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<span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Environmental effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disciplines_and_fossil_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disciplines_and_fossil_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Disciplines and fossil record</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disciplines_and_fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volcanoes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volcanoes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Volcanoes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Volcanoes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Volcanoes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Volcanoes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Tephra</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 47 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-47" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">47 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="تفرا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تفرا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Тефра – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Тефра" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroklastisches_Sediment" title="Pyroklastisches Sediment – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pyroklastisches Sediment" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piroclasto" title="Piroclasto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Piroclasto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piroklasto" title="Piroklasto – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Piroklasto" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A2%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="آذرآوار – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آذرآوار" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%85%8C%ED%94%84%EB%9D%BC" title="테프라 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="테프라" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE" title="टेफ़्रा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="टेफ़्रा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gj%C3%B3ska" title="Gjóska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gjóska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%94" title="טפרה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טפרה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Tephra" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piroklastai" title="Piroklastai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Piroklastai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Тефра – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Тефра" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="تيفرا – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تيفرا" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%86%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9" title="テフラ – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="テフラ" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Тефра – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Тефра" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="ٹیفرا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ٹیفرا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Tephra" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materia%C5%82_piroklastyczny" title="Materiał piroklastyczny – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Materiał piroklastyczny" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piroclasto" title="Piroclasto – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Piroclasto" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piroclaste" title="Piroclaste – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Piroclaste" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Тефра – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Тефра" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tephra" title="Tephra – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Tephra" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Тефра – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Тефра" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A9frit" title="Téfrit – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Téfrit" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroklastiskt_material" title="Pyroklastiskt material – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pyroklastiskt material" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piroklast" title="Piroklast – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Piroklast" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D1%84%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Тефра – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Тефра" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%B9%DB%8C%D9%81%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="ٹیفرا – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ٹیفرا" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1t_v%E1%BB%A5n_n%C3%BAi_l%E1%BB%ADa" title="Mạt vụn núi lửa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mạt vụn núi lửa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tefra" title="Tefra – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Tefra" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%99%B4%E7%99%BC%E7%A2%8E%E5%B1%91" title="火山噴發碎屑 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="火山噴發碎屑" data-language-autonym="中文" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Pyroclasts" redirects here. For the Sunn O))) album, see <a href="/wiki/Pyroclasts_(album)" title="Pyroclasts (album)">Pyroclasts (album)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Pyroclastic (disambiguation)">Pyroclastic (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Tefra" redirects here. For the Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982, see <a href="/wiki/TEFRA" class="mw-redirect" title="TEFRA">TEFRA</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brown_Bluff-2016-Tabarin_Peninsula%E2%80%93Volcanic_tephra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Brown_Bluff-2016-Tabarin_Peninsula%E2%80%93Volcanic_tephra.jpg/220px-Brown_Bluff-2016-Tabarin_Peninsula%E2%80%93Volcanic_tephra.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Brown_Bluff-2016-Tabarin_Peninsula%E2%80%93Volcanic_tephra.jpg/330px-Brown_Bluff-2016-Tabarin_Peninsula%E2%80%93Volcanic_tephra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Brown_Bluff-2016-Tabarin_Peninsula%E2%80%93Volcanic_tephra.jpg/440px-Brown_Bluff-2016-Tabarin_Peninsula%E2%80%93Volcanic_tephra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3848" data-file-height="3125" /></a><figcaption>Volcanic tephra at <a href="/wiki/Brown_Bluff" title="Brown Bluff">Brown Bluff</a>, Antarctica (2016)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Tephra</b> is fragmental material produced by a <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic eruption</a> regardless of composition, fragment size, or emplacement mechanism.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Icelandic_tephra.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Icelandic_tephra.JPG/220px-Icelandic_tephra.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Icelandic_tephra.JPG/330px-Icelandic_tephra.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Icelandic_tephra.JPG/440px-Icelandic_tephra.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Tephra horizons in south-central <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a>: The thick and light-coloured layer at the centre of the photo is <a href="/wiki/Rhyolitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhyolitic">rhyolitic</a> tephra from <a href="/wiki/Hekla" title="Hekla">Hekla</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologists</a> also refer to airborne fragments as <b>pyroclasts</b>. Once clasts have fallen to the ground, they remain as tephra unless hot enough to fuse into <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_rock" title="Pyroclastic rock">pyroclastic rock</a> or <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a>. When a volcano explodes, it releases a variety of tephra including ash, cinders, and blocks. These layers settle on the land and, over time, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a> occurs incorporating these tephra layers into the geologic record. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">Tephrochronology</a> is a geochronological technique that uses discrete layers of tephra—volcanic ash from a single eruption—to create a chronological framework in which <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoenvironmental</a> or <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeological</a> records can be placed. Often, when a volcano explodes, biological organisms are killed and their remains are buried within the tephra layer. These fossils are later dated by scientists to determine the age of the <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossil</a> and its place within the geologic record. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:04Sep2007_Etna_from_SE_Crater.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/04Sep2007_Etna_from_SE_Crater.jpg/220px-04Sep2007_Etna_from_SE_Crater.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/04Sep2007_Etna_from_SE_Crater.jpg/330px-04Sep2007_Etna_from_SE_Crater.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/04Sep2007_Etna_from_SE_Crater.jpg/440px-04Sep2007_Etna_from_SE_Crater.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>A 2007 eruptive plume at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Mount Etna</a> produced volcanic ash, pumice, and lava bombs.</figcaption></figure> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BishopTuff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BishopTuff.jpg/220px-BishopTuff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BishopTuff.jpg/330px-BishopTuff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/BishopTuff.jpg/440px-BishopTuff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Rocks from the <a href="/wiki/Bishop_tuff" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop tuff">Bishop tuff</a>, uncompressed with <a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">pumice</a> on left; compressed with <a href="/wiki/Fiamme" title="Fiamme">fiamme</a> on right</figcaption></figure> <p>Tephra is any sized or composition pyroclastic material produced by an explosive volcanic eruption and precise geological definitions exist.<sup id="cite_ref-Lowe_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lowe-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It consists of a variety of materials, typically glassy particles formed by the cooling of droplets of <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a>, which may be vesicular, solid or flake-like, and varying proportions of crystalline and mineral components originating from the mountain and the walls of the vent. As the particles fall to the ground, they are sorted to a certain extent by the wind and gravitational forces and form layers of unconsolidated material. The particles are further moved by ground surface or submarine water flow.<sup id="cite_ref-Gornitz_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gornitz-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The distribution of tephra following an eruption usually involves the largest boulders falling to the ground quickest, therefore closest to the vent, while smaller fragments travel further – ash can often travel for thousands of miles, even circumglobal, as it can stay in the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> for days to weeks following an eruption. When large amounts of tephra accumulate in the atmosphere from massive volcanic eruptions (or from a multitude of smaller eruptions occurring simultaneously), they can reflect light and heat from the sun back through the atmosphere, in some cases causing the temperature to drop, resulting in a temporary "<a href="/wiki/Volcanic_winter" title="Volcanic winter">volcanic winter</a>". The effects of acidic rain and snow, the precipitation caused by tephra discharges into the atmosphere, can be seen for years after the eruptions have stopped. Tephra eruptions can affect ecosystems across millions of square kilometres or even entire continents depending on the size of the eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-Ayris_1905–1936_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayris_1905–1936-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volcanic_breccia_in_Jackson_Hole.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Volcanic_breccia_in_Jackson_Hole.JPG/220px-Volcanic_breccia_in_Jackson_Hole.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Volcanic_breccia_in_Jackson_Hole.JPG/330px-Volcanic_breccia_in_Jackson_Hole.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Volcanic_breccia_in_Jackson_Hole.JPG/440px-Volcanic_breccia_in_Jackson_Hole.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2188" data-file-height="1490" /></a><figcaption>Volcanic <a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">breccia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Hole" title="Jackson Hole">Jackson Hole</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Tephra fragments are classified by size: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Ash</a> – particles smaller than 2 mm (0.08 inches) in diameter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapilli" title="Lapilli">Lapilli</a> or <a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">volcanic cinders</a> – between 2 and 64 mm (0.08 and 2.5 inches) in diameter</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_bomb" title="Volcanic bomb">Volcanic bombs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_blocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic blocks">volcanic blocks</a> – larger than 64 mm (2.5 inches) in diameter</li></ul> <p>The use of tephra layers, which bear their own unique chemistry and character, as temporal <a href="/wiki/Marker_horizon" title="Marker horizon">marker horizons</a> in archaeological and geological sites, is known as <a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">tephrochronology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gornitz_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gornitz-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The word "tephra" and "pyroclast" both derive from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>: The word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CE%AD%CF%86%CF%81%CE%B1#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:τέφρα">τέφρα</a></span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">téphra</i></span>) means "ash",<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <i>pyroclast</i> is derived from the Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%80%E1%BF%A6%CF%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:πῦρ">πῦρ</a></span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">pyr</i></span>), meaning "fire",<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:κλαστός">κλαστός</a></span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">klastós</i></span>), meaning "broken in pieces".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%84%CE%AD%CF%86%CF%81%CE%B1v#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:τέφραv">τέφραv</a></span></span> (means "ashes") is used in broad context within an account by Aristotle of an eruption on <a href="/wiki/Vulcano" title="Vulcano">Vulcano</a> (Hiera) in <i>Meteorologica</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Environmental effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The release of tephra into the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> affects the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a> physically and chemically. Physically, volcanic blocks damage local flora and human settlements. Ash damages communication and electrical systems, coats forests and plant life, reducing <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, and pollutes <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tephra changes below- and above-ground air and water movement. Chemically, tephra release can affect the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>. Tephra particles can cause <a href="/wiki/Ice_crystals" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice crystals">ice crystals</a> to grow in clouds, which increases <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>. Nearby watersheds and the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> can experience elevated <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> levels, especially <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, which can cause explosive population growth in <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Ayris_1905–1936_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ayris_1905–1936-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This, in turn, can result in <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disciplines_and_fossil_record">Disciplines and fossil record</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Disciplines and fossil record"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to tephrochronology, tephra is used by a variety of scientific disciplines including <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleoecology" title="Paleoecology">paleoecology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, to date fossils, identify dates within the fossils record, and learn about prehistoric cultures and ecosystems. For example, <a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">carbonatite</a> tephra found at <a href="/wiki/Oldoinyo_Lengai" class="mw-redirect" title="Oldoinyo Lengai">Oldoinyo Lengai</a> (a volcano in the East African Rift Valley) has buried and preserved fossilized footprints of humans near the site of the eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-Hay1989_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hay1989-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under certain conditions, volcanic blocks can be preserved for billions of years<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and can travel up to 400 km away from the eruption.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Volcanic eruptions around the world have provided valuable scientific information on local ecosystems and ancient cultures.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Volcanoes">Volcanoes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Volcanoes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Waw_an_Namus" title="Waw an Namus">Waw an Namus</a> volcano is surrounded by an apron of dark tephra, which has a notable color contrast to the surrounding <a href="/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara Desert</a>. </p><p>Africa's volcanoes have had an impact on the fossil record. Geographically a part of Africa, <a href="/wiki/El_Hierro" title="El Hierro">El Hierro</a> is a shield volcano and the youngest and smallest of the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>. The most recent <a href="/wiki/El_Hierro_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="El Hierro eruption">El Hierro eruption</a> occurred underwater, in 2011, and caused earthquakes and landslides throughout the Canary Islands. Instead of ash, floating rocks, 'restingolites' were released after every eruption.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the 2011 eruption, fossils of single-celled marine organisms were found in the restingolites verifying the origin theory that Canary Island growth comes from a single buoyant jet of magma from the Earth's core instead of cracks in the ocean floor. This is reflected in the decreasing age of the islands east to west from <a href="/wiki/Fuerteventura" title="Fuerteventura">Fuerteventura</a> to El Hierro.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are about 60 volcanoes in Ethiopia, located in east Africa. In Southern Ethiopia, the Omo Kibish Rock Formation is composed of layers of tephra and sediment. Within these layers, several fossils have been discovered. In 1967, 2 <i>Homo sapiens</i> fossils were discovered in the <a href="/wiki/Omo_Kibish_Formation" title="Omo Kibish Formation">Omo Kibish Formation</a> by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Leakey" title="Richard Leakey">Richard Leaky</a>, a paleoanthropologist. After radiocarbon dating, they were determined to be 195 thousand years old.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other mammals discovered in the formation include <i><a href="/wiki/Giant_forest_hog" title="Giant forest hog">Hylochoerus</a> meinertzhageni</i> (forest hog) and <i><a href="/wiki/Cephalophus" title="Cephalophus">Cephalophus</a></i> (antelope).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Asia, several volcanic eruptions are still influencing local cultures today. In North Korea, <a href="/wiki/Paektu_Mountain" title="Paektu Mountain">Paektu Mountain</a>, a stratovolcano, first erupted in 946 AD and is a religious site for locals. It last erupted in 1903. In 2017, new fossil evidence was discovered that determined the date of Paektu Mountain's first eruption, which had been a mystery. A team of scientists directed by Dr. Clive Oppenheimer, British <a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">volcanologist</a>, discovered a larch trunk embedded within Paektu Mountain. After radiocarbon dating, the larch was determined to be 264 years old which coincides with the 946 AD eruption. Its tree rings are being studied and many new discoveries are being made about <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> during that time.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In northeastern China, a large volcanic eruption in the early <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> caused the fossilization of an entire ecosystem known as the <a href="/wiki/Jehol_Biota" title="Jehol Biota">Jehol Biota</a> when powerful <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flows</a> inundated the area. The deposits include many perfectly preserved fossils of <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Frog" title="Frog">frogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Europe's volcanoes provide unique information about the history of <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. One example is <a href="/wiki/Mount_Vesuvius" title="Mount Vesuvius">Mount Vesuvius</a>, a stratovolcano located in southern Italy,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which last erupted in March 1944. Earlier, in 79 AD, in an eruption which lasted 12 to 18 hours, Vesuvius had covered the city of <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a> in molten lava, ash, pumice, volcanic blocks, and toxic gases. Much of the town was preserved and organic materials fossilized by the volcanic ash, and that has provided valuable information about the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> culture.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, in Italy, <a href="/wiki/Stromboli_(volcano)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromboli (volcano)">Stromboli volcano</a>, a stratovolcano, last erupted in July 2019. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:606_Mt_St_Helens_NVM,_ash_covered_landscape_(35404396313).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/606_Mt_St_Helens_NVM%2C_ash_covered_landscape_%2835404396313%29.jpg/220px-606_Mt_St_Helens_NVM%2C_ash_covered_landscape_%2835404396313%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/606_Mt_St_Helens_NVM%2C_ash_covered_landscape_%2835404396313%29.jpg/330px-606_Mt_St_Helens_NVM%2C_ash_covered_landscape_%2835404396313%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/606_Mt_St_Helens_NVM%2C_ash_covered_landscape_%2835404396313%29.jpg/440px-606_Mt_St_Helens_NVM%2C_ash_covered_landscape_%2835404396313%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5324" data-file-height="3600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a> National Volcanic Monument after the 1980 eruption</figcaption></figure> <p>Several volcanic eruptions have been studied in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. On 18 May 1980, <a href="/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a>, a stratovolcano in <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington state</a>, erupted, spreading five hundred million tons of tephra ash across Washington, Oregon, <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idaho" title="Idaho">Idaho</a> causing <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rockslide" title="Rockslide">rockslides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a> which severely altered the topography of nearby areas.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>, eruption-related flooding caused trees to collapse and wash into lake beds where they fossilized. Nearby forests were flooded, removing bark, leaves, and tree limbs.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, the Augustine Volcano in Alaska erupted generating earthquakes, <a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">avalanches</a>, and projected tephra ash approximately two hundred and ninety kilometers away. This dome volcano is over forty thousand years old and has erupted 11 times since 1800.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chait%C3%A9n_Volcano_Lava_Dome,_Chile.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chait%C3%A9n_Volcano_Lava_Dome%2C_Chile.jpg/220px-Chait%C3%A9n_Volcano_Lava_Dome%2C_Chile.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chait%C3%A9n_Volcano_Lava_Dome%2C_Chile.jpg/330px-Chait%C3%A9n_Volcano_Lava_Dome%2C_Chile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Chait%C3%A9n_Volcano_Lava_Dome%2C_Chile.jpg/440px-Chait%C3%A9n_Volcano_Lava_Dome%2C_Chile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="899" data-file-height="723" /></a><figcaption>Satellite image of Chaitén volcano lava dome, Chile: The circular dome is brown and is surrounded by an ash covered landscape.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, there are several historic active volcanoes. In southern <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chait%C3%A9n_(volcano)" title="Chaitén (volcano)">Chaitén volcano</a> erupted in 2011 adding 160 meters to its rim. Prehistoric weapons and tools, formed from <a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">obsidian</a> tephra blocks, were dated at 5,610 years ago and were discovered 400 km away.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the location of the <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zone</a> of the eastern Pacific's Nazca Plate, there are twenty one active volcanoes in southern <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, fossils, found under a layer of volcanic ash in Peru, were excavated by a team of paleontologists led by Mark D. Uhen, professor at George Mason University. The fossils were identified as 3 different types of archaeocetes, prehistoric whales, and are older than 36.61 million years which, as of 2011, makes them the oldest whale fossils discovered.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tephra&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This is the broad definition of tephra (Greek <i>tephra</i>, "ash") proposed by the Icelandic volcanologist <a href="/wiki/Sigur%C3%B0ur_%C3%9E%C3%B3rarinsson" title="Sigurður Þórarinsson">Sigurður Þórarinsson</a> (Sigurdur Thorarinsson) in 1954, in connection with the eruption of <a href="/wiki/Hekla" title="Hekla">Hekla</a> (Thorarinsson, "The eruption of Hekla, 1947-48II, 3, The tephra-fall from Hekla, March 29th, 1947", <i>Visindafélag Íslendinga</i> (1954:1-3). The term had been used earlier in Sigurdur Thorarinsson's 1944 doctoral studies, but not in English. See <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThorarinsson1944" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sigur%C3%B0ur_%C3%9E%C3%B3rarinsson" title="Sigurður Þórarinsson">Thorarinsson, S</a> (1944). "Tefrokronologiska studier pA Island". <i>Geografiska Annaler</i>. <b>26</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>217. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F20014422.1944.11880727">10.1080/20014422.1944.11880727</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geografiska+Annaler&rft.atitle=Tefrokronologiska+studier+pA+Island&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E217&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F20014422.1944.11880727&rft.aulast=Thorarinsson&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATephra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lowe-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lowe_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoweAbbottSuzukiJensen2022" class="citation journal cs1">Lowe, David J.; Abbott, Peter M.; Suzuki, Takehiko; Jensen, Britta J. 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Springer Science & Business Media. pp. <span class="nowrap">937–</span>938. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4551-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4551-6"><bdi>978-1-4020-4551-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Paleoclimatology+and+Ancient+Environments&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E937-%3C%2Fspan%3E938&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4551-6&rft.au=Gornitz%2C+Vivien&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyRMgYc-8mTIC%26pg%3DPA937&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATephra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ayris_1905–1936-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ayris_1905–1936_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ayris_1905–1936_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyrisDelmelle2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ayris, Paul Martin; Delmelle, Pierre (1 November 2012). "The immediate environmental effects of tephra emission". <i>Bulletin of Volcanology</i>. <b>74</b> (9): <span class="nowrap">1905–</span>1936. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012BVol...74.1905A">2012BVol...74.1905A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00445-012-0654-5">10.1007/s00445-012-0654-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1432-0819">1432-0819</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129369735">129369735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Volcanology&rft.atitle=The+immediate+environmental+effects+of+tephra+emission&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1905-%3C%2Fspan%3E1936&rft.date=2012-11-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00445-012-0654-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129369735%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1432-0819&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2012BVol...74.1905A&rft.aulast=Ayris&rft.aufirst=Paul+Martin&rft.au=Delmelle%2C+Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATephra" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=te/fra"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">τέφρα</span></span></a>. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a>; <i><a href="/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i> at the <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=pu=r"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">πῦρ</span></span></a> in <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=klasto/s"><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">κλαστός</span></span></a> in <a href="/wiki/Henry_Liddell" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFἈριστοτέλης1952" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Ἀριστοτέλης</a> (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loebclassics.com/view/aristotle-meteorlogica/1952/pb_LCL397.211.xml">"Greek-English translation Aristotle, Meteorologica LCL 397: 210-211 paragraph 367"</a>. 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.navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Volcanoes521" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Volcanoes" title="Template:Volcanoes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Volcanoes" title="Template talk:Volcanoes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Volcanoes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Volcanoes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Volcanoes521" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">Volcanoes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caldera" title="Caldera">Caldera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinder_cone" title="Cinder cone">Cinder cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_volcano" title="Complex volcano">Complex volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryovolcano" title="Cryovolcano">Cryovolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptoexplosion" title="Cryptoexplosion">Cryptovolcanic structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fissure_vent" title="Fissure vent">Fissure vent</a></li> <li>Lava cone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava_dome" title="Lava dome">Lava dome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maar" title="Maar">Maar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mud_volcano" title="Mud volcano">Mud volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_cone" title="Parasitic cone">Parasitic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_cone" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyroclastic cone">Pyroclastic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_shield" title="Pyroclastic shield">Pyroclastic shield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rootless_cone" title="Rootless cone">Rootless cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shield_volcano" title="Shield volcano">Shield volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somma_volcano" title="Somma volcano">Somma volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratovolcano" title="Stratovolcano">Stratovolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subglacial_volcano" title="Subglacial volcano">Subglacial volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervolcano" title="Supervolcano">Supervolcano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tossol" title="Tossol">Tossol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_cone" title="Volcanic cone">Volcanic cone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmonic_tremor" title="Harmonic tremor">Harmonic tremor</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/90px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="62" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/135px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg/180px-Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="845" data-file-height="578" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_rock" title="Volcanic rock">Volcanic rocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agglomerate" title="Agglomerate">Agglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">Andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basaltic_andesite" title="Basaltic andesite">Basaltic andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benmoreite" title="Benmoreite">Benmoreite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blairmorite" title="Blairmorite">Blairmorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">Cinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">Dacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felsite" title="Felsite">Felsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite">Ignimbrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">Komatiite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapilli" title="Lapilli">Lapilli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latite" title="Latite">Latite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucitite" title="Leucitite">Leucitite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">Nephelinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonolite" title="Phonolite">Phonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonotephrite" title="Phonotephrite">Phonotephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">Pumice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyodacite" title="Rhyodacite">Rhyodacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">Rhyolite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Tephra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephriphonolite" title="Tephriphonolite">Tephriphonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyandesite" title="Trachyandesite">Trachyandesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachybasalt" title="Trachybasalt">Trachybasalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyte" title="Trachyte">Trachyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">Tuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_fall" title="Pyroclastic fall">Pyroclastic fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Lists and groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">Hotspot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_volcanoes" title="Lists of volcanoes">Lists of volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanic_eruptions_by_death_toll" title="List of volcanic eruptions by death toll">Eruptions by death toll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decade_Volcanoes" title="Decade Volcanoes">Decade Volcanoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_belt" title="Volcanic belt">Volcanic belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_field" title="Volcanic field">Volcanic field</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monogenetic_volcanic_field" title="Monogenetic volcanic field">monogenetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygenetic_volcanic_field" title="Polygenetic volcanic field">polygenetic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Volcanoes" title="Category:Volcanoes">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 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