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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Nutrition and growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrition_and_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Ecology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Uses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alcoholic_beverages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcoholic_beverages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Alcoholic beverages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcoholic_beverages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Beer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Wine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Baking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bioremediation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioremediation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Bioremediation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioremediation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_ethanol_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_ethanol_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Industrial ethanol production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_ethanol_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nonalcoholic_beverages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonalcoholic_beverages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Nonalcoholic beverages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonalcoholic_beverages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foods_and_nutritional_supplements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foods_and_nutritional_supplements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Foods and <span><span>nutritional supplements</span></span></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foods_and_nutritional_supplements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Probiotics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Probiotics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Probiotics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Probiotics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aquarium_hobby" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aquarium_hobby"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Aquarium hobby</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aquarium_hobby-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Scientific research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetically_engineered_biofactories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetically_engineered_biofactories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Genetically engineered biofactories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetically_engineered_biofactories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathogenic_yeasts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathogenic_yeasts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Pathogenic yeasts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pathogenic_yeasts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_spoilage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_spoilage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Food spoilage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_spoilage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbiosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbiosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Symbiosis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbiosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Yeast</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 100 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-100" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">100 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gis" title="Gis – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gis" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A5%E1%88%AD%E1%88%BE" title="እርሾ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="እርሾ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="خميرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="خميرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levaduras" title="Levaduras – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Levaduras" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lleldu" title="Lleldu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lleldu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0" title="खमीर – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="खमीर" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_g%C3%B6b%C9%99l%C9%99yi" title="Maya göbələyi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Maya göbələyi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%88%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="ঈস্ট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ঈস্ট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A0%E2%81%BF-b%C3%BA" title="Kàⁿ-bú – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kàⁿ-bú" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D2%AF%D0%BF%D1%80%D3%99_%D0%B1%D3%99%D1%88%D0%BC%D3%99%D0%BA%D1%82%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Сүпрә бәшмәктәре – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сүпрә бәшмәктәре" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%8B" title="Дрожджы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дрожджы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Yeast" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Дрожди – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дрожди" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ" title="Germ – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Germ" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasci" title="Kvasci – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kvasci" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goell" title="Goell – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Goell" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rent" title="Rent – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rent" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%C4%95%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Çĕпре – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çĕпре" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasinky" title="Kvasinky – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kvasinky" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mbiriso" title="Mbiriso – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Mbiriso" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burum" title="Burum – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Burum" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A6rsvamp" title="Gærsvamp – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gærsvamp" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hefen" title="Hefen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Hefen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A4rmseened" title="Pärmseened – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pärmseened" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%96%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BC%CF%8D%CE%BA%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Ζυμομύκητες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ζυμομύκητες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Оргат – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Оргат" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levadura" title="Levadura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Levadura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisto" title="Gisto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gisto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lua" title="Lua – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Lua" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legamia" title="Legamia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Legamia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AE%D9%85%D8%B1" title="مخمر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مخمر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levure" title="Levure – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Levure" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%AAst" title="Gêst – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Gêst" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giosta" title="Giosta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Giosta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beirm" title="Beirm – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Beirm" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9vedo" title="Lévedo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lévedo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%9A%A8%EB%AA%A8" title="효모 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="효모" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yis" title="Yis – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Yis" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BD%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%B6%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Խմորասնկեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Խմորասնկեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B0" title="खमीर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खमीर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasac" title="Kvasac – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kvasac" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hefo" title="Hefo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Hefo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khamir" title="Khamir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Khamir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levatura" title="Levatura – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Levatura" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ger" title="Ger – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ger" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lievito" title="Lievito – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lievito" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%9E%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D" title="שמרים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שמרים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khamir" title="Khamir – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Khamir" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಯೀಸ್ಟ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಯೀಸ್ಟ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A3%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="საფუარები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საფუარები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%88%D1%8B%D1%82%D2%9B%D1%8B%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Ашытқылар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ашытқылар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamira" title="Hamira – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Hamira" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meya" title="Meya – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Meya" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%87%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%8B_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%83_%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD" title="Ачыткы козу карын – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Ачыткы козу карын" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raugs" title="Raugs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Raugs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miel%C4%97s" title="Mielės – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mielės" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermento" title="Fermento – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Fermento" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le%C3%A0t_(f%C3%B3ns)" title="Leàt (fóns) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Leàt (fóns)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89leszt%C5%91" title="Élesztő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Élesztő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D1%86" title="Квасец – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Квасец" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="യീസ്റ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="യീസ്റ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="किण्व – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="किण्व" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yis" title="Yis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Yis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ragi" title="Ragi – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Ragi" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="တဆေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တဆေး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gist" title="Gist – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gist" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%85%B5%E6%AF%8D" title="酵母 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="酵母" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3" title="Совсорг – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Совсорг" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gj%C3%A6r" title="Gjær – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Gjær" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raacitii" title="Raacitii – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Raacitii" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%96%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0" title="ਖ਼ਮੀਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਖ਼ਮੀਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dro%C5%BCd%C5%BCe" title="Drożdże – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Drożdże" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levedura" title="Levedura – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Levedura" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drojdie" title="Drojdie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Drojdie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qunchu" title="Qunchu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Qunchu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B6%D0%B8" title="Дрожжи – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дрожжи" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baurm" title="Baurm – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Baurm" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majaja" title="Majaja – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Majaja" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A8vitu" title="Lèvitu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lèvitu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Yeast" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasinka" title="Kvasinka – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kvasinka" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasovka" title="Kvasovka – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kvasovka" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%86" title="Квасац – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Квасац" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kvasac" title="Kvasac – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kvasac" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiivat" title="Hiivat – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hiivat" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A4st" title="Jäst – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jäst" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="மதுவம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மதுவம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamtunt" title="Tamtunt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tamtunt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="ยีสต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยีสต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_(biyoloji)" title="Maya (biyoloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Maya (biyoloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B6%D1%96" title="Дріжджі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дріжджі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="خمیر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="خمیر" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Informal group of fungi</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Yeast_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Yeast (disambiguation)">Yeast (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <table class="infobox biota biota-infobox"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" class="section-header" style="background:rgb(145,250,250);">Yeast </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a species of yeast" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/220px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/330px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/440px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1560" data-file-height="1560" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section"><i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>, a species of yeast </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_diagram_of_yeast_cell_(en).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Cross-sectional 2D diagram of a yeast cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Simple_diagram_of_yeast_cell_%28en%29.svg/220px-Simple_diagram_of_yeast_cell_%28en%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Simple_diagram_of_yeast_cell_%28en%29.svg/330px-Simple_diagram_of_yeast_cell_%28en%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Simple_diagram_of_yeast_cell_%28en%29.svg/440px-Simple_diagram_of_yeast_cell_%28en%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="382" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="image-section">Cross-sectional labelled diagram of a typical yeast cell </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="section-header" style="min-width:15em;text-align:center;background:rgb(145,250,250);"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a><span class="plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; float:right; padding-right:0.4em; margin-left:-3em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Fungi" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="section-header" style="background:rgb(145,250,250);">Phyla and subphyla with yeast species </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="section-content"> <div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a></b> <a href="/wiki/Pro_parte" class="mw-redirect" title="Pro parte">p. p.</a> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saccharomycotina" title="Saccharomycotina">Saccharomycotina</a> <small>(true yeasts)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taphrinomycotina" title="Taphrinomycotina">Taphrinomycotina</a> p. p. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomycetes" title="Schizosaccharomycetes">Schizosaccharomycetes</a> <small>(fission yeasts)</small></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a></b> p. p. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agaricomycotina" title="Agaricomycotina">Agaricomycotina</a> p. p. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tremellomycetes" title="Tremellomycetes">Tremellomycetes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycotina" title="Pucciniomycotina">Pucciniomycotina</a> p. p. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbotryomycetes" title="Microbotryomycetes">Microbotryomycetes</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227369696">.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox{text-align:left;width:200px;font-size:100%}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td:not(.image-section){padding:2px 10px}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox th.section-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.section-content{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.list-section{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.taxon-section{text-align:left;padding:0 0.25em}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox td.image-section{text-align:center;font-size:88%}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy{margin:0 auto;text-align:left;background:transparent;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy tr{vertical-align:top}.mw-parser-output table.biota-infobox table.taxonomy td{padding:1px}</style> <p><b>Yeasts</b> are <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a>, single-celled <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> classified as members of the <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungus</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> are currently recognized.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kurtzman-2006b_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurtzman-2006b-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoffman-2015_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffman-2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurtzman-2006a_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurtzman-2006a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some yeast species have the ability to develop multicellular characteristics by forming strings of connected budding cells known as <a href="/wiki/Pseudohyphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudohyphae">pseudohyphae</a> or false <a href="/wiki/Hyphae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphae">hyphae</a>, or quickly evolve into a <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular</a> cluster with specialised <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">cell organelles</a> function.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurtzman-2005_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurtzman-2005-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yong-2012_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yong-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeast sizes vary greatly, depending on species and environment, typically measuring 3–4 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a> in <a href="/wiki/Diameter" title="Diameter">diameter</a>, although some yeasts can grow to 40 μm in size.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker-2002_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-2002-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most yeasts reproduce <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexually</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>, and many do so by the asymmetric division process known as <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>. With their single-celled growth habit, yeasts can be contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">molds</a>, which grow <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a>. Fungal species that can take both forms (depending on temperature or other conditions) are called <a href="/wiki/Dimorphic_fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dimorphic fungi">dimorphic fungi</a>. </p><p>The yeast species <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> converts <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)" title="Alcohol (chemistry)">alcohols</a> through the process of <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a>. The products of this reaction have been used in <a href="/wiki/Baking" title="Baking">baking</a> and the production of alcoholic beverages for thousands of years.<sup id="cite_ref-Legras-2007_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Legras-2007-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>S. cerevisiae</i> is also an important <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> in modern <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a> research, and is one of the most thoroughly studied eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have cultured it in order to understand the biology of the eukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology in great detail.<sup id="cite_ref-Ostergaard-2000_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostergaard-2000-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other species of yeasts, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i>, are <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Opportunistic pathogen">opportunistic pathogens</a> and can cause <a href="/wiki/Yeast_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeast infection">infections</a> in humans. Yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in <a href="/wiki/Microbial_fuel_cell" title="Microbial fuel cell">microbial fuel cells</a><sup id="cite_ref-HelsinkiUniTech-2007_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HelsinkiUniTech-2007-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and to produce <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuel</a> industry. </p><p>Yeasts do not form a single <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> grouping. The term "yeast" is often taken as a <a href="/wiki/Synonym" title="Synonym">synonym</a> for <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kurtzman-1994_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurtzman-1994-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the phylogenetic diversity of yeasts is shown by their placement in two separate <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>. The budding yeasts or "true yeasts" are classified in the <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <a href="/wiki/Saccharomycetales" title="Saccharomycetales">Saccharomycetales</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-YeastVirtualLibrary-2009_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YeastVirtualLibrary-2009-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> within the phylum Ascomycota. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_bread" title="History of bread">History of bread</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_beer" title="History of beer">History of beer</a></div> <p>The word "yeast" comes from <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a> <i>gist</i>, <i>gyst</i>, and from the <a href="/wiki/Proto_Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto Indo-European language">Indo-European</a> root <i>yes-</i>, meaning "boil", "foam", or "bubble".<sup id="cite_ref-Dictionary-2000_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dictionary-2000-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticated</a> organisms. Archaeologists digging in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> ruins found early <a href="/wiki/Millstone" title="Millstone">grinding stones</a> and baking chambers for yeast-raised bread, as well as drawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and <a href="/wiki/Brewery" title="Brewery">breweries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vessels studied from several archaeological sites in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> (dating to around 5,000, 3,000 and 2,500 years ago), which were believed to have contained alcoholic beverages (<a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">mead</a>), were found to contain yeast colonies that had survived over the millennia, providing the first direct biological evidence of yeast use in early cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1680, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_(ethnic_group)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch (ethnic group)">Dutch</a> naturalist <a href="/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek" class="mw-redirect" title="Anton van Leeuwenhoek">Anton van Leeuwenhoek</a> first <a href="/wiki/Microscopy" title="Microscopy">microscopically</a> observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">living organisms</a>, but rather globular structures<sup id="cite_ref-Huxley-1871_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Huxley-1871-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as researchers were doubtful whether yeasts were <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> or fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-Ainsworth-1976_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ainsworth-1976-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Schwann" title="Theodor Schwann">Theodor Schwann</a> recognized them as fungi in 1837.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwann_T-1837_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwann_T-1837-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barnett-2004_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnett-2004-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1857, French microbiologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">cell growth</a> could be increased, but fermentation was inhibited – an observation later called the "<a href="/wiki/Pasteur_effect" title="Pasteur effect">Pasteur effect</a>". In the paper "<i>Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique,</i>" Pasteur proved that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst.<sup id="cite_ref-Phillips_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phillips-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barnett-2003_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnett-2003-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the late 18th century two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified: <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i> (top-fermenting yeast) and <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_carlsbergensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Saccharomyces carlsbergensis">S. pastorianus</a></i> (bottom-fermenting yeast). <i>S. cerevisiae</i> has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread-making since 1780; while, around 1800, the Germans started producing <i>S. cerevisiae</i> in the form of cream. In 1825, a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Klieger-2004_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klieger-2004-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Filter_press" title="Filter press">filter press</a> in 1867. In 1872, Baron <a href="/w/index.php?title=Max_de_Springer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Max de Springer (page does not exist)">Max de Springer</a> developed a manufacturing process to create granulated yeast from <a href="/wiki/Beetroot" title="Beetroot">beetroot</a> <a href="/wiki/Molasses" title="Molasses">molasses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Letourneau-1987_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letourneau-1987-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miniac-1988_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miniac-1988-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Visitez_la_fabrique_de_levure-2009_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Visitez_la_fabrique_de_levure-2009-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a technique that was used until the first World War.<sup id="cite_ref-urlLe_Comité_des_Fabricants_de_levure_—_COFALEC_—_représente_les_fabricants_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlLe_Comité_des_Fabricants_de_levure_—_COFALEC_—_représente_les_fabricants-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, naturally occurring airborne yeasts were used almost exclusively until commercial yeast was marketed at the <a href="/wiki/Centennial_Exposition" title="Centennial Exposition">Centennial Exposition</a> in 1876 in Philadelphia, where <a href="/wiki/Charles_L._Fleischmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles L. Fleischmann">Charles L. Fleischmann</a> exhibited the product and a process to use it, as well as serving the resultant baked bread.<sup id="cite_ref-Snodgrass-2004_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snodgrass-2004-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">mechanical refrigerator</a> (first patented in the 1850s in Europe) liberated <a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">brewers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Winemakers" class="mw-redirect" title="Winemakers">winemakers</a> from seasonal constraints for the first time and allowed them to exit cellars and other earthen environments. For <a href="/wiki/John_Molson" title="John Molson">John Molson</a>, who made his livelihood in <a href="/wiki/Montreal" title="Montreal">Montreal</a> prior to the development of the fridge, the brewing season lasted from September through to May. The same seasonal restrictions formerly governed the <a href="/wiki/Distiller" class="mw-redirect" title="Distiller">distiller</a>'s art.<sup id="cite_ref-Denison-1955_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Denison-1955-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nutrition_and_growth">Nutrition and growth</h2></div> <p>Yeasts are <a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">chemoorganotrophs</a>, as they use <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> as a source of energy and do not require sunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from <a href="/wiki/Hexose" title="Hexose">hexose</a> sugars, such as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a>, or disaccharides such as <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maltose" title="Maltose">maltose</a>. Some species can metabolize <a href="/wiki/Pentose" title="Pentose">pentose</a> sugars such as ribose,<sup id="cite_ref-Barnett-1975_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barnett-1975-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alcohols, and <a href="/wiki/Organic_acid" title="Organic acid">organic acids</a>. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a> (<a href="/wiki/Obligate_aerobe" title="Obligate aerobe">obligate aerobes</a>) or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production (<a href="/wiki/Facultative_anaerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Facultative anaerobe">facultative anaerobes</a>). Unlike <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, no known yeast species grow only anaerobically (<a href="/wiki/Obligate_anaerobe" title="Obligate anaerobe">obligate anaerobes</a>). Most yeasts grow best in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment. </p><p>Yeasts vary in regard to the temperature range in which they grow best. For example, <i><a href="/wiki/Leucosporidium_frigidum" class="mw-redirect" title="Leucosporidium frigidum">Leucosporidium frigidum</a></i> grows at −2 to 20 °C (28 to 68 °F), <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_telluris" title="Saccharomyces telluris">Saccharomyces telluris</a></i> at 5 to 35 °C (41 to 95 °F), and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Candida_slooffi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Candida slooffi (page does not exist)">Candida slooffi</a></i> at 28 to 45 °C (82 to 113 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Arthur-1976_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arthur-1976-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cells can survive freezing under certain conditions, with viability decreasing over time. </p><p>In general, yeasts are grown in the laboratory on solid <a href="/wiki/Growth_medium" title="Growth medium">growth media</a> or in liquid <a href="/wiki/Broth" title="Broth">broths</a>. Common media used for the cultivation of yeasts include <a href="/wiki/Potato_dextrose_agar" title="Potato dextrose agar">potato dextrose agar</a> or <a href="/wiki/Potato_dextrose_broth" class="mw-redirect" title="Potato dextrose broth">potato dextrose broth</a>, Wallerstein Laboratories nutrient <a href="/wiki/Agar" title="Agar">agar</a>, yeast <a href="/wiki/Peptone" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptone">peptone</a> <a href="/wiki/Dextrose" class="mw-redirect" title="Dextrose">dextrose</a> agar, and yeast mould agar or broth. Home brewers who cultivate yeast frequently use dried <a href="/wiki/Malt_extract" class="mw-redirect" title="Malt extract">malt extract</a> and agar as a solid growth medium. The <a href="/wiki/Fungicide" title="Fungicide">fungicide</a> <a href="/wiki/Cycloheximide" title="Cycloheximide">cycloheximide</a> is sometimes added to yeast growth media to inhibit the growth of <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces" title="Saccharomyces">Saccharomyces</a></i> yeasts and select for wild/indigenous yeast species. This will change the yeast process. </p><p>The appearance of a white, thready yeast, commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Kahm" title="Kahm">kahm</a> yeast, is often a byproduct of the lactofermentation (or pickling) of certain vegetables. It is usually the result of exposure to air. Although harmless, it can give pickled vegetables a bad flavor and must be removed regularly during fermentation.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaufmann-2002_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaufmann-2002-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2></div> <p>Yeasts are very common in the environment, and are often isolated from sugar-rich materials. Examples include naturally occurring yeasts on the skins of fruits and berries (such as grapes, apples, or <a href="/wiki/Peach" title="Peach">peaches</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Exudate" title="Exudate">exudates</a> from plants (such as plant saps or cacti). Some yeasts are found in association with soil and insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Suh-2005_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Suh-2005-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sláviková-2003_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sláviková-2003-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeasts from the soil and from the skins of fruits and berries have been shown to dominate fungal <a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">succession</a> during fruit decay.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ecological function and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of yeasts are relatively unknown compared to those of other <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrera-2010_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrera-2010-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeasts, including <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Rhodotorula" title="Rhodotorula">Rhodotorula</a> rubra</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Torulopsis" class="mw-redirect" title="Torulopsis">Torulopsis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Trichosporon_cutaneum" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichosporon cutaneum">Trichosporon cutaneum</a></i>, have been found living in between people's toes as part of their <a href="/wiki/Skin_flora" title="Skin flora">skin flora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oyeka-2002_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oyeka-2002-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeasts are also present in the <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">gut flora</a> of mammals and some insects<sup id="cite_ref-Martini-1992_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martini-1992-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even deep-sea environments host an array of yeasts.<sup id="cite_ref-Bass-2007_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bass-2007-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An Indian study of seven <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">bee</a> species and nine plant species found 45 species from 16 genera colonize the <a href="/wiki/Nectaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Nectaries">nectaries</a> of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i>; the most common species in honey stomachs was <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dekkera_intermedia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dekkera intermedia (page does not exist)">Dekkera intermedia</a></i> and in flower nectaries, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_blankii" title="Candida blankii">Candida blankii</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandhu-1985_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandhu-1985-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yeast colonising nectaries of the <a href="/wiki/Stinking_hellebore" class="mw-redirect" title="Stinking hellebore">stinking hellebore</a> have been found to raise the temperature of the flower, which may aid in attracting pollinators by increasing the evaporation of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile organic compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrera-2010_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrera-2010-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Barley-2010_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barley-2010-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Black_yeast" title="Black yeast">black yeast</a> has been recorded as a partner in a complex relationship between <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, their <a href="/wiki/Ant-fungus_mutualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ant-fungus mutualism">mutualistic fungus</a>, a fungal <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasite</a> of the fungus and a bacterium that kills the parasite. The yeast has a negative effect on the bacteria that normally produce antibiotics to kill the parasite, so may affect the ants' health by allowing the parasite to spread.<sup id="cite_ref-Little-2008_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Little-2008-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Certain strains of some species of yeasts produce proteins called yeast killer toxins that allow them to eliminate competing strains. (See main article on <a href="/wiki/Killer_yeast" title="Killer yeast">killer yeast</a>.) This can cause problems for winemaking but could potentially also be used to advantage by using killer toxin-producing strains to make the wine. Yeast killer toxins may also have medical applications in treating yeast infections (see "Pathogenic yeasts" section below).<sup id="cite_ref-Magliani-2006_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magliani-2006-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Marine yeasts, defined as the yeasts that are isolated from marine environments, are able to grow better on a medium prepared using seawater rather than freshwater.<sup id="cite_ref-Zaky-2014_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zaky-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first marine yeasts were isolated by Bernhard Fischer in 1894 from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>, and those were identified as <i>Torula</i> sp. and <i>Mycoderma</i> sp.<sup id="cite_ref-Kutty-2008_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kutty-2008-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this discovery, various other marine yeasts have been isolated from around the world from different sources, including seawater, seaweeds, marine fish and mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among these isolates, some marine yeasts originated from terrestrial habitats (grouped as facultative marine yeast), which were brought to and survived in marine environments. The other marine yeasts were grouped as obligate or indigenous marine yeasts, which are confined to marine habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-Kutty-2008_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kutty-2008-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, no sufficient evidence has been found to explain the indispensability of seawater for obligate marine yeasts.<sup id="cite_ref-Zaky-2014_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zaky-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been reported that marine yeasts are able to produce many bioactive substances, such as amino acids, glucans, glutathione, toxins, enzymes, phytase, and vitamins with potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and chemical industries as well as for marine culture and environmental protection.<sup id="cite_ref-Zaky-2014_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zaky-2014-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine yeast was successfully used to produce bioethanol using seawater-based media which will potentially reduce the <a href="/wiki/Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">water footprint</a> of bioethanol.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h2></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yeast_lifecycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Yeast_lifecycle.svg/250px-Yeast_lifecycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Yeast_lifecycle.svg/375px-Yeast_lifecycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Yeast_lifecycle.svg/500px-Yeast_lifecycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="698" /></a><figcaption>The yeast cell's life cycle: <div><ol><li>Budding</li><li>Conjugation</li><li>Spore</li></ol></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Mating_of_yeast" title="Mating of yeast">Mating of yeast</a></div> <p>Yeasts, like all fungi, may have <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual</a> reproductive cycles. The most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by <a href="/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Balasubramanian-2004_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balasubramanian-2004-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where a small bud (also known as a <a href="/wiki/Bleb_(cell_biology)" title="Bleb (cell biology)">bleb</a> or daughter cell) is formed on the parent cell. The <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a> of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud then continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell.<sup id="cite_ref-Yeong-2005_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yeong-2005-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The daughter cell produced during the budding process is generally smaller than the mother cell. Some yeasts, including <i><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></i>, reproduce by <a href="/wiki/Fission_(biology)" title="Fission (biology)">fission</a> instead of budding,<sup id="cite_ref-Balasubramanian-2004_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balasubramanian-2004-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thereby creating two identically sized daughter cells. </p><p>In general, under high-stress conditions such as <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a> starvation, <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> cells will die; under the same conditions, however, <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction (<a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>) and producing a variety of haploid <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, which can go on to <a href="/wiki/Mating_of_yeast" title="Mating of yeast">mate</a> (conjugate), reforming the diploid.<sup id="cite_ref-Neiman-2005_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neiman-2005-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The haploid fission yeast <i>Schizosaccharomyces pombe</i> is a facultative sexual microorganism that can undergo mating when nutrients are limited.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoffman-2015_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffman-2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Davey-1998_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davey-1998-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exposure of <i>S. pombe</i> to hydrogen peroxide, an agent that causes oxidative stress leading to oxidative DNA damage, strongly induces mating and the formation of meiotic spores.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernstein-1989_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernstein-1989-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The budding yeast <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant, but when starved, this yeast undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores.<sup id="cite_ref-Herskowitz-1988_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herskowitz-1988-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Haploid cells may then reproduce asexually by mitosis. Katz Ezov et al.<sup id="cite_ref-Katz-2010_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz-2010-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> presented evidence that in natural <i>S. cerevisiae</i> populations clonal reproduction and selfing (in the form of intratetrad mating) predominate. In nature, the mating of haploid cells to form diploid cells is most often between members of the same clonal population and <a href="/wiki/Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">out-crossing</a> is uncommon.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruderfer-2006_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruderfer-2006-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analysis of the ancestry of natural <i>S. cerevisiae</i> strains led to the conclusion that out-crossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruderfer-2006_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruderfer-2006-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These observations suggest that the possible long-term benefits of outcrossing (e.g. generation of diversity) are likely to be insufficient for generally maintaining sex from one generation to the next.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="removal of citation referring to predatory publisher content (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Rather, a short-term benefit, such as recombinational repair during meiosis,<sup id="cite_ref-Birdsell-2003_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Birdsell-2003-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> may be the key to the maintenance of sex in <i>S. cerevisiae</i>. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Pucciniomycotina" title="Pucciniomycotina">pucciniomycete</a> yeasts, in particular species of <i><a href="/wiki/Sporidiobolus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporidiobolus">Sporidiobolus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Sporobolomyces" title="Sporobolomyces">Sporobolomyces</a></i>, produce aerially dispersed, asexual <a href="/wiki/Ballistospore" title="Ballistospore">ballistoconidia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bai-2002_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bai-2002-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2></div> <p>The useful physiological properties of yeast have led to their use in the field of <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">Fermentation</a> of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this technology. Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: <a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">baker's yeast</a> in bread production, brewer's yeast in <a href="/wiki/Beer_fermentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer fermentation">beer fermentation</a>, and yeast in wine fermentation and for <a href="/wiki/Xylitol" title="Xylitol">xylitol</a> production.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen-2010_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen-2010-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> So-called <a href="/wiki/Red_rice_yeast" class="mw-redirect" title="Red rice yeast">red rice yeast</a> is actually a <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">mold</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Monascus_purpureus" title="Monascus purpureus">Monascus purpureus</a></i>. Yeasts include some of the most widely used <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> for <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">cell biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Botstein-2011_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Botstein-2011-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcoholic_beverages">Alcoholic beverages</h3></div> <p>Alcoholic beverages are defined as <a href="/wiki/Drink" title="Drink">beverages</a> that contain <a href="/wiki/Ethanol" title="Ethanol">ethanol</a> (C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>5</sub>OH). This ethanol is almost always produced by <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> – the <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> by certain species of yeasts under anaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Beverages such as mead, wine, beer, or <a href="/wiki/Distilled_beverage" class="mw-redirect" title="Distilled beverage">distilled spirits</a> all use yeast at some stage of their production. A distilled beverage is a beverage containing ethanol that has been purified by <a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">distillation</a>. Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as <a href="/wiki/Whiskey" class="mw-redirect" title="Whiskey">whiskey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">rum</a> are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol are collected in the condensate, including water, <a href="/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a>, and other alcohols, which (in addition to that provided by the oak in which it may be aged) account for the <a href="/wiki/Flavour_(taste)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavour (taste)">flavour</a> of the beverage. </p><p><span class="anchor" id="top-fermenting"></span><span class="anchor" id="bottom-fermenting"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Beer"><span class="anchor" id="Beer"></span>Beer</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">Brewing</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Barm" title="Barm">Barm</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NM.0019545_J%C3%A4stkrans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/NM.0019545_J%C3%A4stkrans.jpg/220px-NM.0019545_J%C3%A4stkrans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/NM.0019545_J%C3%A4stkrans.jpg/330px-NM.0019545_J%C3%A4stkrans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/NM.0019545_J%C3%A4stkrans.jpg/440px-NM.0019545_J%C3%A4stkrans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="940" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yeast_ring&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yeast ring (page does not exist)">Yeast ring</a> used by Swedish farmhouse brewers in the 19th century to preserve yeast between brewing sessions.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2009-03-21_Beer_brewing_bubbles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/2009-03-21_Beer_brewing_bubbles.jpg/220px-2009-03-21_Beer_brewing_bubbles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/2009-03-21_Beer_brewing_bubbles.jpg/330px-2009-03-21_Beer_brewing_bubbles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/2009-03-21_Beer_brewing_bubbles.jpg/440px-2009-03-21_Beer_brewing_bubbles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Bubbles of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> forming during beer-brewing<sup id="cite_ref-Ostergaard-2000_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ostergaard-2000-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Brewing yeasts may be classed as "top-cropping" (or "top-fermenting") and "bottom-cropping" (or "bottom-fermenting").<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Top-cropping yeasts are so called because they form a foam at the top of the <a href="/wiki/Wort" title="Wort">wort</a> during fermentation. An example of a top-cropping yeast is <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a></i>, sometimes called an "ale yeast".<sup id="cite_ref-Gibson-2010_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gibson-2010-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bottom-cropping yeasts are typically used to produce <a href="/wiki/Lager" title="Lager">lager</a>-type beers, though they can also produce <a href="/wiki/Ale" title="Ale">ale</a>-type beers. These yeasts ferment well at low temperatures. An example of bottom-cropping yeast is <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_pastorianus" title="Saccharomyces pastorianus">Saccharomyces pastorianus</a></i>, formerly known as <i>S. carlsbergensis</i>. </p><p>Decades ago,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (March 2018)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> taxonomists reclassified <i>S. carlsbergensis</i> (uvarum) as a member of <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, noting that the only distinct difference between the two is metabolic. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="In conflict with newer sources cited by “Saccharomyces uvarum” article. Could be a lumper/splitter thing, but the names ain’t invalid yet. (January 2022)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Yeast#Dubious" title="Talk:Yeast">discuss</a></i>]</sup> Lager strains of <i>S. cerevisiae</i> secrete an enzyme called melibiase, allowing them to hydrolyse <a href="/wiki/Melibiose" title="Melibiose">melibiose</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">disaccharide</a>, into more fermentable <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">monosaccharides</a>. Top- and bottom-cropping and cold- and warm-fermenting distinctions are largely generalizations used by laypersons to communicate to the general public.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most common top-cropping brewer's yeast, <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, is the same species as the common baking yeast.<sup id="cite_ref-Amendola-2002_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amendola-2002-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Brewer's yeast is also very rich in <a href="/wiki/Essential_mineral" class="mw-redirect" title="Essential mineral">essential minerals</a> and the <a href="/wiki/B_vitamin" class="mw-redirect" title="B vitamin">B vitamins</a> (except B<sub>12</sub>), a feature exploited in food products made from leftover (<a href="/wiki/By-product" title="By-product">by-product</a>) yeast from brewing.<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Maryland_Medical_Center_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Maryland_Medical_Center-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, to carbonate <a href="/wiki/Dough" title="Dough">dough</a> in the shortest amount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act more slowly but tend to produce fewer off-flavours and tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%). </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Dekkera/Brettanomyces" class="mw-redirect" title="Dekkera/Brettanomyces">Dekkera/Brettanomyces</a></i> is a genus of yeast known for its important role in the production of '<a href="/wiki/Lambic" title="Lambic">lambic</a>' and specialty <a href="/wiki/Sour_ale" class="mw-redirect" title="Sour ale">sour ales</a>, along with the secondary conditioning of a particular Belgian <a href="/wiki/Trappist_beer" title="Trappist beer">Trappist beer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vanderhaegen-2003_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vanderhaegen-2003-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The taxonomy of the genus <i>Brettanomyces</i> has been debated since its early discovery and has seen many reclassifications over the years. Early classification was based on a few species that reproduced asexually (anamorph form) through multipolar budding.<sup id="cite_ref-Custers-1940_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Custers-1940-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after, the formation of ascospores was observed and the genus <i>Dekkera</i>, which reproduces sexually (teleomorph form), was introduced as part of the taxonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-VanderWalt-1984_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VanderWalt-1984-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current taxonomy includes five species within the genera of <i>Dekkera/Brettanomyces</i>. Those are the anamorphs <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces_bruxellensis" title="Brettanomyces bruxellensis">Brettanomyces bruxellensis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces_anomalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Brettanomyces anomalus">Brettanomyces anomalus</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brettanomyces_custersianus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brettanomyces custersianus (page does not exist)">Brettanomyces custersianus</a></i>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brettanomyces_naardenensis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brettanomyces naardenensis (page does not exist)">Brettanomyces naardenensis</a></i>, and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brettanomyces_nanus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brettanomyces nanus (page does not exist)">Brettanomyces nanus</a></i>, with teleomorphs existing for the first two species, <i><a href="/wiki/Dekkera_bruxellensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Dekkera bruxellensis">Dekkera bruxellensis</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dekkera_anomala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dekkera anomala (page does not exist)">Dekkera anomala</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oelofse-2008_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oelofse-2008-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distinction between <i>Dekkera</i> and <i>Brettanomyces</i> is arguable, with Oelofse et al. (2008) citing Loureiro and Malfeito-Ferreira from 2006 when they affirmed that current molecular DNA detection techniques have uncovered no variance between the anamorph and teleomorph states. Over the past decade, <i>Brettanomyces</i> spp. have seen an increasing use in the craft-brewing sector of the industry, with a handful of breweries having produced beers that were primarily fermented with pure cultures of <i>Brettanomyces</i> spp. This has occurred out of experimentation, as very little information exists regarding pure culture fermentative capabilities and the aromatic compounds produced by various strains. <i>Dekkera</i>/<i>Brettanomyces</i> spp. have been the subjects of numerous studies conducted over the past century, although a majority of the recent research has focused on enhancing the knowledge of the wine industry. Recent research on eight <i>Brettanomyces</i> strains available in the brewing industry focused on strain-specific fermentations and identified the major compounds produced during pure culture anaerobic fermentation in wort.<sup id="cite_ref-Yakobson-2010_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yakobson-2010-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Wine">Wine</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking" title="Yeast in winemaking">Yeast in winemaking</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Schramsberg_Vineyards,_July_2019-7609.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Schramsberg_Vineyards%2C_July_2019-7609.jpg/220px-Schramsberg_Vineyards%2C_July_2019-7609.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Schramsberg_Vineyards%2C_July_2019-7609.jpg/330px-Schramsberg_Vineyards%2C_July_2019-7609.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Schramsberg_Vineyards%2C_July_2019-7609.jpg/440px-Schramsberg_Vineyards%2C_July_2019-7609.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4153" data-file-height="4153" /></a><figcaption>Yeast in a bottle during sparkling wine production at <a href="/wiki/Schramsberg_Vineyards" title="Schramsberg Vineyards">Schramsberg Vineyards</a>, Napa</figcaption></figure> <p>Yeast is used in <a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">winemaking</a>, where it converts the sugars present (<a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Grape_juice" title="Grape juice">grape juice</a> (<a href="/wiki/Must" title="Must">must</a>) into ethanol. Yeast is normally already present on grape skins. <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (wine)">Fermentation</a> can be done with this endogenous "wild yeast",<sup id="cite_ref-Ross-1997_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ross-1997-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this procedure gives unpredictable results, which depend upon the exact types of yeast species present. For this reason, a pure yeast culture is usually added to the must; this yeast quickly dominates the fermentation. The wild yeasts are repressed, which ensures a reliable and predictable fermentation.<sup id="cite_ref-González-2001_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-González-2001-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most added wine yeasts are strains of <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, though not all strains of the species are suitable.<sup id="cite_ref-González-2001_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-González-2001-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different <i>S. cerevisiae</i> yeast strains have differing physiological and fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a direct impact on the finished wine.<sup id="cite_ref-Dunn-2005_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dunn-2005-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Significant research has been undertaken into the development of novel wine yeast strains that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines.<sup id="cite_ref-YeastRef14_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-YeastRef14-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McBryde-2006_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McBryde-2006-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The growth of some yeasts, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Zygosaccharomyces" title="Zygosaccharomyces">Zygosaccharomyces</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces" title="Brettanomyces">Brettanomyces</a></i>, in wine can result in <a href="/wiki/Wine_fault" title="Wine fault">wine faults</a> and subsequent spoilage.<sup id="cite_ref-Loureiro-2003_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loureiro-2003-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Brettanomyces</i> produces an array of <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a> when growing in wine, some of which are volatile <a href="/wiki/Phenol" title="Phenol">phenolic</a> compounds. Together, these compounds are often referred to as "<i>Brettanomyces</i> character", and are often described as "<a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a>" or "barnyard" type aromas. <i>Brettanomyces</i> is a significant contributor to wine faults within the wine industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Lamar_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lamar-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia" title="University of British Columbia">University of British Columbia</a>, Canada, have found a new strain of yeast that has reduced <a href="/wiki/Amine" title="Amine">amines</a>. The amines in <a href="/wiki/Wine_color" title="Wine color">red wine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chardonnay" title="Chardonnay">Chardonnay</a> produce off-flavors and cause headaches and hypertension in some people. About 30% of people are sensitive to biogenic amines, such as <a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">histamines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Baking">Baking</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">Baker's yeast</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Yeast" title="Special:EditPage/Yeast">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Yeast, most commonly <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, is used in baking as a <a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">leavening agent</a>, converting the <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentable</a> sugars present in dough into <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>. This causes the dough to expand or rise as gas forms pockets or bubbles. When the dough is baked, the yeast dies and the air pockets "set", giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of potatoes, water from potato boiling, <a href="/wiki/Egg_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (food)">eggs</a>, or sugar in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeast. Most yeasts used in baking are of the same species common in alcoholic fermentation. In addition, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Saccharomyces_exiguus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saccharomyces exiguus (page does not exist)">Saccharomyces exiguus</a></i> (also known as <i>S. minor</i>), a wild yeast found on plants, fruits, and grains, is occasionally used for baking. In breadmaking, the yeast initially respires aerobically, producing carbon dioxide and water. When the oxygen is depleted, <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a> begins, producing ethanol as a waste product; however, this evaporates during baking.<sup id="cite_ref-Moore-Landecker-1996_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moore-Landecker-1996-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Compressed_fresh_yeast_-_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Compressed_fresh_yeast_-_1.jpg/220px-Compressed_fresh_yeast_-_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Compressed_fresh_yeast_-_1.jpg/330px-Compressed_fresh_yeast_-_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Compressed_fresh_yeast_-_1.jpg/440px-Compressed_fresh_yeast_-_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1330" /></a><figcaption>A block of compressed fresh yeast</figcaption></figure> <p>It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. The first records that show this use came from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Legras-2007_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Legras-2007-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers speculate a mixture of flour meal and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of the <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a> caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would have been lighter and tastier than the normal flat, hard cake. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dry_yeast.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Dry_yeast.jpg/220px-Dry_yeast.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Dry_yeast.jpg/330px-Dry_yeast.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Dry_yeast.jpg/440px-Dry_yeast.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Active dried yeast, a granulated form in which yeast is commercially sold</figcaption></figure> <p>Today, there are several retailers of baker's yeast; one of the earlier developments in North America is <a href="/wiki/Fleischmann%27s_Yeast" title="Fleischmann's Yeast">Fleischmann's Yeast</a>, in 1868. During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/granulate" class="extiw" title="wikt:granulate">granulated</a> active dry yeast which did not require refrigeration, had a longer <a href="/wiki/Shelf_life" title="Shelf life">shelf life</a> than fresh yeast, and rose twice as fast. Baker's yeast is also sold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square "cake". This form perishes quickly, so must be used soon after production. A weak solution of water and sugar can be used to determine whether yeast is expired.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the solution, active yeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some recipes refer to this as <a href="/wiki/Proofing_(baking_technique)" title="Proofing (baking technique)">proofing</a> the yeast, as it "proves" (tests) the viability of the yeast before the other ingredients are added. When a <a href="/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough">sourdough</a> starter is used, flour and water are added instead of sugar; this is referred to as proofing the <a href="/wiki/Sponge_and_dough" title="Sponge and dough">sponge</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="'Reliable sources needed for the whole paragraph, also maybe some irrelevant information for an WP article' (October 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with <a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">flour</a>, salt, and warm water or milk. The dough is <a href="/wiki/Kneading" title="Kneading">kneaded</a> until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. The dough is then shaped into loaves. Some bread doughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again (this is called <a href="/wiki/Proofing_(baking_technique)" title="Proofing (baking technique)">dough proofing</a>) and then baked. A longer rising time gives a better flavor, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</h3></div> <p>Some yeasts can find potential application in the field of <a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a>. One such yeast, <i><a href="/wiki/Yarrowia_lipolytica" class="mw-redirect" title="Yarrowia lipolytica">Yarrowia lipolytica</a></i>, is known to degrade <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> mill <a href="/wiki/Effluent" title="Effluent">effluent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinitrotoluene" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitrotoluene">TNT</a> (an explosive material), and other <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Alkane" title="Alkane">alkanes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a>, fats and oils.<sup id="cite_ref-Zinjarde-2014_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zinjarde-2014-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can also tolerate high concentrations of salt and <a href="/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metal (chemistry)">heavy metals</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Bankar-2009b_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bankar-2009b-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is being investigated for its potential as a heavy metal <a href="/wiki/Biosorption" title="Biosorption">biosorbent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bankar-2009a_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bankar-2009a-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Saccharomyces cerevisiae</i> has potential to bioremediate toxic pollutants like <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> from industrial effluent.<sup id="cite_ref-Soares-2012_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soares-2012-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bronze statues are known to be degraded by certain species of yeast.<sup id="cite_ref-Cappitelli-2008_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cappitelli-2008-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different yeasts from Brazilian gold mines <a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">bioaccumulate</a> free and <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex" title="Coordination complex">complexed</a> silver ions.<sup id="cite_ref-Singh-2006_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singh-2006-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_ethanol_production">Industrial ethanol production</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Biofuel#Bioalcohols" title="Biofuel">Bioethanol</a></div> <p>The ability of yeast to convert sugar into ethanol has been harnessed by the biotechnology industry to produce <a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fuel" title="Ethanol fuel">ethanol fuel</a>. The process starts by milling a feedstock, such as <a href="/wiki/Sugar_cane" class="mw-redirect" title="Sugar cane">sugar cane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Field_corn" title="Field corn">field corn</a>, or other <a href="/wiki/Cereal_grain" class="mw-redirect" title="Cereal grain">cereal grains</a>, and then adding dilute <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>, or fungal alpha <a href="/wiki/Amylase" title="Amylase">amylase</a> enzymes, to break down the starches into complex sugars. A glucoamylase is then added to break the complex sugars down into simple sugars. After this, yeasts are added to convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is then distilled off to obtain ethanol up to 96% in purity.<sup id="cite_ref-USDE-2009_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USDE-2009-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i>Saccharomyces</i> yeasts have been <a href="/wiki/Genetically_engineered" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically engineered">genetically engineered</a> to ferment <a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a>, one of the major fermentable sugars present in <a href="/wiki/Lignocellulosic_biomass" title="Lignocellulosic biomass">cellulosic biomasses</a>, such as agriculture residues, paper wastes, and wood chips.<sup id="cite_ref-Brat-2009_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brat-2009-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ho-1998_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ho-1998-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a development means ethanol can be efficiently produced from more inexpensive feedstocks, making <a href="/wiki/Cellulosic_ethanol" title="Cellulosic ethanol">cellulosic ethanol</a> fuel a more competitively priced alternative to gasoline fuels.<sup id="cite_ref-Madhavan-2012_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Madhavan-2012-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonalcoholic_beverages">Nonalcoholic beverages</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kombucha_jar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kombucha_jar.jpg/150px-Kombucha_jar.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kombucha_jar.jpg/225px-Kombucha_jar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Kombucha_jar.jpg/300px-Kombucha_jar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1146" data-file-height="1298" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">A <i><a href="/wiki/Kombucha" title="Kombucha">kombucha</a></i> culture fermenting in a jar</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kombuchacultsm.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Kombuchacultsm.jpg/150px-Kombuchacultsm.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Kombuchacultsm.jpg/225px-Kombuchacultsm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Kombuchacultsm.jpg/300px-Kombuchacultsm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="293" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Yeast and bacteria in kombucha at 400×</div></div></div></div></div> <p>A number of sweet <a href="/wiki/Soft_drink" title="Soft drink">carbonated beverages</a> can be produced by the same methods as beer, except the fermentation is stopped sooner, producing carbon dioxide, but only trace amounts of alcohol, leaving a significant amount of residual sugar in the drink. </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Root_beer" title="Root beer">Root beer</a></b>, originally made by Native Americans, commercialized in the United States by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Elmer_Hires" title="Charles Elmer Hires">Charles Elmer Hires</a> and especially popular during <a href="/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States" title="Prohibition in the United States">Prohibition</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kvass" title="Kvass">Kvass</a></b>, a <a href="/wiki/Fermented_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermented drink">fermented drink</a> made from <a href="/wiki/Rye" title="Rye">rye</a>, popular in Eastern Europe. It has a recognizable, but low alcoholic content.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith-2013_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-2013-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kombucha" title="Kombucha">Kombucha</a></b>, a fermented sweetened tea. Yeast in <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> with <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid_bacteria" title="Acetic acid bacteria">acetic acid bacteria</a> is used in its preparation. Species of yeasts found in the tea can vary, and may include: <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces_bruxellensis" title="Brettanomyces bruxellensis">Brettanomyces bruxellensis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_stellata" title="Candida stellata">Candida stellata</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Schizosaccharomyces_pombe" title="Schizosaccharomyces pombe">Schizosaccharomyces pombe</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Torulaspora_delbrueckii" title="Torulaspora delbrueckii">Torulaspora delbrueckii</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Zygosaccharomyces_bailii" title="Zygosaccharomyces bailii">Zygosaccharomyces bailii</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Teoh-2004_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Teoh-2004-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also popular in Eastern Europe and some <a href="/wiki/Post-Soviet_states" title="Post-Soviet states">former Soviet republics</a> under the name <i>chajnyj grib</i> (<a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: <span lang="ru">Чайный гриб</span>), which means "tea mushroom".</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Kefir" title="Kefir">Kefir</a></b> and <b><a href="/wiki/Kumis" title="Kumis">kumis</a></b> are made by fermenting milk with yeast and bacteria.<sup id="cite_ref-de_Oliveira-2013_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de_Oliveira-2013-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Mauby" title="Mauby">Mauby</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">mabí</i>), made by fermenting sugar with the wild yeasts naturally present on the bark of the <i><a href="/wiki/Colubrina_elliptica" title="Colubrina elliptica">Colubrina elliptica</a></i> tree, popular in the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tibicos" title="Tibicos">Tibicos</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foods_and_nutritional_supplements">Foods and <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="nutritional_supplements"></span><span class="vanchor-text">nutritional supplements</span></span></h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:308px;max-width:308px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg/150px-Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg/225px-Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg/300px-Vegemite_and_Marmite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Marmite" title="Marmite">Marmite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vegemite" title="Vegemite">Vegemite</a>, products made from <a href="/wiki/Yeast_extract" title="Yeast extract">yeast extract</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marmite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Marmite.jpg/150px-Marmite.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Marmite.jpg/225px-Marmite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Marmite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="195" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Marmite and Vegemite are dark in colour</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Yeast is used as an ingredient in foods for its <a href="/wiki/Umami" title="Umami">umami</a> flavor, in much of the same way that <a href="/wiki/Monosodium_glutamate" title="Monosodium glutamate">monosodium glutamate</a> (MSG) is used and, like MSG, yeast often contains free <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">glutamic acid</a>. Examples include:<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><span class="anchor" id="Yeast_extract"></span><a href="/wiki/Yeast_extract" title="Yeast extract">Yeast extract</a>, made from the intracellular contents of yeast and used as <a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">food additives</a> or <a href="/wiki/Flavoring" title="Flavoring">flavours</a>. The general method for making yeast extract for food products such as <a href="/wiki/Vegemite" title="Vegemite">Vegemite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marmite" title="Marmite">Marmite</a> on a commercial scale is <i>heat autolysis</i>, i.e. to add salt to a suspension of yeast, making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells' shrivelling up. This triggers <a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">autolysis</a>, wherein the yeast's <a href="/wiki/Digestion" title="Digestion">digestive</a> enzymes break their own <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls that would give poor texture) are removed. Yeast autolysates are used in <a href="/wiki/Vegemite" title="Vegemite">Vegemite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Promite" title="Promite">Promite</a> (Australia); <a href="/wiki/Marmite" title="Marmite">Marmite</a> (the United Kingdom); the unrelated <a href="/wiki/Marmite_(New_Zealand)" title="Marmite (New Zealand)">Marmite</a> (New Zealand); <a href="/wiki/Vitam-R" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitam-R">Vitam-R</a> (Germany); and <a href="/wiki/Cenovis" title="Cenovis">Cenovis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>).</li> <li><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hefeflocken_Naturata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Hefeflocken_Naturata.jpg/150px-Hefeflocken_Naturata.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Hefeflocken_Naturata.jpg/225px-Hefeflocken_Naturata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Hefeflocken_Naturata.jpg/300px-Hefeflocken_Naturata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="837" /></a><figcaption>Nutritional yeast flakes are yellow in colour</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_yeast" title="Nutritional yeast">Nutritional yeast</a>, which is whole dried, deactivated yeast cells, usually <i>S. cerevisiae</i>. Usually in the form of yellow flake or powder, its nutty and umami flavor makes it a vegan substitute for cheese powder.<sup id="cite_ref-Thaler-2014_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thaler-2014-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another popular use is as a topping for popcorn. It can also be used in mashed and fried potatoes, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Scrambled_egg" class="mw-redirect" title="Scrambled egg">scrambled eggs</a>. It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to <a href="/wiki/Cornmeal" title="Cornmeal">cornmeal</a>. In Australia, it is sometimes sold as "savoury yeast flakes".<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Both types of yeast foods above are rich in <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin B">B-complex</a> vitamins (besides vitamin B<sub>12</sub> unless fortified),<sup id="cite_ref-University_of_Maryland_Medical_Center_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-University_of_Maryland_Medical_Center-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> making them an attractive nutritional supplement to vegans.<sup id="cite_ref-Thaler-2014_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thaler-2014-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same vitamins are also found in some yeast-fermented products mentioned above, such as <a href="/wiki/Kvass" title="Kvass">kvass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Līdums-2017_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Līdums-2017-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nutritional yeast in particular is naturally low in fat and <a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">sodium</a> and a source of protein and vitamins as well as other minerals and <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactors</a> required for growth. Many brands of nutritional yeast and yeast extract spreads, though not all, are fortified with <a href="/wiki/Cyanocobalamin" title="Cyanocobalamin">vitamin B<sub>12</sub></a>, which is produced separately by <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Duyff-2012_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Duyff-2012-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1920, the <a href="/wiki/Fleischmann%27s_Yeast" title="Fleischmann's Yeast">Fleischmann Yeast Company</a> began to promote yeast cakes in a "Yeast for Health" campaign. They initially emphasized yeast as a source of vitamins, good for skin and digestion. Their later advertising claimed a much broader range of health benefits, and was censured as misleading by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fad" title="Fad">fad</a> for yeast cakes lasted until the late 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-Price-2015_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Price-2015-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Probiotics">Probiotics</h3></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Probiotic" title="Probiotic">probiotic</a> supplements use the yeast <i><a href="/wiki/Saccharomyces_boulardii" title="Saccharomyces boulardii">S. boulardii</a></i> to maintain and restore the natural flora in the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a>. <i>S. boulardii</i> has been shown to reduce the symptoms of acute <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Dinleyici-2012_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dinleyici-2012-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reduce the chance of infection by <i><a href="/wiki/Clostridium_difficile_(bacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clostridium difficile (bacteria)">Clostridium difficile</a></i> (often identified simply as C. difficile or C. diff),<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson-2012_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson-2012-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> reduce bowel movements in diarrhea-predominant <a href="/wiki/Irritable_bowel_syndrome" title="Irritable bowel syndrome">IBS</a> patients,<sup id="cite_ref-Dai-2013_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dai-2013-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and reduce the incidence of <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic-associated_diarrhea" title="Antibiotic-associated diarrhea">antibiotic</a>-, <a href="/wiki/Travelers%27_diarrhea" title="Travelers' diarrhea">traveler's</a>-, and <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>-associated diarrheas.<sup id="cite_ref-McFarland_LV-2010_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McFarland_LV-2010-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aquarium_hobby">Aquarium hobby</h3></div> <p>Yeast is often used by <a href="/wiki/Aquarium" title="Aquarium">aquarium</a> hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) to nourish plants in <a href="/wiki/Aquascaping" title="Aquascaping">planted aquaria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pedersen-2007_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pedersen-2007-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CO<sub>2</sub> levels from yeast are more difficult to regulate than those from pressurized CO<sub>2</sub> systems. However, the low cost of yeast makes it a widely used alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-Pedersen-2007_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pedersen-2007-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_research">Scientific research</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yeast_cell_english.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Yeast_cell_english.svg/220px-Yeast_cell_english.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Yeast_cell_english.svg/330px-Yeast_cell_english.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Yeast_cell_english.svg/440px-Yeast_cell_english.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Diagram showing a yeast cell</figcaption></figure> <p>Several yeasts, in particular <i><a href="/wiki/S._cerevisiae" class="mw-redirect" title="S. cerevisiae">S. cerevisiae</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/S._pombe" class="mw-redirect" title="S. pombe">S. pombe</a></i>, have been widely used in genetics and cell biology, largely because they are simple <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> cells, serving as a model for all eukaryotes, including humans, for the study of fundamental cellular processes such as the <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">cell cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>, and metabolism. Also, yeasts are easily manipulated and cultured in the laboratory, which has allowed for the development of powerful standard techniques, such as <a href="/wiki/Yeast_two-hybrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Yeast two-hybrid">yeast two-hybrid</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Brückner-2009_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brückner-2009-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_genetic_array" title="Synthetic genetic array">synthetic genetic array</a> analysis,<sup id="cite_ref-Boone-2006_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Boone-2006-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Tetrad_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrad (genetics)">tetrad analysis</a>. Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">homologues</a> in yeast; these proteins include <a href="/wiki/Cell_cycle_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell cycle protein">cell cycle proteins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">signaling proteins</a>, and protein-processing <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ishiwata-2007_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ishiwata-2007-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 24 April 1996, <i>S. cerevisiae</i> was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>, consisting of 12 million <a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pairs</a>, fully sequenced as part of the <a href="/wiki/Genome_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Genome Project">Genome Project</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-1996_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-1996-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, it was the most complex organism to have its full genome sequenced, and the work of seven years and the involvement of more than 100 laboratories to accomplish.<sup id="cite_ref-Henahan-1996_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Henahan-1996-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second yeast species to have its genome sequenced was <i>Schizosaccharomyces pombe</i>, which was completed in 2002.<sup id="cite_ref-Wood-2002_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-2002-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reinert-2002_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reinert-2002-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was the sixth eukaryotic genome sequenced and consists of 13.8 million base pairs. As of 2014, over 50 yeast species have had their genomes sequenced and published.<sup id="cite_ref-Lin-2014_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin-2014-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Genomic and functional gene annotation of the two major yeast models can be accessed via their respective <a href="/wiki/Model_organism_databases" class="mw-redirect" title="Model organism databases">model organism databases</a>: SGD<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and PomBase.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetically_engineered_biofactories">Genetically engineered biofactories</h3></div> <p>Various yeast species have been genetically engineered to efficiently produce various drugs, a technique called <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_engineering" title="Metabolic engineering">metabolic engineering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>S. cerevisiae</i> is easy to genetically engineer; its physiology, metabolism and genetics are well known, and it is amenable for use in harsh industrial conditions. A wide variety of chemical in different classes can be produced by engineered yeast, including <a href="/wiki/Phenols" title="Phenols">phenolics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isoprenoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Isoprenoid">isoprenoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polyketide" title="Polyketide">polyketides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Siddiqui-2012_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siddiqui-2012-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 20% of <a href="/wiki/Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">biopharmaceuticals</a> are produced in <i>S. cerevisiae</i>, including <a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> for <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_serum_albumin" title="Human serum albumin">human serum albumin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Nilesen-2012_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nilesen-2012-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathogenic_yeasts">Pathogenic yeasts</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">Fungal infection</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Candida_Gram_stain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Candida_Gram_stain.jpg/220px-Candida_Gram_stain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Candida_Gram_stain.jpg/330px-Candida_Gram_stain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Candida_Gram_stain.jpg/440px-Candida_Gram_stain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gram_stain" title="Gram stain">Gram stain</a> of <i>Candida albicans</i> from a vaginal swab. The small oval chlamydospores are 2–4 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">μm</a> in diameter.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:C_albicans_en.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/C_albicans_en.jpg/220px-C_albicans_en.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/C_albicans_en.jpg/330px-C_albicans_en.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/C_albicans_en.jpg/440px-C_albicans_en.jpg 2x" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="476" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Photomicrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Photomicrograph">photomicrograph</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">Candida albicans</a></i> showing hyphal outgrowth and other morphological characteristics</figcaption></figure> <p>Some species of yeast are <a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_pathogen" class="mw-redirect" title="Opportunistic pathogen">opportunistic pathogens</a> that can cause infection in people with compromised <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune systems</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_neoformans" title="Cryptococcus neoformans">Cryptococcus neoformans</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Cryptococcus_gattii" title="Cryptococcus gattii">Cryptococcus gattii</a></i> are significant pathogens of <a href="/wiki/Immunocompromised" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunocompromised">immunocompromised</a> people. They are the species primarily responsible for <a href="/wiki/Cryptococcosis" title="Cryptococcosis">cryptococcosis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">fungal infection</a> that occurs in about one million <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a> patients, causing over 600,000 deaths annually.<sup id="cite_ref-Cogliati-2013_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cogliati-2013-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cells of these yeast are surrounded by a rigid <a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">polysaccharide</a> capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a> in the human body.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Meara-2012_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Meara-2012-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yeasts of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i>, another group of opportunistic pathogens, cause <a href="/wiki/Oral_candidiasis" title="Oral candidiasis">oral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaginal_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaginal infection">vaginal infections</a> in humans, known as <a href="/wiki/Candidiasis" title="Candidiasis">candidiasis</a>. <i>Candida</i> is commonly found as a <a href="/wiki/Commensal" class="mw-redirect" title="Commensal">commensal</a> yeast in the <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a> of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. The yeast cells sprout a <a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphal</a> outgrowth, which locally penetrates the <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucosal membrane</a>, causing irritation and shedding of the tissues.<sup id="cite_ref-Deacon-2006_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deacon-2006-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A book from the 1980s listed the pathogenic yeasts of candidiasis in probable descending order of <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> for humans as: <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_albicans" title="Candida albicans">C. albicans</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_tropicalis" title="Candida tropicalis">C. tropicalis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_stellatoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida stellatoidea">C. stellatoidea</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_glabrata" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida glabrata">C. glabrata</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_krusei" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida krusei">C. krusei</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_parapsilosis" title="Candida parapsilosis">C. parapsilosis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_guilliermondii" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida guilliermondii">C. guilliermondii</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_viswanathii" title="Candida viswanathii">C. viswanathii</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_lusitaniae" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida lusitaniae">C. lusitaniae</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Rhodotorula" title="Rhodotorula">Rhodotorula mucilaginosa</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hurley-1987_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hurley-1987-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Candida glabrata</i> is the second most common <i>Candida</i> pathogen after <i>C. albicans</i>, causing infections of the <a href="/wiki/Urogenital_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Urogenital tract">urogenital tract</a>, and of the <a href="/wiki/Bloodstream" class="mw-redirect" title="Bloodstream">bloodstream</a> (<a href="/wiki/Candidemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Candidemia">candidemia</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Brunke-2013_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brunke-2013-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_auris" title="Candida auris">C. auris</a></i> has been more recently identified. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Food_spoilage">Food spoilage</h2></div> <p>Yeasts are able to grow in foods with a low pH (5.0 or lower) and in the presence of sugars, organic acids, and other easily metabolized carbon sources.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurtzman-2006_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurtzman-2006-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During their growth, yeasts metabolize some food components and produce metabolic end products. This causes the physical, chemical, and sensible properties of a food to change, and the food is spoiled.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleet-2001_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleet-2001-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth of yeast within food products is often seen on their surfaces, as in cheeses or meats, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, such as juices, and semiliquid products, such as <a href="/wiki/Syrup" title="Syrup">syrups</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jam" class="mw-redirect" title="Jam">jams</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kurtzman-2006_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurtzman-2006-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The yeast of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Zygosaccharomyces" title="Zygosaccharomyces">Zygosaccharomyces</a></i> have had a long history as spoilage yeasts within the <a href="/wiki/Food_industry" title="Food industry">food industry</a>. This is mainly because these species can grow in the presence of high sucrose, ethanol, <a href="/wiki/Acetic_acid" title="Acetic acid">acetic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorbic_acid" title="Sorbic acid">sorbic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benzoic_acid" title="Benzoic acid">benzoic acid</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> concentrations,<sup id="cite_ref-Loureiro-2003_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loureiro-2003-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> representing some of the commonly used <a href="/wiki/Food_preservation" title="Food preservation">food preservation</a> methods. <a href="/wiki/Methylene_blue" title="Methylene blue">Methylene blue</a> is used to test for the presence of live yeast cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Downes-2001_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Downes-2001-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Oenology" title="Oenology">oenology</a>, the major spoilage yeast is <i><a href="/wiki/Brettanomyces_bruxellensis" title="Brettanomyces bruxellensis">Brettanomyces bruxellensis</a></i>. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Candida_blankii" title="Candida blankii">Candida blankii</a></i> has been detected in <a href="/wiki/Iberian_ham" class="mw-redirect" title="Iberian ham">Iberian ham</a> and meat.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></div> <p>An Indian study of seven <a href="/wiki/Honey_bee" title="Honey bee">bee</a> species and nine plant species found 45 yeast species from 16 genera colonise the <a href="/wiki/Nectaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Nectaries">nectaries</a> of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a></i>; the most common species in honey bee stomachs was <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dekkera_intermedia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dekkera intermedia (page does not exist)">Dekkera intermedia</a></i>, while the most common species colonising flower nectaries was <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_blankii" title="Candida blankii">Candida blankii</a></i>. Although the mechanism is not fully understood, it was found that <i>A. indica</i> flowers more if <i><a href="/wiki/Candida_blankii" title="Candida blankii">Candida blankii</a></i> is present.<sup id="cite_ref-Sandhu-1985_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandhu-1985-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In another example, <i>Spathaspora passalidarum</i>, found in the digestive tract of <a href="/wiki/Passalidae" title="Passalidae">bess beetles</a>, aids the digestion of plant cells by fermenting <a href="/wiki/Xylose" title="Xylose">xylose</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a> produce different types of sugars that attract yeasts, which ferment the sugar and turns it into alcohol. Fruit eating mammals find the scent of alcohol attractive as it indicates a ripe, sugary fruit which provides more nutrition. In turn, the mammals helps disperse both the fruit's seeds and the yeast's spores.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Yeast and <a href="/wiki/Small_hive_beetle" title="Small hive beetle">small hive beetle</a> have mutualistic relationship. While small hive beetle is attracted by the pheromone released by the host honeybee, yeast can produce a similar pheromone which have the same attractive effect to the small hive beetle. Therefore, yeast facilitates SHB's infestation if the beehive contains yeast inside.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/25px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/38px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/51px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 2x" data-file-width="1105" data-file-height="1215" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Fungi" title="Portal:Fungi">Fungi portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Ethanol fermentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_aerobic_fermentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of aerobic fermentation">Evolution of aerobic fermentation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kazachstania_yasuniensis" title="Kazachstania yasuniensis">Kazachstania yasuniensis</a></i> – a yeast isolated in 2015</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">Mycosis</a> (fungal infection in animals)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Start_point_(yeast)" title="Start point (yeast)">Start point (yeast)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WHI3" title="WHI3">WHI3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmid#Yeast_plasmids" title="Plasmid">Yeast plasmids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zymology" title="Zymology">Zymology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPiškurCompagno2014" class="citation book cs1">Piškur, Jure; Compagno, Concetta (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7NclBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98"><i>Molecular Mechanisms in Yeast Carbon Metabolism</i></a>. Springer. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-55013-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-642-55013-3"><bdi>978-3-642-55013-3</bdi></a>. <q>The second completely sequenced yeast genome came 6 years later from the fission yeast <i>Schizosaccharomyces pombe</i>, which diverged from <i>S. cerevisiae</i> probably more than 300 million years ago.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Mechanisms+in+Yeast+Carbon+Metabolism&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-642-55013-3&rft.aulast=Pi%C5%A1kur&rft.aufirst=Jure&rft.au=Compagno%2C+Concetta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7NclBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kurtzman-2006b-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kurtzman-2006b_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtzmanFell2006" class="citation book cs1">Kurtzman CP, Fell JW (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=176765">"Yeast Systematics and Phylogeny—Implications of Molecular Identification Methods for Studies in Ecology"</a>. <i>Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts, The Yeast Handbook</i>. 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Springer. pp. 27–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306472619" title="Special:BookSources/978-0306472619"><bdi>978-0306472619</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+evolutionary+origin+and+maintenance+of+sexual+recombination%3A+A+review+of+contemporary+models&rft.series=Evolutionary+Biology+Series+%3E%3E+Evolutionary+Biology&rft.pages=27-137&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0306472619&rft.aulast=Birdsell&rft.aufirst=JA&rft.au=Wills%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bai-2002-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bai-2002_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaiZhaoTakashimaJia2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bai FY, Zhao JH, Takashima M, Jia JH, Boekhout T, Nakase T (2002). "Reclassification of the <i>Sporobolomyces roseus</i> and <i>Sporidiobolus pararoseus</i> complexes, with the description of <i>Sporobolomyces phaffii</i> sp. nov". <i>International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology</i>. <b>52</b> (6): 2309–2314. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00207713-52-6-2309">10.1099/00207713-52-6-2309</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12508902">12508902</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Systematic+and+Evolutionary+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Reclassification+of+the+Sporobolomyces+roseus+and+Sporidiobolus+pararoseus+complexes%2C+with+the+description+of+Sporobolomyces+phaffii+sp.+nov&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=2309-2314&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2F00207713-52-6-2309&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12508902&rft.aulast=Bai&rft.aufirst=FY&rft.au=Zhao%2C+JH&rft.au=Takashima%2C+M&rft.au=Jia%2C+JH&rft.au=Boekhout%2C+T&rft.au=Nakase%2C+T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen-2010-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chen-2010_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenJiangChenQin2010" class="citation journal cs1">Chen X, Jiang ZH, Chen S, Qin W (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005349">"Microbial and bioconversion production of D-xylitol and its detection and application"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Biological_Sciences" title="International Journal of Biological Sciences">International Journal of Biological Sciences</a></i>. <b>6</b> (7): 834–844. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7150%2Fijbs.6.834">10.7150/ijbs.6.834</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3005349">3005349</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21179590">21179590</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Microbial+and+bioconversion+production+of+D-xylitol+and+its+detection+and+application&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=834-844&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005349%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21179590&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7150%2Fijbs.6.834&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=X&rft.au=Jiang%2C+ZH&rft.au=Chen%2C+S&rft.au=Qin%2C+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3005349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Botstein-2011-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Botstein-2011_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotsteinFink2011" class="citation journal cs1">Botstein D, Fink GR (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3213361">"Yeast: an experimental organism for 21st Century biology"</a>. <i>Genetics</i>. <b>189</b> (3): 695–704. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1534%2Fgenetics.111.130765">10.1534/genetics.111.130765</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3213361">3213361</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22084421">22084421</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Yeast%3A+an+experimental+organism+for+21st+Century+biology&rft.volume=189&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=695-704&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3213361%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22084421&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1534%2Fgenetics.111.130765&rft.aulast=Botstein&rft.aufirst=D&rft.au=Fink%2C+GR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3213361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="open access publication – free to read"><img alt="Open access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/9px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/14px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg/18px-Open_Access_logo_PLoS_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriestStewart2006" class="citation book cs1">Priest FG, Stewart GG (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TIYbNdrIsPEC&pg=PA84"><i>Handbook of Brewing</i></a>. CRC Press. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781420015171" title="Special:BookSources/9781420015171"><bdi>9781420015171</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Brewing&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781420015171&rft.aulast=Priest&rft.aufirst=FG&rft.au=Stewart%2C+GG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTIYbNdrIsPEC%26pg%3DPA84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gibson-2010-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gibson-2010_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson_M2010" class="citation book cs1">Gibson M (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DhMavBH4B18C&pg=PA361"><i>The Sommelier Prep Course: An Introduction to the Wines, Beers, and Spirits of the World</i></a>. John Wiley and Sons. p. 361. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-28318-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-28318-9"><bdi>978-0-470-28318-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sommelier+Prep+Course%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Wines%2C+Beers%2C+and+Spirits+of+the+World&rft.pages=361&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-470-28318-9&rft.au=Gibson+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDhMavBH4B18C%26pg%3DPA361&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For more on the taxonomical differences, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDowhanick_TM1999" class="citation book cs1">Dowhanick TM (1999). "Yeast – Strains and Handling Techniques". In McCabe JT (ed.). <i>The Practical Brewer</i>. Master Brewers Association of the Americas.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yeast+%E2%80%93+Strains+and+Handling+Techniques&rft.btitle=The+Practical+Brewer&rft.pub=Master+Brewers+Association+of+the+Americas&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Dowhanick+TM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Amendola-2002-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Amendola-2002_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmendolaRees2002" class="citation book cs1">Amendola J, Rees N (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bQcxoepvxOwC&pg=PA36"><i>Understanding Baking: The Art and Science of Baking</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_and_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley and Sons">John Wiley and Sons</a>. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-40546-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-40546-7"><bdi>978-0-471-40546-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Baking%3A+The+Art+and+Science+of+Baking&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-471-40546-7&rft.aulast=Amendola&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Rees%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbQcxoepvxOwC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-University_of_Maryland_Medical_Center-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Maryland_Medical_Center_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-University_of_Maryland_Medical_Center_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170702112126/http://www.umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/brewers-yeast">"Brewer's yeast"</a>. University of Maryland Medical Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/brewers-yeast">the original</a> on 2 July 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Brewer%27s+yeast&rft.pub=University+of+Maryland+Medical+Center&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.umm.edu%2Fhealth%2Fmedical%2Faltmed%2Fsupplement%2Fbrewers-yeast&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vanderhaegen-2003-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Vanderhaegen-2003_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVanderhaegenNevenCogneVertrepin2003" class="citation journal cs1">Vanderhaegen B, Neven H, Cogne S, Vertrepin KJ, Derdelinckx C, Verachtert H (2003). 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Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Woodhead_Publishing" title="Woodhead Publishing">Woodhead Publishing</a>. pp. 28–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85573-966-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85573-966-6"><bdi>978-1-85573-966-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Detection%2C+identification+and+enumeration+methods+for+spoilage+yeasts&rft.btitle=Food+spoilage+microorganisms&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=28-54&rft.pub=Woodhead+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-85573-966-6&rft.au=Kurtzman+CP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleet-2001-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fleet-2001_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleetPraphailong2001" class="citation book cs1">Fleet GH, Praphailong W (2001). "Yeasts". In Moir CJ (ed.). <i>Spoilage of Processed Foods: Causes and Diagnosis</i>. Food Microbiology Group of the Australian Institute of Food Science and Technology (AIFST). pp. 383–397. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9578907-0-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9578907-0-1"><bdi>978-0-9578907-0-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Yeasts&rft.btitle=Spoilage+of+Processed+Foods%3A+Causes+and+Diagnosis&rft.pages=383-397&rft.pub=Food+Microbiology+Group+of+the+Australian+Institute+of+Food+Science+and+Technology+%28AIFST%29&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-9578907-0-1&rft.aulast=Fleet&rft.aufirst=GH&rft.au=Praphailong%2C+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Downes-2001-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Downes-2001_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDownesIto2001" class="citation book cs1">Downes FP, Ito K (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nz851G-cZf0C&pg=PA211"><i>Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods</i></a>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/American_Public_Health_Association" title="American Public Health Association">American Public Health Association</a>. p. 211. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87553-175-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87553-175-5"><bdi>978-0-87553-175-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compendium+of+Methods+for+the+Microbiological+Examination+of+Foods&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=American+Public+Health+Association&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-87553-175-5&rft.aulast=Downes&rft.aufirst=FP&rft.au=Ito%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dnz851G-cZf0C%26pg%3DPA211&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToldrá2014" class="citation book cs1">Toldrá, Fidel (October 2014). Toldrá, Fidel; Hui, Y. H.; Astiasaran, Iciar; Sebranek, Joseph; Talon, Regine (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yIgeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140"><i>Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry</i></a> (2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: <a href="/wiki/Wiley-Blackwell" title="Wiley-Blackwell">Wiley-Blackwell</a>. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-52267-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-52267-7"><bdi>978-1-118-52267-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Fermented+Meat+and+Poultry&rft.place=Chichester%2C+West+Sussex%2C+UK&rft.pages=140&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2014-10&rft.isbn=978-1-118-52267-7&rft.aulast=Toldr%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=Fidel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyIgeBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyenSuhMarshallBlackwell2006" class="citation journal cs1">Nguyen, Nhu H.; Suh, Sung-Oui; Marshall, Christopher J.; Blackwell, Meredith (1 October 2006). "Morphological and ecological similarities: wood-boring beetles associated with novel xylose-fermenting yeasts, <i>Spathaspora passalidarum</i> gen. sp. nov. and <i>Candida jeffriesii</i> sp. nov". <i>Mycological Research</i>. <b>110</b> (10): 1232–1241. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mycres.2006.07.002">10.1016/j.mycres.2006.07.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0953-7562">0953-7562</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17011177">17011177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycological+Research&rft.atitle=Morphological+and+ecological+similarities%3A+wood-boring+beetles+associated+with+novel+xylose-fermenting+yeasts%2C+Spathaspora+passalidarum+gen.+sp.+nov.+and+Candida+jeffriesii+sp.+nov.&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1232-1241&rft.date=2006-10-01&rft.issn=0953-7562&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17011177&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mycres.2006.07.002&rft.aulast=Nguyen&rft.aufirst=Nhu+H.&rft.au=Suh%2C+Sung-Oui&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Christopher+J.&rft.au=Blackwell%2C+Meredith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYirka2023" class="citation web cs1">Yirka, Bob (20 July 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://phys.org/news/2023-07-wild-fruits-higher-alcohol-content.html">"Wild fruits with higher alcohol content found to be more widely dispersed by mammals"</a>. <i>Phys.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240308211512/https://phys.org/news/2023-07-wild-fruits-higher-alcohol-content.html">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Phys.org&rft.atitle=Wild+fruits+with+higher+alcohol+content+found+to+be+more+widely+dispersed+by+mammals&rft.date=2023-07-20&rft.aulast=Yirka&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphys.org%2Fnews%2F2023-07-wild-fruits-higher-alcohol-content.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagar2023" class="citation web cs1">Sagar, Soumya (19 July 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2383191-alcoholic-fruit-may-help-plants-recruit-mammals-to-spread-their-seeds/">"Alcoholic fruit may help plants recruit mammals to spread their seeds"</a>. <i>New Scientist</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240308211535/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2383191-alcoholic-fruit-may-help-plants-recruit-mammals-to-spread-their-seeds/">Archived</a> from the original on 8 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Alcoholic+fruit+may+help+plants+recruit+mammals+to+spread+their+seeds&rft.date=2023-07-19&rft.aulast=Sagar&rft.aufirst=Soumya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2F2383191-alcoholic-fruit-may-help-plants-recruit-mammals-to-spread-their-seeds%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTortoBouciasArbogastTumlinson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Torto, Baldwyn; Boucias, Drion G.; Arbogast, Richard T.; Tumlinson, James H.; Teal, Peter E. A. (15 May 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1895957">"Multitrophic interaction facilitates parasite–host relationship between an invasive beetle and the honey bee"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</i>. <b>104</b> (20): 8374–8378. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PNAS..104.8374T">2007PNAS..104.8374T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0702813104">10.1073/pnas.0702813104</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1895957">1895957</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17483478">17483478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Multitrophic+interaction+facilitates+parasite%E2%80%93host+relationship+between+an+invasive+beetle+and+the+honey+bee&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=8374-8378&rft.date=2007-05-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1895957%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007PNAS..104.8374T&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17483478&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0702813104&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Torto&rft.aufirst=Baldwyn&rft.au=Boucias%2C+Drion+G.&rft.au=Arbogast%2C+Richard+T.&rft.au=Tumlinson%2C+James+H.&rft.au=Teal%2C+Peter+E.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1895957&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexopoulosMimsBlackwell1996" class="citation book cs1">Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M (1996). <i>Introductory Mycology</i>. New York: Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-52229-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-52229-4"><bdi>978-0-471-52229-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introductory+Mycology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-471-52229-4&rft.aulast=Alexopoulos&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft.au=Mims%2C+CW&rft.au=Blackwell%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkCannonMinterStalpers2008" class="citation book cs1">Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA (2008). <i>Dictionary of the Fungi</i> (10th ed.). Wallingford, UK: CAB International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-826-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85199-826-8"><bdi>978-0-85199-826-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Fungi&rft.place=Wallingford%2C+UK&rft.edition=10th&rft.pub=CAB+International&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-85199-826-8&rft.aulast=Kirk&rft.aufirst=PM&rft.au=Cannon%2C+PF&rft.au=Minter%2C+DW&rft.au=Stalpers%2C+JA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtzman_CPFell_JWBoekhout_T2011" class="citation book cs1">Kurtzman CP; Fell JW; Boekhout T, eds. (2011). <i>The Yeasts: A Taxonomic Study</i>. Vol. 1 (5th ed.). Amsterdam, etc.: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-384708-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-384708-9"><bdi>978-0-12-384708-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Yeasts%3A+A+Taxonomic+Study&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+etc.&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-12-384708-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoney2018" class="citation book cs1">Money, Nicholas P. (2018). <i>The Rise of Yeast: How the Sugar Fungus Shaped Civilisation</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198749707" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198749707"><bdi>978-0198749707</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Yeast%3A+How+the+Sugar+Fungus+Shaped+Civilisation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0198749707&rft.aulast=Money&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPriestStewart2006" class="citation book cs1">Priest FG, Stewart GG (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TIYbNdrIsPEC&pg=PA691"><i>Handbook of Brewing</i></a> (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 691. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1517-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4200-1517-1"><bdi>978-1-4200-1517-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Brewing&rft.pages=691&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4200-1517-1&rft.aulast=Priest&rft.aufirst=FG&rft.au=Stewart%2C+GG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTIYbNdrIsPEC%26pg%3DPA691&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYeast" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/yeast" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/yeast">yeast</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Yeasts" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Yeasts">Yeasts</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yeastgenome.org"><i>Saccharomyces</i> genome database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070721115019/http://biochemie.web.med.uni-muenchen.de/Yeast_Biol/10%20Yeast%20Growth%20and%20the%20Cell%20Cycle.pdf">Yeast growth and the cell cycle</a> (archived 21 July 2007)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_fungi" title="Outline of fungi">Outline of fungi</a> · <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_lichens" title="Outline of lichens">Outline of lichens</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branch</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">Ethnomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenology" title="Lichenology">Lichenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicinal_uses_of_fungi" title="Medicinal uses of fungi">Medicinal fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycosis">Mycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotoxicology" title="Mycotoxicology">Mycotoxicology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reproduction/<a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spore</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">teleomorph/sexual</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Zygospore" title="Zygospore">Zygospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascospore" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascospore">Ascospore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">Ascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basidiospore" title="Basidiospore">Basidiospore</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basidium" title="Basidium">Basidium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Teliospore" title="Teliospore">Teliospore</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Teleomorph,_anamorph_and_holomorph" title="Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph">anamorph/asexual</a>:</i> <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">Conidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlamydospore" title="Chlamydospore">Chlamydospore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oidium_(spore)" title="Oidium (spore)">Oidium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pycniospore" title="Pycniospore">Pycniospore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">Hypha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haustorium" title="Haustorium">Haustorium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">Mycelium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungi)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sporocarp (fungi)">Sporocarp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Growth patterns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dimorphic_fungus" title="Dimorphic fungus">Dimorphic fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">Mold</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">Mushroom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Glossary of mycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fungal_orders" title="List of fungal orders">List of fungal orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mycologists" title="List of mycologists">List of mycologists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mycology_journals" title="List of mycology journals">List of mycology journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Fungi" title="Category:Fungi">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" 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data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fungi" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fungi">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bread" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Bread" title="Template:Bread"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Bread" title="Template talk:Bread"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bread" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Bread"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Bread" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Bread</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_breads" title="List of breads">Types</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brown_bread" title="Brown bread">Brown bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bun" title="Bun">Bun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flatbread" title="Flatbread">Flatbread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multigrain_bread" title="Multigrain bread">Multigrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quick_bread" title="Quick bread">Quick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rye_bread" title="Rye bread">Rye bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt-rising_bread" title="Salt-rising bread">Salt-rising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandwich_bread" title="Sandwich bread">Sandwich bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soda_bread" title="Soda bread">Soda bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sourdough" title="Sourdough">Sourdough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sprouted_bread" title="Sprouted bread">Sprouted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unleavened_bread" title="Unleavened bread">Unleavened</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_bread" title="White bread">White bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole_wheat_bread" title="Whole wheat bread">Whole wheat</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brown bread"><img alt="Brown bread" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg/146px-Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="146" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg/219px-Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg/292px-Fresh_made_bread_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2526" data-file-height="1684" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ingredients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baker%27s_yeast" title="Baker's yeast">Baker's yeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barm" title="Barm">Barm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_propanoate" title="Calcium propanoate">Calcium propanoate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dough_conditioner" title="Dough conditioner">Dough conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eggs_as_food" title="Eggs as food">Eggs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flour" title="Flour">Flour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavening agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oven" title="Oven">Oven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_machine" title="Bread machine">Bread machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_pan" title="Bread pan">Bread pan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dough_scraper" class="mw-redirect" title="Dough scraper">Dough scraper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farinograph" title="Farinograph">Farinograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lame_(kitchen_tool)" title="Lame (kitchen tool)">Lame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peel_(tool)" title="Peel (tool)">Peel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixer_(appliance)" title="Mixer (appliance)">Stand mixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_warmer" title="Bread warmer">Warmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toaster" title="Toaster">Toaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weighing_scale" title="Weighing scale">Weighing scales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes and<br />techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autolysis_(biology)" title="Autolysis (biology)">Autolysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baking" title="Baking">Baking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biga_(bread_baking)" title="Biga (bread baking)">Biga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chorleywood_bread_process" title="Chorleywood bread process">Chorleywood bread process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kneading" title="Kneading">Kneading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leavening_agent" title="Leavening agent">Leavening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maillard_reaction" title="Maillard reaction">Maillard reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-knead_bread" title="No-knead bread">No-knead bread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proofing_(baking_technique)" title="Proofing (baking technique)">Proofing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-ferment" title="Pre-ferment">Pre-ferment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sliced_bread" title="Sliced bread">Pre-slicing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_and_dough" title="Sponge and dough">Sponge and dough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steaming" title="Steaming">Steaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_dough" title="Straight dough">Straight dough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_bread" title="Vienna bread">Vienna process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bread_crumbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Bread crumbs">Bread crumbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_bowl" title="Bread bowl">Bread bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_pakora" title="Bread pakora">Bread pakora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_pudding" title="Bread pudding">Bread pudding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crouton" title="Crouton">Croutons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_toast" title="French toast">French toast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusk" title="Rusk">Rusks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stuffing" title="Stuffing">Stuffing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandwich" title="Sandwich">Sandwiches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toast_(food)" title="Toast (food)">Toast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bakery" title="Bakery">Bakery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">Breadmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baker_percentage" title="Baker percentage">Baker percentage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_and_salt" title="Bread and salt">Bread and salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_in_Europe" title="Bread in Europe">Bread in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bread_clip" title="Bread clip">Bread clip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_bread" title="History of bread">History of bread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_breads" title="List of American breads">American breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_brand_name_breads" title="List of brand name breads">Brand name breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bread_dishes" title="List of bread dishes">Bread dishes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bread_rolls" title="List of bread rolls">Bread rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_breads" title="List of British breads">British breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_buns" class="mw-redirect" title="List of buns">Buns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_breads" title="List of French breads">French breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_breads" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Indian breads">Indian breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_breads" title="List of Pakistani breads">Pakistani breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_quick_breads" title="List of quick breads">Quick breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sourdough_breads" title="List of sourdough breads">Sourdough breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sweet_breads" title="List of sweet breads">Sweet breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_breads" title="List of Swiss breads">Swiss breads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_toast_dishes" title="List of toast dishes">Toast dishes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Breads" title="Category:Breads">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Alcoholic_beverages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Template:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Template talk:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Alcoholic_drinks" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Alcoholic drinks"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Alcoholic_beverages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">Alcoholic beverages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_and_production" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">History and production</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History of alcohol</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_alcoholic_beverages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of alcoholic beverages">History of alcoholic beverages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_beer" title="History of beer">History of beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_wine" title="History of wine">History of wine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bordeaux_wine" title="History of Bordeaux wine">History of Bordeaux wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Champagne" title="History of Champagne">History of Champagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Chianti" title="History of Chianti">History of Chianti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rioja_wine" title="History of Rioja wine">History of Rioja wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sherry" title="History of Sherry">History of Sherry</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Production</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcohol industry">Alcohol industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathtub_gin" title="Bathtub gin">Bathtub gin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brewing" title="Brewing">Brewing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brewery" title="Brewery">Brewery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malting" title="Malting">Malting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lautering" title="Lautering">Lautering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wort" title="Wort">Wort</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yeast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distillation" title="Distillation">Distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_establishment" title="Drinking establishment">Drinking establishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethanol_fermentation" title="Ethanol fermentation">Fermentation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_syrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple syrup">Simple syrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking" title="Yeast in winemaking">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winemaking" title="Winemaking">Winemaking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeast_in_winemaking" title="Yeast in winemaking">Yeast in winemaking</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Fermented_drinks_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_drink#Fermented_drinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Alcoholic drink">Fermented drinks</a> by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cider" title="Cider">Cider</a></li></ul></li> <li>Banana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_beer" title="Banana beer">Banana beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banana_wine" title="Banana wine">Banana wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bignay <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bignay_wine" title="Bignay wine">Bignay wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Bokbunja <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bokbunja-ju" title="Bokbunja-ju">Bokbunja-ju</a></li></ul></li> <li>Grape <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madeira_wine" title="Madeira wine">Madeira wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsala_wine" title="Marsala wine">Marsala wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Mistelle">Mistelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscatel_de_Set%C3%BAbal" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscatel de Setúbal">Moscatel de Setúbal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_wine" title="Port wine">Port wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_wine" title="Red wine">Red wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ros%C3%A9_wine" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosé wine">Rosé wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherry" title="Sherry">Sherry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermouth" title="Vermouth">Vermouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_wine" title="White wine">White wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Java plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duhat_wine" title="Duhat wine">Duhat wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Longan_wine" title="Longan wine">Longan wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Lychee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lychee_wine" title="Lychee wine">Lychee wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pear <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perry" title="Perry">Perry</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pineapple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepache" title="Tepache">Tepache</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plum_jerkum" title="Plum jerkum">Plum jerkum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pomegranate <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rimon_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rimon (wine)">Rimon</a></li></ul></li> <li>Prickly pear <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonche" title="Colonche">Colonche</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conditum" title="Conditum">Conditum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dubonnet" title="Dubonnet">Dubonnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocras" title="Hippocras">Hippocras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabol" title="Jabol">Jabol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mulled_wine" title="Mulled wine">Mulled wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabidh" title="Nabidh">Nabidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pruno" title="Pruno">Pruno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangria" title="Sangria">Sangria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cereals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barley <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barley_wine" title="Barley wine">Barley wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Corn <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mageu" title="Mageu">Mageu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pozol" title="Pozol">Pozol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tejuino" title="Tejuino">Tejuino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tesg%C3%BCino" title="Tesgüino">Tesgüino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Millet <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oshikundu" title="Oshikundu">Oshikundu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongba" title="Tongba">Tongba</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rice <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agkud" title="Agkud">Agkud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazake" title="Amazake">Amazake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apo_(drink)" title="Apo (drink)">Apo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beopju" title="Beopju">Beopju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brem" title="Brem">Brem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choujiu" title="Choujiu">Choujiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuak" title="Chuak">Chuak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dansul" title="Dansul">Dansul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwaha-ju" title="Gwaha-ju">Gwaha-ju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hariya" title="Hariya">Hariya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makgeolli" title="Makgeolli">Makgeolli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiu" title="Mijiu">Mijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirin" title="Mirin">Mirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangasi" title="Pangasi">Pangasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_wine" title="Rice wine">Rice wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3u_c%E1%BA%A7n" title="Rượu cần">Rượu cần</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sake" title="Sake">Sake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sato_(beverage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sato (beverage)">Sato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaoxing_wine" title="Shaoxing wine">Shaoxing wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonti_(rice_drink)" title="Sonti (rice drink)">Sonti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapai" title="Tapai">Tapai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapuy" title="Tapuy">Tapuy</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rye <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kvass" title="Kvass">Kvass</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sorghum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pendh%C4%81" title="Pendhā">Pendhā</a></li></ul></li> <li>Multiple grains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ale" title="Ale">Ale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ara_(drink)" title="Ara (drink)">Ara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boza" title="Boza">Boza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huangjiu" title="Huangjiu">Huangjiu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Agave americana</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">Pulque</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut and other palms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahalina" title="Bahalina">Bahalina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palm_wine" title="Palm wine">Palm wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuak">Tuak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuba_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuba (wine)">Tubâ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuhak" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuhak">Tuhak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunggang" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunggang">Tunggang</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dairy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kumis" title="Kumis">Kumis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ginger <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ginger_wine" title="Ginger wine">Ginger wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Galangal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byais" title="Byais">Byais</a></li></ul></li> <li>Honey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bais_(wine)" title="Bais (wine)">Bais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byais" title="Byais">Byais</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabarawan" title="Kabarawan">Kabarawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mead" title="Mead">Mead</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kilju" title="Kilju">Kilju</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane or molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basi" title="Basi">Basi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intus" title="Intus">Intus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palek" title="Palek">Palek</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tea <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fermented_tea" title="Fermented tea">Fermented tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kombucha" title="Kombucha">Kombucha</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various starches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cauim" title="Cauim">Cauim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicha" title="Chicha">Chicha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parakari" title="Parakari">Parakari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibwatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibwatu">Ibwatu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Liquors_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">Liquors</a> by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fruit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applejack_(drink)" title="Applejack (drink)">Applejack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvados" title="Calvados">Calvados</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cashew apple <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feni_(liquor)" title="Feni (liquor)">Feni</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherry <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kirsch" title="Kirsch">Kirschwasser</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dates <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Araqi_(drink)" title="Araqi (drink)">Araqi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Fig <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boukha" title="Boukha">Boukha</a></li></ul></li> <li>Grape <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arak_(drink)" title="Arak (drink)">Arak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armagnac_(brandy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Armagnac (brandy)">Armagnac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">Brandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognac" title="Cognac">Cognac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisco" title="Pisco">Pisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zivania" title="Zivania">Zivania</a></li></ul></li> <li>Juniper <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">Gin</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slivovitz" title="Slivovitz">Slivovitz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C8%9Auic%C4%83" title="Țuică">Țuică</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomace" title="Pomace">Pomace</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chacha_(brandy)" title="Chacha (brandy)">Chacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grappa" title="Grappa">Grappa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomace_brandy" title="Pomace brandy">Marc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orujo" title="Orujo">Orujo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsikoudia" title="Tsikoudia">Tsikoudia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsipouro" title="Tsipouro">Tsipouro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zivania" title="Zivania">Zivania</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">Brandy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eau_de_vie" title="Eau de vie">Eau de vie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geist_(liquor)" title="Geist (liquor)">Geist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Himbeergeist" title="Himbeergeist">Himbeergeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marillenschnaps" title="Marillenschnaps">Marillenschnaps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalewka" title="Nalewka">Nalewka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghi_(drink)" title="Oghi (drink)">Oghi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C3%A1linka" title="Pálinka">Pálinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakia" title="Rakia">Rakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schnaps" class="mw-redirect" title="Schnaps">Schnaps</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cereals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Barley <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_whiskey" title="Irish whiskey">Irish whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_whisky" title="Japanese whisky">Japanese whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotch_whisky" title="Scotch whisky">Scotch whisky</a></li></ul></li> <li>Beer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bierbrand" title="Bierbrand">Bierbrand</a></li></ul></li> <li>Buckwheat <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buckwheat_whisky" title="Buckwheat whisky">Buckwheat whisky</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maize <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourbon_whiskey" title="Bourbon whiskey">Bourbon whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_whiskey" title="Corn whiskey">Corn whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_whiskey" title="Tennessee whiskey">Tennessee whiskey</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rice <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awamori" title="Awamori">Awamori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheongju_(wine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheongju (wine)">Cheongju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cholai" title="Cholai">Cholai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao-Lao" title="Lao-Lao">Lao-Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lihing" title="Lihing">Lihing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixiang_Baijiu" title="Mixiang Baijiu">Mixiang Baijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shochu" class="mw-redirect" title="Shochu">Shochu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soju" title="Soju">Soju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulai" title="Sulai">Sulai</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rye <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korn_(liquor)" title="Korn (liquor)">Korn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rye_whiskey" title="Rye whiskey">Rye whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starka" title="Starka">Starka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sorghum <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baijiu" title="Baijiu">Baijiu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kaoliang_liquor" title="Kaoliang liquor">Kaoliang liquor</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Multiple grains <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ara_(drink)" title="Ara (drink)">Ara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_whiskey" title="American whiskey">American whiskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baijiu" title="Baijiu">Baijiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_whisky" title="Canadian whisky">Canadian whisky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB" title="Shōchū">Shōchū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whisky" title="Whisky">Whisky</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agave" title="Agave">Agave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mezcal" title="Mezcal">Mezcal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tequila" title="Tequila">Tequila</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut and other palms <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arrack" title="Arrack">Arrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laksoy" title="Laksoy">Laksoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambanog" title="Lambanog">Lambanog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sotol" title="Sotol">Sotol</a></li></ul></li> <li>Dairy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkhi" title="Arkhi">Arkhi</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane or molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aguardiente" title="Aguardiente">Aguardiente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cacha%C3%A7a" title="Cachaça">Cachaça</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clairin" title="Clairin">Clairin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_daru" title="Desi daru">Desi daru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaro_(drink)" title="Guaro (drink)">Guaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rum" title="Rum">Rum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seco_Herrerano" title="Seco Herrerano">Seco Herrerano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulai" title="Sulai">Sulai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sura_(alcoholic_drink)" title="Sura (alcoholic drink)">Sura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tharra" title="Tharra">Tharra</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various starches <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aguardiente" title="Aguardiente">Aguardiente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akvavit" title="Akvavit">Akvavit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangla_(drink)" title="Bangla (drink)">Bangla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horilka" title="Horilka">Horilka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poit%C3%ADn" title="Poitín">Poitín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dch%C5%AB" title="Shōchū">Shōchū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vodka" title="Vodka">Vodka</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Liqueurs_and_infused_distilled_drinks_by_ingredients" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Liqueur" title="Liqueur">Liqueurs</a> and infused distilled drinks by ingredients</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Almond <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amaretto" title="Amaretto">Amaretto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_Noyaux" title="Crème de Noyaux">Crème de Noyaux</a></li></ul></li> <li>Anise <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absinthe" title="Absinthe">Absinthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisado" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisado">Anisado</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisado_Mallorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Anisado Mallorca">Anisado Mallorca</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisette" title="Anisette">Anisette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arak_(drink)" title="Arak (drink)">Arak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierbas" title="Hierbas">Hierbas</a> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbs_de_Majorca" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbs de Majorca">Herbs de Majorca</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastika" title="Mastika">Mastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouzo" title="Ouzo">Ouzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rak%C4%B1" title="Rakı">Rakı</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambuca" title="Sambuca">Sambuca</a></li></ul></li> <li>Beer <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bierlik%C3%B6r" title="Bierlikör">Bierlikör</a></li></ul></li> <li>Blackthorn shrub <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patxaran" title="Patxaran">Patxaran</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cherry <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_Heering" title="Cherry Heering">Cherry Heering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraschino" title="Maraschino">Maraschino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Chili peppers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horilka" title="Horilka">Pertsivka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Chocolate <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chocolate_liqueur" title="Chocolate liqueur">Chocolate liqueur</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cinnamon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tentura" title="Tentura">Tentura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubus_chamaemorus" title="Rubus chamaemorus">Cloudberry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakka" title="Lakka">Lakka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coconut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malibu_Rum" class="mw-redirect" title="Malibu Rum">Malibu</a></li></ul></li> <li>Coffee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kahl%C3%BAa" title="Kahlúa">Kahlúa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tia_Maria" title="Tia Maria">Tia Maria</a></li></ul></li> <li>Cream <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cream_liqueur" title="Cream liqueur">Cream liqueur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_cream" title="Irish cream">Irish cream</a></li></ul></li> <li>Egg <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advocaat" title="Advocaat">Advocaat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eggnog" title="Eggnog">Eggnog</a></li></ul></li> <li>Hazelnut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frangelico" title="Frangelico">Frangelico</a></li></ul></li> <li>Herbs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akvavit" title="Akvavit">Aquavit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9n%C3%A9dictine" title="Bénédictine">Bénédictine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenniv%C3%ADn" title="Brennivín">Brennivín</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_menthe" title="Crème de menthe">Crème de menthe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaxa" title="Metaxa">Metaxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicum" title="Unicum">Unicum</a></li></ul></li> <li>Honey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A4renfang" title="Bärenfang">Bärenjäger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drambuie" title="Drambuie">Drambuie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glayva" title="Glayva">Glayva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Mist" title="Irish Mist">Irish Mist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krupnik" title="Krupnik">Krupnik</a></li></ul></li> <li>Juniper <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borovi%C4%8Dka" title="Borovička">Borovička</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">Gin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jenever" title="Jenever">Jenever</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mammee apple flower <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eau_cr%C3%A9ole" class="mw-redirect" title="Eau créole">Eau créole</a></li></ul></li> <li>Orange <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cointreau" title="Cointreau">Cointreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao_(liqueur)" title="Curaçao (liqueur)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Marnier" title="Grand Marnier">Grand Marnier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_sec" title="Triple sec">Triple sec</a></li></ul></li> <li>Star anise <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastis" title="Pastis">Pastis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sassolino" title="Sassolino">Sassolino</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sugarcane/molasses <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charanda" title="Charanda">Charanda</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vanilla <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Licor_43" title="Licor 43">Licor 43</a></li></ul></li> <li>Various fruits <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Campari" title="Campari">Campari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedratine" title="Cedratine">Cedratine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_banane" title="Crème de banane">Crème de banane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cr%C3%A8me_de_cassis" title="Crème de cassis">Crème de cassis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limoncello" title="Limoncello">Limoncello</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schnapps" title="Schnapps">Schnapps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sloe_gin" title="Sloe gin">Sloe gin</a></li></ul></li> <li>Walnut <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nocino" title="Nocino">Nocino</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_alcoholic_drinks" title="List of alcoholic drinks">List</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45422#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45422#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q45422#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85149060">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566076">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="kvasinky"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph122058&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007531692805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=21757">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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