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<span>Recognition of the concept of megatsunami</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_of_the_concept_of_megatsunami-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analysis_of_mechanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analysis_of_mechanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Analysis of mechanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analysis_of_mechanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Examples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistoric" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistoric"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Prehistoric</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistoric-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Historic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-c._2000_BC:_Réunion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#c._2000_BC:_Réunion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>c. 2000 BC: Réunion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-c._2000_BC:_Réunion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-c._1600_BC:_Santorini" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#c._1600_BC:_Santorini"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>c. 1600 BC: Santorini</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-c._1600_BC:_Santorini-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-c._1100_BC:_Lake_Crescent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#c._1100_BC:_Lake_Crescent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>c. 1100 BC: Lake Crescent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-c._1100_BC:_Lake_Crescent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1674:_Ambon_Island,_Banda_Sea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1674:_Ambon_Island,_Banda_Sea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>1674: Ambon Island, Banda Sea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1674:_Ambon_Island,_Banda_Sea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1731:_Storfjorden,_Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1731:_Storfjorden,_Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>1731: Storfjorden, Norway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1731:_Storfjorden,_Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1741:_Oshima-Ōshima,_Sea_of_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1741:_Oshima-Ōshima,_Sea_of_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>1741: Oshima-Ōshima, Sea of Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1741:_Oshima-Ōshima,_Sea_of_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1756:_Langfjorden,_Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1756:_Langfjorden,_Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.4</span> <span>1756: Langfjorden, Norway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1756:_Langfjorden,_Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1792:_Mount_Unzen,_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1792:_Mount_Unzen,_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.5</span> <span>1792: Mount Unzen, Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1792:_Mount_Unzen,_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1853–1854:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1853–1854:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.6</span> <span>1853–1854: Lituya Bay, Alaska</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1853–1854:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1874:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1874:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.7</span> <span>1874: Lituya Bay, Alaska</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1874:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1883:_Krakatoa,_Sunda_Strait" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1883:_Krakatoa,_Sunda_Strait"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.8</span> <span>1883: Krakatoa, Sunda Strait</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1883:_Krakatoa,_Sunda_Strait-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1905:_Lovatnet,_Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1905:_Lovatnet,_Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.9</span> <span>1905: Lovatnet, Norway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1905:_Lovatnet,_Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1905:_Disenchantment_Bay,_Alaska" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1905:_Disenchantment_Bay,_Alaska"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.10</span> <span>1905: Disenchantment Bay, Alaska</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1905:_Disenchantment_Bay,_Alaska-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1934:_Tafjorden,_Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1934:_Tafjorden,_Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.11</span> <span>1934: Tafjorden, Norway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1934:_Tafjorden,_Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1936:_Lovatnet,_Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1936:_Lovatnet,_Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.12</span> <span>1936: Lovatnet, Norway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1936:_Lovatnet,_Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1936:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1936:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.13</span> <span>1936: Lituya Bay, Alaska</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1936:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1958:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska,_US" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1958:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska,_US"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.14</span> <span>1958: Lituya Bay, Alaska, US</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1958:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska,_US-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1963:_Vajont_Dam,_Italy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1963:_Vajont_Dam,_Italy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.15</span> <span>1963: Vajont Dam, Italy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1963:_Vajont_Dam,_Italy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1964:_Valdez_Arm,_Alaska" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1964:_Valdez_Arm,_Alaska"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.16</span> <span>1964: Valdez Arm, Alaska</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1964:_Valdez_Arm,_Alaska-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980:_Spirit_Lake,_Washington,_US" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980:_Spirit_Lake,_Washington,_US"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.17</span> <span>1980: Spirit Lake, Washington, US</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980:_Spirit_Lake,_Washington,_US-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2000:_Paatuut,_Greenland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2000:_Paatuut,_Greenland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.18</span> <span>2000: Paatuut, Greenland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2000:_Paatuut,_Greenland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2007:_Chehalis_Lake,_British_Columbia,_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2007:_Chehalis_Lake,_British_Columbia,_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.19</span> <span>2007: Chehalis Lake, British Columbia, Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2007:_Chehalis_Lake,_British_Columbia,_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2015:_Taan_Fiord,_Alaska,_US" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2015:_Taan_Fiord,_Alaska,_US"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.20</span> <span>2015: Taan Fiord, Alaska, US</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2015:_Taan_Fiord,_Alaska,_US-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2017:_Karrat_Fjord,_Greenland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2017:_Karrat_Fjord,_Greenland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.21</span> <span>2017: Karrat Fjord, Greenland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2017:_Karrat_Fjord,_Greenland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020:_Elliot_Creek,_British_Columbia,_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020:_Elliot_Creek,_British_Columbia,_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.22</span> <span>2020: Elliot Creek, British Columbia, Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020:_Elliot_Creek,_British_Columbia,_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2023:_Dickson_Fjord,_Greenland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2023:_Dickson_Fjord,_Greenland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.23</span> <span>2023: Dickson Fjord, Greenland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2023:_Dickson_Fjord,_Greenland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_future_megatsunamis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_future_megatsunamis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Potential future megatsunamis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Potential_future_megatsunamis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Potential future megatsunamis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Potential_future_megatsunamis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-British_Columbia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#British_Columbia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>British Columbia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_Columbia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canary_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canary_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Canary Islands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canary_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hawaii" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hawaii"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Hawaii</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hawaii-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Norway" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Norway"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Norway</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Norway-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Megatsunami</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="ميجاتسونامي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ميجاتسونامي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="کلان‌سونامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کلان‌سونامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9gatsunami" title="Mégatsunami – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mégatsunami" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B1%B0%EB%8C%80%ED%95%B4%EC%9D%BC" title="거대해일 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="거대해일" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megacunami" title="Megacunami – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Megacunami" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megacunami" title="Megacunami – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Megacunami" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF" title="മെഗാസുനാമി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മെഗാസുനാമി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B7%A8%E5%A4%A7%E6%B4%A5%E6%B3%A2" title="巨大津波 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="巨大津波" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsun%C3%A2mi" title="Megatsunâmi – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Megatsunâmi" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megacunami" title="Megacunami – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Megacunami" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9ga_Sunami" title="Méga Sunami – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Méga Sunami" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Megatsunami" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96" title="Мегацунамі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Мегацунамі" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Very large wave created by a large, sudden displacement of material into a body of water</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lituya_Bay_megatsunami_diagram_(English).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lituya_Bay_megatsunami_diagram_%28English%29.png/290px-Lituya_Bay_megatsunami_diagram_%28English%29.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lituya_Bay_megatsunami_diagram_%28English%29.png/435px-Lituya_Bay_megatsunami_diagram_%28English%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Lituya_Bay_megatsunami_diagram_%28English%29.png/580px-Lituya_Bay_megatsunami_diagram_%28English%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1028" data-file-height="609" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay_earthquake_and_megatsunami" title="1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami">1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami</a>, which proved the existence of megatsunamis</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>megatsunami</b> is a very large wave created by a large, sudden displacement of material into a body of water. </p><p>Megatsunamis have different features from ordinary <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>. Ordinary tsunamis are caused by underwater <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">tectonic activity</a> (movement of the earth's plates) and therefore occur along plate boundaries and as a result of <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> and the subsequent rise or fall in the <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">sea floor</a> that displaces a volume of water. Ordinary tsunamis exhibit shallow waves in the deep waters of the open ocean that increase dramatically in height upon approaching land to a maximum <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of around 30 metres (100 ft) in the cases of the most powerful earthquakes.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, megatsunamis occur when a large amount of material <a href="/wiki/Rockfall" title="Rockfall">suddenly falls into water</a> or anywhere near water (such as via a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteor_impact" class="mw-redirect" title="Meteor impact">meteor impact</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruption" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruption">volcanic eruption</a>). They can have extremely large initial wave heights in the hundreds of metres, far beyond the height of any ordinary tsunami. These giant wave heights occur because the water is "splashed" upwards and outwards by the displacement. </p><p>Examples of modern megatsunamis include the one associated with the <a href="/wiki/1883_eruption_of_Krakatoa#Tsunamis_and_distant_effects" title="1883 eruption of Krakatoa">1883 eruption of Krakatoa</a> (volcanic eruption), the <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay_megatsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami">1958 Lituya Bay megatsunami</a> (a landslide which caused an initial wave of 524 metres (1,719 ft)), and the 1963 <a href="/wiki/Vajont_Dam" title="Vajont Dam">Vajont Dam</a> landslide (caused by human activity destabilizing sides of valley). Prehistoric examples include the <a href="/wiki/Storegga_Slide" title="Storegga Slide">Storegga Slide</a> (landslide), and the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay_impact_crater" title="Chesapeake Bay impact crater">Chesapeake Bay</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eltanin_impact" title="Eltanin impact">Eltanin</a> meteor impacts. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Megatsunami" title="Special:EditPage/Megatsunami">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A megatsunami is a tsunami with an initial <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">wave</a> <a href="/wiki/Amplitude" title="Amplitude">amplitude</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">height</a>) measured in many tens or hundreds of metres. The term "megatsunami" has been defined by media and has no precise definition, although it is commonly taken to refer to tsunamis over 100 metres (330 ft) high.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGuire2006123_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGuire2006123-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A megatsunami is a separate class of event from an ordinary tsunami and is caused by different physical mechanisms. </p><p>Normal tsunamis result from displacement of the sea floor due to movements in the Earth's crust (plate tectonics). Powerful earthquakes may cause the sea floor to displace vertically on the order of tens of metres, which in turn displaces the water column above and leads to the formation of a tsunami. Ordinary tsunamis have a small wave height offshore and generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell on the order of 30 cm (12 in) above the normal sea surface. In deep water it is possible that a tsunami could pass beneath a ship without the crew of the vessel noticing. As it approaches land, the wave height of an ordinary tsunami increases dramatically as the sea floor slopes upward and the base of the wave pushes the water column above it upwards. Ordinary tsunamis, even those associated with the most powerful strike-slip earthquakes, typically do not reach heights in excess of 30 m (100 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By contrast, megatsunamis are caused by landslides and other <a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">impact events</a> that displace large volumes of water, resulting in waves that may exceed the height of an ordinary tsunami by tens or even hundreds of metres. Underwater <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">volcanic eruptions</a> do not normally generate megatsunamis, but <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a> next to bodies of water resulting from earthquakes or volcanic eruptions can, since they cause a much larger amount of water <a href="/wiki/Displacement_field_(mechanics)" title="Displacement field (mechanics)">displacement</a>. If the landslide or impact occurs in a limited body of water, as happened at the <a href="/wiki/Vajont_Dam" title="Vajont Dam">Vajont Dam</a> (1963) and in <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska_earthquake_and_megatsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami">Lituya Bay</a> (1958) then the water may be unable to disperse and one or more exceedingly large waves may result.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Submarine landslides can pose a significant hazard when they cause a tsunami. Although a variety of different types of landslides can cause tsunami, all the resulting tsunami have similar features such as large run-ups close to the tsunami, but quicker attenuation compared to tsunami caused by earthquakes. An example of this was the July 17, 1998, <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinean</a> landslide tsunami where waves up to 15 m high impacted a 20 km section of the coast killing 2,200 people, yet at greater distances the tsunami was not a major hazard. This is due to the comparatively small source area of most landslide tsunami (relative to the area affected by large earthquakes) which causes the generation of shorter wavelength waves. These waves are greatly affected by coastal amplification (which amplifies the local effect) and radial damping (which reduces the distal effect).<sup id="cite_ref-Mason_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McAdoo_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McAdoo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The size of landslide-generated tsunamis depends both on the geological details of the landslide (such as its <a href="/wiki/Froude_number" title="Froude number">Froude number</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELøvholtPedersenGisler20083_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELøvholtPedersenGisler20083-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and also on assumptions about the <a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrodynamics">hydrodynamics</a> of the model used to simulate tsunami generation, thus they have a large margin of uncertainty. Generally, landslide-induced tsunamis decay more quickly with distance than earthquake-induced tsunamis,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMassonHarbitzWynnPedersen20062024_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassonHarbitzWynnPedersen20062024-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the former, often having a dipole structure at the source,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDawsonStewart2007169_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDawsonStewart2007169-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tend to spread out radially and has a shorter wavelength (the rate at which a wave loses energy is inversely proportional to its wavelength, in other words the longer the <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a> of a wave, the slower it loses energy)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the latter disperses little as it propagates away perpendicularly to the source <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">fault</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMassonHarbitzWynnPedersen20062025_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMassonHarbitzWynnPedersen20062025-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Testing whether a given tsunami model is correct is complicated by the rarity of giant collapses.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002255_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002255-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent findings show that the nature of a tsunami is dependent upon volume, velocity, initial acceleration, length and thickness of the contributing landslide. Volume and initial acceleration are the key factors which determine whether a landslide will form a tsunami. A sudden deceleration of the landslide may also result in larger waves. The length of the slide influences both the wavelength and the maximum wave height. Travel time or run out distance of slide will also influence the resulting tsunami wavelength. In most cases the submarine landslides are noticeably subcritical, that is the <a href="/wiki/Froude_number" title="Froude number">Froude number</a> (the ratio of slide speed to wave propagation) is significantly less than one. This suggests that the tsunami will move away from the wave generating slide preventing the buildup of the wave. Failures in shallow waters tend to produce larger tsunamis because the wave is more critical as the speed of propagation is less here. Furthermore, shallower waters are generally closer to the coast meaning that there is less radial damping by the time the tsunami reaches the shore. Conversely tsunamis triggered by earthquakes are more critical when the seabed displacement occurs in the deep ocean as the first wave (which is less affected by depth) has a shorter wavelength and is enlarged when travelling from deeper to shallower waters.<sup id="cite_ref-Mason_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McAdoo_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McAdoo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Determining a height range typical of megatsunamis is a complex and scientifically debated topic. This complexity is increased due to the fact that two different heights are often reported for tsunamis – the height of the wave itself in open water, and the height to which it surges when it encounters land. Depending upon the locale, this second or so-called "<a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height" can be several times larger than the wave's height just before reaching shore.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there is currently no minimum or average height classification for megatsunamis that is broadly accepted by the scientific community, the limited number of observed megatsunami events in recent history have all had run-up heights that exceeded 100 metres (300 ft). The megatsunami in Spirit Lake, Washington, USA that was caused by the <a href="/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens" title="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a> reached 260 metres (853 ft), while the tallest megatsunami ever recorded (Lituya Bay in 1958) reached a run-up height of 520 metres (1,720 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also possible that much larger megatsunamis occurred in prehistory; researchers analyzing the geological structures left behind by prehistoric asteroid impacts have suggested that these events could have resulted in megatsunamis that exceeded 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) in height.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recognition_of_the_concept_of_megatsunami">Recognition of the concept of megatsunami</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Recognition of the concept of megatsunami"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay_earthquake_and_megatsunami" title="1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami">1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami</a></div> <p>Before the 1950s, scientists had theorized that tsunamis orders of magnitude larger than those observed with earthquakes could have occurred as a result of ancient geological processes, but no concrete evidence of the existence of these "monster waves" had yet been gathered. <a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologists</a> searching for oil in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> in 1953 observed that in <a href="/wiki/Lituya_Bay" title="Lituya Bay">Lituya Bay</a>, mature tree growth did not extend to the shoreline as it did in many other bays in the region. Rather, there was a band of younger trees closer to the shore. Forestry workers, glaciologists, and geographers call the boundary between these bands a <a href="/wiki/Trim_line" title="Trim line">trim line</a>. Trees just above the trim line showed severe scarring on their seaward side, while those from below the trim line did not. This indicated that a large force had impacted all of the elder trees above the trim line, and presumably had killed off all the trees below it. Based on this evidence, the scientists hypothesized that there had been an unusually large wave or waves in the deep inlet. Because this is a recently deglaciated <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a> with steep slopes and crossed by a major fault (the <a href="/wiki/Fairweather_Fault" class="mw-redirect" title="Fairweather Fault">Fairweather Fault</a>), one possibility was that this wave was a landslide-generated tsunami.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On July 9, 1958, a 7.8 <a href="/wiki/Seismic_magnitude_scales#Mw" title="Seismic magnitude scales"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-00000019-QINU`"'</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip" title="Moment mag. scale">M<sub>w</sub></span></a> <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)#Strike-slip_faults" title="Fault (geology)">strike-slip</a> earthquake in southeast Alaska caused 80,000,000 metric tons (90,000,000 short tons) of rock and ice to drop into the deep water at the head of Lituya Bay. The block fell almost vertically and hit the water with sufficient force to create a <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska_earthquake_and_megatsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami">wave</a> that surged up the opposite side of the head of the bay to a height of 520 metres (1,710 feet), and was still many tens of metres high further down the bay when it carried eyewitnesses Howard Ulrich and his son Howard Jr. over the trees in their fishing boat. They were washed back into the bay and both survived.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis_of_mechanism">Analysis of mechanism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Analysis of mechanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mechanism giving rise to megatsunamis was analysed for the Lituya Bay event in a study presented at the Tsunami Society in 1999;<sup id="cite_ref-PC_Model_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC_Model-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this model was considerably developed and modified by a second study in 2010. </p><p>Although the earthquake which caused the megatsunami was considered very energetic, it was determined that it could not have been the sole contributor based on the measured height of the wave. Neither water drainage from a lake, nor a landslide, nor the force of the earthquake itself were sufficient to create a megatsunami of the size observed, although all of these may have been contributing factors. </p><p>Instead, the megatsunami was caused by a combination of events in quick succession. The primary event occurred in the form of a large and sudden <a href="/wiki/Impulse_(physics)" title="Impulse (physics)">impulsive</a> impact when about 40 million cubic yards of rock several hundred metres above the bay was fractured by the earthquake, and fell "practically as a monolithic unit" down the almost-vertical slope and into the bay.<sup id="cite_ref-PC_Model_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PC_Model-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Rockfall" title="Rockfall">rockfall</a> also caused air to be "dragged along" due to <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> effects, which added to the volume of displacement, and further impacted the <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> on the floor of the bay, creating a large crater. The study concluded that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The giant wave <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">runup</a> of 1,720 feet (524 m) at the head of the Bay and the subsequent huge wave along the main body of Lituya Bay which occurred on July 9, 1958, were caused primarily by an enormous subaerial rockfall into Gilbert Inlet at the head of Lituya Bay, triggered by dynamic earthquake ground motions along the Fairweather Fault. </p><p>The large monolithic mass of rock struck the sediments at bottom of Gilbert Inlet at the head of the bay with great force. The impact created a large crater and displaced and folded recent and Tertiary deposits and sedimentary layers to an unknown depth. The displaced water and the displacement and folding of the sediments broke and uplifted 1,300 feet of ice along the entire front face of the Lituya Glacier at the north end of Gilbert Inlet. Also, the impact and the sediment displacement by the rockfall resulted in an air bubble and in water splashing action that reached the 1,720-foot (524 m) elevation on the other side of the head of Gilbert Inlet. The same rockfall impact, in combination with the strong ground movements, the net vertical crustal uplift of about 3.5 feet, and an overall tilting seaward of the entire crustal block on which Lituya Bay was situated, generated the giant solitary gravity wave which swept the main body of the bay. </p><p> This was the most likely scenario of the event – the "PC model" that was adopted for subsequent mathematical modeling studies with source dimensions and parameters provided as input. Subsequent mathematical modeling at the Los Alamos National Laboratory (Mader, 1999, Mader & Gittings, 2002) supported the proposed mechanism and indicated that there was indeed sufficient volume of water and an adequately deep layer of sediments in the Lituya Bay inlet to account for the giant wave runup and the subsequent inundation. The modeling reproduced the documented physical observations of runup.</p></blockquote> <p>A 2010 model that examined the amount of infill on the floor of the bay, which was many times larger than that of the rockfall alone, and also the energy and height of the waves, and the accounts given by eyewitnesses, concluded that there had been a "dual slide" involving a rockfall, which also triggered a release of 5 to 10 times its volume of sediment trapped by the adjacent Lituya Glacier, as an almost immediate and many times larger second slide, a ratio comparable with other events where this "dual slide" effect is known to have happened.<sup id="cite_ref-2010model_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2010model-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistoric">Prehistoric</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prehistoric"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>An <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">astronomical object</a> between 37 and 58 kilometres (23 and 36 mi) wide traveling at 20 kilometres (12.4 mi) per second struck the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> 3.26 billion years ago east of what is now <a href="/wiki/Johannesburg" title="Johannesburg">Johannesburg</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, near South Africa's border with <a href="/wiki/Eswatini" title="Eswatini">Eswatini</a>, in what was then an <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> ocean that covered most of the planet, creating a crater about 500 kilometres (310 mi) wide. The impact generated a megatsunami that probably extended to a depth of thousands of meters beneath the surface of the ocean and rose to the height of a <a href="/wiki/Skyscraper" title="Skyscraper">skyscraper</a> when it reached shorelines. The resultant event created the <a href="/wiki/Barberton_Greenstone_Belt" title="Barberton Greenstone Belt">Barberton Greenstone Belt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> linked to the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">extinction of dinosaurs</a>, which created the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub crater</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> approximately 66 million years ago, would have caused a megatsunami over 100 metres (330 ft) tall. The height of the tsunami was limited due to relatively shallow sea in the area of the impact; had the asteroid struck in the deep sea the megatsunami would have been 4.6 kilometres (2.9 mi) tall. Among the mechanisms triggering megatsunamis were the direct impact, shockwaves, returning water in the crater with a new push outward and <a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">seismic waves</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Richter_magnitude_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Richter magnitude scale">magnitude</a> up to ~11.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more recent simulation of the global effects of the Chicxulub megatsunami showed an initial wave height of 1.5 kilometres (0.9 mi), with later waves up to 100 metres (330 ft) in height in the Gulf of Mexico, and up to 14 metres (46 ft) in the North Atlantic and South Pacific; the discovery of mega-ripples in Louisiana via seismic imaging data, with average wavelengths of 600 metres (2,000 ft) and average wave heights of 16 metres (52 ft), looks like to confirm it.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Shonting and Cathy Ezrailson propose an "Edgerton effect" mechanism generating the megatsunami, similar to a milk drop falling on water that triggers a crown-shape water column, with a comparable height to the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub impactor's</a>, that means over 10–12 kilometres (6–7 mi) for the initial seawater forced outward by the explosion and blast waves; then, its collapse triggers megatsunamis changing their height according to the different water depth, raising up to 500 metres (1,600 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the initial <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> via impact triggered <a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">seismic waves</a> producing giant <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslides</a> and slumping around the region (the largest known event deposits on Earth) with subsequent megatsunamis of various sizes,<sup id="cite_ref-Sanford2016_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sanford2016-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">seiches</a> of 10 to 100 metres (30 to 300 ft) in <a href="/wiki/Tanis_(fossil_site)" title="Tanis (fossil site)">Tanis</a>, 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) away, part of a vast inland sea at the time and directly triggered via seismic shaking by the impact within a few minutes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>During the <a href="/wiki/Messinian" title="Messinian">Messinian</a> the coasts of northern Chile were likely struck by various megatsunamis.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A megatsunami affected the coast of <a href="/wiki/Zona_Sur" title="Zona Sur">south–central Chile</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> as evidenced by the <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary record">sedimentary record</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ranquil_Formation" title="Ranquil Formation">Ranquil Formation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LeRouxetal2008_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeRouxetal2008-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Eltanin_impact" title="Eltanin impact">Eltanin impact</a> in the southeast Pacific Ocean 2.5 million years ago caused a megatsunami that was over 200 metres (660 ft) high in southern Chile and the Antarctic Peninsula; the wave swept across much of the Pacific Ocean.</li> <li>The northern half of the <a href="/wiki/East_Molokai_Volcano" title="East Molokai Volcano">East Molokai Volcano</a> on <a href="/wiki/Molokai" title="Molokai">Molokai</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> suffered a catastrophic collapse about 1.5 million years ago, generating a megatsunami, and now lies as a debris field scattered northward across the ocean bottom,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while what remains on the island are the highest <a href="/wiki/Sea_cliff" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea cliff">sea cliffs</a> in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The megatsunami may have reached a height of 610 metres (2,000 ft) near its origin and reached <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The existence of large scattered <a href="/wiki/Boulder" title="Boulder">boulders</a> in only one of the four <a href="/wiki/Marine_terrace" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine terrace">marine terraces</a> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Herradura_Bay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Herradura Bay (page does not exist)">Herradura Bay</a> south of the Chilean city of <a href="/wiki/Coquimbo" title="Coquimbo">Coquimbo</a> has been interpreted by <a href="/wiki/Roland_Paskoff" title="Roland Paskoff">Roland Paskoff</a> as the result of a mega-tsunami that occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Middle Pleistocene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, a megatsunami at least 400 metres (1,312 ft) in height deposited marine <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> at a modern-day elevation of 326 metres (1,070 ft) – 375 to 425 metres (1,230 to 1,394 ft) above <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> at the time the wave struck – on <a href="/wiki/Lanai" title="Lanai">Lanai</a> about 105,000 years ago. The tsunami also deposited such sediments at an elevation of 60 to 80 metres (197 to 262 ft) on <a href="/wiki/Oahu" title="Oahu">Oahu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molokai" title="Molokai">Molokai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maui" title="Maui">Maui</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Hawaii_(island)" title="Hawaii (island)">island of Hawaii</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The collapse of the ancestral Mount Amarelo on <a href="/wiki/Fogo,_Cape_Verde" title="Fogo, Cape Verde">Fogo</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Verde Islands">Cape Verde Islands</a> about 73,000 years ago triggered a megatsunami which struck <a href="/wiki/Santiago,_Cape_Verde" title="Santiago, Cape Verde">Santiago</a>, 55 kilometres (34 mi; 30 nmi) away, with a height of at least 170 metres (558 ft) and a <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of over 270 metres (886 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>A major collapse of the western edge of the <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tahoe" title="Lake Tahoe">Lake Tahoe</a> basin, a landslide with a volume of 12.5 cubic kilometres (3.0 cu mi) which formed McKinney Bay between 21,000 and 12,000 years ago, generated megatsunamis/<a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">seiche waves</a> with an initial height of probably about 100 m (330 ft) and caused the lake's water to slosh back and forth for days. Much of the water in the megatsunamis washed over the lake's outlet at what is now <a href="/wiki/Tahoe_City,_California" title="Tahoe City, California">Tahoe City</a>, California, and flooded down the <a href="/wiki/Truckee_River" title="Truckee River">Truckee River</a>, carrying house-sized boulders as far downstream as the California-Nevada border at what is now <a href="/wiki/Verdi,_California" title="Verdi, California">Verdi</a>, California.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Storegga_Slide" title="Storegga Slide">Storegga Slide</a> caused a megatsunami approximately 8,200 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is estimated to have completely flooded the remainder of <a href="/wiki/Doggerland" title="Doggerland">Doggerland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Around 6370 BCE, a 25-cubic-kilometre (6 cu mi) landslide on the eastern slope of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Etna" title="Mount Etna">Mount Etna</a> in <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> triggered a megatsunami in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> with an initial wave height along the eastern coast of Sicily of 40 metres (131 ft). It struck the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> village of <a href="/wiki/Atlit_Yam" title="Atlit Yam">Atlit Yam</a> off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> with a height of 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in), prompting the village's abandonment.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Around 5650 B.C., a landslide in <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> created a megatsunami with a <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height on <a href="/wiki/Alluttoq_Island" title="Alluttoq Island">Alluttoq Island</a> of 41 to 66 metres (135 to 217 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Korsgaardetal_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korsgaardetal-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Around 5350 B.C., a landslide in Greenland created a megatsunami with a <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height on Alluttoq Island of 45 to 70 metres (148 to 230 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-Korsgaardetal_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korsgaardetal-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historic">Historic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Historic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="c._2000_BC:_Réunion"><span id="c._2000_BC:_R.C3.A9union"></span>c. 2000 BC: Réunion</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: c. 2000 BC: Réunion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>A <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> on <a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9union" title="Réunion">Réunion</a> island, to the east of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, may have caused a megatsunami.<sup id="cite_ref-Mega-tsunami:_Wave_of_Destruction_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mega-tsunami:_Wave_of_Destruction-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="Source reference citation states "Scientists now realise that the greatest danger comes from large volcanic islands, which are particularly prone to these massive landslides. Geologists began to look for evidence of past landslides on the sea bed, and what they saw astonished them. The sea floor around Hawaii, for instance, was covered with the remains of millions of years' worth of ancient landslides, colossal in size.But huge landslides and the mega-tsunami that they cause are extremely rare – the last one happened 4,000 years ago on the island of Réunion." This is incorrect because even this Wikipedia article lists more recent volcanic island collapses causing megatsunamis e.g. Mount Unzen (1792), Krakatoa (1883), Ritter Island (1888) and Mt St Helens (1980). (June 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="c._1600_BC:_Santorini">c. 1600 BC: Santorini</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: c. 1600 BC: Santorini"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Minoan_eruption" title="Minoan eruption">Minoan eruption</a></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Thera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thera">Thera</a> volcano erupted, the force of the eruption causing megatsunamis which affected the whole <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a> and the eastern <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="c._1100_BC:_Lake_Crescent">c. 1100 BC: Lake Crescent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: c. 1100 BC: Lake Crescent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>An earthquake generated the 7,200,000-cubic-metre (9,400,000 cu yd) Sledgehammer Point Rockslide, which fell from <a href="/wiki/Mount_Storm_King" title="Mount Storm King">Mount Storm King</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> in the United States and entered waters at least 140 metres (459 ft) deep in <a href="/wiki/Lake_Crescent" title="Lake Crescent">Lake Crescent</a>, generating a megatsunami with an estimated maximum <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of 82 to 104 metres (269 to 341 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-chehalis2007_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chehalis2007-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1674:_Ambon_Island,_Banda_Sea"><span id="1674:_Ambon_Island.2C_Banda_Sea"></span>1674: Ambon Island, Banda Sea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 1674: Ambon Island, Banda Sea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1674_Ambon_earthquake_and_megatsunami" title="1674 Ambon earthquake and megatsunami">1674 Ambon earthquake and megatsunami</a></div> <p>On February 17, 1674, between 19:30 and 20:00 local time, an earthquake struck the Maluku Islands. Ambon Island received <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> heights of 100 metres (328 ft), making the wave far too large to be caused by the quake itself. Instead, it was probably the result of an underwater landslide triggered by the earthquake. The quake and tsunami killed 2,347 people.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1731:_Storfjorden,_Norway"><span id="1731:_Storfjorden.2C_Norway"></span>1731: Storfjorden, Norway</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: 1731: Storfjorden, Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At 10:00 p.m. on January 8, 1731, a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> with a volume of possibly 6,000,000 cubic metres (7,800,000 cu yd) fell from the mountain Skafjell from a height of 500 metres (1,640 ft) into the <a href="/wiki/Storfjorden_(Sunnm%C3%B8re)" title="Storfjorden (Sunnmøre)">Storfjorden</a> opposite <a href="/wiki/Stranda,_M%C3%B8re_og_Romsdal" title="Stranda, Møre og Romsdal">Stranda</a>, <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a>. The slide generated a megatsunami 30 metres (100 ft) in height that struck Stranda, flooding the area for 100 metres (330 ft) inland and destroying the church and all but two <a href="/wiki/Boathouse" title="Boathouse">boathouses</a>, as well as many boats. Damaging waves struck as far away as <a href="/wiki/%C3%98rskog" title="Ørskog">Ørskog</a>. The waves killed 17 people.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1741:_Oshima-Ōshima,_Sea_of_Japan"><span id="1741:_Oshima-.C5.8Cshima.2C_Sea_of_Japan"></span>1741: Oshima-Ōshima, Sea of Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: 1741: Oshima-Ōshima, Sea of Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1741_eruption_of_Oshima%E2%80%93%C5%8Cshima_and_the_Kampo_tsunami" title="1741 eruption of Oshima–Ōshima and the Kampo tsunami">1741 eruption of Oshima–Ōshima and the Kampo tsunami</a></div> <p>An eruption of Oshima-Ōshima occurred that lasted from 18 August 1741 to 1 May 1742. On 29 August 1741, a devastating tsunami occurred.<sup id="cite_ref-Significant_Volcanic_Eruption_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Significant_Volcanic_Eruption-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It killed at least 1,467 people along a 120-kilometre (75 mi) section of the coast, excluding native residents whose deaths were not recorded. Wave heights for Gankakezawa have been estimated at 34 metres (112 ft) based on oral histories, while an estimate of 13 metres (43 ft) is derived from written records. At Sado Island, over 350 kilometres (217 mi; 189 nmi) away, a wave height of 2 to 5 metres (6 ft 7 in to 16 ft 5 in) has been estimated based on descriptions of the damage, while oral records suggest a height of 8 metres (26 ft). Wave heights have been estimated at 3 to 4 metres (9.8 to 13.1 ft) even as far away as the <a href="/wiki/Korean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Peninsula">Korean Peninsula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is still no consensus in the debate as to what caused it but much evidence points to a landslide and debris avalanche along the flank of the volcano. An alternative hypothesis holds that an earthquake caused the tsunami.<sup id="cite_ref-Sang_Oh_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sang_Oh-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Survey_Study_Group_on_Large-Scale_Earthquakes_in_the_Sea_of_Japan_report_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Survey_Study_Group_on_Large-Scale_Earthquakes_in_the_Sea_of_Japan_report-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Abe_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abe-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The event reduced the elevation of the peak of Hishiyama from 850 to 722 metres (2,789 to 2,369 ft). An estimated 2.4-cubic-kilometre (0.58 cu mi) section of the volcano collapsed onto the <a href="/wiki/Sea_bed" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea bed">seafloor</a> north of the island; the collapse was similar in size to the 2.3-cubic-kilometre (0.55 cu mi) collapse which occurred during the <a href="/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens" title="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Satake01_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Satake01-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1756:_Langfjorden,_Norway"><span id="1756:_Langfjorden.2C_Norway"></span>1756: Langfjorden, Norway</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: 1756: Langfjorden, Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Just before 8:00 p.m. on February 22, 1756, a landslide with a volume of 12,000,000 to 15,000,000 cubic metres (16,000,000 to 20,000,000 cu yd) travelled at high speed from a height of 400 metres (1,300 ft) on the side of the mountain Tjellafjellet into the <a href="/wiki/Langfjorden_(M%C3%B8re_og_Romsdal)" title="Langfjorden (Møre og Romsdal)">Langfjorden</a> about 1 kilometre (0.6 mi) west of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tjelle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tjelle (page does not exist)">Tjelle</a>, Norway, between Tjelle and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gramsgr%C3%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gramsgrø (page does not exist)">Gramsgrø</a>. The slide generated three megatsunamis in the Langfjorden and the <a href="/wiki/Eresfjorden" title="Eresfjorden">Eresfjorden</a> with heights of 40 to 50 metres (130 to 160 ft). The waves flooded the shore for 200 metres (660 ft) inland in some areas, destroying farms and other inhabited areas. Damaging waves struck as far away as <a href="/wiki/Ve%C3%B8y" title="Veøy">Veøy</a>, 25 kilometres (16 mi) from the landslide – where they washed inland 20 metres (66 ft) above normal flood levels – and <a href="/wiki/Gjermundnes" title="Gjermundnes">Gjermundnes</a>, 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the slide. The waves killed 32 people and destroyed 168 buildings, 196 boats, large amounts of forest, and roads and boat landings.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1792:_Mount_Unzen,_Japan"><span id="1792:_Mount_Unzen.2C_Japan"></span>1792: Mount Unzen, Japan</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 1792: Mount Unzen, Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1792_Unzen_landslide_and_tsunami" title="1792 Unzen landslide and tsunami">1792 Unzen landslide and tsunami</a></div> <p>On 21 May 1792, a flank of the Mayamaya dome of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Unzen" title="Mount Unzen">Mount Unzen</a> collapsed after two large earthquakes. This had been preceded by a series of earthquakes coming from the mountain, beginning near the end of 1791. Initial wave heights were 100 metres (330 ft), but when they hit the other side of Ariake Bay, they were only 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 ft) in height, though one location received 57-metre (187 ft) waves due to <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">seafloor</a> <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>. The waves bounced back to Shimabara, which, when they hit, accounted for about half of the tsunami's victims. According to estimates, 10,000 people were killed by the tsunami, and a further 5,000 were killed by the landslide. As of 2011, it was the deadliest known volcanic event in Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Hays1990_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hays1990-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1853–1854:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska"><span id="1853.E2.80.931854:_Lituya_Bay.2C_Alaska"></span>1853–1854: Lituya Bay, Alaska</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: 1853–1854: Lituya Bay, Alaska"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sometime between August 1853 and May 1854, a megatsunami occurred in <a href="/wiki/Lituya_Bay" title="Lituya Bay">Lituya Bay</a> in what was then <a href="/wiki/Russian_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian America">Russian America</a>. Studies of Lituya Bay between 1948 and 1953 first identified the event, which probably occurred because of a large landslide on the south shore of the bay near Mudslide Creek. The wave had a maximum <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of 120 metres (394 ft), flooding the coast of the bay up to 230 metres (750 ft) inland.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1874:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska"><span id="1874:_Lituya_Bay.2C_Alaska"></span>1874: Lituya Bay, Alaska</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: 1874: Lituya Bay, Alaska"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A study of Lituya Bay in 1953 concluded that sometime around 1874, perhaps in May 1874, another megatsunami occurred in <a href="/wiki/Lituya_Bay" title="Lituya Bay">Lituya Bay</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>. Probably occurring because of a large landslide on the south shore of the bay in the Mudslide Creek Valley, the wave had a maximum <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of 24 metres (80 ft), flooding the coast of the bay up to 640 metres (2,100 ft) inland.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1883:_Krakatoa,_Sunda_Strait"><span id="1883:_Krakatoa.2C_Sunda_Strait"></span>1883: Krakatoa, Sunda Strait</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 1883: Krakatoa, Sunda Strait"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1883_eruption_of_Krakatoa#Tsunamis_and_distant_effects" title="1883 eruption of Krakatoa">1883 eruption of Krakatoa § Tsunamis and distant effects</a></div> <p>The massive explosion of <a href="/wiki/Krakatoa" title="Krakatoa">Krakatoa</a> created <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">pyroclastic flows</a> which generated megatsunamis when they hit the waters of the <a href="/wiki/Sunda_Strait" title="Sunda Strait">Sunda Strait</a> on 27 August 1883. The waves reached heights of up to 24 metres (79 feet) along the south coast of <a href="/wiki/Sumatra" title="Sumatra">Sumatra</a> and up to 42 metres (138 feet) along the west coast of <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tsunamis were powerful enough to kill over 30,000 people, and their effect was such that an area of land in <a href="/wiki/Banten" title="Banten">Banten</a> had its human settlements wiped out, and they never repopulated. (This area rewilded and was later declared a national park.) The <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steamship</a> <i>Berouw</i>, a colonial <a href="/wiki/Gunboat" title="Gunboat">gunboat</a>, was flung over a mile (1.6 km) inland on Sumatra by the wave, killing its entire crew. Two thirds of the island collapsed into the sea after the event.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Groups of human skeletons were found floating on pumice numerous times, up to a year after the event.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eruption also generated what is often called the loudest sound in history, which was heard 4,800 kilometres (3,000 mi; 2,600 nmi) away on <a href="/wiki/Rodrigues" title="Rodrigues">Rodrigues</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1905:_Lovatnet,_Norway"><span id="1905:_Lovatnet.2C_Norway"></span>1905: Lovatnet, Norway</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: 1905: Lovatnet, Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On January 15, 1905, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Ramnefjellet with a volume of 350,000 cubic metres (460,000 cu yd) fell from a height of 500 metres (1,600 ft) into the southern end of the lake <a href="/wiki/Lovatnet" title="Lovatnet">Lovatnet</a> in Norway, generating three megatsunamis of up to 40.5 metres (133 ft) in height. The waves destroyed the villages of <a href="/w/index.php?title=B%C3%B8dal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bødal (page does not exist)">Bødal</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nesdal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nesdal (page does not exist)">Nesdal</a> near the southern end of the lake, killing 61 people – half their combined population – and 261 farm animals and destroying 60 houses, all the local <a href="/wiki/Boathouse" title="Boathouse">boathouses</a>, and 70 to 80 boats, one of which – the tourist boat <i>Lodalen</i> – was thrown 300 metres (1,000 ft) inland by the last wave and wrecked. At the northern end of the 11.7-kilometre (7.3 mi) long lake, a wave measured at almost 6 metres (20 ft) destroyed a bridge.<sup id="cite_ref-loen_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loen-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1905:_Disenchantment_Bay,_Alaska"><span id="1905:_Disenchantment_Bay.2C_Alaska"></span>1905: Disenchantment Bay, Alaska</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 1905: Disenchantment Bay, Alaska"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On July 4, 1905, an overhanging glacier – since known as the Fallen Glacier – broke loose, slid out of its valley, and fell 300 metres (1,000 ft) down a steep slope into <a href="/wiki/Disenchantment_Bay" title="Disenchantment Bay">Disenchantment Bay</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, clearing vegetation along a path 0.8 kilometres (0.5 mi) wide. When it entered the water, it generated a megatsunami which broke tree branches 34 metres (110 ft) above ground level 0.8 kilometres (0.5 mi) away. The wave killed vegetation to a height of 20 metres (65 ft) at a distance of 5 kilometres (3 mi) from the landslide, and it reached heights of 15 to 35 metres (50 to 115 ft) at different locations on the coast of <a href="/wiki/Haenke_Island" title="Haenke Island">Haenke Island</a>. At a distance of 24 kilometres (15 mi) from the slide, observers at <a href="/wiki/Russell_Fjord" class="mw-redirect" title="Russell Fjord">Russell Fjord</a> reported a series of large waves that caused the water level to rise and fall 5 to 6 metres (15 to 20 ft) for a half-hour.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1934:_Tafjorden,_Norway"><span id="1934:_Tafjorden.2C_Norway"></span>1934: Tafjorden, Norway</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 1934: Tafjorden, Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On April 7, 1934, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Langhamaren with a volume of 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) fell from a height of about 730 metres (2,395 ft) into the <a href="/wiki/Tafjorden" title="Tafjorden">Tafjorden</a> in Norway, generating three megatsunamis, the last and largest of which reached a height of between 62 and 63.5 metres (203 and 208 ft) on the opposite shore. Large waves struck <a href="/wiki/Tafjord" title="Tafjord">Tafjord</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fj%C3%B8r%C3%A5&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fjørå (page does not exist)">Fjørå</a>. At Tafjord, the last and largest wave was 17 metres (56 ft) tall and struck at an estimated speed of 160 kilometres per hour (100 mph), flooding the town for 300 metres (328 yd) inland and killing 23 people. At Fjørå, waves reached 13 metres (43 ft), destroyed buildings, removed all soil, and killed 17 people. Damaging waves struck as far as 50 kilometres (31 mi) away, and waves were detected at a distance of 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the landslide. One survivor suffered serious injuries requiring hospitalization.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1936:_Lovatnet,_Norway"><span id="1936:_Lovatnet.2C_Norway"></span>1936: Lovatnet, Norway</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: 1936: Lovatnet, Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On September 13, 1936, a landslide on the slope of the mountain Ramnefjellet with a volume of 1,000,000 cubic metres (1,300,000 cu yd) fell from a height of 800 metres (3,000 ft) into the southern end of the lake <a href="/wiki/Lovatnet" title="Lovatnet">Lovatnet</a> in Norway, generating three megatsunamis, the largest of which reached a height of 74 metres (243 ft). The waves destroyed all farms at <a href="/w/index.php?title=B%C3%B8dal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bødal (page does not exist)">Bødal</a> and most farms at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nesdal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nesdal (page does not exist)">Nesdal</a> – completely washing away 16 farms – as well as 100 houses, bridges, a <a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">power station</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Workshop" title="Workshop">workshop</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmill</a>, several <a href="/wiki/Grain_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Grain mill">grain mills</a>, a restaurant, a schoolhouse, and all boats on the lake. A 12.6-metre (41 ft) wave struck the southern end of the 11.7-kilometre (7.3 mi) long lake and caused damaging flooding in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Loelva_River&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Loelva River (page does not exist)">Loelva River</a>, the lake's northern outlet. The waves killed 74 people and severely injured 11.<sup id="cite_ref-loen_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loen-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1936:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska"><span id="1936:_Lituya_Bay.2C_Alaska"></span>1936: Lituya Bay, Alaska</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: 1936: Lituya Bay, Alaska"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On October 27, 1936, a megatsunami occurred in Lituya Bay in Alaska with a maximum <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of 150 metres (490 ft) in Crillon Inlet at the head of the bay. The four eyewitnesses to the wave in Lituya Bay itself all survived and described it as between 30 and 76 metres (100 and 250 ft) high. The maximum inundation distance was 610 metres (2,000 ft) inland along the north shore of the bay. The cause of the megatsunami remains unclear, but may have been a submarine landslide.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1958:_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska,_US"><span id="1958:_Lituya_Bay.2C_Alaska.2C_US"></span>1958: Lituya Bay, Alaska, US</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: 1958: Lituya Bay, Alaska, US"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay_earthquake_and_megatsunami" title="1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami">1958 Lituya Bay earthquake and megatsunami</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lituya_Bay" title="Lituya Bay">Lituya Bay</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png/220px-Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png/330px-Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png/440px-Lituya-Bay-overview-with-arrows.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>Damage from the <a href="/wiki/1958_Lituya_Bay,_Alaska_earthquake_and_megatsunami" class="mw-redirect" title="1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami">1958 Lituya Bay, Alaska earthquake and megatsunami</a> can be seen in this oblique aerial photograph of <a href="/wiki/Lituya_Bay" title="Lituya Bay">Lituya Bay</a>, Alaska as the lighter areas at the shore where trees have been stripped away. The red arrow shows the location of the landslide, and the yellow arrow shows the location of the high point of the wave sweeping over the headland.</figcaption></figure> <p>On July 9, 1958, a giant landslide at the head of <a href="/wiki/Lituya_Bay" title="Lituya Bay">Lituya Bay</a> in Alaska, caused by an earthquake, generated a wave that washed out trees to a maximum elevation of 520 metres (1,710 ft) at the entrance of Gilbert Inlet.<sup id="cite_ref-Mader_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mader-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wave surged over the headland, stripping trees and soil down to bedrock, and surged along the <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a> which forms Lituya Bay, destroying two fishing boats anchored there and killing two people.<sup id="cite_ref-Miller_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the highest wave of any kind ever recorded.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The subsequent study of this event led to the establishment of the term "megatsunami," to distinguish it from ordinary tsunamis.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1963:_Vajont_Dam,_Italy"><span id="1963:_Vajont_Dam.2C_Italy"></span>1963: Vajont Dam, Italy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: 1963: Vajont Dam, Italy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vajont_Dam" title="Vajont Dam">Vajont Dam</a></div> <p>On October 9, 1963, a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> above <a href="/wiki/Vajont_Dam" title="Vajont Dam">Vajont Dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> produced a 250 m (820 ft) surge that overtopped the dam and destroyed the villages of <a href="/wiki/Longarone" title="Longarone">Longarone</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pirago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pirago (page does not exist)">Pirago</a>, Rivalta, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Villanova_(Belluno)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Villanova (Belluno) (page does not exist)">Villanova</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fa%C3%A8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Faè (page does not exist)">Faè</a>, killing nearly 2,000 people. This is currently the only known example of a megatsunami that was indirectly caused by human activities.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1964:_Valdez_Arm,_Alaska"><span id="1964:_Valdez_Arm.2C_Alaska"></span>1964: Valdez Arm, Alaska</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 1964: Valdez Arm, Alaska"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On March 27, 1964, the <a href="/wiki/1964_Alaska_earthquake" title="1964 Alaska earthquake">1964 Alaska earthquake</a> triggered a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> that generated a megatsunami which reached a height of 70 metres (230 ft) in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Valdez_Arm&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valdez Arm (page does not exist)">Valdez Arm</a> of <a href="/wiki/Prince_William_Sound" title="Prince William Sound">Prince William Sound</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southcentral_Alaska" title="Southcentral Alaska">Southcentral Alaska</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1980:_Spirit_Lake,_Washington,_US"><span id="1980:_Spirit_Lake.2C_Washington.2C_US"></span>1980: Spirit Lake, Washington, US</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 1980: Spirit Lake, Washington, US"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spirit_Lake_(Washington)" title="Spirit Lake (Washington)">Spirit Lake (Washington)</a>, <a href="/wiki/1980_eruption_of_Mount_St._Helens" title="1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens">1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a></div> <p>On May 18, 1980, the upper 400 metres (1,300 ft) of <a href="/wiki/Mount_St._Helens" title="Mount St. Helens">Mount St. Helens</a> collapsed, creating a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a>. This released the pressure on the magma trapped beneath the summit bulge which exploded as a <a href="/wiki/Lateral_eruption" title="Lateral eruption">lateral blast</a>, which then released the pressure on the magma chamber and resulted in a <a href="/wiki/Plinian_eruption" title="Plinian eruption">plinian eruption</a>. </p><p>One lobe of the avalanche surged onto <a href="/wiki/Spirit_Lake_(Washington)" title="Spirit Lake (Washington)">Spirit Lake</a>, causing a megatsunami which pushed the lake waters in a series of surges, which reached a maximum height of 260 metres (850 ft)<sup id="cite_ref-Voight_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Voight-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> above the pre-eruption water level (about 975 m (3,199 ft) ASL). Above the upper limit of the tsunami, trees lie where they were knocked down by the <a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_surge" title="Pyroclastic surge">pyroclastic surge</a>; below the limit, the fallen trees and the surge deposits were removed by the megatsunami and deposited in Spirit Lake.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2000:_Paatuut,_Greenland"><span id="2000:_Paatuut.2C_Greenland"></span>2000: Paatuut, Greenland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: 2000: Paatuut, Greenland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On November 21, 2000, a landslide composed of 90,000,000 cubic metres (120,000,000 cu yd) of rock with a mass of 260,000,000 tons fell from an elevation of 1,000 to 1,400 metres (3,300 to 4,600 ft) at <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paatuut&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paatuut (page does not exist)">Paatuut</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Nuussuaq_Peninsula" title="Nuussuaq Peninsula">Nuussuaq Peninsula</a> on the west coast of <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>, reaching a speed of 140 kilometres per hour (87 mph). About 30,000,000 cubic metres (39,000,000 cu yd) of material with a mass of 87,000,000 tons entered <a href="/wiki/Sullorsuaq_Strait" title="Sullorsuaq Strait">Sullorsuaq Strait</a> (known in <a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a> as Vaigat Strait), generating a megatsunami. The wave had a <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of 50 metres (164 ft) near the landslide and 28 metres (92 ft) at <a href="/wiki/Qullissat" title="Qullissat">Qullissat</a>, the site of an abandoned settlement across the <a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">strait</a> on <a href="/wiki/Disko_Island" title="Disko Island">Disko Island</a>, 20 kilometres (11 nmi; 12 mi) away, where it inundated the coast as far as 100 metres (328 ft) inland. Refracted energy from the tsunami created a wave that destroyed boats at the closest populated village, <a href="/wiki/Saqqaq" title="Saqqaq">Saqqaq</a>, on the southwestern coast of the Nuussuaq Peninsula 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the landslide.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2007:_Chehalis_Lake,_British_Columbia,_Canada"><span id="2007:_Chehalis_Lake.2C_British_Columbia.2C_Canada"></span>2007: Chehalis Lake, British Columbia, Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: 2007: Chehalis Lake, British Columbia, Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On December 4, 2007, a landslide composed of 3,000,000 cubic metres (3,900,000 cu yd) of rock and debris fell from an elevation of 550 metres (1,804 ft) on the slope of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mount_Orrock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mount Orrock (page does not exist)">Mount Orrock</a> on the western short of <a href="/wiki/Chehalis_Lake" title="Chehalis Lake">Chehalis Lake</a>. The landslide entered the 175-metre (574 ft) deep lake, generating a megatsunamii with a <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height of 37.8 metres (124 ft) on the opposite shore and 6.3 metres (21 ft) at the lake's exit point 7.5 kilometres (4.7 mi) away to the south. The wave then continued down the <a href="/wiki/Chehalis_River_(British_Columbia)" title="Chehalis River (British Columbia)">Chehalis River</a> for about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-chehalis2007_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chehalis2007-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2015:_Taan_Fiord,_Alaska,_US"><span id="2015:_Taan_Fiord.2C_Alaska.2C_US"></span>2015: Taan Fiord, Alaska, US</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 2015: Taan Fiord, Alaska, US"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Survey_of_megatsunami_runup_damage_Taan_Fiord_9_August_2016.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Survey_of_megatsunami_runup_damage_Taan_Fiord_9_August_2016.PNG/220px-Survey_of_megatsunami_runup_damage_Taan_Fiord_9_August_2016.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Survey_of_megatsunami_runup_damage_Taan_Fiord_9_August_2016.PNG/330px-Survey_of_megatsunami_runup_damage_Taan_Fiord_9_August_2016.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Survey_of_megatsunami_runup_damage_Taan_Fiord_9_August_2016.PNG/440px-Survey_of_megatsunami_runup_damage_Taan_Fiord_9_August_2016.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="938" /></a><figcaption>On 9 August 2016, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey" title="United States Geological Survey">United States Geological Survey</a> scientists survey <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> damage from the 17 October 2015 megatsunami in Taan Fiord. Based on visible damage to trees that remained standing, they estimated <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> heights in this area of 5 metres (16.4 ft).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Icy_Bay_(Alaska)" title="Icy Bay (Alaska)">Icy Bay (Alaska)</a></div> <p>At 8:19 p.m. <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Time" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaska Time">Alaska Daylight Time</a> on October 17, 2015, the side of a mountain collapsed at the head of Taan Fiord, a finger of <a href="/wiki/Icy_Bay_(Alaska)" title="Icy Bay (Alaska)">Icy Bay</a> in Alaska.<sup id="cite_ref-landslidepresentation_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-landslidepresentation-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-higman20180906_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-higman20180906-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-npstaanfiord_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npstaanfiord-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the resulting landslide came to rest on the toe of <a href="/wiki/Tyndall_Glacier_(Alaska)" title="Tyndall Glacier (Alaska)">Tyndall Glacier</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-landslidepresentation_78-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-landslidepresentation-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-rozell20160407_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rozell20160407-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but about 180,000,000 short tons (161,000,000 long tons; 163,000,000 metric tons) of rock with a volume of about 50,000,000 cubic metres (65,400,000 cu yd) fell into the <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-npstaanfiord_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-npstaanfiord-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-landslidepresentation_78-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-landslidepresentation-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-underwood20190426_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-underwood20190426-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-mooney20180906_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mooney20180906-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The landslide generated a megatsunami with an initial height of about 100 metres (330 feet)<sup id="cite_ref-rozell20160407_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rozell20160407-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-stolz20170317_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stolz20170317-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that struck the opposite shore of the fjord, with a <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> height there of 193 metres (633 feet).<sup id="cite_ref-landslidepresentation_78-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-landslidepresentation-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-higman20180906_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-higman20180906-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Over the next 12 minutes,<sup id="cite_ref-higman20180906_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-higman20180906-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the wave travelled down the fjord at a speed of up to 97 kilometres per hour (60 mph),<sup id="cite_ref-mooney20180906_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mooney20180906-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with run-up heights of over 100 metres (328 feet) in the upper fjord to between 30 and 100 metres (98 and 330 feet) or more in its middle section, and 20 metres (66 feet) or more at its mouth.<sup id="cite_ref-landslidepresentation_78-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-landslidepresentation-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-higman20180906_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-higman20180906-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still probably 12 metres (40 feet) tall when it entered Icy Bay,<sup id="cite_ref-stolz20170317_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stolz20170317-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the tsunami inundated parts of Icy Bay's shoreline with run-ups of 4 to 5 metres (13 to 16 feet) before dissipating into insignificance at distances of 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from the mouth of Taan Fiord,<sup id="cite_ref-higman20180906_79-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-higman20180906-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the wave was detected 140 kilometres (87 miles) away.<sup id="cite_ref-landslidepresentation_78-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-landslidepresentation-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Occurring in an uninhabited area, the event was unwitnessed, and several hours passed before the signature of the landslide was noticed on <a href="/wiki/Seismograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismograph">seismographs</a> at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a> in New York City.<sup id="cite_ref-higman20180906_79-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-higman20180906-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-morford20151218_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morford20151218-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2017:_Karrat_Fjord,_Greenland"><span id="2017:_Karrat_Fjord.2C_Greenland"></span>2017: Karrat Fjord, Greenland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 2017: Karrat Fjord, Greenland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On June 17, 2017, 35,000,000 to 58,000,000 cubic metres (46,000,000 to 76,000,000 cu yd) of rock on the mountain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ummiammakku&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ummiammakku (page does not exist)">Ummiammakku</a> fell from an elevation of roughly 1,000 metres (3,280 ft) into the waters of the <a href="/wiki/Karrat_Fjord" title="Karrat Fjord">Karrat Fjord</a>. The event was thought to be caused by melting ice that destabilised the rock. It registered as a magnitude 4.1 earthquake and created a 100-metre (328 ft) wave. The settlement of <a href="/wiki/Nuugaatsiaq" title="Nuugaatsiaq">Nuugaatsiaq</a>, 32 kilometres (20 mi) away, saw <a href="/wiki/Wave_run-up" title="Wave run-up">run-up</a> heights of 9 metres (30 ft). Eleven buildings were swept into the sea, four people died, and 170 residents of Nuugaatsiaq and <a href="/wiki/Illorsuit" title="Illorsuit">Illorsuit</a> were evacuated because of a danger of additional landslides and waves. The tsunami was noted at settlements as far as 100 kilometres (62 mi) away.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-independenttsunami_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-independenttsunami-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2020:_Elliot_Creek,_British_Columbia,_Canada"><span id="2020:_Elliot_Creek.2C_British_Columbia.2C_Canada"></span>2020: Elliot Creek, British Columbia, Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: 2020: Elliot Creek, British Columbia, Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 28 November 2020, unseasonably heavy rainfall triggered a <a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">landslide</a> of 18,000,000 m<sup>3</sup> (24,000,000 cu yd) into a <a href="/wiki/Glacial_lake" title="Glacial lake">glacial lake</a> at the head of Elliot Creek. The sudden displacement of water generated a 100 m (330 ft) high megatsunami that cascaded down Elliot Creek and the <a href="/wiki/Southgate_River" title="Southgate River">Southgate River</a> to the head of <a href="/wiki/Bute_Inlet" title="Bute Inlet">Bute Inlet</a>, covering a total distance of over 60 km (37 mi). The event generated a <a href="/wiki/Moment_magnitude_scale" title="Moment magnitude scale">magnitude</a> 5.0 earthquake and destroyed over 8.5 km (5.3 mi) of <a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a> habitat along Elliot Creek.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="2023:_Dickson_Fjord,_Greenland"><span id="2023:_Dickson_Fjord.2C_Greenland"></span>2023: Dickson Fjord, Greenland</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: 2023: Dickson Fjord, Greenland"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 16 September 2023 a large landslide originating 300–400 m (980–1,310 ft) above sea level entered <a href="/wiki/Dickson_Fjord" title="Dickson Fjord">Dickson Fjord</a>, triggering a tsunami exceeding 200 m (660 ft) in run-up. Run-up of 60 m (200 ft) was observed along a 10 km (6.2 mi) stretch of coast. There was no major damage and there were no casualties. The tsunami was followed by a seiche that lasted for a week.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seiche produced a nine-day disturbance recorded by seismic instruments globally.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Potential_future_megatsunamis">Potential future megatsunamis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Potential future megatsunamis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a BBC television documentary broadcast in 2000, experts said that they thought that a landslide on a volcanic ocean island is the most likely future cause of a megatsunami.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size and power of a wave generated by such means could produce devastating effects, travelling across oceans and inundating up to 25 kilometres (16 mi) inland from the coast. This research was later found to be flawed.<sup id="cite_ref-MegatsunamiStudyFlawed_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MegatsunamiStudyFlawed-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The documentary was produced before the experts' scientific paper was published and before responses were given by other geologists. There have been megatsunamis in the past,<sup id="cite_ref-PastCanaryIslesMegatsunami_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PastCanaryIslesMegatsunami-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and future megatsunamis are possible but current geological consensus is that these are only local. A megatsunami in the Canary Islands would diminish to a normal tsunami by the time it reached the continents.<sup id="cite_ref-LaPalmaMegatsunamipropagation_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaPalmaMegatsunamipropagation-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, the current consensus for La Palma is that the region conjectured to collapse is too small and too geologically stable to do so in the next 10,000 years, although there is evidence for past megatsunamis local to the Canary Islands thousands of years ago. Similar remarks apply to the suggestion of a megatsunami in Hawaii.<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="British_Columbia">British Columbia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: British Columbia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some geologists consider an unstable rock face at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Breakenridge" title="Mount Breakenridge">Mount Breakenridge</a>, above the north end of the giant fresh-water fjord of <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Lake" title="Harrison Lake">Harrison Lake</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Valley" title="Fraser Valley">Fraser Valley</a> of southwestern <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada, to be unstable enough to collapse into the lake, generating a megatsunami that might destroy the town of <a href="/wiki/Harrison_Hot_Springs" title="Harrison Hot Springs">Harrison Hot Springs</a> (located at its south end).<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canary_Islands">Canary Islands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Canary Islands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cumbre_Vieja_tsunami_hazard" title="Cumbre Vieja tsunami hazard">Cumbre Vieja tsunami hazard</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cumbre_Vieja#Potential_megatsunami" title="Cumbre Vieja">Cumbre Vieja § Potential megatsunami</a></div> <p>Geologists Dr. Simon Day and Dr. Steven Neal Ward consider that a megatsunami could be generated during an eruption of <a href="/wiki/Cumbre_Vieja" title="Cumbre Vieja">Cumbre Vieja</a> on the volcanic ocean island of <a href="/wiki/La_Palma" title="La Palma">La Palma</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>, Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_et_al._100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_et_al.-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ward_and_Day_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_and_Day-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Day and Ward hypothesize<sup id="cite_ref-Day_et_al._100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_et_al.-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ward_and_Day_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_and_Day-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that if such an eruption causes the western flank to fail, a megatsunami could be generated. </p><p>In 1949, an eruption occurred at three of the volcano's vents – Duraznero, Hoyo Negro, and Llano del Banco. A local geologist, Juan Bonelli-Rubio, witnessed the eruption and recorded details on various phenomenon related to the eruption. Bonelli-Rubio visited the summit area of the volcano and found that a fissure about 2.5 kilometres (1.6 mi) long had opened on the east side of the summit. As a result, the western half of the volcano – which is the volcanically active arm of a triple-armed rift – had slipped approximately 2 metres (7 ft) downwards and 1 metre (3 ft) westwards towards the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1971, an eruption occurred at the <a href="/wiki/Tenegu%C3%ADa" title="Teneguía">Teneguía</a> vent at the southern end of the <a href="/wiki/Subaerial" title="Subaerial">sub-aerial</a> section of the volcano without any movement. The section affected by the 1949 eruption is currently stationary and does not appear to have moved since the initial rupture.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cumbre Vieja remained dormant until an <a href="/wiki/2021_Cumbre_Vieja_volcanic_eruption" title="2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption">eruption began on September 19, 2021</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is likely that several eruptions would be required before failure would occur on Cumbre Vieja.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_et_al._100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_et_al.-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ward_and_Day_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_and_Day-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The western half of the volcano has an approximate volume of 500 cubic kilometres (120 cu mi) and an estimated mass of 1.5 trillion metric tons (1.7<span style="margin:0 .15em 0 .25em">×</span>10<sup>12</sup> short tons). If it were to catastrophically slide into the ocean, it could generate a wave with an initial height of about 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) at the island, and a likely height of around 50 metres (200 ft) at the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> and the Eastern <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North American</a> seaboard when it runs ashore eight or more hours later. Tens of millions of lives could be lost in the cities and/or towns of <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s,_Newfoundland_and_Labrador" title="St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador">St. John's</a>, <a href="/wiki/Halifax_Regional_Municipality" class="mw-redirect" title="Halifax Regional Municipality">Halifax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Miami" title="Miami">Miami</a>, <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> and the rest of the eastern coasts of the United States and Canada, as well as many other cities on the Atlantic coast in Europe, South America and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Day_et_al._100-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Day_et_al.-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ward_and_Day_101-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ward_and_Day-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The likelihood of this happening is a matter of vigorous debate.<sup id="cite_ref-Pararas-Carayannis_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pararas-Carayannis-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="Is this still true 19 years after publication of the cited source reference? (October 2021)">needs update?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Geologists and <a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">volcanologists</a> are in general agreement that the initial study was flawed. The current geology does not suggest that a collapse is imminent. Indeed, it seems to be geologically impossible right now – the region conjectured as prone to collapse is too small and too stable to collapse within the next 10,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-MegatsunamiStudyFlawed_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MegatsunamiStudyFlawed-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A closer study of deposits left in the ocean from previous landslides suggests that a landslide would likely occur as a series of smaller collapses rather than a single landslide. A megatsunami does seem possible locally in the distant future as there is geological evidence from past deposits suggesting that a megatsunami occurred with marine material deposited 41 to 188 metres (135 to 617 ft) above sea level between 32,000 and 1.75 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-PastCanaryIslesMegatsunami_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PastCanaryIslesMegatsunami-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This seems to have been local to Gran Canaria. </p><p>Day and Ward have admitted that their original analysis of the danger was based on several worst case assumptions.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2008 study examined this scenario and concluded that while it could cause a megatsunami, it would be local to the Canary Islands and would diminish in height, becoming a smaller tsunami by the time it reached the continents as the waves interfered and spread across the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-LaPalmaMegatsunamipropagation_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LaPalmaMegatsunamipropagation-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hawaii">Hawaii</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Hawaii"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sharp cliffs and associated ocean debris at the <a href="/wiki/Kohala_(mountain)" title="Kohala (mountain)">Kohala Volcano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lanai" title="Lanai">Lanai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Molokai" title="Molokai">Molokai</a> indicate that landslides from the flank of the <a href="/wiki/Kilauea" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilauea">Kilauea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mauna_Loa" title="Mauna Loa">Mauna Loa</a> volcanoes in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> may have triggered past megatsunamis, most recently at 120,000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Present" title="Before Present">BP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A tsunami event is also possible, with the tsunami potentially reaching up to about 1 kilometre (3,300 ft) in height<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the documentary <i>National Geographic's Ultimate Disaster: Tsunami</i>, if a big landslide occurred at Mauna Loa or the <a href="/wiki/Hilina_Slump" title="Hilina Slump">Hilina Slump</a>, a 30-metre (98 ft) tsunami would take only thirty minutes to reach <a href="/wiki/Honolulu" title="Honolulu">Honolulu</a>. There, hundreds of thousands of people could be killed as the tsunami could level Honolulu and travel 25 kilometres (16 mi) inland. Also, the West Coast of America and the entire Pacific Rim could potentially be affected. </p><p>Other research suggests that such a single large landslide is not likely. Instead, it would collapse as a series of smaller landslides.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, shortly after the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/2018_lower_Puna_eruption" title="2018 lower Puna eruption">2018 lower Puna eruption</a>, a <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic" title="National Geographic">National Geographic</a> article responded to such claims with "Will a monstrous landslide off the side of Kilauea trigger a monster tsunami bound for California? Short answer: No."<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the same article, geologist <a href="/wiki/Mika_McKinnon" title="Mika McKinnon">Mika McKinnon</a> stated:<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>there are submarine landslides, and submarine landslides do trigger tsunamis, but these are really small, localized tsunamis. They don't produce tsunamis that move across the ocean. In all likelihood, it wouldn't even impact the other Hawaiian islands.</p></blockquote> <p>Another volcanologist, <a href="/wiki/Janine_Krippner" title="Janine Krippner">Janine Krippner</a>, added:<sup id="cite_ref-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami_98-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NationalGeographicNoMegatsunami-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>People are worried about the catastrophic crashing of the volcano into the ocean. There's no evidence that this will happen. It is slowly – really slowly – moving toward the ocean, but it's been happening for a very long time.</p></blockquote> <p>Despite this, evidence suggests that catastrophic collapses do occur on Hawaiian volcanoes and generate local tsunamis.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Norway">Norway</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Norway"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although known earlier to the local population, a crack 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide and 500 metres (1,640 ft) in length in the side of the mountain <a href="/wiki/%C3%85kerneset" class="mw-redirect" title="Åkerneset">Åkerneset</a> in <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> was rediscovered in 1983 and attracted scientific attention. It since has widened at a rate of 4 centimetres (1.6 in) per year. <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geological</a> analysis has revealed that a slab of rock 62 metres (203 ft) thick and at an elevation stretching from 150 to 900 metres (492 to 2,953 ft) is in motion. Geologists assess that an eventual catastrophic collapse of 18,000,000 to 54,000,000 cubic metres (24,000,000 to 71,000,000 cu yd) of rock into <a href="/wiki/Sunnylvsfjorden" title="Sunnylvsfjorden">Sunnylvsfjorden</a> is inevitable and could generate megatsunamis of 35 to 100 metres (115 to 328 ft) in height on the <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">fjord</a>′s opposite shore. The waves are expected to strike <a href="/wiki/Hellesylt" title="Hellesylt">Hellesylt</a> with a height of 35 to 85 metres (115 to 279 ft), <a href="/wiki/Geiranger" title="Geiranger">Geiranger</a> with a height of 30 to 70 metres (98 to 230 ft), <a href="/wiki/Tafjord" title="Tafjord">Tafjord</a> with a height of 14 metres (46 ft), and many other communities in Norway's <a href="/wiki/Sunnm%C3%B8re" title="Sunnmøre">Sunnmøre</a> district with a height of several metres, and to be noticeable even at <a href="/wiki/%C3%85lesund" title="Ålesund">Ålesund</a>. The predicted disaster is depicted in the 2015 Norwegian film <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wave_(2015_film)" title="The Wave (2015 film)">The Wave</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2004_Indian_Ocean_earthquake_and_tsunami" title="2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami">2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tsunamis" title="List of tsunamis">List of tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teletsunami" title="Teletsunami">Teletsunami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunamis_in_lakes" title="Tsunamis in lakes">Tsunamis in lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_tsunami" title="Volcanic tsunami">Volcanic tsunami</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tsunami.org/tsunami-characteristics/">"Tsunami Characteristics"</a>. <i>Pacific Tsunami Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Pacific+Tsunami+Museum&rft.atitle=Tsunami+Characteristics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftsunami.org%2Ftsunami-characteristics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGuire2006123-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcGuire2006123_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGuire2006">McGuire 2006</a>, p. 123.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMcGuire2006 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bom.gov.au/tsunami/info/index.shtml">"Tsunami Facts and Information"</a>. <i>Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology</i>. 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Geografico y Catastral, 25 pp.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As per Bonelli Rubio</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2021" class="citation news cs1">Jones, Sam (19 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/19/spanish-canary-island-volcano-erupts-after-weeks-of-earthquakes">"Spanish Canary Island volcano erupts after weeks of earthquakes"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Spanish+Canary+Island+volcano+erupts+after+weeks+of+earthquakes&rft.date=2021-09-19&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Sam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2021%2Fsep%2F19%2Fspanish-canary-island-volcano-erupts-after-weeks-of-earthquakes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pararas-Carayannis-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pararas-Carayannis_105-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPararas-Carayannis2002">Pararas-Carayannis 2002</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli_Ayres2004" class="citation web cs1">Ali Ayres (29 October 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170324192613/http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm">"Tidal wave threat 'over-hyped'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2004</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tidal+wave+threat+%27over-hyped%27&rft.pub=BBC+News&rft.date=2004-10-29&rft.au=Ali+Ayres&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnewsvote.bbc.co.uk%2Fmpapps%2Fpagetools%2Fprint%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fscience%2Fnature%2F3963563.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPararas-Carayannis2002_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPararas-Carayannis2002">Pararas-Carayannis 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMurtry,_Gary_M.Fryer,_Gerard_J.Tappin,_David_R.Wilkinson,_Ian_P.2004" class="citation journal cs1">McMurtry, Gary M.; Fryer, Gerard J.; Tappin, David R.; Wilkinson, Ian P.; Williams, Mark; Fietzke, Jan; Garbe-Schoenberg, Dieter; Watts, Philip (1 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/full/32/9/741">"Megatsunami deposits on Kohala volcano, Hawaii, from flank collapse of Mauna Loa"</a>. <i>Geology</i>. <b>32</b> (9): 741. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Geo....32..741M">2004Geo....32..741M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FG20642.1">10.1130/G20642.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=Megatsunami+deposits+on+Kohala+volcano%2C+Hawaii%2C+from+flank+collapse+of+Mauna+Loa&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=741&rft.date=2004-09-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FG20642.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Geo....32..741M&rft.au=McMurtry%2C+Gary+M.&rft.au=Fryer%2C+Gerard+J.&rft.au=Tappin%2C+David+R.&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Ian+P.&rft.au=Williams%2C+Mark&rft.au=Fietzke%2C+Jan&rft.au=Garbe-Schoenberg%2C+Dieter&rft.au=Watts%2C+Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeology.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F32%2F9%2F741&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMurtryFryerTappinWilkinson2004" class="citation web cs1">McMurtry, Gary M.; Fryer, Gerard J.; Tappin, David R.; Wilkinson, Ian P.; Williams, Mark; Fietzke, Jan; Garbe-Schoenberg, Dieter; Watts, Philip (1 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soest.hawaii.edu/SOEST_News/PressReleases/Megatsunami/">"A Gigantic Tsunami in the Hawaiian Islands 120,000 Years Ago"</a>. <i>Geology</i>. SOEST Press Releases<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Geology&rft.atitle=A+Gigantic+Tsunami+in+the+Hawaiian+Islands+120%2C000+Years+Ago&rft.date=2004-09-01&rft.aulast=McMurtry&rft.aufirst=Gary+M.&rft.au=Fryer%2C+Gerard+J.&rft.au=Tappin%2C+David+R.&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+Ian+P.&rft.au=Williams%2C+Mark&rft.au=Fietzke%2C+Jan&rft.au=Garbe-Schoenberg%2C+Dieter&rft.au=Watts%2C+Philip&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soest.hawaii.edu%2FSOEST_News%2FPressReleases%2FMegatsunami%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcMurtry,_G._M.Tappin,_D._R.Fryer,_G._J.Watts,_P.2002" class="citation journal cs1">McMurtry, G. M.; Tappin, D. R.; Fryer, G. J.; Watts, P. (December 2002). "Megatsunami Deposits on the Island of Hawaii: Implications for the Origin of Similar Deposits in Hawaii and Confirmation of the 'Giant Wave Hypothesis'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts</i>. <b>51</b>: OS51A–0148. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002AGUFMOS51A0148M">2002AGUFMOS51A0148M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=AGU+Fall+Meeting+Abstracts&rft.atitle=Megatsunami+Deposits+on+the+Island+of+Hawaii%3A+Implications+for+the+Origin+of+Similar+Deposits+in+Hawaii+and+Confirmation+of+the+%27Giant+Wave+Hypothesis%27&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=OS51A-0148&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002AGUFMOS51A0148M&rft.au=McMurtry%2C+G.+M.&rft.au=Tappin%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Fryer%2C+G.+J.&rft.au=Watts%2C+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritt2004" class="citation web cs1">Britt, Robert Roy (14 December 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livescience.com/environment/041214_tsunami_mega.html">"The Megatsunami: Possible Modern Threat"</a>. LiveScience<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 December</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Megatsunami%3A+Possible+Modern+Threat&rft.pub=LiveScience&rft.date=2004-12-14&rft.aulast=Britt&rft.aufirst=Robert+Roy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2Fenvironment%2F041214_tsunami_mega.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFryerMcMurtry2005" class="citation web cs1">Fryer, G.J.; McMurtry, G.M. (12–15 June 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/tsunami2/deposits/downloads/posters/fryer05worksmall.pdf">"Megatsunami Deposits vs. High-stand Deposits in Hawai'i"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NSF Tsunami Deposits Workshop</i>. Department of Earth and Space Sciences, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Washington" title="University of Washington">University of Washington</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NSF+Tsunami+Deposits+Workshop&rft.atitle=Megatsunami+Deposits+vs.+High-stand+Deposits+in+Hawai%27i&rft.date=2005-06-12%2F2005-06-15&rft.aulast=Fryer&rft.aufirst=G.J.&rft.au=McMurtry%2C+G.M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearthweb.ess.washington.edu%2Ftsunami2%2Fdeposits%2Fdownloads%2Fposters%2Ffryer05worksmall.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fjords.com/rock-avalanches-akerneset/">Hole, Christer, "The Åkerneset Rock Avalanche," fjords.com Retrieved 23 June 2020</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonelli_Rubio1950" class="citation book cs1">Bonelli Rubio, J.M. (1950). <i>Contribucion al estudio de la erupcion del Nambroque o San Juan</i>. Madrid: Inst. Geografico y Catastral.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contribucion+al+estudio+de+la+erupcion+del+Nambroque+o+San+Juan&rft.place=Madrid&rft.pub=Inst.+Geografico+y+Catastral&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Bonelli+Rubio&rft.aufirst=J.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDayCarracedoGuillouGravestock1999" class="citation journal cs1">Day, S.J.; Carracedo, J.C.; Guillou, H.; Gravestock, P. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geo.arizona.edu/~andyf/LaPalma/Rift%20Zone.pdf">"Recent structural evolution of the Cumbre Vieja volcano, La Palma, Canary Islands: volcanic rift zone re-configuration as a precursor to flank instability"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res</i>. <b>94</b> (1–4): 135–167. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JVGR...94..135D">1999JVGR...94..135D</a>. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.544.8128">10.1.1.544.8128</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0377-0273%2899%2900101-8">10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00101-8</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Volcanol.+Geotherm.+Res.&rft.atitle=Recent+structural+evolution+of+the+Cumbre+Vieja+volcano%2C+La+Palma%2C+Canary+Islands%3A+volcanic+rift+zone+re-configuration+as+a+precursor+to+flank+instability&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=135-167&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.544.8128%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0377-0273%2899%2900101-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JVGR...94..135D&rft.aulast=Day&rft.aufirst=S.J.&rft.au=Carracedo%2C+J.C.&rft.au=Guillou%2C+H.&rft.au=Gravestock%2C+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.geo.arizona.edu%2F~andyf%2FLaPalma%2FRift%2520Zone.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200701032237/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/340d/2ad7dc7666d4d39fe453268250bf40ead727.pdf">Lander, James F. <i>Tsunamis Affecting Alaska 1737–1996</i>. Boulder, Colorado: NOAA National Geophysical Data Center, September 1996.</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPararas-Carayannis2002" class="citation journal cs1">Pararas-Carayannis, G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tsunamisociety.org/STHVol20N5Y2002.pdf">"Evaluation of the Threat of Mega Tsunami Generation from Postulated Massive Slope Failure of Island Stratovolcanoes on La Palma, Canary Islands, and on The Island of Hawaii, George"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Science of Tsunami Hazards</i>. <b>20</b> (5): 251–277.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+of+Tsunami+Hazards&rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+the+Threat+of+Mega+Tsunami+Generation+from+Postulated+Massive+Slope+Failure+of+Island+Stratovolcanoes+on+La+Palma%2C+Canary+Islands%2C+and+on+The+Island+of+Hawaii%2C+George&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=251-277&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Pararas-Carayannis&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftsunamisociety.org%2FSTHVol20N5Y2002.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVoightJandaGlickenDouglass1983" class="citation journal cs1">Voight, B.; Janda, R.; <a href="/wiki/Harry_Glicken" title="Harry Glicken">Glicken, H.</a>; Douglass, P.M. (1983). "Nature and mechanics of the Mount St Helens rockslide-avalanche of 18 May 190". <i>Géotechnique</i>. <b>33</b> (10): 243–273. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983Getq...33..243V">1983Getq...33..243V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1680%2Fgeot.1983.33.3.243">10.1680/geot.1983.33.3.243</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=G%C3%A9otechnique&rft.atitle=Nature+and+mechanics+of+the+Mount+St+Helens+rockslide-avalanche+of+18+May+190&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=243-273&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1680%2Fgeot.1983.33.3.243&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983Getq...33..243V&rft.aulast=Voight&rft.aufirst=B.&rft.au=Janda%2C+R.&rft.au=Glicken%2C+H.&rft.au=Douglass%2C+P.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWardDay2001" class="citation journal cs1">Ward, S.N.; Day, S. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.es.ucsc.edu/~ward/papers/La_Palma_grl.pdf">"Cumbre Vieja Volcano – Potential collapse and tsunami at La Palma, Canary Islands"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geophysical Research Letters</i>. <b>28</b> (17): 3397–3400. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GeoRL..28.3397W">2001GeoRL..28.3397W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001GL013110">10.1029/2001GL013110</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geophysical+Research+Letters&rft.atitle=Cumbre+Vieja+Volcano+%E2%80%93+Potential+collapse+and+tsunami+at+La+Palma%2C+Canary+Islands&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=3397-3400&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2001GL013110&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001GeoRL..28.3397W&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=S.N.&rft.au=Day%2C+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.es.ucsc.edu%2F~ward%2Fpapers%2FLa_Palma_grl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>BBC 2 TV; 2000. Transcript "Mega-tsunami; Wave of Destruction", Horizon. First screened 21.30 hrs, Thursday, 12 October 2000.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarracedo,_J.C.1994" class="citation journal cs1">Carracedo, J.C. (1994). "The Canary Islands: an example of structural control on the growth of large oceanic-island volcanoes". <i>J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res</i>. <b>60</b> (3–4): 225–241. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994JVGR...60..225C">1994JVGR...60..225C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0377-0273%2894%2990053-1">10.1016/0377-0273(94)90053-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Volcanol.+Geotherm.+Res.&rft.atitle=The+Canary+Islands%3A+an+example+of+structural+control+on+the+growth+of+large+oceanic-island+volcanoes&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=225-241&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0377-0273%2894%2990053-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994JVGR...60..225C&rft.au=Carracedo%2C+J.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarracedo,_J.C.1996" class="citation book cs1">Carracedo, J.C. (1996). "A simple model for the genesis of large gravitational landslide hazards in the Canary Islands". In McGuire, W; Jones; Neuberg, J.P. (eds.). <i>Volcano Instability on the Earth and Other Planets</i>. Special Publication. Vol. 110. London: Geological Society. pp. 125–135.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+simple+model+for+the+genesis+of+large+gravitational+landslide+hazards+in+the+Canary+Islands&rft.btitle=Volcano+Instability+on+the+Earth+and+Other+Planets&rft.place=London&rft.series=Special+Publication&rft.pages=125-135&rft.pub=Geological+Society&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Carracedo%2C+J.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarracedo,_J.C.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Carracedo, J.C. (1999). "Growth, Structure, Instability and Collapse of Canarian Volcanoes and Comparisons with Hawaiian Volcanoes". <i>J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res</i>. <b>94</b> (1–4): 1–19. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1999JVGR...94....1C">1999JVGR...94....1C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0377-0273%2899%2900095-5">10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00095-5</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Volcanol.+Geotherm.+Res.&rft.atitle=Growth%2C+Structure%2C+Instability+and+Collapse+of+Canarian+Volcanoes+and+Comparisons+with+Hawaiian+Volcanoes&rft.volume=94&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=1-19&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0377-0273%2899%2900095-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1999JVGR...94....1C&rft.au=Carracedo%2C+J.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore,_J.G.1964" class="citation journal cs1">Moore, J.G. (1964). "Giant Submarine Landslides on the Hawaiian Ridge". US Geologic Survey: D95–8. Professional Paper 501-D.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Giant+Submarine+Landslides+on+the+Hawaiian+Ridge&rft.pages=D95-8&rft.date=1964&rft.au=Moore%2C+J.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinter,_N.Ishman,_S.E.2008" class="citation journal cs1">Pinter, N.; Ishman, S.E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FGSAT01801GW.1">"Impacts, mega-tsunami, and other extraordinary claims"</a>. <i>GSA Today</i>. <b>18</b> (1): 37–38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008GSAT...18a..37P">2008GSAT...18a..37P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1130%2FGSAT01801GW.1">10.1130/GSAT01801GW.1</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=GSA+Today&rft.atitle=Impacts%2C+mega-tsunami%2C+and+other+extraordinary+claims&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-38&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1130%2FGSAT01801GW.1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008GSAT...18a..37P&rft.au=Pinter%2C+N.&rft.au=Ishman%2C+S.E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1130%252FGSAT01801GW.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rihm, R; Krastel, S. & CD109 Shipboard Scientific Party; 1998. "Volcanoes and landslides in the Canaries". <i>National Environment Research Council News</i>. Summer, 16–17.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiebert,_L.1984" class="citation journal cs1">Siebert, L. (1984). "Large volcanic debris avalanches: characteristics of source areas, deposits and associated eruptions". <i>J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res</i>. <b>22</b> (3–4): 163–197. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1984JVGR...22..163S">1984JVGR...22..163S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0377-0273%2884%2990002-7">10.1016/0377-0273(84)90002-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Volcanol.+Geotherm.+Res.&rft.atitle=Large+volcanic+debris+avalanches%3A+characteristics+of+source+areas%2C+deposits+and+associated+eruptions&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=163-197&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0377-0273%2884%2990002-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1984JVGR...22..163S&rft.au=Siebert%2C+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVallely,_G.A.2005" class="citation journal cs1">Vallely, G.A. (2005). "Volcanic edifice instability and tsunami generation: Montaña Teide, Tenerife, Canary Islands (Spain)". <i>Journal of the Open University Geological Society</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 53–64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Open+University+Geological+Society&rft.atitle=Volcanic+edifice+instability+and+tsunami+generation%3A+Monta%C3%B1a+Teide%2C+Tenerife%2C+Canary+Islands+%28Spain%29&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-64&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Vallely%2C+G.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMegatsunami" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sandom, J.G., 2010, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/1452839239/"><i>The Wave – A John Decker Thriller</i></a>, Cornucopia Press, 2010. A thriller in which a megatsunami is intentionally created when a terrorist detonates a nuclear bomb on La Palma in the Canary Islands.</li> <li>Ortiz, J.R., Bonelli Rubio, J.M., 1951. La erupción del Nambroque (junio-agosto de 1949). Madrid: Talleres del Instituto Geográfico y Catastral, 100 p., 1h. pleg.;23 cm</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Megatsunami&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sms-tsunami-warning.com/pages/mega-tsunami-wave-of-destruction">Mega Tsunami: history, causes, effects</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.com/records/biggest-tsunami.shtml">World's Biggest Tsunami: The largest recorded tsunami with a wave 1720 feet tall in Lituya Bay, Alaska</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080725045005/http://www.benfieldhrc.org/in_the_news/press_cuttings/Insurance%20Day/why_the_only_certainty.htm">Benfield Hazard Research Centre</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2000/mega_tsunami.shtml">BBC – Mega-tsunami: Wave of Destruction</a> BBC Two program broadcast 12 October 2000</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm">La Palma threat "over-hyped"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170324192613/http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/mpapps/pagetools/print/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm">Archived</a> 2017-03-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>, 29 October 2004</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110201152423/http://lapalma-tsunami.com/">Mega-hyped Tsunami story</a> A detailed of analysis demolishing the La Palma Tsunami speculation.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> 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</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hydrological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_floods" title="List of floods">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal flood">Coastal flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">Limnic eruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meteorological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">Megadrought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyclonic storms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bomb cyclone">Bomb cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">Tornado outbreak</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARkStorm" title="ARkStorm">ARkStorm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a></li> <li><a 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