seeking huge <a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">conifers</a> with large branches to nest on.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other species, such as the <a href="/wiki/California_gull" title="California gull">California gull</a>, nest and feed inland on lakes, and then move to the coasts in the winter.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some cormorant, <a href="/wiki/Pelican" title="Pelican">pelican</a>, gull and tern species have individuals that never visit the sea at all, spending their lives on lakes, rivers, <a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">swamps</a> and, in the case of some of the gulls, cities and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> land. In these cases, it is thought that these terrestrial or freshwater birds evolved from marine ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-Gaston_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gaston-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some seabirds, principally those that nest in <a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">tundra</a>, as skuas and phalaropes do, will migrate over land as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Rubega_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rubega-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wiley_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiley-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The more marine species, such as petrels, auks and <a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">gannets</a>, are more restricted in their habits, but are occasionally seen inland as vagrants. This most commonly happens to young inexperienced birds, but can happen in great numbers to exhausted adults after large <a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">storms</a>, an event known as a <i>wreck</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_with_humans">Relationship with humans</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Relationship with humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seabirds_and_fisheries">Seabirds and fisheries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Seabirds and fisheries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Seabirds have had a long association with both <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fisheries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sailor" title="Sailor">sailors</a>, and both have drawn benefits and disadvantages from the relationship. </p><p>Fishermen have traditionally used seabirds as indicators of both <a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">fish shoals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-AU_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AU-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> underwater <a href="/wiki/Bank_(topography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bank (topography)">banks</a> that might indicate fish stocks, and of potential landfall. In fact, the known association of seabirds with land was instrumental in allowing the <a href="/wiki/Polynesia" title="Polynesia">Polynesians</a> to locate tiny landmasses in the Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seabirds have provided food for fishermen away from home, as well as bait. Famously, tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish directly. Indirectly, fisheries have also benefited from <a href="/wiki/Guano" title="Guano">guano</a> from colonies of seabirds acting as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizer</a> for the surrounding seas.<sup id="cite_ref-Perkins_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perkins-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Negative effects on fisheries are mostly restricted to raiding by birds on <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although <a href="/wiki/Long-line_fishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Long-line fishing">long-lining</a> fisheries also have to deal with <a href="/wiki/Bait_(luring_substance)" title="Bait (luring substance)">bait</a> stealing. There have been claims of prey depletion by seabirds of fishery stocks, and while there is some evidence of this, the effects of seabirds are considered smaller than that of <a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">marine mammals</a> and predatory fish (like <a href="/wiki/Tuna" title="Tuna">tuna</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Burger_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burger-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seabirds_longlinersm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Seabirds_longlinersm.jpg/220px-Seabirds_longlinersm.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Seabirds_longlinersm.jpg/330px-Seabirds_longlinersm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Seabirds_longlinersm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="296" /></a><figcaption>Seabirds (mostly northern fulmars) flocking at a long-lining vessel</figcaption></figure><p>Some seabird species have benefited from fisheries, particularly from discarded fish and <a href="/wiki/Offal" title="Offal">offal</a>. These discards compose 30% of the food of seabirds in the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, for example, and compose up to 70% of the total food of some seabird populations.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can have other impacts; for example, the spread of the <a href="/wiki/Northern_fulmar" title="Northern fulmar">northern fulmar</a> through the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> is attributed in part to the availability of discards.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discards generally benefit surface feeders, such as gannets and petrels, to the detriment of pursuit divers like penguins and guillemots, which can get entangled in the nets.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooke197_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooke197-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fisheries also have negative effects on seabirds, and these effects, particularly on the long-lived and slow-breeding albatrosses, are a source of increasing concern to conservationists. The bycatch of seabirds entangled in nets or hooked on fishing lines has had a big impact on seabird numbers; for example, an estimated 100,000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on tuna lines set out by long-line fisheries.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="Likely a different number now (April 2021)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> Overall, many hundreds of thousands of birds are trapped and killed each year, a source of concern for some of the rarest species (for example, only about 2,000 <a href="/wiki/Short-tailed_albatross" title="Short-tailed albatross">short-tailed albatrosses</a> are known to still exist). Seabirds are also thought to suffer when overfishing occurs.<sup id="cite_ref-Cury_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cury-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Changes to the marine ecosystems caused by dredging, which alters the biodiversity of the seafloor, can also have a negative impact.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exploitation">Exploitation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Exploitation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a> of seabirds and the collecting of seabird <a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">eggs</a> have contributed to the declines of many species, and the <a href="/wiki/Extinct" class="mw-redirect" title="Extinct">extinction</a> of several, including the <a href="/wiki/Great_auk" title="Great auk">great auk</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Spectacled_cormorant" title="Spectacled cormorant">spectacled cormorant</a>. Seabirds have been hunted for food by coastal peoples throughout history—one of the earliest instances known is in southern Chile, where <a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">archaeological</a> excavations in middens has shown hunting of albatrosses, cormorants and shearwaters from 5000 BP.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This pressure has led to some species becoming extinct in many places; in particular, at least 20 species of an original 29 no longer breed on <a href="/wiki/Easter_Island" title="Easter Island">Easter Island</a>. In the 19th century, the hunting of seabirds for <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a> deposits and feathers for the <a href="/wiki/Hat" title="Hat">millinery</a> trade reached industrial levels. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muttonbirding" class="extiw" title="wikt:muttonbirding">Muttonbirding</a> (harvesting shearwater chicks) developed as important industries in both New Zealand and Tasmania, and the name of one species, the <a href="/wiki/Providence_petrel" title="Providence petrel">providence petrel</a>, is derived from its seemingly miraculous arrival on <a href="/wiki/Norfolk_Island" title="Norfolk Island">Norfolk Island</a> where it provided a windfall for starving European settlers.<sup id="cite_ref-Anderson_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Falkland_Islands" title="Falkland Islands">Falkland Islands</a>, hundreds of thousands of penguins were harvested for their oil each year. Seabird eggs have also long been an important source of food for sailors undertaking long sea voyages, as well as being taken when settlements grow in areas near a colony. Eggers from <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="San Francisco, California">San Francisco</a> took almost half a million eggs a year from the <a href="/wiki/Farallon_Islands" title="Farallon Islands">Farallon Islands</a> in the mid-19th century, a period in the islands' history from which the seabird species are still recovering.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both hunting and egging continue today, although not at the levels that occurred in the past, and generally in a more controlled manner. For example, the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> of <a href="/wiki/Stewart_Island_/_Rakiura" class="mw-redirect" title="Stewart Island / Rakiura">Stewart Island / Rakiura</a> continue to harvest the chicks of the sooty shearwater as they have done for centuries, using traditional stewardship, <i><a href="/wiki/Kaitiaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaitiaki">kaitiakitanga</a></i>, to manage the harvest, but now also work with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Otago" title="University of Otago">University of Otago</a> in studying the populations.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, however, uncontrolled hunting is pushing many species into steep decline.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_threats">Other threats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Other threats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Introduced_mammals_on_seabird_breeding_islands" title="Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands">Introduced mammals on seabird breeding islands</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oiledcrestedauklet.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Oiledcrestedauklet.jpeg/220px-Oiledcrestedauklet.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Oiledcrestedauklet.jpeg/330px-Oiledcrestedauklet.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Oiledcrestedauklet.jpeg/440px-Oiledcrestedauklet.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Crested_auklet" title="Crested auklet">crested auklet</a> was oiled in Alaska during the spill of <a href="/wiki/MV_Selendang_Ayu" title="MV Selendang Ayu">MV <i>Selendang Ayu</i></a> in 2004.</figcaption></figure> <p>Other human factors have led to declines and even extinctions in seabird populations and species. Of these, perhaps the most serious are <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introduced species</a>. Seabirds, breeding predominantly on small isolated islands, are vulnerable to predators because they have lost many behaviours associated with defence from predators.<sup id="cite_ref-Moors_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moors-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Feral_cat" title="Feral cat">Feral cats</a> can take seabirds as large as albatrosses, and many introduced rodents, such as the <a href="/wiki/Polynesian_rat" title="Polynesian rat">Pacific rat</a>, take eggs hidden in burrows. Introduced goats, cattle, rabbits and other <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a> can create problems, particularly when species need vegetation to protect or shade their young.<sup id="cite_ref-car_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-car-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disturbance of breeding colonies by humans is often a problem as well—visitors, even well-meaning tourists, can flush brooding adults off a colony, leaving chicks and eggs vulnerable to predators.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The build-up of <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> and pollutants in seabirds is also a concern. Seabirds, being <a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">apex predators</a>, suffered from the ravages of the insecticide <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a> until it was banned; DDT was implicated, for example, in embryo development problems and the skewed sex ratio of <a href="/wiki/Western_gull" title="Western gull">western gulls</a> in southern California.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spills</a> are also a threat to seabirds: the oil is toxic, and bird feathers become saturated by the oil, causing them to lose their waterproofing.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oil pollution in particular threatens species with restricted ranges or already depressed populations.<sup id="cite_ref-BirdLifeMMurrelet_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BirdLifeMMurrelet-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IronyGannet_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IronyGannet-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> mainly affect seabirds via changes to their <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a>: various processes in the ocean lead to decreased availability of food and colonies are more often flooded as a consequence of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> and extreme rainfall events. Heat stress from extreme temperatures is an additional threat.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some seabirds have used changing wind patterns to forage further and more efficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, <a href="/wiki/Plasticosis" title="Plasticosis">plasticosis</a>, a new disease caused solely by plastics, was discovered in seabirds. The birds identified as having the disease have scarred digestive tracts from ingesting <a href="/wiki/Plastic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Plastic waste">plastic waste</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "When birds ingest small pieces of plastic, they found, it inflames the digestive tract. Over time, the persistent inflammation causes tissues to become scarred and disfigured, affecting digestion, growth and survival."<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservation">Conservation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The threats faced by seabirds have not gone unnoticed by scientists or the <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation movement</a>. As early as 1903, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> was convinced of the need to declare <a href="/wiki/Pelican_Island_National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge">Pelican Island</a> in Florida a <a href="/wiki/National_Wildlife_Refuge" title="National Wildlife Refuge">National Wildlife Refuge</a> to protect the bird colonies (including the nesting <a href="/wiki/Brown_pelican" title="Brown pelican">brown pelicans</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 1909 he protected the Farallon Islands. Today many important seabird colonies are given some measure of protection, from <a href="/wiki/Heron_Island,_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Heron Island, Australia">Heron Island</a> in Australia to <a href="/wiki/Triangle_Island" title="Triangle Island">Triangle Island</a> in British Columbia.<sup id="cite_ref-HeronIsland_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HeronIsland-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Corday_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corday-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Island_restoration" title="Island restoration">Island restoration</a> techniques, pioneered by New Zealand, enable the removal of exotic invaders from increasingly large islands. Feral cats have been removed from <a href="/wiki/Ascension_Island" title="Ascension Island">Ascension Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arctic_fox" title="Arctic fox">Arctic foxes</a> from many islands in the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and rats from <a href="/wiki/Campbell_Island,_New_Zealand" title="Campbell Island, New Zealand">Campbell Island</a>. The removal of these introduced species has led to increases in numbers of species under pressure and even the return of extirpated ones. After the removal of cats from Ascension Island, seabirds began to nest there again for the first time in over a hundred years.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Seabird mortality caused by <a href="/wiki/Longline_bycatch_in_Hawaii" title="Longline bycatch in Hawaii">long-line fisheries</a> can be greatly reduced by techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and by using bird scarers,<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their deployment is increasingly required by many national fishing fleets. </p><p>One of the Millennium Projects in the UK was the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Seabird_Centre" title="Scottish Seabird Centre">Scottish Seabird Centre</a>, near the important bird sanctuaries on <a href="/wiki/Bass_Rock" title="Bass Rock">Bass Rock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fidra" title="Fidra">Fidra</a> and the surrounding islands. The area is home to huge colonies of gannets, <a href="/wiki/Puffin" title="Puffin">puffins</a>, skuas and other seabirds. The centre allows visitors to watch live video from the islands as well as learn about the threats the birds face and how we can protect them, and has helped to significantly raise the profile of seabird conservation in the UK. Seabird tourism can provide income for coastal communities as well as raise the profile of seabird conservation, although it needs to be managed to ensure it does not harm the colonies and nesting birds.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Northern_royal_albatross" title="Northern royal albatross">northern royal albatross</a> colony at <a href="/wiki/Taiaroa_Head" title="Taiaroa Head">Taiaroa Head</a> in New Zealand attracts 40,000 visitors a year.<sup id="cite_ref-Brooke_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brooke-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The plight of albatross and large seabirds, as well as other marine creatures, being taken as bycatch by long-line fisheries, has been addressed by a large number of <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> (including <a href="/wiki/BirdLife_International" title="BirdLife International">BirdLife International</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Bird_Conservancy" title="American Bird Conservancy">American Bird Conservancy</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_for_the_Protection_of_Birds" title="Royal Society for the Protection of Birds">Royal Society for the Protection of Birds</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-BirdLifeBycatch_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BirdLifeBycatch-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wiedenfeld_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiedenfeld-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cutlip_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cutlip-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the <a href="/wiki/Agreement_on_the_Conservation_of_Albatrosses_and_Petrels" title="Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels">Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels</a>, a legally binding treaty designed to protect these threatened species, which has been ratified by thirteen countries as of 2021 (Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Ecuador, France, New Zealand, Norway, Peru, South Africa, Spain, Uruguay, United Kingdom).<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_in_culture">Role in culture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Role in culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelican_in_its_piety.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pelican_in_its_piety.jpg/220px-Pelican_in_its_piety.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pelican_in_its_piety.jpg/330px-Pelican_in_its_piety.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Pelican_in_its_piety.jpg/440px-Pelican_in_its_piety.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1628" data-file-height="1553" /></a><figcaption>Depiction of a pelican with chicks on a stained glass window, Saint Mark's Church, <a href="/wiki/Gillingham,_Kent" title="Gillingham, Kent">Gillingham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kent" title="Kent">Kent</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many seabirds are little studied and poorly known because they live far out at sea and breed in isolated colonies. Some seabirds, particularly the albatrosses and gulls, are more well known to humans. The albatross has been described as "the most legendary of birds",<sup id="cite_ref-delhoyo_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-delhoyo-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have a variety of myths and legends associated with them. While it is widely considered unlucky to harm them, the notion that sailors believed that is a myth<sup id="cite_ref-Brit_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brit-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that derives from <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Taylor_Coleridge" title="Samuel Taylor Coleridge">Samuel Taylor Coleridge</a>'s famous poem, "<a href="/wiki/The_Rime_of_the_Ancient_Mariner" title="The Rime of the Ancient Mariner">The Rime of the Ancient Mariner</a>", in which a sailor is punished for killing an albatross by having to wear its corpse around his neck. Sailors did, however, consider it unlucky to touch a storm petrel, especially one that landed on the ship.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gulls are one of the most commonly seen seabirds because they frequent human-made habitats (such as cities and <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">dumps</a>) and often show a fearless nature. Gulls have been used as metaphors, as in <i><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Livingston_Seagull" title="Jonathan Livingston Seagull">Jonathan Livingston Seagull</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Bach" title="Richard Bach">Richard Bach</a>, or to denote a closeness to the sea; in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="The Lord of the Rings">The Lord of the Rings</a></i>, they appear in the insignia of <a href="/wiki/Gondor" title="Gondor">Gondor</a> and therefore <a href="/wiki/N%C3%BAmenor" title="Númenor">Númenor</a> (used in the design of the films), and they call <a href="/wiki/Legolas" title="Legolas">Legolas</a> to (and across) the sea. Pelicans have long been associated with mercy and <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> because of an early <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> myth that they split open their breast to feed their starving chicks.<sup id="cite_ref-elliot_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elliot-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seabird_families">Seabird families</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Seabird families"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following are the groups of birds normally classed as seabirds.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Sphenisciformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphenisciformes">Sphenisciformes</a></b> (Antarctic and southern waters; 16 species) </p> <ul><li>Spheniscidae <a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">penguins</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes</a></b> (Tubenoses: pan-oceanic and pelagic; 93 species) </p> <ul><li>Diomedeidae <a href="/wiki/Albatross" title="Albatross">albatrosses</a></li> <li>Procellariidae <a href="/wiki/Fulmar" title="Fulmar">fulmars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prion_(bird)" title="Prion (bird)">prions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shearwater" title="Shearwater">shearwaters</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gadfly_petrel" title="Gadfly petrel">gadfly</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Petrel" title="Petrel">petrels</a></li> <li>Pelacanoididae <a href="/wiki/Diving_petrel" title="Diving petrel">diving petrels</a></li> <li>Hydrobatidae <a href="/wiki/Storm_petrel" title="Storm petrel">storm petrels</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Pelecaniformes" title="Pelecaniformes">Pelecaniformes</a></b> (Worldwide; 8 species) </p> <ul><li>Pelecanidae <a href="/wiki/Pelican" title="Pelican">pelicans</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Suliformes" title="Suliformes">Suliformes</a></b> (Worldwide; about 56 species) </p> <ul><li>Sulidae <a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">gannets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Booby" title="Booby">boobies</a></li> <li>Phalacrocoracidae <a href="/wiki/Cormorant" title="Cormorant">cormorants</a></li> <li>Fregatidae <a href="/wiki/Frigatebird" title="Frigatebird">frigatebirds</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Phaethontiformes" title="Phaethontiformes">Phaethontiformes</a></b> (Worldwide tropical seas; 3 species) </p> <ul><li>Phaethontidae <a href="/wiki/Tropicbird" title="Tropicbird">tropicbirds</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Charadriiformes" title="Charadriiformes">Charadriiformes</a></b> (Worldwide; 305 species, but only the families listed are classed as seabirds.) </p> <ul><li>Stercorariidae <a href="/wiki/Skua" title="Skua">skuas</a></li> <li>Laridae <a href="/wiki/Gull" title="Gull">gulls</a></li> <li>Sternidae <a href="/wiki/Tern" title="Tern">terns</a></li> <li>Rhynchopidae <a href="/wiki/Skimmer_(bird)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skimmer (bird)">skimmers</a></li> <li>Alcidae <a href="/wiki/Auk" title="Auk">auks</a></li></ul> <p>For an alternative taxonomy of these groups, see also <a href="/wiki/Sibley-Ahlquist_taxonomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy">Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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(1990) <i>Seabirds of Hawaii, Natural History and Conservation</i> Ithaca:Cornell University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-2449-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-2449-6">0-8014-2449-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schmidt-Nielson-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schmidt-Nielson_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt-Nielson1960" class="citation journal cs1">Schmidt-Nielson, Knut (May 1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1161%2F01.CIR.21.5.955">"The Salt-Secreting Gland of Marine Birds"</a>. <i>Circulation</i>. <b>21</b> (5): 955–967. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1161%2F01.CIR.21.5.955">10.1161/01.CIR.21.5.955</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14443123">14443123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Circulation&rft.atitle=The+Salt-Secreting+Gland+of+Marine+Birds&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=955-967&rft.date=1960-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1161%2F01.CIR.21.5.955&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14443123&rft.aulast=Schmidt-Nielson&rft.aufirst=Knut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1161%252F01.CIR.21.5.955&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-King233-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-King233_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing2013" class="citation book cs1">King, Richard J. (2013). <i>The Devil's Cormorant: A Natural History</i>. Durham, NH: University of New Hampshire Press. p. 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61168-699-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61168-699-9"><bdi>978-1-61168-699-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Devil%27s+Cormorant%3A+A+Natural+History&rft.place=Durham%2C+NH&rft.pages=233&rft.pub=University+of+New+Hampshire+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-61168-699-9&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Richard+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elphick2016-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Elphick2016_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElphick2016" class="citation book cs1">Elphick, Jonathan (2016). <i>Birds: A Complete Guide to their Biology and Behavior</i>. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. p. 80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77085-762-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-77085-762-9"><bdi>978-1-77085-762-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birds%3A+A+Complete+Guide+to+their+Biology+and+Behavior&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+New+York&rft.pages=80&rft.pub=Firefly+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-77085-762-9&rft.aulast=Elphick&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Castro-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Castro_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastroHuber2003" class="citation book cs1">Castro, Peter; Huber, Michael E. 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(1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/80/1/83">"Aerodynamics and hydrodynamics of the 'hovering' flight of Wilson's storm petrel"</a>. <i>Journal of Experimental Biology</i>. <b>80</b>: 83–91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1242%2Fjeb.80.1.83">10.1242/jeb.80.1.83</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Biology&rft.atitle=Aerodynamics+and+hydrodynamics+of+the+%27hovering%27+flight+of+Wilson%27s+storm+petrel&rft.volume=80&rft.pages=83-91&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1242%2Fjeb.80.1.83&rft.au=Withers%2C+P.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjeb.biologists.org%2Fcgi%2Freprint%2F80%2F1%2F83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Metz, V. G. and Schreiber, E. A. (2002). Great Frigatebird (<i>Fregata minor</i>). In <i>The Birds of North America</i>, No. <b>681</b> (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HBW-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HBW_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZusi1996" class="citation cs2">Zusi, R. L. (1996), "Family Rynchopidae (Skimmers)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.), <i><a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_the_Birds_of_the_World" title="Handbook of the Birds of the World">Handbook of the Birds of the World</a>. Volume 3, Hoatzin to Auks</i>, Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp. 668–675, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-87334-20-2" title="Special:BookSources/84-87334-20-2"><bdi>84-87334-20-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Family+Rynchopidae+%28Skimmers%29&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Birds+of+the+World.+Volume+3%2C+Hoatzin+to+Auks&rft.place=Barcelona&rft.pages=668-675&rft.pub=Lynx+Edicions&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=84-87334-20-2&rft.aulast=Zusi&rft.aufirst=R.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brooke-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brooke_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brooke_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brooke_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brooke_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brooke, M. (2004). <i>Albatrosses and Petrels Across the World</i>. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-850125-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-850125-0">0-19-850125-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davenport-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Davenport_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavenportD._BlackBurnellCross2009" class="citation book cs1">Davenport, John; D. Black, Kenn; Burnell, Gavin; Cross, Tom; Culloty, Sarah; Ekaratne, Suki; Furness, Bob; Mulcahy, Maire; Thetmeyer, Helmut (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=304yeBTnjpYC&pg=PA68"><i>Aquaculture: The Ecological Issues</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1444311259" title="Special:BookSources/978-1444311259"><bdi>978-1444311259</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aquaculture%3A+The+Ecological+Issues&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1444311259&rft.aulast=Davenport&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=D.+Black%2C+Kenn&rft.au=Burnell%2C+Gavin&rft.au=Cross%2C+Tom&rft.au=Culloty%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Ekaratne%2C+Suki&rft.au=Furness%2C+Bob&rft.au=Mulcahy%2C+Maire&rft.au=Thetmeyer%2C+Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D304yeBTnjpYC%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Auk-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Auk_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Auk_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Auk_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaston, Anthony J.; Jones, Ian L. 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(1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps167261">"Feeding ecology of short-tailed shearwaters: breeding in Tasmania and foraging in the Antarctic?"</a>. <i>Marine Ecology Progress Series</i>. <b>167</b>: 261–274. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998MEPS..167..261W">1998MEPS..167..261W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3354%2Fmeps167261">10.3354/meps167261</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Ecology+Progress+Series&rft.atitle=Feeding+ecology+of+short-tailed+shearwaters%3A+breeding+in+Tasmania+and+foraging+in+the+Antarctic%3F&rft.volume=167&rft.pages=261-274&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3354%2Fmeps167261&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998MEPS..167..261W&rft.au=Weimerskirch%2C+H.&rft.au=Cherel%2C+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3354%252Fmeps167261&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrince,_P._A.Huin,_N.Weimerskirch,_H.1994" class="citation journal cs1">Prince, P. 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"Diving depths of albatrosses". <i>Antarctic Science</i>. <b>6</b> (3): 353–354. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994AntSc...6..353P">1994AntSc...6..353P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0954102094000532">10.1017/S0954102094000532</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129728675">129728675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antarctic+Science&rft.atitle=Diving+depths+of+albatrosses&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=353-354&rft.date=1994&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129728675%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0954102094000532&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994AntSc...6..353P&rft.au=Prince%2C+P.+A.&rft.au=Huin%2C+N.&rft.au=Weimerskirch%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ulanski-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ulanski_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUlanski2016" class="citation book cs1">Ulanski, Stan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iWM3CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT99"><i>The California Current: A Pacific Ecosystem and Its Fliers, Divers, and Swimmers</i></a>. UNC Press Books. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0070294219" title="Special:BookSources/978-0070294219"><bdi>978-0070294219</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+California+Current%3A+A+Pacific+Ecosystem+and+Its+Fliers%2C+Divers%2C+and+Swimmers&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0070294219&rft.aulast=Ulanski&rft.aufirst=Stan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiWM3CwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRopert-Coudert,_Y.Grémillet,_D.Ryan,_P.Kato,_A.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ropert-Coudert, Y.; Grémillet, D.; Ryan, P.; Kato, A.; Naito, Y.; Le Maho, Y. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Bird+Conservancy&rft.atitle=Seabird+Bycatch+Solutions+for+Fishery+Sustainability&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Wiedenfeld&rft.aufirst=D.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcbirds.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F05%2FSeabird-Bycatch-Solutions_2016_InternetRequired_LowRes.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cutlip-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cutlip_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCutlip2017" class="citation news cs1">Cutlip, Kimbra (August 2, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalfishingwatch.org/research/mitigating-seabird-bycatch-with-global-fishing-watch/">"Mitigating Seabird Bycatch with Global Fishing Watch"</a>. <i>Global Fishing Watch</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 1,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Global+Fishing+Watch&rft.atitle=Mitigating+Seabird+Bycatch+with+Global+Fishing+Watch&rft.date=2017-08-02&rft.aulast=Cutlip&rft.aufirst=Kimbra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fglobalfishingwatch.org%2Fresearch%2Fmitigating-seabird-bycatch-with-global-fishing-watch%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acap.aq/">"Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels Site"</a>. Australian Antarctic Division<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 20,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Agreement+on+the+Conservation+of+Albatrosses+and+Petrels+Site&rft.pub=Australian+Antarctic+Division&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acap.aq%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-delhoyo-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-delhoyo_106-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarboneras1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Carboneras, C. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/198/mode/1up">"Family Diomedeidae (Albatrosses)"</a></span>. In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.). <i>Handbook of the Birds of the World</i>. Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. pp. 198–215. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-87334-10-5" title="Special:BookSources/84-87334-10-5"><bdi>84-87334-10-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Family+Diomedeidae+%28Albatrosses%29&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Birds+of+the+World&rft.place=Barcelona%2C+Spain&rft.pages=198-215&rft.pub=Lynx+Edicions&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=84-87334-10-5&rft.aulast=Carboneras&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookofbirdso0001unse%2Fpage%2F198%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brit-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brit_107-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCockerMabey2005" class="citation book cs1">Cocker, Mark; Mabey, Richard (2005). <i>Birds Britannica</i>. London: Chatto and Windus. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-6907-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7011-6907-7"><bdi>978-0-7011-6907-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Birds+Britannica&rft.place=London&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Chatto+and+Windus&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7011-6907-7&rft.aulast=Cocker&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft.au=Mabey%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarboneras1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Carboneras, C. (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofbirdso0001unse/page/258/mode/1up">"Family Hydrobatidae (Storm-petrels)"</a></span>. In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. (eds.). <i>Handbook of the Birds of the World</i>. Vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. pp. 258–271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-87334-10-5" title="Special:BookSources/84-87334-10-5"><bdi>84-87334-10-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Family+Hydrobatidae+%28Storm-petrels%29&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+the+Birds+of+the+World&rft.place=Barcelona%2C+Spain&rft.pages=258-271&rft.pub=Lynx+Edicions&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=84-87334-10-5&rft.aulast=Carboneras&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhandbookofbirdso0001unse%2Fpage%2F258%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Seabirds</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Sea+birds&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Sea+birds">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Sea+birds&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurnessP._Monaghan1987" class="citation book cs1">Furness, R. W.; P. Monaghan (1987). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/seabirdecology0000furn/mode/2up"><i>Seabird Ecology</i></a></span>. Tertiary Level Biology. New York: Chapman and Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-2093-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4613-2093-7"><bdi>978-1-4613-2093-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/14069804">14069804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seabird+Ecology&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Tertiary+Level+Biology&rft.pub=Chapman+and+Hall&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F14069804&rft.isbn=978-1-4613-2093-7&rft.aulast=Furness&rft.aufirst=R.+W.&rft.au=P.+Monaghan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fseabirdecology0000furn%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeabird" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Seabird&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Seabirds" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Seabirds">Seabirds</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/seabird" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/seabird">seabird</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.seabirds.net/">Seabirds.net</a>: A data portal for global seabird databases and information outlet for the World Seabird Union</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.birdlife.org/action/campaigns/save_the_albatross/index.html">BirdLife International; Save the Albatross Campaign</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.marineornithology.org/">Marine Ornithology, the Journal of Seabird Science and Conservation</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Birds" title="Template:Birds"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Birds" title="Template talk:Birds"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Birds" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Birds"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Birds_(class:_Aves)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a> (<a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a>: Aves)</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_birds" title="Outline of birds">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bird_anatomy" title="Bird anatomy">Anatomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">Beak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_brain" title="Avian brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crop_(anatomy)#Birds" title="Crop (anatomy)">Crop</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crop_milk" title="Crop milk">milk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dactyly#bird_digits" title="Dactyly">Dactyly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">Eggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">Feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_flight" title="Bird flight">Flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uropygial_gland" title="Uropygial gland">Preen gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plumage" title="Plumage">Plumage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vision" title="Bird vision">Vision</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bird_behaviour" class="mw-redirect" title="Bird behaviour">Behaviour</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_vocalization" title="Bird vocalization">Singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_intelligence" title="Bird intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_migration" title="Bird migration">Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avian_foraging" title="Avian foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_birds" title="Sexual selection in birds">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lek_mating" title="Lek mating">Lek mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird_breeding_behavior" title="Seabird breeding behavior">Seabird breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_incubation#Avian_incubation" title="Egg incubation">Incubation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">Brood parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_nest" title="Bird nest">Nesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_hybrid" title="Bird hybrid">Hybrids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_colony" title="Bird colony">Colony</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theropoda" title="Theropoda">Theropoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Origin of flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Evolution of birds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Seabirds</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_bird_genera" title="List of fossil bird genera">Fossil birds</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivoropterygidae" title="Omnivoropterygidae">Omnivoropterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeholornithidae" title="Jeholornithidae">Jeholornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confuciusornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Confuciusornithiformes">Confuciusornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enantiornithes" title="Enantiornithes">Enantiornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaoyangiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chaoyangiformes">Chaoyangiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patagopterygiformes" title="Patagopterygiformes">Patagopterygiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiortiformes" title="Ambiortiformes">Ambiortiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songlingornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Songlingornithiformes">Songlingornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongshanornithidae" title="Hongshanornithidae">Hongshanornithidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gansus" title="Gansus">Gansuiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ichthyornithes" title="Ichthyornithes">Ichthyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hesperornithes" title="Hesperornithes">Hesperornithes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithornithidae" title="Lithornithidae">Lithornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moa" title="Moa">Dinornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_bird" title="Elephant bird">Aepyornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastornithiformes" title="Gastornithiformes">Gastornithiformes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_uses_of_birds" title="Human uses of birds">Human <br />interaction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bird_ringing" title="Bird ringing">Ringing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornithomancy" title="Ornithomancy">Ornithomancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_collections" title="Bird collections">Bird collections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdwatching" title="Birdwatching">Birdwatching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_year" title="Big year">big year</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_feeding" title="Bird feeding">Bird feeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviculture" title="Aviculture">Aviculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfowl_hunting" title="Waterfowl hunting">Waterfowl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cockfight" class="mw-redirect" title="Cockfight">Cockfighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_racing" title="Pigeon racing">Pigeon racing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconry" title="Falconry">Falconry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheasantry" title="Pheasantry">Pheasantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imping" title="Imping">Imping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oology" title="Oology">Egg collecting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds" title="List of birds">Families and orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bird_genera" title="List of bird genera">Genera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Glossary of bird terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_birds_by_population" title="List of birds by population">List by population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_birds_by_region" title="Lists of birds by region">Lists by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extinct_bird_species_since_1500" title="List of extinct bird species since 1500">Extinct species since 1500</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Late_Quaternary_prehistoric_bird_species" title="List of Late Quaternary prehistoric bird species">Late Quaternary prehistoric birds</a></li> <li>Notable birds <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_birds" title="List of individual birds">individuals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_birds" title="List of fictional birds">fictional</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Neornithes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Neornithes</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Palaeognathae" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Palaeognathae" title="Palaeognathae">Palaeognathae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Struthionidae" title="Struthionidae">Struthioniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(ostriches)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheidae" title="Rheidae">Rheiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(rheas)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinamou" title="Tinamou">Tinamiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(tinamous)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiwi_(bird)" title="Kiwi (bird)">Apterygiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kiwis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuariiformes" title="Casuariiformes">Casuariiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(emus and cassowaries)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neognathae" title="Neognathae">N<br />e<br />o<br />g<br />n<br />a<br />t<br />h<br />a<br />e</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Galloanserae_(fowls)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galloanserae" class="mw-redirect" title="Galloanserae">G<br />a<br />l<br />l<br />o<br />a<br />n<br />s<br />e<br />r<br />a<br />e</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Fowl" title="Fowl">fowls</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">Anseriformes</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(waterfowls)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatidae" title="Anatidae">Anatidae</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatinae" title="Anatinae">Anatinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_duck" title="Diving duck">Aythyini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mergini" title="Mergini">Mergini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyurini" title="Oxyurini">Oxyurini</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anserinae" title="Anserinae">Anserinae</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swan" title="Swan"><span style="font-size:85%;">swans</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goose" title="Goose"><span style="font-size:85%;">true geese</span></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistling_duck" title="Whistling duck">Dendrocygninae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freckled_duck" title="Freckled duck">Stictonettinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadorninae" title="Tadorninae">Tadorninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anhimidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhimidae">Anhimidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Horned_screamer" title="Horned screamer">Anhima</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chauna" title="Chauna">Chauna</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anseranatidae" title="Anseranatidae">Anseranatidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Magpie_goose" title="Magpie goose">Anseranas</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Galliformes" title="Galliformes">Galliformes</a> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Landfowl" class="mw-redirect" title="Landfowl">landfowls</a>-</span> <br /> <span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gamebirds" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamebirds">gamebirds</a>)</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cracidae" title="Cracidae">Cracidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cracinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cracinae">Cracinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oreophasinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreophasinae">Oreophasinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelopinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Penelopinae">Penelopinae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Megapodidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodidae">Megapodidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aepypodius" title="Aepypodius">Aepypodius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Alectura" class="mw-redirect" title="Alectura">Alectura</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eulipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Eulipoa">Eulipoa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Leipoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Leipoa">Leipoa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Macrocephalon" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocephalon">Macrocephalon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Megapodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Megapodius">Megapodius</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talegalla" title="Talegalla">Talegalla</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Numididae" class="mw-redirect" title="Numididae">Numididae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Vulturine_guineafowl" title="Vulturine guineafowl">Acryllium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Agelastes" title="Agelastes">Agelastes</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Guttera" title="Guttera">Guttera</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Numida" class="mw-redirect" title="Numida">Numida</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Odontophoridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophoridae">Odontophoridae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Callipepla" title="Callipepla">Callipepla</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Colinus" title="Colinus">Colinus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cyrtonyx" title="Cyrtonyx">Cyrtonyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dactylortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Dactylortyx">Dactylortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dendrortyx" title="Dendrortyx">Dendrortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Odontophorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Odontophorus">Odontophorus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oreortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Oreortyx">Oreortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Philortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Philortyx">Philortyx</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rhynchortyx" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhynchortyx">Rhynchortyx</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phasianidae" title="Phasianidae">Phasianidae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meleagridinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Meleagridinae">Meleagridinae <span style="font-size:85%;">(turkeys)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdicinae" title="Perdicinae">Perdicinae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phasianinae" title="Phasianinae">Phasianinae <span style="font-size:85%;">(pheasants and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grouse" title="Grouse">Tetraoninae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neoaves" title="Neoaves">Neoaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbea" title="Columbea">Columbea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Columbimorphae" title="Columbimorphae">Columbimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbidae" title="Columbidae">Columbiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(doves and pigeons)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesite" title="Mesite">Mesitornithiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(mesites)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandgrouse" title="Sandgrouse">Pterocliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(sandgrouse)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mirandornithes" title="Mirandornithes">Mirandornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">Phoenicopteriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(flamingos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">Podicipediformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(grebes)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passerea" title="Passerea">Passerea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Otidimorphae" title="Otidimorphae">Otidimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">Cuculiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cuckoos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turaco" title="Turaco">Musophagiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(turacos)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bustard" title="Bustard">Otidiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(bustards)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strisores" title="Strisores">Strisores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caprimulgiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Caprimulgiformes">Caprimulgiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(nightjars and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steatornithiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Steatornithiformes">Steatornithiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Podargiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Podargiformes">Podargiformes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apodiformes" title="Apodiformes">Apodiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(swifts and hummingbirds)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Opisthocomiformes">Opisthocomiformes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Opisthocomidae" title="Opisthocomidae">Opisthocomiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(hoatzin)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cursorimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cursorimorphae">Cursorimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charadriiformes" title="Charadriiformes">Charadriiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(gulls and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gruiformes" title="Gruiformes">Gruiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cranes and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Phaethontimorphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Phaethontimorphae">Phaethontimorphae</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropicbird" title="Tropicbird">Phaethontiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(tropicbirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurypygiformes" title="Eurypygiformes">Eurypygiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kagu and sunbittern)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aequornithes" title="Aequornithes">Aequornithes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loon" title="Loon">Gaviiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(loons or divers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penguin" title="Penguin">Sphenisciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(penguins)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procellariiformes" title="Procellariiformes">Procellariiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(albatrosses and petrels)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stork" title="Stork">Ciconiiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(storks)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suliformes" title="Suliformes">Suliformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cormorants and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelecaniformes" title="Pelecaniformes">Pelecaniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(pelicans and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australaves" title="Australaves">Australaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cariamiformes" title="Cariamiformes">Cariamiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(seriemas and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falconiformes" title="Falconiformes">Falconiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(falcons and relatives)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parrot" title="Parrot">Psittaciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(parrots)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passerine" title="Passerine">Passeriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(perching birds)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroaves" title="Afroaves">Afroaves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accipitriformes" title="Accipitriformes">Accipitriformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(raptors)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owl" title="Owl">Strigiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(owls)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousebird" title="Mousebird">Coliiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(mousebirds)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trogon" title="Trogon">Trogoniformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(trogons and quetzals)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo-roller" title="Cuckoo-roller">Leptosomiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(cuckoo-roller)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bucerotiformes" title="Bucerotiformes">Bucerotiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(hornbills and hoopoes)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coraciiformes" title="Coraciiformes">Coraciiformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(kingfishers and rollers)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piciformes" title="Piciformes">Piciformes <span style="font-size:85%;">(woodpeckers and relatives)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Birds" title="Category:Birds">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Birds" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Birds">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Birds" title="Portal:Birds">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Birds" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Birds">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General_components_and_freshwater_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General components and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox 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