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</li> <li id="toc-Island_arcs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Island_arcs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Island arcs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Island_arcs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pacific_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Pacific Ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indian_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indian_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Indian Ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indian_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mediterranean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediterranean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Mediterranean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediterranean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atlantic_Ocean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atlantic_Ocean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Atlantic Ocean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atlantic_Ocean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_island_arcs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_island_arcs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ancient island arcs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_island_arcs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Volcanic arc</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 29 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-29" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">29 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkaanboog" title="Vulkaanboog – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vulkaanboog" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A" title="قوس بركاني – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قوس بركاني" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_volc%C3%A0nic" title="Arc volcànic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Arc volcànic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkaaniline_kaar" title="Vulkaaniline kaar – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vulkaaniline kaar" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arco_volc%C3%A1nico" title="Arco volcánico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arco volcánico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanarko" title="Vulkanarko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vulkanarko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arku_bolkaniko" title="Arku bolkaniko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arku bolkaniko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A2%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%81%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="کمان آتشفشانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کمان آتشفشانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_volcanique" title="Arc volcanique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arc volcanique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arco_volc%C3%A1nico" title="Arco volcánico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arco volcánico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA" title="ज्वालामुखीय चाप – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ज्वालामुखीय चाप" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busur_vulkanik" title="Busur vulkanik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Busur vulkanik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arco_vulcanico" title="Arco vulcanico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Arco vulcanico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Вулкански лак – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вулкански лак" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanische_boog" title="Vulkanische boog – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vulkanische boog" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%BC%A7" title="火山弧 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="火山弧" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkansk_%C3%B8ybue" title="Vulkansk øybue – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vulkansk øybue" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanboge" title="Vulkanboge – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vulkanboge" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_volcanic" title="Arc volcanic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Arc volcanic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arco_vulc%C3%A2nico" title="Arco vulcânico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Arco vulcânico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_vulcanic" title="Arc vulcanic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Arc vulcanic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B4" title="යමහල් චාප – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="යමහල් චාප" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Вулкански лук – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вулкански лук" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulkanb%C3%A5ge" title="Vulkanbåge – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vulkanbåge" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkanik_yay" title="Volkanik yay – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Volkanik yay" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Вулканічна дуга – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вулканічна дуга" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cung_n%C3%BAi_l%E1%BB%ADa" title="Cung núi lửa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cung núi lửa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%BC%A7" title="火山弧 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="火山弧" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AB%E5%B1%B1%E5%BC%A7" title="火山弧 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="火山弧" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q13426043#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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searchaux" style="display:none">Chain of volcanoes formed above a subducting plate</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_belt" title="Volcanic belt">Volcanic belt</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Subduction-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/400px-Subduction-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/600px-Subduction-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Subduction-en.svg/800px-Subduction-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption> Volcanic arc formation along a subducting plate</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>volcanic arc</b> (also known as a <b>magmatic arc</b><sup id="cite_ref-Stern2002_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stern2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6.2">: 6.2 </span></sup>) is a belt of <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> formed above a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subducting</a> oceanic <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with the belt arranged in an arc shape as seen from above. Volcanic arcs typically parallel an <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trench</a>, with the arc located further from the subducting plate than the trench. The oceanic plate is saturated with water, mostly in the form of hydrous minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">micas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">amphiboles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serpentine_subgroup" title="Serpentine subgroup">serpentines</a>. As the oceanic plate is subducted, it is subjected to increasing pressure and temperature with increasing depth. The heat and pressure break down the hydrous minerals in the plate, releasing water into the overlying mantle. Volatiles such as water drastically lower the melting point of the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a>, causing some of the mantle to melt and form <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> at depth under the overriding plate. The magma ascends to form an arc of volcanoes parallel to the subduction zone. </p><p>Volcanic arcs are distinct from volcanic chains formed over <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hotspots</a> in the middle of a tectonic plate. Volcanoes often form one after another as the plate moves over the hotspot, and so the volcanoes progress in age from one end of the chain to the other. The <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Islands" title="Hawaiian Islands">Hawaiian Islands</a> form a typical hotspot chain, with the older islands to the northwest and Hawaii Island itself, which is just 400,000 years old, at the southeast end of the chain over the hotspot. Volcanic arcs do not generally exhibit such a simple age-pattern. </p><p>There are two types of volcanic arcs: </p> <ul><li>intraoceanic arcs (primitive arcs) form when <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a> subducts beneath other oceanic crust on an adjacent plate, creating a volcanic <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arc</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_arc" title="Continental arc">continental arcs</a> form when oceanic crust subducts beneath <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> on an adjacent plate, creating an arc-shaped <a href="/wiki/Mountain_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain belt">mountain belt</a>.</li></ul> <p>In some situations, a single subduction zone may show both aspects along its length, as part of a plate subducts beneath a continent and part beneath adjacent oceanic crust. The <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a> and adjoining <a href="/wiki/Alaskan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Alaskan Peninsula">Alaskan Peninsula</a> are an example of such a subduction zone. </p><p>The active front of a volcanic arc is the belt where <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> develops at a given time. Active fronts may move over time (millions of years), changing their distance from the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trench</a> as well as their width. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tectonic_setting">Tectonic setting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Tectonic setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">Island arc</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_arc" title="Continental arc">Continental arc</a></div> <p>A volcanic arc is part of an <a href="/wiki/Arc-trench_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Arc-trench complex">arc-trench complex</a>, which is the part of a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zone that is visible at the Earth's surface. A subduction zone is where a <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plate</a> composed of relatively thin, dense <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_lithosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic lithosphere">oceanic lithosphere</a> sinks into the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">Earth's mantle</a> beneath a less dense overriding plate. The overriding plate may be either another oceanic plate or a continental plate. The subducting plate, or <a href="/wiki/Slab_(geology)" title="Slab (geology)">slab</a>, sinks into the mantle at an angle, so that there is a <a href="/wiki/Mantle_wedge" title="Mantle wedge">wedge of mantle</a> between the slab and the overriding plate.<sup id="cite_ref-Stern2002_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stern2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5">: 5 </span></sup> </p><p>The boundary between the subducting plate and the overriding plate coincides with a deep and narrow <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trench</a>. This trench is created by the gravitational pull of the relatively dense subducting plate pulling the leading edge of the plate downward.<sup id="cite_ref-LowrieFichtner2020_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LowrieFichtner2020-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 44–45">: 44–45 </span></sup> Multiple <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> occur within the subducting slab with the <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">seismic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypocenter" title="Hypocenter">hypocenters</a> located at increasing depth under the island arc: these quakes define the <a href="/wiki/Wadati%E2%80%93Benioff_zone" title="Wadati–Benioff zone">Wadati–Benioff zones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LowrieFichtner2020_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LowrieFichtner2020-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 33">: 33 </span></sup> The volcanic arc forms on the overriding plate over the point where the subducting plate reaches a depth of roughly 120 kilometres (75 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-GroveEtal2006_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GroveEtal2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is a zone of volcanic activity between 50 and 200 kilometers (31 and 124 mi) in width.<sup id="cite_ref-SchmidtPoli1998_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SchmidtPoli1998-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The shape of a volcanic arc is typically convex towards the subducting plate. This is a consequence of the spherical geometry of the Earth. The subducting plate behaves like a flexible thin spherical shell, and such a shell be bent downwards by an angle of θ, without tearing or wrinkling, only on a circle whose radius is θ/2. This means that arcs where the subducting slab descends at a shallower angle will be more tightly curved. Prominent arcs whose slabs subduct at about 45 degrees, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sunda_Arc" title="Sunda Arc">Sunda Arc</a>, have a radius of about 20 to 22 degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-Frank1968_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frank1968-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Volcanic arcs are divided into those in which the overriding plate is continental (Andean-type arcs) and those in which the overriding plate is oceanic (intraoceanic or primitive arcs). The crust beneath the arc is up to twice as thick as average continental or oceanic crust: The crust under Andean-type arcs is up to 80 kilometers (50 mi) thick, while the crust under intraoceanic arcs is 20 to 35 kilometers (12 to 22 mi) thick. Both <a href="/wiki/Thrust_tectonics" title="Thrust tectonics">shortening of the crust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magmatic_underplating" title="Magmatic underplating">magmatic underplating</a> contribute to thickening of the crust.<sup id="cite_ref-Stern2002_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stern2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 6">: 6 </span></sup> </p><p>Volcanic arcs are characterized by explosive eruption of <a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline_magma_series" title="Calc-alkaline magma series">calc-alkaline</a> magma, though young arcs sometimes erupt <a href="/wiki/Tholeiitic_magma_series" title="Tholeiitic magma series">tholeiitic</a> magma<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia1978_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcia1978-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a few arcs erupt <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_magma_series" title="Alkaline magma series">alkaline</a> magma.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calc-alkaline magma can be distinguished from tholeiitic magma, typical of <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">mid-ocean ridges</a>, by its higher <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> and lower <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> content<sup id="cite_ref-PhilpottsAgue2009_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PhilpottsAgue2009-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 143–146">: 143–146 </span></sup> and by its high content of <a href="/wiki/Large-ion_lithophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-ion lithophile">large-ion lithophile</a> elements, such as <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">caesium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">strontium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, relative to high-field-strength elements, such as <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">niobium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">rare-earth elements</a> (REE), <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">Andesite</a> is particularly characteristic of volcanic arcs, though it sometimes also occurs in regions of crustal extension.<sup id="cite_ref-ShethEtal2002_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShethEtal2002-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the rock record, volcanic arcs can be recognized from their thick sequences of <a href="/wiki/Volcaniclastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcaniclastic">volcaniclastic</a> rock (formed by explosive volcanism) interbedded with <a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">greywackes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">mudstones</a> and by their calc-alkaline composition. In more ancient rocks that have experienced <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a> and alteration of their composition (<a href="/wiki/Metasomatism" title="Metasomatism">metasomatism</a>), calc-alkaline rocks can be distinguished by their content of trace elements that are little affected by alteration, such as <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a>, whose content is low in volcanic arc rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia1978_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcia1978-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because volcanic rock is easily <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathered</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">eroded</a>, older volcanic arcs are seen as <a href="/wiki/Plutonic_rock" class="mw-redirect" title="Plutonic rock">plutonic rocks</a>, the rocks that formed underneath the arc (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a> <a href="/wiki/Batholith" title="Batholith">batholith</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-DeGraaffSurplessEtal2019_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeGraaffSurplessEtal2019-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or in the sedimentary record as <a href="/wiki/Lithic_sandstone" title="Lithic sandstone">lithic sandstones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Paired_metamorphic_belts" title="Paired metamorphic belts">Paired metamorphic belts</a>, in which a belt of high-temperature, low-pressure metamorphism is located parallel to a belt of low-temperature, high-pressure metamorphism, preserve an ancient arc-trench complex in which the high-temperature, low-pressure belt corresponds to the volcanic arc.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia1978_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcia1978-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Petrology">Petrology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Petrology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction zone</a>, loss of water from the subducted slab induces <a href="/wiki/Partial_melting" title="Partial melting">partial melting</a> of the overriding mantle and generates low-density, <a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline_magma_series" title="Calc-alkaline magma series">calc-alkaline magma</a> that buoyantly rises to intrude and be extruded through the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> of the overriding plate. Most of the water carried downwards by the slab is contained in hydrous (water-bearing) minerals, such as <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">amphibole</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">serpentinite</a> minerals. Water is lost from the subducted plate when the temperature and pressure become sufficient to break down these minerals and release their water content. The water rises into the wedge of mantle overlying the slab and lowers the melting point of mantle rock to the point where magma is generated.<sup id="cite_ref-Stern2002_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stern2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 5.3">: 5.3 </span></sup> </p><p>While there is wide agreement on the general mechanism, research continues on the explanation for focused volcanism along a narrow arc some distance from the trench.<sup id="cite_ref-Stern2002_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stern2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4.2">: 4.2 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PerrinEtal2018_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PerrinEtal2018-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The distance from the trench to the volcanic arc is greater for slabs subducting at a shallower angle, and this suggests that magma generation takes place when the slab reached a critical depth for the breakdown of an abundant hydrous mineral. This would produce an ascending "hydrous curtain" that accounts for focused volcanism along the volcanic arc. However, some models suggest that water is continuously released from the slab from shallow depths down to 70 to 300 kilometers (43 to 186 mi), and much of the water released at shallow depths produces <a href="/wiki/Serpentinization" title="Serpentinization">serpentinization</a> of the overlying mantle wedge.<sup id="cite_ref-Stern2002_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stern2002-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 4.2.42">: 4.2.42 </span></sup> According to one model, only about 18 to 37 percent of the water content is released at sufficient depth to produce arc magmatism. The volcanic arc is then interpreted as the depth at which the degree of melting becomes great enough to allow the magma to separate from its source rock.<sup id="cite_ref-SchmidtPoli1998_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SchmidtPoli1998-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is now known that the subducting slab may be located anywhere from 60 to 173 kilometers (37 to 107 mi) below the volcanic arc, rather than a single characteristic depth of around 120 kilometers (75 mi), which requires more elaborate models of arc magmatism. For example, water released from the slab at moderate depths might react with amphibole minerals in the lower part of the mantle wedge to produce water-rich <a href="/wiki/Chlorite" title="Chlorite">chlorite</a>. This chlorite-rich mantle rock is then dragged downwards by the subducting slab, and eventually breaks down to become the source of arc magmatism.<sup id="cite_ref-GroveEtal2006_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GroveEtal2006-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The location of the arc depends on the angle and rate of subduction, which determine where hydrous minerals break down and where the released water lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle wedge enough for melting.<sup id="cite_ref-GroveEtal2009_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GroveEtal2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The location of the volcanic arc may be determined by the presence of a cool shallow corner at the tip of the mantle wedge, where the mantle rock is cooled by both the overlying plate and the slab. Not only does the cool shallow corner suppress melting, but its high stiffness hinders the ascent of any magma that is formed. Arc volcanism takes place where the slab descends out from under the cool shallow corner, allowing magma to be generated and rise through warmer, less stiff mantle rock.<sup id="cite_ref-PerrinEtal2018_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PerrinEtal2018-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Magma may be generated over a broad area but become focused into a narrow volcanic arc by a permeability barrier at the base of the overriding plate. Numerical simulations suggest that crystallization of rising magma creates this barrier, causing the remaining magma to pool in a narrow band at the apex of the barrier. This narrow band corresponds to the overlying volcanic arc.<sup id="cite_ref-HaMontesiZhu2020_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HaMontesiZhu2020-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png/280px-Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="399" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png/420px-Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Cascadia_subduction_zone_USGS.png 2x" data-file-width="495" data-file-height="706" /></a><figcaption>Cascade Volcanic Arc, a continental volcanic arc</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_alaska_volcanoes_okmok.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Map_of_alaska_volcanoes_okmok.jpg/390px-Map_of_alaska_volcanoes_okmok.jpg" decoding="async" width="390" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Map_of_alaska_volcanoes_okmok.jpg/585px-Map_of_alaska_volcanoes_okmok.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Map_of_alaska_volcanoes_okmok.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption>The Aleutian Arc, with both oceanic and continental parts.</figcaption></figure> <p>Two classic examples of oceanic island arcs are the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a> in the western Pacific Ocean and the <a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a> in the western Atlantic Ocean. The <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Volcanoes" title="Cascade Volcanoes">Cascade Volcanic Arc</a> in western North America and the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> along the western edge of South America are examples of continental volcanic arcs. The best examples of volcanic arcs with both sets of characteristics are in the North Pacific, with the Aleutian Arc consisting of the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a> and their extension the <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Range" title="Aleutian Range">Aleutian Range</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Peninsula" title="Alaska Peninsula">Alaska Peninsula</a>, and the Kuril–Kamchatka Arc comprising the <a href="/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula" title="Kamchatka Peninsula">Kamchatka Peninsula</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continental_arcs">Continental arcs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Continental arcs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_Volcanoes" title="Cascade Volcanoes">Cascade Volcanic Arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Peninsula" title="Alaska Peninsula">Alaska Peninsula</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Range" title="Aleutian Range">Aleutian Range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamchatka" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamchatka">Kamchatka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Andes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt#Northern_Volcanic_Zone" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Northern Volcanic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt#Central_Volcanic_Zone" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Central Volcanic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt#Southern_Volcanic_Zone" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Southern Volcanic Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_Volcanic_Belt#Austral_Volcanic_Zone" title="Andean Volcanic Belt">Austral Volcanic Zone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_America_Volcanic_Arc" title="Central America Volcanic Arc">Central America Volcanic Arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mexican_Volcanic_Belt" title="Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt">Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Island_arcs">Island arcs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Island arcs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pacific_Ocean">Pacific Ocean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pacific Ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleutian_Islands" title="Aleutian Islands">Aleutian Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuril_Islands" title="Kuril Islands">Kuril Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Japan_Arc" title="Northeastern Japan Arc">Northeastern Japan Arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Archipelago" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Archipelago">Japanese Archipelago</a> including the <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izu%E2%80%93Bonin%E2%80%93Mariana_Arc" title="Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc">Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Izu_Islands" title="Izu Islands">Izu Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonin_Islands" title="Bonin Islands">Bonin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariana_Islands" title="Mariana Islands">Mariana Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luzon_Volcanic_Arc" title="Luzon Volcanic Arc">Luzon Volcanic Arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonga" title="Tonga">Tonga</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kermadec_Islands" title="Kermadec Islands">Kermadec Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_Islands" title="Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indian_Ocean">Indian Ocean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Indian Ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicobar_Islands" title="Nicobar Islands">Nicobar Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mentawai_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Mentawai Islands">Mentawai Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Arc" title="Sunda Arc">Sunda Arc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Sunda_Islands" title="Lesser Sunda Islands">Lesser Sunda Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanimbar_Islands" title="Tanimbar Islands">Tanimbar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kai_Islands" title="Kai Islands">Kai Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascarene_Islands" title="Mascarene Islands">Mascarene Islands</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mediterranean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeolian_Islands" title="Aeolian Islands">Aeolian Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Aegean_Volcanic_Arc" title="South Aegean Volcanic Arc">South Aegean Volcanic Arc</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Atlantic_Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Atlantic Ocean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesser_Antilles" title="Lesser Antilles">Lesser Antilles</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Leeward_Antilles" title="Leeward Antilles">Leeward Antilles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotia_Arc" title="Scotia Arc">Scotia Arc</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Sandwich_Islands" title="South Sandwich Islands">South Sandwich Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_island_arcs">Ancient island arcs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ancient island arcs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Islands" title="Insular Islands">Insular Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermontane_Islands" title="Intermontane Islands">Intermontane Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Island_Arc" title="Sakhalin Island Arc">Sakhalin Island Arc</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Back-arc_basin" title="Back-arc basin">Back-arc basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">Island arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone_metamorphism" title="Subduction zone metamorphism">Subduction zone metamorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_field" title="Volcanic field">Volcanic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">Volcanic island</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Stern2002-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stern2002_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stern2002_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stern2002_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stern2002_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stern2002_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stern2002_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStern2002" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, Robert J. (December 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001RG000108">"Subduction zones"</a>. <i>Reviews of Geophysics</i>. <b>40</b> (4): 3–1–3–38. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002RvGeo..40.1012S">2002RvGeo..40.1012S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2001RG000108">10.1029/2001RG000108</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15347100">15347100</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Geophysics&rft.atitle=Subduction+zones&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=3-1-3-38&rft.date=2002-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A15347100%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2001RG000108&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002RvGeo..40.1012S&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2001RG000108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanic+arc" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theodora.com/geology/glossaryuv.html#VA">"Volcanic arc definition from the Dictionary of Geology"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-11-01</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Volcanic+arc+definition+from+the+Dictionary+of+Geology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theodora.com%2Fgeology%2Fglossaryuv.html%23VA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanic+arc" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LowrieFichtner2020-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-LowrieFichtner2020_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-LowrieFichtner2020_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowrieFichtner2020" class="citation book cs1">Lowrie, William; Fichtner, Andreas (2020). <i>Fundamentals of geophysics</i> (Third ed.). 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J.; Zhu, Wenlu (December 2020). 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geochemistry%2C+Geophysics%2C+Geosystems&rft.atitle=Melt+Focusing+Along+Permeability+Barriers+at+Subduction+Zones+and+the+Location+of+Volcanic+Arcs&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=12&rft.date=2020-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A228906388%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2020GC009253&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020GGG....2109253H&rft.aulast=Ha&rft.aufirst=Goeun&rft.au=Mont%C3%A9si%2C+Laurent+G.+J.&rft.au=Zhu%2C+Wenlu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVolcanic+arc" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Volcanic_arc&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/subducvolc_page.html">Subduction Zone Volcanism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181229025459/http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/subducvolc_page.html">Archived</a> 2018-12-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_asia/japan_tec.html">Tectonics and Volcanoes of Japan</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303210203/http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/north_asia/japan_tec.html">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/VolcanoTypes/island_oceanic_continental.html">USGS: Island-Arc, Oceanic, and Continental Volcanoes</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood_basalt" title="Flood basalt">Flood basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_island_basalt" title="Ocean island basalt">Ocean island basalt</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Volcanic arc basalt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basalts by form and flow</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columnar_basalt" class="mw-redirect" title="Columnar basalt">Columnar basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basalt#Pillow_basalts" title="Basalt">Pillow basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lava#.CA.BBA.CA.BB.C4.81" title="Lava">Aa lava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahoehoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Pahoehoe">Pahoehoe lava</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basalts by chemistry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tholeiitic_magma_series" title="Tholeiitic magma series">Tholeiitic basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calc-alkaline_magma_series" title="Calc-alkaline magma series">Calc-alkaline basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_basalt" title="Alkali basalt">Alkali basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachybasalt" title="Trachybasalt">Trachybasalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiite" title="Hawaiite">Hawaiite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mugearite" title="Mugearite">Mugearite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picrite_basalt" title="Picrite basalt">Picrite basalt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Important minerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">Olivine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">Pyroxene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">Plagioclase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">Amphibole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetite" title="Magnetite">Magnetite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilmenite" title="Ilmenite">Ilmenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">Quartz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristobalite" title="Cristobalite">Cristobalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridymite" title="Tridymite">Tridymite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geology" title="Portal:Geology">Geology portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physical_oceanography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Waves</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airy_wave_theory" title="Airy wave theory">Airy wave theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballantine_scale" title="Ballantine scale">Ballantine scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modulational_instability" title="Modulational instability">Benjamin–Feir instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boussinesq_approximation_(water_waves)" title="Boussinesq approximation (water waves)">Boussinesq approximation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">Breaking wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clapotis" title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" title="Category:Physical oceanography">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Physical_oceanography" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Physical oceanography">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coastal_geography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Coastal_geography" title="Template:Coastal geography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Coastal_geography" title="Template talk:Coastal geography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Coastal_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Coastal geography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coastal_geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchialine_system" title="Anchialine system">Anchialine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayre_(landform)" title="Ayre (landform)">Ayre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_island" title="Barrier island">Barrier island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bight_(geography)" title="Bight (geography)">Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodden" title="Bodden">Bodden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_(geography)" title="Cape (geography)">Cape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">Cliff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_plain" title="Coastal plain">Coastal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_waterfall" title="Coastal waterfall">Coastal waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cove" title="Cove">Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Dune</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cliff-top_dune" title="Cliff-top dune">cliff-top</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firth" title="Firth">Firth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjard" title="Fjard">Fjard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundus_(seabed)" title="Fundus (seabed)">Fundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gat_(landform)" title="Gat (landform)">Gat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geo_(landform)" title="Geo (landform)">Geo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf" title="Gulf">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut_(coastal_geography)" title="Gut (coastal geography)">Gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapua" title="Hapua">Hapua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headland" title="Headland">Headland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet" title="Inlet">Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islet" title="Islet">Islet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">Isthmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machair" title="Machair">Machair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_arch" title="Natural arch">Natural arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ria" title="Ria">Ria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skerry" title="Skerry">Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_(geography)" title="Sound (geography)">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spit_(landform)" title="Spit (landform)">Spit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_(geology)" title="Stack (geology)">Stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strand_plain" title="Strand plain">Strand plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_island" title="Tidal island">Tidal island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">Tidal marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tied_island" title="Tied island">Tied island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombolo" title="Tombolo">Tombolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waituna" title="Waituna">Waituna</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Windwatt" title="Windwatt">Windwatt</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Accreting_coast_Image6.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coastal and oceanic landforms"><img alt="Coastal and oceanic landforms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/140px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/210px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/280px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="697" /></a></span><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernando_noronha.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha"><img alt="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/140px-Fernando_noronha.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/210px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/280px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">Beaches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_cusps" title="Beach cusps">Beach cusps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_evolution" title="Beach evolution">Beach evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_ridge" title="Beach ridge">Beach ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_wrack" title="Beach wrack">Beach wrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaches_in_estuaries_and_bays" title="Beaches in estuaries and bays">Beaches in estuaries and bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beachrock" title="Beachrock">Beachrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_morphodynamics" title="Coastal morphodynamics">Coastal morphodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_beach" title="Pocket beach">Pocket beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_beach" title="Raised beach">Raised beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_recession_of_beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern recession of beaches">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">Shell beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">Shingle beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_beach" title="Storm beach">Storm beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wash_margin" title="Wash margin">Wash margin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">River mouths</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debouch" title="Debouch">Debouch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">River delta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mega_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mega delta">mega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regressive_delta" title="Regressive delta">regressive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowhole_(geology)" title="Blowhole (geology)">Blowhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliffed_coast" title="Cliffed coast">Cliffed coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordant_coastline" title="Concordant coastline">Concordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_(hydrology)" title="Current (hydrology)">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuspate_foreland" title="Cuspate foreland">Cuspate foreland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordant_coastline" title="Discordant coastline">Discordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_coastline" title="Emergent coastline">Emergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeder_bluff" title="Feeder bluff">Feeder bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_coast" title="Flat coast">Flat coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graded_shoreline" title="Graded shoreline">Graded shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingression_coast" title="Ingression coast">Ingression coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Large-scale coastal behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_regression" title="Marine regression">Marine regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">Marine transgression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_shoreline" title="Raised shoreline">Raised shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cave" title="Sea cave">Sea cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_foam" title="Sea foam">Sea foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peresyp" title="Peresyp">peresyp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steep_coast" title="Steep coast">Steep coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submergent_coastline" title="Submergent coastline">Submergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_break" title="Surf break">Surf break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surge_channel" title="Surge channel">Surge channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave-cut_platform" title="Wave-cut platform">Wave-cut platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(coastal_management)" title="Accretion (coastal management)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Coastal management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">Integrated coastal zone management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersion_(coastal_management)" title="Submersion (coastal management)">Submersion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_line" title="Bulkhead line">Bulkhead line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_size" title="Grain size">Grain size</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boulder" title="Boulder">boulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobble_(geology)" title="Cobble (geology)">cobble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_(geology)" title="Granule (geology)">granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pebble" title="Pebble">pebble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">shingle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Region_of_freshwater_influence" title="Region of freshwater influence">Region of freshwater influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_plume" title="River plume">River plume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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