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<span>Photosynthetic membranes and organelles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photosynthetic_membranes_and_organelles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light-dependent_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light-dependent_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Light-dependent reactions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Light-dependent_reactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Light-dependent reactions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Light-dependent_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Z_scheme" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Z_scheme"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Z scheme</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Z_scheme-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_photolysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_photolysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Water photolysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_photolysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Light-independent_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light-independent_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Light-independent reactions</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Light-independent_reactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Light-independent reactions subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Light-independent_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calvin_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calvin_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Calvin cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calvin_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_concentrating_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_concentrating_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Carbon concentrating mechanisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_concentrating_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-On_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>On land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_water" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_water"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>In water</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_water-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Order_and_kinetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Order_and_kinetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Order and kinetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Order_and_kinetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efficiency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efficiency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Efficiency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efficiency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Symbiosis_and_the_origin_of_chloroplasts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbiosis_and_the_origin_of_chloroplasts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbiosis_and_the_origin_of_chloroplasts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photosynthetic_eukaryotic_lineages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photosynthetic_eukaryotic_lineages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Photosynthetic eukaryotic lineages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photosynthetic_eukaryotic_lineages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Photosynthetic_prokaryotic_lineages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Photosynthetic_prokaryotic_lineages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Photosynthetic prokaryotic lineages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Photosynthetic_prokaryotic_lineages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cyanobacteria_and_the_evolution_of_photosynthesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cyanobacteria_and_the_evolution_of_photosynthesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cyanobacteria_and_the_evolution_of_photosynthesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Experimental_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Experimental_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Experimental history</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Experimental_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Experimental history subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Experimental_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Discovery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refinements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refinements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Refinements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refinements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Development of the concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-C3_:_C4_photosynthesis_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#C3_:_C4_photosynthesis_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>C3 : C4 photosynthesis research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-C3_:_C4_photosynthesis_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Factors</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Factors-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Factors subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Factors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Light_intensity_(irradiance),_wavelength_and_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Light_intensity_(irradiance),_wavelength_and_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Light_intensity_(irradiance),_wavelength_and_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_levels_and_photorespiration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbon_dioxide_levels_and_photorespiration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbon_dioxide_levels_and_photorespiration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Papers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Papers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Photosynthesis</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 150 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-150" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">150 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintese" title="Fotosintese – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Fotosintese" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthese" title="Photosynthese – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Photosynthese" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A8_%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="تركيب ضوئي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تركيب ضوئي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesi" title="Fotosintesi – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Fotosintesi" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3" title="সালোক সংশ্লেষণ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সালোক সংশ্লেষণ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%ADntesis" title="Fotosíntesis – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Fotosíntesis" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesapemo%C3%B1anga" title="Tesapemoñanga – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tesapemoñanga" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintez" title="Fotosintez – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fotosintez" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B2" title="فوتوسینتز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فوتوسینتز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3" title="সালোকসংশ্লেষণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সালোকসংশ্লেষণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong-ha%CC%8Dp-s%C3%AAng" title="Kong-ha̍p-sêng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kong-ha̍p-sêng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%B7" title="Фотасінтэз – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фотасінтэз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%B7" title="Фотасынтэз – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фотасынтэз" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="प्रकाश संश्लेषण – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="प्रकाश संश्लेषण" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potosintesis" title="Potosintesis – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Potosintesis" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Фотосинтеза – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Фотосинтеза" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A6%E0%BE%A6%E0%BE%B1%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="འོད་སྦྱོར་ནུས་པ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="འོད་སྦྱོར་ནུས་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosinteza" title="Fotosinteza – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Fotosinteza" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintezenn" title="Fotosintezenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Fotosintezenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%ADntesi" title="Fotosíntesi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Fotosíntesi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosynt%C3%A9za" title="Fotosyntéza – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fotosyntéza" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chirukanerujeko" title="Chirukanerujeko – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chirukanerujeko" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ffotosynthesis" title="Ffotosynthesis – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ffotosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosyntese" title="Fotosyntese – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fotosyntese" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B2" title="فوطوسانتيز – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="فوطوسانتيز" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthese" title="Photosynthese – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Photosynthese" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%BCntees" title="Fotosüntees – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Fotosüntees" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%89%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%83%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Φωτοσύνθεση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φωτοσύνθεση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%ADntesis" title="Fotosíntesis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fotosíntesis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintezo" title="Fotosintezo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fotosintezo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%ADntesi" title="Fotosíntesi – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Fotosíntesi" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesi" title="Fotosintesi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Fotosintesi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B2" title="فتوسنتز – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فتوسنتز" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynth%C3%A8se" title="Photosynthèse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Photosynthèse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosynteze" title="Fotosynteze – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Fotosynteze" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B3taisint%C3%A9is" title="Fótaisintéis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fótaisintéis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-haaghey_sollysh" title="Co-haaghey sollysh – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Co-haaghey sollysh" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foto-cho-chur" title="Foto-cho-chur – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Foto-cho-chur" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%ADntese" title="Fotosíntese – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Fotosíntese" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%95%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%B6%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%82%E0%AA%B6%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B2%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B7%E0%AA%A3" title="પ્રકાશસંશ્લેષણ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="પ્રકાશસંશ્લેષણ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%91%ED%95%A9%EC%84%B1" title="광합성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="광합성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A9%D5%A5%D5%A6" title="Ֆոտոսինթեզ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆոտոսինթեզ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="प्रकाश-संश्लेषण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रकाश-संश्लेषण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosinteza" title="Fotosinteza – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fotosinteza" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesis" title="Fotosintesis – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Fotosintesis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Hulontalo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintezo" title="Fotosintezo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Fotosintezo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potosintesis" title="Potosintesis – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Potosintesis" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesis" title="Fotosintesis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fotosintesis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthese" title="Photosynthese – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Photosynthese" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-photosynthesis" title="I-photosynthesis – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="Xhosa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lj%C3%B3still%C3%ADfun" title="Ljóstillífun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ljóstillífun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesi_clorofilliana" title="Fotosintesi clorofilliana – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Fotosintesi clorofilliana" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%96%D7%94" title="פוטוסינתזה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פוטוסינתזה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosint%C3%A8sis" title="Fotosintèsis – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Fotosintèsis" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%A3%E0%B3%86" title="ದ್ಯುತಿಸಂಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ದ್ಯುತಿಸಂಶ್ಲೇಷಣೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%94%E1%83%96%E1%83%98" title="ფოტოსინთეზი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფოტოსინთეზი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usanisinuru" title="Usanisinuru – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Usanisinuru" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosent%C3%A8z" title="Fotosentèz – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Fotosentèz" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosent%C3%A8z" title="Fotosentèz – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Fotosentèz" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosentez" title="Fotosentez – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Fotosentez" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%87%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%AA%E0%BA%87" title="ການສັງເຄາະແສງ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ການສັງເຄາະແສງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosint%C4%93ze" title="Fotosintēze – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fotosintēze" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintez%C4%97" title="Fotosintezė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fotosintezė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosynthees" title="Fotosynthees – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Fotosynthees" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesi" title="Fotosintesi – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Fotosintesi" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoszint%C3%A9zis" title="Fotoszintézis – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Fotoszintézis" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6-%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="प्रकाश-संश्लेषण – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="प्रकाश-संश्लेषण" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Фотосинтеза – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Фотосинтеза" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="പ്രകാശസംശ്ലേഷണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രകാശസംശ്ലേഷണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="प्रकाश संश्लेषण – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्रकाश संश्लेषण" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B6%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%82%E1%80%BA" title="လျးသံယိုဂ် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="လျးသံယိုဂ်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ဘာသာမန်</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesis" title="Fotosintesis – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Fotosintesis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9C%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AE%E1%80%85%E1%80%AF%E1%80%96%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%B7%E1%80%81%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="အလင်းမှီစုဖွဲ့ခြင်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="အလင်းမှီစုဖွဲ့ခြင်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcm mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesis" title="Fotosintesis – Nigerian Pidgin" lang="pcm" hreflang="pcm" data-title="Fotosintesis" data-language-autonym="Naijá" data-language-local-name="Nigerian Pidgin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Naijá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosynthese" title="Fotosynthese – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fotosynthese" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosyntese" title="Fotosyntese – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Fotosyntese" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="प्रकाश संश्लेषण – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्रकाश संश्लेषण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8" title="फोटोसिन्थेसिस – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="फोटोसिन्थेसिस" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E6%88%90" title="光合成 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="光合成" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Footos%C3%BCntees" title="Footosüntees – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Footosüntees" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosyntese" title="Fotosyntese – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fotosyntese" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosyntese" title="Fotosyntese – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fotosyntese" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosint%C3%A8si" title="Fotosintèsi – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Fotosintèsi" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaariftina" title="Jaariftina – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Jaariftina" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintez" title="Fotosintez – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fotosintez" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A3" title="ਪ੍ਰਕਾਸ਼ ਸੰਸਲੇਸ਼ਣ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰਕਾਸ਼ ਸੰਸਲੇਸ਼ਣ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%DD%A8_%D9%BE%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C" title="چانݨ پکائی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="چانݨ پکائی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%B2_(%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B1_%D8%AF_%D9%88%DA%93%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%88_%D9%BE%D9%87_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87_%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%88_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%A9%D9%8A%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%88_%D9%8A%D9%88%DA%81%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84)" title="فوټوسينتيسز (د لمر د وړانګو په مرسته د موادو ترکيب او يوځای کول) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فوټوسينتيسز (د لمر د وړانګو په مرسته د موادو ترکيب او يوځای کول)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthees" title="Photosynthees – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Photosynthees" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosynteza" title="Fotosynteza – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Fotosynteza" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotoss%C3%ADntese" title="Fotossíntese – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Fotossíntese" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintez%C4%83" title="Fotosinteză – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Fotosinteză" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inti_wayllay" title="Inti wayllay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Inti wayllay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Фотосінтеза – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Фотосінтеза" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83" title="प्रभासंयोगः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="प्रभासंयोगः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosinteza" title="Fotosinteza – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Fotosinteza" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%BA" title="ප්‍රභාසංශ්ලේෂණය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රභාසංශ්ලේෂණය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Photosynthesis" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A6%D9%88%D9%BD%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%BF%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%B3" title="ڦوٽوسنٿيسس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ڦوٽوسنٿيسس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosynt%C3%A9za" title="Fotosyntéza – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fotosyntéza" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosinteza" title="Fotosinteza – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fotosinteza" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habka_Samayska_Cuntada" title="Habka Samayska Cuntada – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Habka Samayska Cuntada" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%86%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="فۆتۆسینتەسیس – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فۆتۆسینتەسیس" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Фотосинтеза – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Фотосинтеза" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosinteza" title="Fotosinteza – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fotosinteza" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potosint%C3%A9sis" title="Potosintésis – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Potosintésis" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosynteesi" title="Fotosynteesi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fotosynteesi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosyntes" title="Fotosyntes – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fotosyntes" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potosintesis" title="Potosintesis – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Potosintesis" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="ஒளித்தொகுப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒளித்தொகுப்பு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%97_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF" title="కిరణజన్య సంయోగ క్రియ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కిరణజన్య సంయోగ క్రియ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%87" title="การสังเคราะห์ด้วยแสง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การสังเคราะห์ด้วยแสง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8E%A6%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%92_%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%A9%E1%8F%82%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9" title="ᎤᎦᎵᏒ ᎤᏩᏂᏗᏍᎩ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᎦᎵᏒ ᎤᏩᏂᏗᏍᎩ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosentez" title="Fotosentez – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fotosentez" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B7" title="Фотосинтез – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фотосинтез" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B6%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%81" title="ضیائی تالیف – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ضیائی تالیف" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B3%D9%89%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%90%D8%B2_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%84%D9%89" title="فوتوسىنتېز رولى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="فوتوسىنتېز رولى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%ACntezi" title="Fotosìntezi – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fotosìntezi" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintez" title="Fotosintez – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Fotosintez" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quang_h%E1%BB%A3p" title="Quang hợp – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quang hợp" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotos%C3%BCntees" title="Fotosüntees – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Fotosüntees" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="光合作用" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosintesis" title="Fotosintesis – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Fotosintesis" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="光合作用" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%90%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A2%D7%96" title="פאטאסינטעז – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פאטאסינטעז" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="光合作用" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotosenteze" title="Fotosenteze – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Fotosenteze" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuot%C4%97sintez%C4%97" title="Fuotėsintezė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Fuotėsintezė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%89%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C%E7%94%A8" title="光合作用 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="光合作用" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potosintesis" title="Potosintesis – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Potosintesis" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11982#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon 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typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photosynthesis_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Photosynthesis_en.svg/330px-Photosynthesis_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Photosynthesis_en.svg/495px-Photosynthesis_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Photosynthesis_en.svg/660px-Photosynthesis_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="354" /></a><figcaption>Schematic of photosynthesis in plants. The <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> produced are stored in or used by the plant.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/330px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/495px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg/660px-Seawifs_global_biosphere.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>Composite image showing the global distribution of photosynthesis, including both oceanic <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> and terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a>. Dark red and blue-green indicate regions of high photosynthetic activity in the ocean and on land, respectively.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Photosynthesis</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">FOH</span>-tə-<span style="font-size:90%">SINTH</span>-ə-sis</i></a>)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Biological_system" title="Biological system">system</a> of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">biological processes</a> by which <a href="/wiki/Photoautotrophism" class="mw-redirect" title="Photoautotrophism">photosynthetic organisms</a>, such as most plants, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, convert <a href="/wiki/Light_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Light energy">light energy</a>, typically from sunlight, into the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_energy" title="Chemical energy">chemical energy</a> necessary to fuel their <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>. <i>Photosynthesis</i> usually refers to <b>oxygenic photosynthesis</b>, a process that produces oxygen. Photosynthetic organisms store the chemical energy so produced within intracellular <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a> (compounds containing carbon) like sugars, <a href="/wiki/Glycogen" title="Glycogen">glycogen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starches</a>. To use this stored chemical energy, an organism's cells metabolize the organic compounds through <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>. Photosynthesis plays a critical role in producing and maintaining the <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric oxygen">oxygen content</a> of the Earth's atmosphere, and it supplies most of the <a href="/wiki/Biological_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological energy">biological energy</a> necessary for <a href="/wiki/Complex_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex life">complex life</a> on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryant-2006_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryant-2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> also perform <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">anoxygenic photosynthesis</a>, which uses <a href="/wiki/Bacteriochlorophyll" title="Bacteriochlorophyll">bacteriochlorophyll</a> to split <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Reductant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductant">reductant</a> instead of water, producing <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> instead of oxygen. <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Halobacterium" title="Halobacterium">Halobacterium</a></i> also perform a type of non-<a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">carbon-fixing</a> anoxygenic photosynthesis, where the simpler <a href="/wiki/Photopigment" title="Photopigment">photopigment</a> <a href="/wiki/Retinal" title="Retinal">retinal</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Microbial_rhodopsin" title="Microbial rhodopsin">microbial rhodopsin</a> <a href="/wiki/Derivative_(chemistry)" title="Derivative (chemistry)">derivatives</a> are used to absorb green light and power <a href="/wiki/Proton_pump" title="Proton pump">proton pumps</a> to directly synthesize <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a> (ATP), the "energy currency" of cells. Such archaeal photosynthesis might have been the earliest form of photosynthesis that evolved on Earth, as far back as the <a href="/wiki/Paleoarchean" title="Paleoarchean">Paleoarchean</a>, preceding that of cyanobacteria (see <a href="/wiki/Purple_Earth_hypothesis" title="Purple Earth hypothesis">Purple Earth hypothesis</a>). </p><p>While the details may differ between <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, the process always begins when light energy is absorbed by the <a href="/wiki/Reaction_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Reaction center">reaction centers</a>, proteins that contain <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_pigment" title="Photosynthetic pigment">photosynthetic pigments</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">chromophores</a>. In plants, these pigments are <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophylls</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Porphyrin" title="Porphyrin">porphyrin</a> derivative that absorbs the red and blue <a href="/wiki/Optical_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical spectrum">spectrums</a> of light, thus reflecting green) held inside <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>, abundant in <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> cells. In bacteria, they are embedded in the <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">plasma membrane</a>. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two important molecules that participate in energetic processes: reduced <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate">nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate</a> (NADPH) and ATP. </p><p>In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, sugars are synthesized by a subsequent sequence of <span class="nowrap">light-independent</span> reactions called the <a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a>. In this process, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Ribulose_bisphosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ribulose bisphosphate">ribulose bisphosphate</a> (RuBP).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then <a href="/wiki/Biological_reductant" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological reductant">reduced</a> and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>. In other bacteria, different mechanisms like the <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Krebs_cycle" title="Reverse Krebs cycle">reverse Krebs cycle</a> are used to achieve the same end. </p><p>The first photosynthetic organisms probably <a href="/wiki/Evolved" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolved">evolved</a> early in the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">evolutionary history of life</a> using <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">reducing agents</a> such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide, rather than water, as sources of electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyanobacteria appeared later; the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_cycle" title="Oxygen cycle">excess oxygen</a> they produced contributed directly to the <a href="/wiki/Oxygenation_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygenation of the Earth">oxygenation of the Earth</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which rendered the evolution of complex life possible. The average rate of energy captured by global photosynthesis is approximately 130 <a href="/wiki/Terawatts" class="mw-redirect" title="Terawatts">terawatts</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which is about eight times the total <a href="/wiki/Power_consumption_of_human_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Power consumption of human civilization">power consumption of human civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 billion <a href="/wiki/Ton" title="Ton">tons</a> (91–104 Pg <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(mass)" title="Orders of magnitude (mass)">petagrams</a>, or billions of metric tons), of carbon into <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> per year.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McGraw-Hill-2007_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGraw-Hill-2007-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Photosynthesis was discovered in 1779 by <a href="/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz">Jan Ingenhousz</a> who showed that plants need light, not just soil and water. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biological_carbon_fixation" title="Biological carbon fixation">Biological carbon fixation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg/220px-Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg/330px-Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg/440px-Simple_photosynthesis_overview.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="830" data-file-height="1027" /></a><figcaption>Photosynthesis changes sunlight into chemical energy, splits water to liberate O<sub>2</sub>, and fixes CO<sub>2</sub> into sugar.</figcaption></figure> <p>Most photosynthetic organisms are <a href="/wiki/Photoautotroph" title="Photoautotroph">photoautotrophs</a>, which means that they are able to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthesize</a> food directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms use carbon dioxide as a source of carbon atoms to carry out photosynthesis; <a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">photoheterotrophs</a> use organic compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon.<sup id="cite_ref-Bryant-2006_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bryant-2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This <b>oxygenic photosynthesis</b> is by far the most common type of photosynthesis used by living organisms. Some shade-loving plants (sciophytes) produce such low levels of oxygen during photosynthesis that they use all of it themselves instead of releasing it to the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. There are also many varieties of <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">anoxygenic photosynthesis</a>, used mostly by bacteria, which consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">carbon fixation</a>; photosynthesis captures energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>. Carbon fixation is an <a href="/wiki/Endothermic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothermic">endothermic</a> <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reaction. In general outline, photosynthesis is the opposite of <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>: while photosynthesis is a process of reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates, cellular respiration is the oxidation of carbohydrates or other <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a> to carbon dioxide. Nutrients used in cellular respiration include carbohydrates, amino acids and fatty acids. These nutrients are oxidized to produce carbon dioxide and water, and to release chemical energy to drive the organism's <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>. </p><p>Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are distinct processes, as they take place through different sequences of chemical reactions and in different <a href="/wiki/Cellular_compartment" title="Cellular compartment">cellular compartments</a> (cellular respiration in <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The general <a href="/wiki/Chemical_equation" title="Chemical equation">equation</a> for photosynthesis as first proposed by <a href="/wiki/C._B._van_Niel" title="C. B. van Niel">Cornelis van Niel</a> is:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWhitmarshGovindjee199913_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhitmarshGovindjee199913-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">carbon<br />dioxide</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">2H<sub>2</sub>A</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">electron donor</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a></span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">light energy</span></span></span></span> → <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">[CH<sub>2</sub>O]</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a></span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">2A</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">oxidized<br />electron<br />donor</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">H<sub>2</sub>O</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">water</span></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>Since water is used as the electron donor in oxygenic photosynthesis, the equation for this process is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">carbon<br />dioxide</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">2H<sub>2</sub>O</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">water</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">photons</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">light energy</span></span></span></span> → <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">[CH<sub>2</sub>O]</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">carbohydrate</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">O<sub>2</sub></span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">oxygen</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">H<sub>2</sub>O</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">water</span></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>This equation emphasizes that water is both a reactant in the <a href="#Light-dependent_reactions">light-dependent reaction</a> and a product of the <a href="#Light-independent_reactions">light-independent reaction</a>, but canceling <i>n</i> water molecules from each side gives the net equation: </p> <dl><dd><span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">carbon<br />dioxide</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">H<sub>2</sub>O</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;"> water </span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">photons</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">light energy</span></span></span></span> → <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">[CH<sub>2</sub>O]</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">carbohydrate</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">O<sub>2</sub></span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;"> oxygen </span></span></span></span></dd></dl> <p>Other processes substitute other compounds (such as <a href="/wiki/Arsenite" title="Arsenite">arsenite</a>) for water in the electron-supply role; for example some microbes use sunlight to oxidize arsenite to <a href="/wiki/Arsenate" title="Arsenate">arsenate</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The equation for this reaction is: </p> <dl><dd><span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">CO<sub>2</sub></span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">carbon<br />dioxide</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">(AsO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>)</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;"><br />arsenite</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">photons</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">light energy</span></span></span></span> → <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">(AsO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span>)</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;"><br />arsenate</span></span></span></span> + <span class="sfrac nowrap"><span style="display:none;display:inline-block; vertical-align:top; text-align:center;"><span style="display:block;padding:0 0.1em;">CO</span><span style="display:block; font-size:70%; line-height:1em;padding:0 0.1em;"><span style="position:relative; line-height:1em; margin-top:-0.5em; top:-0.5em;">carbon<br />monoxide</span></span></span></span>(used to build other compounds in subsequent reactions)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <p>Photosynthesis occurs in two stages. In the first stage, <i>light-dependent reactions</i> or <i>light reactions</i> capture the energy of light and use it to make the hydrogen carrier <a href="/wiki/NADPH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADPH">NADPH</a> and the energy-storage molecule <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>. During the second stage, the <i>light-independent reactions</i> use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide. </p><p>Most organisms that use oxygenic photosynthesis use <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible light</a> for the light-dependent reactions, although at least three use shortwave <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> or, more specifically, far-red radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some organisms employ even more radical variants of photosynthesis. Some <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> use a simpler method that employs a pigment similar to those used for vision in animals. The <a href="/wiki/Bacteriorhodopsin" title="Bacteriorhodopsin">bacteriorhodopsin</a> changes its configuration in response to sunlight, acting as a proton pump. This produces a proton gradient more directly, which is then converted to chemical energy. The process does not involve carbon dioxide fixation and does not release oxygen, and seems to have evolved separately from the more common types of photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Photosynthetic_membranes_and_organelles">Photosynthetic membranes and organelles</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid" title="Thylakoid">Thylakoid</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chloroplast.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Chloroplast.svg/310px-Chloroplast.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Chloroplast.svg/465px-Chloroplast.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Chloroplast.svg/620px-Chloroplast.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1445" data-file-height="732" /></a><figcaption><b>Chloroplast ultrastructure</b>:<div><ol><li>outer membrane</li><li>intermembrane space</li><li>inner membrane (1+2+3: envelope)</li><li>stroma (aqueous fluid)</li><li>thylakoid lumen (inside of thylakoid)</li><li>thylakoid membrane</li><li>granum (stack of thylakoids)</li><li>thylakoid (lamella)</li><li>starch</li><li>ribosome</li><li>plastidial DNA</li><li>plastoglobule (drop of lipids)</li></ol></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>In photosynthetic bacteria, the proteins that gather light for photosynthesis are embedded in <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>. In its simplest form, this involves the membrane surrounding the cell itself.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the membrane may be tightly folded into cylindrical sheets called <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid" title="Thylakoid">thylakoids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux-1999_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux-1999-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or bunched up into round <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicles</a> called <i>intracytoplasmic membranes</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These structures can fill most of the interior of a cell, giving the membrane a very large surface area and therefore increasing the amount of light that the bacteria can absorb.<sup id="cite_ref-Mullineaux-1999_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mullineaux-1999-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In plants and algae, photosynthesis takes place in <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> called <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>. A typical <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">plant cell</a> contains about 10 to 100 chloroplasts. The chloroplast is enclosed by a membrane. This membrane is composed of a phospholipid inner membrane, a phospholipid outer membrane, and an intermembrane space. Enclosed by the membrane is an aqueous fluid called the stroma. Embedded within the stroma are stacks of thylakoids (grana), which are the site of photosynthesis. The thylakoids appear as flattened disks. The thylakoid itself is enclosed by the thylakoid membrane, and within the enclosed volume is a lumen or thylakoid space. Embedded in the thylakoid membrane are integral and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_membrane_protein" title="Peripheral membrane protein">peripheral membrane protein</a> complexes of the photosynthetic system. </p><p>Plants absorb light primarily using the <a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a> <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a>. The green part of the light spectrum is not absorbed but is reflected, which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Besides chlorophyll, plants also use pigments such as <a href="/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene">carotenes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xanthophyll" title="Xanthophyll">xanthophylls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae also use chlorophyll, but various other pigments are present, such as <a href="/wiki/Phycocyanin" title="Phycocyanin">phycocyanin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carotene" title="Carotene">carotenes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Xanthophyll" title="Xanthophyll">xanthophylls</a> in <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phycoerythrin" title="Phycoerythrin">phycoerythrin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a> (rhodophytes) and <a href="/wiki/Fucoxanthin" title="Fucoxanthin">fucoxanthin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">diatoms</a> resulting in a wide variety of colors. </p><p>These pigments are embedded in plants and algae in complexes called antenna proteins. In such proteins, the pigments are arranged to work together. Such a combination of proteins is also called a <a href="/wiki/Light-harvesting_complex" title="Light-harvesting complex">light-harvesting complex</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, the majority of those are found in specially adapted structures called <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaves</a>. Certain species adapted to conditions of strong sunlight and <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">aridity</a>, such as many <i><a href="/wiki/Euphorbia" title="Euphorbia">Euphorbia</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Cactus" title="Cactus">cactus</a> species, have their main photosynthetic organs in their stems. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the <a href="/wiki/Mesophyll_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesophyll tissue">mesophyll</a>, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf. The surface of the leaf is coated with a water-resistant <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">waxy</a> <a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">cuticle</a> that protects the leaf from excessive <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> of water and decreases the absorption of <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> or <a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">blue</a> <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> to minimize <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heating</a>. The transparent <a href="/wiki/Leaf#Epidermis" title="Leaf">epidermis</a> layer allows light to pass through to the <a href="/wiki/Mesophyll_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesophyll tissue">palisade</a> mesophyll cells where most of the photosynthesis takes place. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Light-dependent_reactions">Light-dependent reactions</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reactions" title="Light-dependent reactions">Light-dependent reactions</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thylakoid_membrane_3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Thylakoid_membrane_3.svg/310px-Thylakoid_membrane_3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Thylakoid_membrane_3.svg/465px-Thylakoid_membrane_3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Thylakoid_membrane_3.svg/620px-Thylakoid_membrane_3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="906" data-file-height="517" /></a><figcaption>Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis at the thylakoid membrane</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reactions" title="Light-dependent reactions">light-dependent reactions</a>, one <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> of the pigment <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> absorbs one <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> and loses one <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>. This electron is taken up by a modified form of chlorophyll called <a href="/wiki/Pheophytin" title="Pheophytin">pheophytin</a>, which passes the electron to a <a href="/wiki/Quinone" title="Quinone">quinone</a> molecule, starting the flow of electrons down an <a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">electron transport chain</a> that leads to the ultimate <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate">NADP</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate">NADPH</a>. In addition, this creates a <a href="/wiki/Electrochemical_gradient" title="Electrochemical gradient">proton gradient</a> (energy gradient) across the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast_membrane" title="Chloroplast membrane">chloroplast membrane</a>, which is used by <a href="/wiki/ATP_synthase" title="ATP synthase">ATP synthase</a> in the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>. The chlorophyll molecule ultimately regains the electron it lost when a <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> molecule is split in a process called <a href="/wiki/Photodissociation" title="Photodissociation">photolysis</a>, which releases <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. </p><p>The overall equation for the light-dependent reactions under the conditions of non-cyclic electron flow in green plants is:<sup id="cite_ref-Raven-2005_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven-2005-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r996643573">.mw-parser-output .block-indent{padding-left:3em;padding-right:0;overflow:hidden}</style><div class="block-indent">2 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 NADP<sup>+</sup> + 3 ADP + 3 P<sub>i</sub> + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H<sup>+</sup> + 3 ATP + O<sub>2</sub></div> <p>Not all <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a> of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> can support photosynthesis. The photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Action_spectrum" title="Action spectrum">action spectrum</a> depends on the type of <a href="/wiki/Accessory_pigment" title="Accessory pigment">accessory pigments</a> present. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Green_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Green plants">green plants</a>, the action spectrum resembles the <a href="/wiki/Absorption_spectrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Absorption spectrum">absorption spectrum</a> for <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophylls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> with absorption peaks in violet-blue and red light. In <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a>, the action spectrum is blue-green light, which allows these <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> to use the blue end of the spectrum to grow in the deeper waters that filter out the longer wavelengths (red light) used by above-ground green plants. The non-absorbed part of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">light spectrum</a> is what gives <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic organism">photosynthetic organisms</a> their <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">color</a> (e.g., green plants, red algae, <a href="/wiki/Purple_bacteria" title="Purple bacteria">purple bacteria</a>) and is the least effective for photosynthesis in the respective <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Z_scheme">Z scheme</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Z-scheme.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Z-scheme.png/660px-Z-scheme.png" decoding="async" width="660" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Z-scheme.png 1.5x" data-file-width="905" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>The "Z scheme"</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-dependent reaction">light-dependent reactions</a> occur in the <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Thylakoid membrane">thylakoid membranes</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> where they drive the synthesis of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> and <a href="/wiki/NADPH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADPH">NADPH</a>. The light-dependent reactions are of two forms: <a href="/wiki/Photophosphorylation" title="Photophosphorylation">cyclic and non-cyclic</a>. </p><p>In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting <a href="/wiki/Antenna_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Antenna complex">antenna complexes</a> of <a href="/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem">photosystem II</a> by <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Accessory_pigments" class="mw-redirect" title="Accessory pigments">accessory pigments</a> (see diagram at right). The absorption of a photon by the antenna complex loosens an electron by a process called <a href="/wiki/Photoinduced_charge_separation" title="Photoinduced charge separation">photoinduced charge separation</a>. The antenna system is at the core of the <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> molecule of the photosystem II reaction center. That loosened electron is taken up by the primary <a href="/wiki/Electron_acceptor" title="Electron acceptor">electron-acceptor</a> molecule, <a href="/wiki/Pheophytin" title="Pheophytin">pheophytin</a>. As the electrons are shuttled through an <a href="/wiki/Electron_transfer_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron transfer chain">electron transport chain</a> (the so-called <i>Z-scheme</i> shown in the diagram), a <a href="/wiki/Chemiosmotic_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemiosmotic potential">chemiosmotic potential</a> is generated by pumping <a href="/wiki/Hydron_(chemistry)" title="Hydron (chemistry)">proton cations</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a><sup>+</sup>) across the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">membrane</a> and into the <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Thylakoid space">thylakoid space</a>. An ATP synthase <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> uses that <a href="/wiki/Chemiosmotic_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemiosmotic potential">chemiosmotic potential</a> to make ATP during <a href="/wiki/Photophosphorylation" title="Photophosphorylation">photophosphorylation</a>, whereas <a href="/wiki/NADPH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADPH">NADPH</a> is a product of the terminal <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> reaction in the <i>Z-scheme</i>. The electron enters a chlorophyll <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> in <a href="/wiki/Photosystem_I" title="Photosystem I">Photosystem I</a>. There it is further excited by the <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a> absorbed by that <a href="/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem">photosystem</a>. The electron is then passed along a chain of <a href="/wiki/Electron_acceptor" title="Electron acceptor">electron acceptors</a> to which it transfers some of its <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>. The energy delivered to the electron acceptors is used to move <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_ion" title="Hydrogen ion">hydrogen ions</a> across the thylakoid membrane into the <a href="/wiki/Lumen_(anatomy)" title="Lumen (anatomy)">lumen</a>. The electron is eventually used to <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduce</a> the coenzyme <a href="/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate" title="Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate">NADP</a> with an <a href="/wiki/Hydron_(chemistry)" title="Hydron (chemistry)">H<sup>+</sup></a> to NADPH (which has functions in the light-independent reaction); at that point, the path of that electron ends. </p><p>The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic but differs in that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name <i>cyclic reaction</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_photolysis">Water photolysis</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Photodissociation" title="Photodissociation">Photodissociation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_evolution" title="Oxygen evolution">Oxygen evolution</a></div> <p><a href="#Z_scheme">Linear electron transport</a> through a photosystem will leave the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_centre" title="Photosynthetic reaction centre">reaction center</a> of that photosystem <a href="/wiki/Oxidized" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidized">oxidized</a>. Elevating another electron will first require re-reduction of the reaction center. The excited electrons lost from the reaction center (<a href="/wiki/P700" title="P700">P700</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Photosystem_I" title="Photosystem I">photosystem I</a> are replaced by transfer from <a href="/wiki/Plastocyanin" title="Plastocyanin">plastocyanin</a>, whose electrons come from electron transport through <a href="/wiki/Photosystem_II" title="Photosystem II">photosystem II</a>. Photosystem II, as the first step of the <i>Z-scheme</i>, requires an external source of electrons to reduce its oxidized <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_a" title="Chlorophyll a">chlorophyll <i>a</i></a> reaction center. The source of electrons for photosynthesis in green plants and <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> is water. Two water molecules are oxidized by the energy of four successive charge-separation reactions of photosystem II to yield a molecule of <a href="/wiki/Diatomic_molecule" title="Diatomic molecule">diatomic</a> oxygen and four <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> ions. The electrons yielded are transferred to a redox-active <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a> residue that is oxidized by the energy of <a href="/wiki/P680" title="P680">P680<sup>+</sup></a>. This resets the ability of P680 to absorb another photon and release another <a href="/wiki/Photodissociation" title="Photodissociation">photo-dissociated</a> electron. The oxidation of water is <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalyzed</a> in photosystem II by a redox-active structure that contains four <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> ions and a <a href="/wiki/Calcium_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcium ion">calcium ion</a>; this <a href="/wiki/Oxygen-evolving_complex" title="Oxygen-evolving complex">oxygen-evolving complex</a> binds two <a href="/wiki/Water_molecules" class="mw-redirect" title="Water molecules">water molecules</a> and contains the four oxidizing equivalents that are used to drive the water-oxidizing reaction (Kok's S-state diagrams). The hydrogen ions are released in the <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid#Lumen" title="Thylakoid">thylakoid lumen</a> and therefore contribute to the transmembrane chemiosmotic potential that leads to <a href="/wiki/ATP_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="ATP synthesis">ATP synthesis</a>. Oxygen is a <a href="/wiki/By-product" title="By-product">waste product</a> of light-dependent reactions, but the majority of organisms on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> use oxygen and its energy for <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic organism">photosynthetic organisms</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Light-independent_reactions">Light-independent reactions</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Calvin_cycle">Calvin cycle</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Light-independent_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-independent reactions">Light-independent reactions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Light-independent_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-independent reactions">light-independent</a> (or "dark") reactions, the enzyme <a href="/wiki/RuBisCO" title="RuBisCO">RuBisCO</a> captures <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a> from the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and, in a <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">process</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a>, uses the newly formed <a href="/wiki/NADPH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADPH">NADPH</a> and releases <a href="/wiki/Triose" title="Triose">three-carbon sugars</a>, which are later <a href="/wiki/Condensation_reaction" title="Condensation reaction">combined</a> to form <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>. The overall equation for the light-independent reactions in <a href="/wiki/Green_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Green plants">green plants</a> is<sup id="cite_ref-Raven-2005_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raven-2005-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 128">: 128 </span></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r996643573"><div class="block-indent">3 CO<sub>2</sub> + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H<sup>+</sup> → C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>6</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-phosphate + 9 ADP + 8 P<sub>i</sub> + 6 NADP<sup>+</sup> + 3 H<sub>2</sub>O</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calvin-cycle4.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Calvin-cycle4.svg/310px-Calvin-cycle4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Calvin-cycle4.svg/465px-Calvin-cycle4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Calvin-cycle4.svg/620px-Calvin-cycle4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption>Overview of the Calvin cycle and <a href="/wiki/Biological_carbon_fixation" title="Biological carbon fixation">carbon fixation</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a> produces the <a href="/wiki/Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate" title="Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate">three-carbon sugar intermediate</a>, which is then converted into the final <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrate</a> products. The <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">simple carbon sugars</a> photosynthesis produces are then used to form other <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic compounds</a>, such as the building material <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Precursor_(chemistry)" title="Precursor (chemistry)">precursors</a> for <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> biosynthesis, or as a fuel in <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>. The latter occurs not only in <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> but also in <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> from plants is passed through a <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Biological_carbon_fixation" title="Biological carbon fixation">fixation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">reduction</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> is a process in which carbon dioxide combines with a <a href="/wiki/Five-carbon_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-carbon sugar">five-carbon sugar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ribulose_1,5-bisphosphate" title="Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate">ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate</a>, to <a href="/wiki/Yield_(chemistry)" title="Yield (chemistry)">yield</a> two <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> of a three-carbon compound, <a href="/wiki/Glycerate_3-phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycerate 3-phosphate">glycerate 3-phosphate</a>, also known as 3-phosphoglycerate. Glycerate 3-phosphate, in the presence of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> and <a href="/wiki/NADPH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADPH">NADPH</a> produced during the light-dependent stages, is reduced to <a href="/wiki/Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate" title="Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate">glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">product</a> is also referred to as 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL) or, more generically, as <a href="/wiki/Triose" title="Triose">triose</a> phosphate. Most (five out of six molecules) of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate produced are used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate so the process can continue. The triose phosphates not thus "recycled" often condense to form <a href="/wiki/Hexose" title="Hexose">hexose</a> phosphates, which ultimately yield <a href="/wiki/Sucrose" title="Sucrose">sucrose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">starch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">cellulose</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">sugars</a> produced during carbon <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> yield <a href="/wiki/Carbon_skeleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon skeleton">carbon skeletons</a> that can be used for other <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic reaction">metabolic reactions</a> like the production of <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipids">lipids</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_concentrating_mechanisms">Carbon concentrating mechanisms</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="On_land">On land</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C4 carbon fixation</a>, <a href="/wiki/CAM_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="CAM photosynthesis">CAM photosynthesis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alarm_photosynthesis" title="Alarm photosynthesis">Alarm photosynthesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HatchSlackpathway2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/HatchSlackpathway2.svg/310px-HatchSlackpathway2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="427" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/HatchSlackpathway2.svg/465px-HatchSlackpathway2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/HatchSlackpathway2.svg/620px-HatchSlackpathway2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="705" data-file-height="970" /></a><figcaption>Overview of <a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C4 carbon fixation</a>. (This image mistakenly shows <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Pyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyruvate">pyruvate</a>, and all the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_species" title="Chemical species">species</a> ending in "-ate" are shown as unionized acids, such as <a href="/wiki/Malic_acid" title="Malic acid">malic acid</a> and so on).</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Xerophyte" title="Xerophyte">hot and dry conditions</a>, plants close their <a href="/wiki/Stomata" class="mw-redirect" title="Stomata">stomata</a> to prevent water loss. Under these conditions, CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> will decrease and oxygen <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gas</a>, produced by the <a href="/wiki/Light_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Light reactions">light reactions</a> of photosynthesis, will increase, causing an increase of <a href="/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">photorespiration</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Oxygenase" title="Oxygenase">oxygenase</a> activity of <a href="/wiki/Rubisco" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubisco">ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase</a> (RuBisCO) and decrease in carbon fixation. Some plants have <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolved</a> mechanisms to increase the CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> concentration in the leaves under these conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2013_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2013-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plants that use the <a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C<sub>4</sub> carbon fixation</a> process chemically fix carbon dioxide in the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Mesophyll" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesophyll">mesophyll</a> by adding it to the three-carbon molecule <a href="/wiki/Phosphoenolpyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphoenolpyruvate">phosphoenolpyruvate</a> (PEP), a reaction <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalyzed</a> by an <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> called <a href="/wiki/Phosphoenolpyruvate_carboxylase" title="Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase">PEP carboxylase</a>, creating the four-carbon organic acid <a href="/wiki/Oxaloacetic_acid" title="Oxaloacetic acid">oxaloacetic acid</a>. Oxaloacetic acid or <a href="/wiki/Malate" class="mw-redirect" title="Malate">malate</a> synthesized by this process is then <a href="/wiki/Translocation_(botany)" class="mw-redirect" title="Translocation (botany)">translocated</a> to specialized <a href="/wiki/Bundle_sheath" class="mw-redirect" title="Bundle sheath">bundle sheath</a> cells where the enzyme <a href="/wiki/RuBisCO" title="RuBisCO">RuBisCO</a> and other Calvin cycle enzymes are located, and where CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> released by <a href="/wiki/Decarboxylation" title="Decarboxylation">decarboxylation</a> of the four-carbon acids is then fixed by RuBisCO activity to the three-carbon <a href="/wiki/3-phosphoglyceric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="3-phosphoglyceric acid">3-phosphoglyceric acids</a>. The physical separation of RuBisCO from the oxygen-generating light reactions reduces photorespiration and increases CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> fixation and, thus, the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_capacity" title="Photosynthetic capacity">photosynthetic capacity</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/C4_carbon_fixation" title="C4 carbon fixation">C<sub>4</sub> plants</a> can produce more sugar than <a href="/wiki/C3_carbon_fixation" title="C3 carbon fixation">C<sub>3</sub> plants</a> in conditions of high light and <a href="/wiki/Thermophile" title="Thermophile">temperature</a>. Many important <a href="/wiki/Crop_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Crop plants">crop plants</a> are C<sub>4</sub> plants, including <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Millet" title="Millet">millet</a>. Plants that do not use PEP-carboxylase in carbon fixation are called C<sub>3</sub> plants because the primary <a href="/wiki/Carboxylation" title="Carboxylation">carboxylation reaction</a>, catalyzed by RuBisCO, produces the three-carbon 3-phosphoglyceric acids directly in the <a href="/wiki/Calvin-Benson_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin-Benson cycle">Calvin-Benson cycle</a>. Over 90% of plants use C<sub>3</sub> carbon fixation, compared to 3% that use C<sub>4</sub> carbon fixation;<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, the evolution of C<sub>4</sub> in over sixty plant lineages makes it a striking example of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams-2013_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-2013-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/C2_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="C2 photosynthesis">C<sub>2</sub> photosynthesis</a>, which involves carbon-concentration by selective breakdown of photorespiratory glycine, is both an evolutionary precursor to C<sub>4</sub> and a useful <a href="#Carbon_concentrating_mechanisms">carbon-concentrating mechanism</a> in its own right.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Xerophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Xerophytes">Xerophytes</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cacti" class="mw-redirect" title="Cacti">cacti</a> and most <a href="/wiki/Succulents" class="mw-redirect" title="Succulents">succulents</a>, also use PEP carboxylase to capture carbon dioxide in a process called <a href="/wiki/CAM_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="CAM photosynthesis">Crassulacean acid metabolism</a> (CAM). In contrast to C<sub>4</sub> metabolism, which <i>spatially</i> separates the CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> fixation to PEP from the Calvin cycle, CAM <i>temporally</i> separates these two processes. CAM plants have a different <a href="/wiki/Leaf#Anatomy" title="Leaf">leaf anatomy</a> from C<sub>3</sub> plants, and fix the CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> at night, when their stomata are open. CAM plants store the CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> mostly in the form of <a href="/wiki/Malic_acid" title="Malic acid">malic acid</a> via carboxylation of <a href="/wiki/Phosphoenolpyruvate" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphoenolpyruvate">phosphoenolpyruvate</a> to <a href="/wiki/Oxaloacetate" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxaloacetate">oxaloacetate</a>, which is then reduced to malate. Decarboxylation of malate during the day releases CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> inside the leaves, thus allowing carbon fixation to 3-phosphoglycerate by RuBisCO. CAM is used by 16,000 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of plants.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxalate" title="Calcium oxalate">Calcium-oxalate</a>-accumulating plants, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Amaranthus_hybridus" title="Amaranthus hybridus">Amaranthus hybridus</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Colobanthus_quitensis" title="Colobanthus quitensis">Colobanthus quitensis</a>,</i> show a variation of photosynthesis where calcium oxalate <a href="/wiki/Druse_(botany)" title="Druse (botany)">crystals</a> function as dynamic <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon pools</a>, supplying carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) to photosynthetic cells when stomata are partially or totally closed. This process was named <a href="/wiki/Alarm_photosynthesis" title="Alarm photosynthesis">alarm photosynthesis</a>. Under <a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">stress</a> conditions (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">water deficit</a>), <a href="/wiki/Oxalate" title="Oxalate">oxalate</a> released from calcium oxalate crystals is converted to CO<sub>2</sub> by an <a href="/wiki/Oxalate_oxidase" title="Oxalate oxidase">oxalate oxidase</a> enzyme, and the produced CO<sub>2</sub> can support the <a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a> reactions. Reactive <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a> (H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>), the <a href="/wiki/By-product" title="By-product">byproduct</a> of oxalate oxidase reaction, can be <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(chemistry)" title="Neutralization (chemistry)">neutralized</a> by <a href="/wiki/Catalase" title="Catalase">catalase</a>. Alarm photosynthesis represents a photosynthetic variant to be added to the well-known C4 and CAM pathways. However, alarm photosynthesis, in contrast to these pathways, operates as a biochemical pump that collects carbon from the organ interior (or from the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>) and not from the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_water">In water</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> possess <a href="/wiki/Carboxysome" title="Carboxysome">carboxysomes</a>, which increase the concentration of CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> around RuBisCO to increase the rate of photosynthesis. An enzyme, <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_anhydrase" title="Carbonic anhydrase">carbonic anhydrase</a>, located within the carboxysome, releases CO<sub>2</sub> from dissolved <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbonate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrocarbonate">hydrocarbonate ions</a> (HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span>). Before the CO<sub>2</sub> can diffuse out, RuBisCO concentrated within the carboxysome quickly sponges it up. HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span> ions are made from CO<sub>2</sub> outside the cell by another carbonic anhydrase and are actively pumped into the cell by a membrane protein. They cannot cross the membrane as they are charged, and within the cytosol they turn back into CO<sub>2</sub> very slowly without the help of carbonic anhydrase. This causes the HCO<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1.2em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">−</sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">3</sub></span></span> ions to accumulate within the cell from where they diffuse into the carboxysomes.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pyrenoid" title="Pyrenoid">Pyrenoids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hornwort" title="Hornwort">hornworts</a> also act to concentrate CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> around RuBisCO.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Order_and_kinetics">Order and kinetics</h2></div> <p>The overall <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">process</a> of photosynthesis takes place in four stages:<sup id="cite_ref-McGraw-Hill-2007_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGraw-Hill-2007-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Stage</th> <th>Event </th> <th>Site</th> <th>Time scale </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Energy_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy transfer">Energy transfer</a> in <a href="/wiki/Light-harvesting_complex" title="Light-harvesting complex">antenna chlorophyll</a> </td> <td rowspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Thylakoid_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Thylakoid membranes">Thylakoid membranes</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Femtosecond" title="Femtosecond">Femtosecond</a> to <a href="/wiki/Picosecond" title="Picosecond">picosecond</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_transfer" title="Electron transfer">Transfer of electrons</a> in <a href="/wiki/Photochemical_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Photochemical reactions">photochemical reactions</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Picosecond" title="Picosecond">Picosecond</a> to <a href="/wiki/Nanosecond" title="Nanosecond">nanosecond</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">Electron transport chain</a> and <a href="/wiki/ATP_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="ATP synthesis">ATP synthesis</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Microsecond" title="Microsecond">Microsecond</a> to <a href="/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond">millisecond</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Biological_carbon_fixation" title="Biological carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a> and export of stable <a href="/wiki/Product_(chemistry)" title="Product (chemistry)">products</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Stroma_(fluid)" title="Stroma (fluid)">Stroma</a> of the chloroplasts and the cell <a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">cytosol</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Millisecond" title="Millisecond">Millisecond</a> to <a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">second</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Efficiency">Efficiency</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> usually <a href="/wiki/Photophosphorylation" title="Photophosphorylation">convert light into chemical energy</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">photosynthetic efficiency</a> of 3–6%.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ehrenberg-2017_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrenberg-2017-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Absorbed light that is unconverted is <a href="/wiki/Dissipation" title="Dissipation">dissipated</a> primarily as <a href="/wiki/Heat" title="Heat">heat</a>, with a small <a href="/wiki/Fraction" title="Fraction">fraction</a> (1–2%) reemitted as <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_fluorescence" title="Chlorophyll fluorescence">chlorophyll fluorescence</a> at longer (redder) <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelengths</a>. This fact allows <a href="/wiki/Measurement" title="Measurement">measurement</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Light_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Light reactions">light reaction</a> of photosynthesis by using chlorophyll <a href="/wiki/Fluorometer" title="Fluorometer">fluorometers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maxwell-2000_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maxwell-2000-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Actual plants' photosynthetic efficiency varies with the <a href="/wiki/Frequency#Light" title="Frequency">frequency of the light</a> being converted, <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">light intensity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>, and proportion of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">carbon dioxide in the atmosphere</a>, and can vary from 0.1% to 8%.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By comparison, <a href="/wiki/Photovoltaic_module" class="mw-redirect" title="Photovoltaic module">solar panels</a> convert light into <a href="/wiki/Electric_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric energy">electric energy</a> at an efficiency of approximately 6–20% for <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass-produced</a> panels, and above 40% in <a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">laboratory</a> devices. <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientists</a> are studying photosynthesis in hopes of developing plants with increased <a href="/wiki/Crop_yield" title="Crop yield">yield</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrenberg-2017_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrenberg-2017-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The efficiency of both light and dark reactions can be measured, but the relationship between the two can be complex. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Light_reactions" class="mw-redirect" title="Light reactions">light reaction</a> creates <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> and <a href="/wiki/NADPH" class="mw-redirect" title="NADPH">NADPH</a> energy <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>, which <a href="/wiki/C3_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="C3 plants">C<sub>3</sub> plants</a> can use for <a href="/wiki/Biological_carbon_fixation" title="Biological carbon fixation">carbon fixation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">photorespiration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">Electrons</a> may also flow to other electron sinks.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason, it is not uncommon for <a href="/wiki/Author" title="Author">authors</a> to differentiate between work done under <a href="/wiki/Photorespiration#Conditions_which_affect_photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">non-photorespiratory conditions and under photorespiratory conditions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baker-2008_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker-2008-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_fluorescence" title="Chlorophyll fluorescence">Chlorophyll fluorescence</a> of <a href="/wiki/Photosystem_II" title="Photosystem II">photosystem II</a> can measure the light reaction, and <a href="/wiki/Infrared_gas_analyzer" title="Infrared gas analyzer">infrared gas analyzers</a> can measure the <a href="/wiki/Dark_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark reaction">dark reaction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernacchi-2002_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernacchi-2002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An integrated chlorophyll <a href="/wiki/Fluorometer" title="Fluorometer">fluorometer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas-exchange_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas-exchange system">gas exchange system</a> can investigate both light and dark reactions when researchers use the two separate <a href="/wiki/Computer_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer Systems">systems</a> together.<sup id="cite_ref-Ribas-Carbo-2010_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ribas-Carbo-2010-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infrared gas analyzers and some <a href="/wiki/Hygrometer" title="Hygrometer">moisture sensors</a> are sensitive enough to measure the <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(biology)" title="Assimilation (biology)">photosynthetic assimilation</a> of <a href="/wiki/CO2" class="mw-redirect" title="CO2">CO<sub>2</sub></a> and of <a href="/wiki/Relative_change" title="Relative change">Δ</a>H<sub>2</sub>O using <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">reliable methods</a>. CO<sub>2</sub> is commonly measured in <abbr title="micromoles">μmols</abbr>/(<a href="/wiki/Square_metre" title="Square metre">m<sup>2</sup></a>/<a href="/wiki/Second" title="Second">s</a>), <a href="/wiki/Parts-per_notation" title="Parts-per notation">parts per</a> million, or volume per million; and <a href="/wiki/H2O" class="mw-redirect" title="H2O">H<sub>2</sub>O</a> is commonly measured in <abbr title="millimole">mmols</abbr>/(m<sup>2</sup>/s) or in <abbr title="millibars">mbars</abbr>. By measuring <a href="/wiki/CO2_assimilation" class="mw-redirect" title="CO2 assimilation">CO<sub>2</sub> assimilation</a>, ΔH<sub>2</sub>O, leaf temperature, <a href="/wiki/Barometric_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Barometric pressure">barometric pressure</a>, leaf area, and <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetically_active_radiation" title="Photosynthetically active radiation">photosynthetically active radiation</a> (PAR), it becomes possible to estimate, "A" or carbon assimilation, "E" or <a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">transpiration</a>, "gs" or <a href="/wiki/Stomatal_conductance" title="Stomatal conductance">stomatal conductance</a>, and "Ci" or intracellular CO<sub>2</sub>.<sup id="cite_ref-Long-2003_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Long-2003-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is more common to use chlorophyll fluorescence for <a href="/wiki/Plant_stress_measurement" title="Plant stress measurement">plant stress measurement</a>, where appropriate, because the most commonly used parameters <a href="/wiki/Plant_stress_measurement#Fv/Fm" title="Plant stress measurement">FV/FM</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_stress_measurement#Y(II)_or_ΔF/Fm'_and_ETR" title="Plant stress measurement">Y(II) or F/FM'</a> can be measured in a few seconds, allowing the investigation of larger plant populations.<sup id="cite_ref-Baker-2008_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baker-2008-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gas-exchange_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas-exchange system">Gas exchange systems</a> that offer control of CO<sub>2</sub> levels, above and below <a href="/wiki/Ambient_pressure" title="Ambient pressure">ambient</a>, allow the common practice of measurement of A/Ci curves, at different CO<sub>2</sub> levels, to characterize a plant's photosynthetic response.<sup id="cite_ref-Long-2003_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Long-2003-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Integrated chlorophyll fluorometer – gas exchange systems allow a more <a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">precise</a> measure of photosynthetic response and mechanisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernacchi-2002_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernacchi-2002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ribas-Carbo-2010_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ribas-Carbo-2010-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While standard gas exchange photosynthesis systems can measure Ci, or substomatal CO<sub>2</sub> levels, the addition of integrated chlorophyll fluorescence measurements allows a more precise measurement of C<sub>C,</sub> the estimation of CO<sub>2</sub> concentration at the site of <a href="/wiki/Carboxylation" title="Carboxylation">carboxylation</a> in the chloroplast, to replace Ci.<sup id="cite_ref-Ribas-Carbo-2010_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ribas-Carbo-2010-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CO<sub>2</sub> concentration in the chloroplast becomes possible to estimate with the measurement of mesophyll conductance or g<sub>m</sub> using an integrated system.<sup id="cite_ref-Bernacchi-2002_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bernacchi-2002-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ribas-Carbo-2010_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ribas-Carbo-2010-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Photosynthesis measurement systems are not designed to directly measure the amount of light the leaf absorbs, but analysis of <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll_fluorescence" title="Chlorophyll fluorescence">chlorophyll fluorescence</a>, <a href="/wiki/P700" title="P700">P700</a>- and P515-absorbance, and <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> measurements reveal detailed information about, e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem">photosystems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quantum_efficiency" title="Quantum efficiency">quantum efficiency</a> and the CO<sub>2</sub> assimilation rates. With some instruments, even wavelength dependency of the photosynthetic efficiency can be <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analyzed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Phenomenon" title="Phenomenon">phenomenon</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Quantum_walk" title="Quantum walk">quantum walk</a> increases the efficiency of the energy transport of light significantly. In the photosynthetic cell of an <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">alga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterium</a>, or plant, there are light-sensitive molecules called <a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">chromophores</a> arranged in an antenna-shaped structure called a photocomplex. When a <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> is absorbed by a chromophore, it is converted into a <a href="/wiki/Quasiparticle" title="Quasiparticle">quasiparticle</a> referred to as an <a href="/wiki/Exciton" title="Exciton">exciton</a>, which jumps from chromophore to chromophore towards the reaction center of the photocomplex, a collection of molecules that traps its energy in a chemical form accessible to the cell's metabolism. The exciton's wave properties enable it to cover a wider area and try out several possible paths simultaneously, allowing it to instantaneously "choose" the most efficient route, where it will have the highest probability of arriving at its destination in the minimum possible time. </p><p>Because that quantum walking takes place at temperatures far higher than quantum phenomena usually occur, it is only possible over very short distances. Obstacles in the form of destructive interference cause the particle to lose its wave properties for an instant before it regains them once again after it is freed from its locked position through a classic "hop". The movement of the electron towards the photo center is therefore covered in a series of conventional hops and quantum walks.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Evolution of photosynthesis</a></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_timeline" title="Template talk:Life timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.43em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.05em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:39.92em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.55em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.17em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.79em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.01em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.88em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.51em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.75em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e5cc7f;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:50.000em;left:0.910em;width:12.090em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-25.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none 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none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:38.546em;height:5.507em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:38.546em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-19.273em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.128em;height:15.419em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.709em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:23.128em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.564em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none 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none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.982em;height:7.379em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.689em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;">P<br />l<br />a<br />n<br />t<br />s</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.203em;height:3.756em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.878em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.721em;height:2.583em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.291em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.606em;height:1.597em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.798em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.333em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.666em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.606em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.303em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:5.947em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.974em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.80em;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:#ffffff;">H<br />a<br />d<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.533em;height:16.520em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.260em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><br /><br /><br />A<br />r<br />c<br />h<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:21.575em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.787em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />P<br />r<br />o<br />t<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P<br />h<br />a<br />n<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:8.260em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.130em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.568em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.053em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.952em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:38.546em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.278em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:25.330em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.780em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.026em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.621em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Earliest multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.520em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.361em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.260em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.489em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.993em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.958em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.075em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:3.304em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.275em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.018em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></i></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossils</a> of what are thought to be <a href="/wiki/Protein_filament" title="Protein filament">filamentous</a> photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> have been dated at 3.4 billion years old.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">studies</a> also suggest that photosynthesis may have begun about 3.4 billion years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though the first direct <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> of photosynthesis comes from <a href="/wiki/Thylakoid_membranes" class="mw-redirect" title="Thylakoid membranes">thylakoid membranes</a> preserved in 1.75-billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">cherts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_evolution" title="Oxygen evolution">Oxygenic photosynthesis</a> is the main source of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Earth's atmosphere</a>, and its earliest appearance is sometimes referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_catastrophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen catastrophe">oxygen catastrophe</a>. <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geological</a> evidence suggests that oxygenic photosynthesis, such as that in <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, became important during the <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> era around two billion years ago. Modern photosynthesis in <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> and most photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a> is oxygenic, using <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> as an <a href="/wiki/Electron_donor" title="Electron donor">electron donor</a>, which is <a href="/wiki/Oxidized" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidized">oxidized</a> to molecular oxygen in the <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic reaction center">photosynthetic reaction center</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbiosis_and_the_origin_of_chloroplasts">Symbiosis and the origin of chloroplasts</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/220px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/330px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/440px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Plant cells with visible chloroplasts (from a moss, <i><a href="/wiki/Plagiomnium_affine" title="Plagiomnium affine">Plagiomnium affine</a></i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Several groups of <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> have formed <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> relationships with photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>. These are most common in <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientists</a> presume that this is due to the particularly simple <a href="/wiki/Body_plan" title="Body plan">body plans</a> and large <a href="/wiki/Surface_area" title="Surface area">surface areas</a> of these animals compared to their <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volumes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, a few marine <a href="/wiki/Mollusks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusks">mollusks</a>, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Elysia_viridis" title="Elysia viridis">Elysia viridis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Elysia_chlorotica" title="Elysia chlorotica">Elysia chlorotica</a>,</i> also maintain a symbiotic relationship with <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> they capture from the algae in <a href="/wiki/Mollusca#Eating,_digestion,_and_excretion" title="Mollusca">their diet</a> and then store in their bodies (see <a href="/wiki/Kleptoplasty" title="Kleptoplasty">Kleptoplasty</a>). This allows the mollusks to survive solely by photosynthesis for several months at a time.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> from the plant <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a> have even been transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Slug" title="Slug">slugs</a>, so that the chloroplasts can be supplied with <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> they need to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An even closer form of symbiosis may explain the origin of chloroplasts. Chloroplasts have many similarities with photosynthetic <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, including a circular <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a>, prokaryotic-type <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosome</a>, and similar <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_centre_protein_family" title="Photosynthetic reaction centre protein family">proteins in the photosynthetic reaction center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic theory">endosymbiotic theory</a> suggests that photosynthetic bacteria were acquired (by <a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">endocytosis</a>) by early <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> cells to form the first plant cells. Therefore, chloroplasts may be photosynthetic bacteria that adapted to life inside plant cells. Like <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>, chloroplasts possess their own <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, separate from the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_DNA" title="Nuclear DNA">nuclear DNA</a> of their plant host cells and the genes in this chloroplast DNA resemble those found in <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DNA in chloroplasts codes for <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> proteins such as those found in the photosynthetic reaction centers. The <a href="/wiki/CoRR_Hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="CoRR Hypothesis">CoRR Hypothesis</a> proposes that this co-location of genes with their gene products is required for redox regulation of <a href="/wiki/Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">gene expression</a>, and accounts for the persistence of DNA in bioenergetic <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photosynthetic_eukaryotic_lineages">Photosynthetic eukaryotic lineages</h3></div> <p>Symbiotic and <a href="/wiki/Kleptoplasty" title="Kleptoplasty">kleptoplastic</a> organisms excluded: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">glaucophytes</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">green algae</a>—clade <a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">uni</a>- and <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular</a>)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cryptophyceae" title="Cryptophyceae">cryptophytes</a>—clade <a href="/wiki/Cryptista" title="Cryptista">Cryptista</a> (unicellular)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">haptophytes</a>—clade <a href="/wiki/Haptista" title="Haptista">Haptista</a> (unicellular)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chromerida" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromerida">chromerids</a> in the superphylum <a href="/wiki/Myzozoa" title="Myzozoa">Myzozoa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pseudoblepharisma" title="Pseudoblepharisma">Pseudoblepharisma</a> in the phylum <a href="/wiki/Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliophora</a>—clade <a href="/wiki/Alveolata" class="mw-redirect" title="Alveolata">Alveolata</a> (unicellular)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Ochrophyta" class="mw-redirect" title="Ochrophyta">ochrophytes</a>—clade <a href="/wiki/Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopila</a> (uni- and multicellular)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Chlorarachniophyte" title="Chlorarachniophyte">chlorarachniophytes</a> and three <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of <a href="/wiki/Paulinella" title="Paulinella">Paulinella</a> in the phylum <a href="/wiki/Cercozoa" title="Cercozoa">Cercozoa</a>—clade <a href="/wiki/Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a> (unicellular)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Euglenid" title="Euglenid">euglenids</a>—clade <a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a> (unicellular)</li></ul> <p>Except for the euglenids, which are found within the <a href="/wiki/Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a>, all of these belong to the <a href="/wiki/Diaphoretickes" title="Diaphoretickes">Diaphoretickes</a>. Archaeplastida and the photosynthetic Paulinella got their plastids, which are surrounded by two membranes, through primary <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiosis</a> in two separate events, by engulfing a cyanobacterium. The plastids in all the other groups have either a red or green algal origin, and are referred to as the "red lineages" and the "green lineages". The only known exception is the ciliate <a href="/wiki/Pseudoblepharisma" title="Pseudoblepharisma">Pseudoblepharisma tenue</a>, which in addition to its plastids that originated from green algae also has a <a href="/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" title="Purple sulfur bacteria">purple sulfur bacterium</a> as symbiont. In dinoflagellates and euglenids the plastids are surrounded by three membranes, and in the remaining lines by four. A <a href="/wiki/Nucleomorph" title="Nucleomorph">nucleomorph</a>, remnants of the original algal nucleus located between the inner and outer membranes of the plastid, is present in the cryptophytes (from a red alga) and chlorarachniophytes (from a green alga).<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some dinoflagellates that lost their photosynthetic ability later regained it again through new endosymbiotic events with different algae. While able to perform photosynthesis, many of these eukaryotic groups are <a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">mixotrophs</a> and practice <a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophy</a> to various degrees. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Photosynthetic_prokaryotic_lineages">Photosynthetic prokaryotic lineages</h3></div> <p>Early photosynthetic systems, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Purple_sulfur" class="mw-redirect" title="Purple sulfur">purple sulfur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">green</a> and <a href="/wiki/Purple_nonsulfur_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Purple nonsulfur bacteria">purple nonsulfur bacteria</a>, are thought to have been <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">anoxygenic</a>, and used various other molecules than water as <a href="/wiki/Electron_donor" title="Electron donor">electron donors</a>. Green and purple sulfur bacteria are thought to have used <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> as electron donors. Green nonsulfur bacteria used various <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Organic_acid" title="Organic acid">organic acids</a> as electron donors. Purple nonsulfur bacteria used a variety of nonspecific organic molecules. The use of these molecules is consistent with the geological evidence that Earth's early atmosphere was highly <a href="/wiki/Reducing_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing environment">reducing</a> at <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth#Hadean_and_Archean_Eons" title="History of Earth">that time</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With a possible exception of <a href="/wiki/Asgard_(archaea)" class="mw-redirect" title="Asgard (archaea)">Heimdallarchaeota</a>, photosynthesis is not found in <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Haloarchaea" title="Haloarchaea">Haloarchaea</a> are phototrophic and can absorb energy from the sun, but do not harvest carbon from the atmosphere and are therefore not photosynthetic.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of chlorophyll they use rhodopsins, which convert light-energy to ion gradients but cannot mediate electron transfer reactions.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> eight photosynthetic lineages are currently known:<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a>, the only prokaryotes performing oxygenic photosynthesis and the only prokaryotes that contain two types of photosystems (type I (RCI), also known as Fe-S type, and type II (RCII), also known as quinone type). The seven remaining prokaryotes have <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">anoxygenic photosynthesis</a> and use versions of either type I or type II.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">Chlorobi</a> (green sulfur bacteria) Type I</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliobacteria" title="Heliobacteria">Heliobacteria</a> Type I</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloracidobacterium" title="Chloracidobacterium">Chloracidobacterium</a> Type I</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Proteobacteria</a> (purple sulfur bacteria and purple non-sulfur bacteria) Type II (see: <a href="/wiki/Purple_bacteria" title="Purple bacteria">Purple bacteria</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota">Chloroflexota</a> (green non-sulfur bacteria) Type II</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemmatimonadota" title="Gemmatimonadota">Gemmatimonadota</a> Type II</li> <li>Eremiobacterota Type II</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cyanobacteria_and_the_evolution_of_photosynthesis">Cyanobacteria and the evolution of photosynthesis</h3></div> <p>The biochemical capacity to use water as the source for electrons in photosynthesis evolved once, in a <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a> of extant <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> (formerly called blue-green algae). The geological record indicates that this transforming event took place early in Earth's history, at least 2450–2320 million years ago (Ma), and, it is speculated, much earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because the Earth's atmosphere contained almost no oxygen during the estimated development of photosynthesis, it is believed that the first photosynthetic cyanobacteria did not generate oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Available evidence from geobiological studies of <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> (>2500 Ma) <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a> indicates that life existed 3500 Ma, but the question of when oxygenic photosynthesis evolved is still unanswered. A clear paleontological window on cyanobacterial <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> opened about 2000 Ma, revealing an already-diverse biota of cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria remained the principal <a href="/wiki/Primary_producers" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producers">primary producers</a> of oxygen throughout the <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic_Eon" class="mw-redirect" title="Proterozoic Eon">Proterozoic Eon</a> (2500–543 Ma), in part because the redox structure of the oceans favored photoautotrophs capable of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">Green algae</a> joined cyanobacteria as the major primary producers of oxygen on <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a> near the end of the <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>, but only with the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> (251–66 Ma) radiations of dinoflagellates, coccolithophorids, and diatoms did the <a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">primary production</a> of oxygen in marine shelf waters take modern form. Cyanobacteria remain critical to <a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">marine ecosystems</a> as <a href="/wiki/Oxygen_cycle" title="Oxygen cycle">primary producers of oxygen</a> in oceanic gyres, as agents of biological nitrogen fixation, and, in modified form, as the <a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">plastids</a> of marine algae.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_history">Experimental history</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery">Discovery</h3></div> <p>Although some of the steps in photosynthesis are still not completely understood, the overall photosynthetic equation has been known since the 19th century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont_portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont_portrait.jpg/220px-Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont_portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont_portrait.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="259" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan Baptist van Helmont</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beale" title="Mary Beale">Mary Beale</a>, c. 1674</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont" title="Jan Baptist van Helmont">Jan van Helmont</a> began the <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">process</a> in the mid-17th century when he carefully measured the <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> a <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a> was using and the mass of the plant as it grew. After noticing that the soil mass changed very little, he <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesized</a> that the mass of the <a href="/wiki/Plant_development" title="Plant development">growing</a> plant must come from the <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, the only <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">substance</a> he added to the potted plant. His hypothesis was partially <a href="/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision" title="Accuracy and precision">accurate</a> – much of the gained mass comes from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> as well as water. However, this was a signaling point to the idea that the bulk of a plant's <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> comes from the inputs of photosynthesis, not the soil itself. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minister_(Christianity)" title="Minister (Christianity)">minister</a>, discovered that when he isolated a <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> of air under an inverted <a href="/wiki/Jar" title="Jar">jar</a> and burned a <a href="/wiki/Candle" title="Candle">candle</a> in it (which gave off <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub>2</sub></a>), the candle would burn out very quickly, much before it ran out of <a href="/wiki/Candle#Wax" title="Candle">wax</a>. He further discovered that a <a href="/wiki/Mouse" title="Mouse">mouse</a> could similarly <a href="/wiki/Breathing" title="Breathing">"injure"</a> air. He then showed that a plant could restore the air the candle and the mouse had "injured."<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-2012_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-2012-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1779, <a href="/wiki/Jan_Ingenhousz" title="Jan Ingenhousz">Jan Ingenhousz</a> repeated Priestley's <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a>. He discovered that it was the influence of <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a> on the plant that could cause it to revive a mouse in a matter of hours.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin-2012_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-2012-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1796, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Senebier" title="Jean Senebier">Jean Senebier</a>, a Swiss <a href="/wiki/Pastor" title="Pastor">pastor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Botanist">botanist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Naturalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Naturalist">naturalist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_demonstration" title="Scientific demonstration">demonstrated</a> that <a href="/wiki/Green_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Green plants">green plants</a> consume carbon dioxide and release oxygen under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>. Soon afterward, <a href="/wiki/Nicolas-Th%C3%A9odore_de_Saussure" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure">Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure</a> showed that the increase in mass of the plant as it grows could not be due only to uptake of CO<sub>2</sub> but also to the incorporation of water. Thus, the basic <a href="/wiki/Chemical_reaction" title="Chemical reaction">reaction</a> by which <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> use photosynthesis to produce <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>) was outlined.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Refinements">Refinements</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cornelis_Van_Niel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornelis Van Niel">Cornelis Van Niel</a> made key discoveries explaining the <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> of photosynthesis. By studying <a href="/wiki/Purple_sulfur_bacteria" title="Purple sulfur bacteria">purple sulfur bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Green bacteria">green bacteria</a>, he was the first to demonstrate that photosynthesis is a light-dependent <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox reaction</a> in which hydrogen <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agent" title="Reducing agent">reduces</a> (donates its <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atoms</a> as <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> to) carbon dioxide. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Emerson_(scientist)" title="Robert Emerson (scientist)">Robert Emerson</a> discovered two light reactions by testing plant productivity using different wavelengths of light. With the red alone, the light reactions were suppressed. When blue and red were combined, the output was much more substantial. Thus, there were two photosystems, one absorbing up to 600 nm wavelengths, the other up to 700 nm. The former is known as PSII, the latter is PSI. PSI contains only chlorophyll "a", PSII contains primarily chlorophyll "a" with most of the available chlorophyll "b", among other pigments. These include phycobilins, which are the red and blue pigments of red and blue algae, respectively, and fucoxanthol for brown algae and diatoms. The process is most productive when the absorption of quanta is equal in both PSII and PSI, assuring that input energy from the antenna complex is divided between the PSI and PSII systems, which in turn powers the photochemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-McGraw-Hill-2007_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGraw-Hill-2007-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robin_Hill_(biochemist)" title="Robin Hill (biochemist)">Robert Hill</a> thought that a complex of reactions consisted of an intermediate to cytochrome b<sub>6</sub> (now a plastoquinone), and that another was from cytochrome f to a step in the carbohydrate-generating mechanisms. These are linked by plastoquinone, which does require energy to reduce cytochrome f. Further experiments to prove that the oxygen developed during the photosynthesis of green plants came from water were performed by Hill in 1937 and 1939. He showed that isolated <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> give off oxygen in the presence of unnatural reducing agents like <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> <a href="/wiki/Oxalate" title="Oxalate">oxalate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferricyanide" title="Ferricyanide">ferricyanide</a> or <a href="/wiki/Benzoquinone" title="Benzoquinone">benzoquinone</a> after exposure to light. In the Hill reaction:<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>2 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 A + (light, chloroplasts) → 2 AH<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub></dd></dl> <p>A is the electron acceptor. Therefore, in light, the electron acceptor is reduced and oxygen is evolved. <a href="/wiki/Sam_Ruben" title="Sam Ruben">Samuel Ruben</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Kamen" title="Martin Kamen">Martin Kamen</a> used <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radioactive isotopes</a> to determine that the oxygen liberated in photosynthesis came from the water. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Melvin_Calvin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Melvin_Calvin.jpg/170px-Melvin_Calvin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Melvin_Calvin.jpg/255px-Melvin_Calvin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Melvin_Calvin.jpg/340px-Melvin_Calvin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3087" data-file-height="3999" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> works in his photosynthesis laboratory.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Benson" title="Andrew Benson">Andrew Benson</a>, along with <a href="/wiki/James_Bassham" title="James Bassham">James Bassham</a>, elucidated the path of carbon assimilation (the photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle) in plants. The carbon reduction cycle is known as the <a href="/wiki/Calvin_cycle" title="Calvin cycle">Calvin cycle</a>, but many scientists refer to it as the Calvin-Benson, Benson-Calvin, or even Calvin-Benson-Bassham (or CBB) Cycle. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a>–winning scientist <a href="/wiki/Rudolph_A._Marcus" title="Rudolph A. Marcus">Rudolph A. Marcus</a> was later able to discover the function and significance of the electron transport chain. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Otto_Heinrich_Warburg" title="Otto Heinrich Warburg">Otto Heinrich Warburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dean_Burk" title="Dean Burk">Dean Burk</a> discovered the I-quantum photosynthesis reaction that splits CO<sub>2</sub>, activated by the respiration.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, first experimental evidence for the existence of <a href="/wiki/Photophosphorylation" title="Photophosphorylation">photophosphorylation</a> <i>in vivo</i> was presented by <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kandler" title="Otto Kandler">Otto Kandler</a> using intact <i><a href="/wiki/Chlorella" title="Chlorella">Chlorella</a></i> cells and interpreting his findings as light-dependent <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> formation.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_I._Arnon" title="Daniel I. Arnon">Daniel I. Arnon</a> et al. discovered photophosphorylation <i>in vitro</i> in isolated <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> with the help of P<sup>32</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louis_N._M._Duysens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Louis N. M. Duysens (page does not exist)">Louis N. M. Duysens</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jan_Amesz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jan Amesz (page does not exist)">Jan Amesz</a> discovered that chlorophyll "a" will absorb one light, oxidize cytochrome f, while chlorophyll "a" (and other pigments) will absorb another light but will reduce this same oxidized cytochrome, stating the two light reactions are in series. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_the_concept">Development of the concept</h3></div> <p>In 1893, the American botanist <a href="/wiki/Charles_Reid_Barnes" title="Charles Reid Barnes">Charles Reid Barnes</a> proposed two terms, <i>photosyntax</i> and <i>photosynthesis</i>, for the biological process of <i>synthesis of complex carbon compounds out of carbonic acid, in the presence of chlorophyll, under the influence of light</i>. The term <i>photosynthesis</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <i>phōs</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%86%E1%BF%B6%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:φῶς">φῶς</a>, gleam) and <i>sýnthesis</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:σύνθεσις">σύνθεσις</a>, arranging together),<sup id="cite_ref-Online_Etymology_Dictionary_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Online_Etymology_Dictionary-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while another word that he designated was <i>photosyntax</i>, from <i>sýntaxis</i> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CF%83%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%B9%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:σύνταξις">σύνταξις</a>, configuration). Over time, the term <i>photosynthesis</i> came into common usage. Later discovery of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria and photophosphorylation necessitated redefinition of the term.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="C3_:_C4_photosynthesis_research">C3 : C4 photosynthesis research</h3></div> <p>In the late 1940s at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>, the details of photosynthetic carbon metabolism were sorted out by the chemists <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Calvin" title="Melvin Calvin">Melvin Calvin</a>, Andrew Benson, James Bassham and a score of students and researchers utilizing the carbon-14 isotope and paper chromatography techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The pathway of CO<sub>2</sub> fixation by the algae <i>Chlorella</i> in a fraction of a second in light resulted in a three carbon molecule called phosphoglyceric acid (PGA). For that original and ground-breaking work, a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> was awarded to Melvin Calvin in 1961. In parallel, plant physiologists studied leaf gas exchanges using the new method of infrared gas analysis and a leaf chamber where the net photosynthetic rates ranged from 10 to 13 μmol CO<sub>2</sub>·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>, with the conclusion that all terrestrial plants have the same photosynthetic capacities, that are light saturated at less than 50% of sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later in 1958–1963 at <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, field grown <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> was reported to have much greater leaf photosynthetic rates of 40 μmol CO<sub>2</sub>·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup> and not be saturated at near full sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This higher rate in maize was almost double of those observed in other species such as wheat and soybean, indicating that large differences in photosynthesis exist among higher plants. At the University of Arizona, detailed gas exchange research on more than 15 species of <a href="/wiki/Monocotyledon" title="Monocotyledon">monocots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dicotyledon" title="Dicotyledon">dicots</a> uncovered for the first time that differences in leaf anatomy are crucial factors in differentiating photosynthetic capacities among species.<sup id="cite_ref-El-Sharkawy-1965_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El-Sharkawy-1965-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-El-Sharkawy-1986_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El-Sharkawy-1986-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In tropical grasses, including maize, sorghum, sugarcane, Bermuda grass and in the dicot amaranthus, leaf photosynthetic rates were around 38−40 μmol CO<sub>2</sub>·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup>, and the leaves have two types of green cells, i.e. outer layer of mesophyll cells surrounding a tightly packed cholorophyllous vascular bundle sheath cells. This type of anatomy was termed Kranz anatomy in the 19th century by the botanist <a href="/wiki/Gottlieb_Haberlandt" title="Gottlieb Haberlandt">Gottlieb Haberlandt</a> while studying leaf anatomy of sugarcane.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant species with the greatest photosynthetic rates and Kranz anatomy showed no apparent photorespiration, very low CO<sub>2</sub> compensation point, high optimum temperature, high stomatal resistances and lower mesophyll resistances for gas diffusion and rates never saturated at full sun light.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The research at Arizona was designated a Citation Classic in 1986.<sup id="cite_ref-El-Sharkawy-1986_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El-Sharkawy-1986-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These species were later termed C4 plants as the first stable compound of CO<sub>2</sub> fixation in light has four carbons as malate and aspartate.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other species that lack Kranz anatomy were termed C3 type such as cotton and sunflower, as the first stable carbon compound is the three-carbon PGA. At 1000 ppm CO<sub>2</sub> in measuring air, both the C3 and C4 plants had similar leaf photosynthetic rates around 60 μmol CO<sub>2</sub>·m<sup>−2</sup>·s<sup>−1</sup> indicating the suppression of photorespiration in C3 plants.<sup id="cite_ref-El-Sharkawy-1965_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El-Sharkawy-1965-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-El-Sharkawy-1986_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El-Sharkawy-1986-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Factors">Factors</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_1_web.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/220px-Leaf_1_web.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/330px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Leaf_1_web.jpg/440px-Leaf_1_web.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are four main factors influencing photosynthesis and several corollary factors. The four main are:<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Light <a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a></li> <li>Water absorption</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</a>.</li></ul> <p>Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of <a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">leaf</a> area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), the rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Light_intensity_(irradiance),_wavelength_and_temperature"><span id="Light_intensity_.28irradiance.29.2C_wavelength_and_temperature"></span>Light intensity (irradiance), wavelength and temperature</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/PI_curve" title="PI curve">PI (photosynthesis-irradiance) curve</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg/220px-Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg/330px-Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg/440px-Chlorophyll_ab_spectra-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="710" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Absorbance" title="Absorbance">Absorbance</a> spectra of free chlorophyll <i>a</i> (<span style="color:blue;">blue</span>) and <i>b</i> (<span style="color:red;">red</span>) in a solvent. The action spectra of chlorophyll molecules are slightly modified <i>in vivo</i> depending on specific pigment–protein interactions.</figcaption></figure> <p>The process of photosynthesis provides the main input of free energy into the biosphere, and is one of four main ways in which radiation is important for plant life.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The radiation climate within plant communities is extremely variable, in both time and space. </p><p>In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Blackman" title="Frederick Blackman">Frederick Blackman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gabrielle_Matthaei" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabrielle Matthaei">Gabrielle Matthaei</a> investigated the effects of light intensity (<a href="/wiki/Irradiance" title="Irradiance">irradiance</a>) and temperature on the rate of carbon assimilation. </p> <ul><li>At constant temperature, the rate of carbon assimilation varies with irradiance, increasing as the irradiance increases, but reaching a plateau at higher irradiance.</li> <li>At low irradiance, increasing the temperature has little influence on the rate of carbon assimilation. At constant high irradiance, the rate of carbon assimilation increases as the temperature is increased.</li></ul> <p>These two experiments illustrate several important points: First, it is known that, in general, <a href="/wiki/Photochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Photochemical">photochemical</a> reactions are not affected by <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperature</a>. However, these experiments clearly show that temperature affects the rate of carbon assimilation, so there must be two sets of reactions in the full process of carbon assimilation. These are the light-dependent 'photochemical' temperature-independent stage, and the light-independent, temperature-dependent stage. Second, Blackman's experiments illustrate the concept of <a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">limiting factors</a>. Another limiting factor is the wavelength of light. Cyanobacteria, which reside several meters underwater, cannot receive the correct wavelengths required to cause photoinduced charge separation in conventional photosynthetic pigments. To combat this problem, Cyanobacteria have a light-harvesting complex called <a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This complex is made up of a series of proteins with different pigments which surround the reaction center. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbon_dioxide_levels_and_photorespiration">Carbon dioxide levels and photorespiration</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Photorespiration.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Photorespiration.svg/350px-Photorespiration.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Photorespiration.svg/525px-Photorespiration.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Photorespiration.svg/700px-Photorespiration.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="920" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Photorespiration</figcaption></figure> <p>As carbon dioxide concentrations rise, the rate at which sugars are made by the light-independent reactions increases until limited by other factors. <a href="/wiki/RuBisCO" title="RuBisCO">RuBisCO</a>, the enzyme that captures carbon dioxide in the light-independent reactions, has a binding affinity for both carbon dioxide and oxygen. When the concentration of carbon dioxide is high, RuBisCO will fix carbon dioxide. However, if the carbon dioxide concentration is low, RuBisCO will bind oxygen instead of carbon dioxide. This process, called <a href="/wiki/Photorespiration" title="Photorespiration">photorespiration</a>, uses energy, but does not produce sugars. </p><p>RuBisCO oxygenase activity is disadvantageous to plants for several reasons: </p> <ol><li>One product of oxygenase activity is phosphoglycolate (2 carbon) instead of <a href="/wiki/3-phosphoglycerate" class="mw-redirect" title="3-phosphoglycerate">3-phosphoglycerate</a> (3 carbon). Phosphoglycolate cannot be metabolized by the Calvin-Benson cycle and represents carbon lost from the cycle. A high oxygenase activity, therefore, drains the sugars that are required to recycle ribulose 5-bisphosphate and for the continuation of the <a href="/wiki/Calvin-Benson_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin-Benson cycle">Calvin-Benson cycle</a>.</li> <li>Phosphoglycolate is quickly metabolized to glycolate that is toxic to a plant at a high concentration; it inhibits photosynthesis.</li> <li>Salvaging glycolate is an energetically expensive process that uses the glycolate pathway, and only 75% of the carbon is returned to the Calvin-Benson cycle as 3-phosphoglycerate. The reactions also produce <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> (NH<sub>3</sub>), which is able to <a href="/wiki/Molecular_diffusion" title="Molecular diffusion">diffuse</a> out of the plant, leading to a loss of nitrogen.</li></ol> <dl><dd><dl><dd>A highly simplified summary is:</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>2 glycolate + ATP → 3-phosphoglycerate + carbon dioxide + ADP + NH<sub>3</sub></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>The salvaging pathway for the products of RuBisCO oxygenase activity is more commonly known as photorespiration, since it is characterized by light-dependent oxygen consumption and the release of carbon dioxide. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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(scientist)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_photosynthesis" title="Artificial photosynthesis">Artificial photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin-Benson_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvin-Benson cycle">Calvin-Benson cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">Carbon fixation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daily_light_integral" title="Daily light integral">Daily light integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hill_reaction" title="Hill reaction">Hill reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_fluorometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated fluorometer">Integrated fluorometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-dependent reaction">Light-dependent reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_reaction" title="Organic reaction">Organic reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoinhibition" title="Photoinhibition">Photoinhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_reaction_center" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic reaction center">Photosynthetic reaction center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetically_active_radiation" title="Photosynthetically active radiation">Photosynthetically active radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem">Photosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosystem_I" title="Photosystem I">Photosystem I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosystem_II" title="Photosystem II">Photosystem II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantasome" title="Quantasome">Quantasome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiosynthesis_(metabolism)" title="Radiosynthesis (metabolism)">Radiosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_edge" title="Red edge">Red edge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamin D</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220811182212/https://www.lexico.com/definition/photosynthesis">"Photosynthesis"</a>. <i>lexico.com</i> (<a href="/wiki/Lexico" title="Lexico">Lexico</a> UK English Dictionary). Oxford University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lexico.com/definition/photosynthesis">the original</a> on 2022-08-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=lexico.com&rft.atitle=Photosynthesis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fdefinition%2Fphotosynthesis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bryant-2006-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bryant-2006_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bryant-2006_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBryantFrigaard2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bryant, Donald A.; Frigaard, Niels-Ulrik (Nov 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0966842X06002265">"Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Trends_in_Microbiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Trends in Microbiology">Trends in Microbiology</a></i>. <b>14</b> (11): 488–496. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2006.09.001">10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16997562">16997562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Prokaryotic+photosynthesis+and+phototrophy+illuminated&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=488-496&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tim.2006.09.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16997562&rft.aulast=Bryant&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rft.au=Frigaard%2C+Niels-Ulrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0966842X06002265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReeceUrryCainWasserman2011" class="citation book cs1">Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa A.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven A.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert B.; Campbel, Neil A. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781256158769/page/235"><i>Biology</i></a> (International ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781256158769/page/235">235, 244</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-73975-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-73975-9"><bdi>978-0-321-73975-9</bdi></a>. <q>This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.pages=235%2C+244&rft.edition=International&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-321-73975-9&rft.aulast=Reece&rft.aufirst=Jane+B.&rft.au=Urry%2C+Lisa+A.&rft.au=Cain%2C+Michael+L.&rft.au=Wasserman%2C+Steven+A.&rft.au=Minorsky%2C+Peter+V.&rft.au=Jackson%2C+Robert+B.&rft.au=Campbel%2C+Neil+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9781256158769%2Fpage%2F235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson2006" class="citation journal cs1">Olson JM (May 2006). "Photosynthesis in the Archean era". <i><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis_Research" title="Photosynthesis Research">Photosynthesis Research</a></i>. <b>88</b> (2): 109–117. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PhoRe..88..109O">2006PhoRe..88..109O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11120-006-9040-5">10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16453059">16453059</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20364747">20364747</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Photosynthesis+Research&rft.atitle=Photosynthesis+in+the+Archean+era&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=109-117&rft.date=2006-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11120-006-9040-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20364747%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16453059&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006PhoRe..88..109O&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuick2008" class="citation journal cs1">Buick R (Aug 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2606769">"When did oxygenic photosynthesis evolve?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_of_London,_Series_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B</a></i>. <b>363</b> (1504): 2731–2743. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0041">10.1098/rstb.2008.0041</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2606769">2606769</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18468984">18468984</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London%2C+Series+B&rft.atitle=When+did+oxygenic+photosynthesis+evolve%3F&rft.volume=363&rft.issue=1504&rft.pages=2731-2743&rft.date=2008-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2606769%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18468984&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2008.0041&rft.aulast=Buick&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2606769&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNealsonConrad1999" class="citation journal 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(identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10670014">10670014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London%2C+Series+B&rft.atitle=Life%3A+past%2C+present+and+future&rft.volume=354&rft.issue=1392&rft.pages=1923-1939&rft.date=1999-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1692713%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10670014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.1999.0532&rft.aulast=Nealson&rft.aufirst=KH&rft.au=Conrad%2C+PG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1692713&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitmarshGovindjee1999" class="citation book cs1">Whitmarsh, John; Govindjee (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html#80">"Chapter 2: The photosynthetic process"</a>. In Singhal G.S.; Renger G.; Sopory S.K.; Irrgang K.D.; Govindjee (eds.). <i>Concepts in photobiology: photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis</i>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Kluwer_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Kluwer Academic Publishers">Kluwer Academic Publishers</a>. pp. 11–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-5519-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-5519-9"><bdi>978-0-7923-5519-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100814191216/http://www.life.illinois.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html#80">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-08-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-07-07</span></span>. <q>It is estimated that photosynthetic organisms remove <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7017100000000000000♠"></span>100<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>15</sup></span> grams of carbon/year fixed by photosynthetic organisms. This is equivalent to <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7014126752351256115♠"></span>4<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>18</sup> kJ/yr</span> of free energy stored in reduced carbon. (in Part 8: "Global photosynthesis and the atmosphere")</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%3A+The+photosynthetic+process&rft.btitle=Concepts+in+photobiology%3A+photosynthesis+and+photomorphogenesis&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=11-51&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7923-5519-9&rft.aulast=Whitmarsh&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Govindjee&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.life.illinois.edu%2Fgovindjee%2Fpaper%2Fgov.html%2380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStegerAchterbergBlokBode2005" class="citation book cs1">Steger U, Achterberg W, Blok K, Bode H, Frenz W, Gather C, Hanekamp G, Imboden D, Jahnke M, Kost M, Kurz R, Nutzinger HG, Ziesemer T (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=duVJsAqXlkEC&q=photosynthesis%20terawatt&pg=PA32"><i>Sustainable development and innovation in the energy sector</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-02-21</span></span>. <q>The average global rate of photosynthesis is 130 TW.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sustainable+development+and+innovation+in+the+energy+sector&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-3-540-23103-5&rft.aulast=Steger&rft.aufirst=U&rft.au=Achterberg%2C+W&rft.au=Blok%2C+K&rft.au=Bode%2C+H&rft.au=Frenz%2C+W&rft.au=Gather%2C+C&rft.au=Hanekamp%2C+G&rft.au=Imboden%2C+D&rft.au=Jahnke%2C+M&rft.au=Kost%2C+M&rft.au=Kurz%2C+R&rft.au=Nutzinger%2C+HG&rft.au=Ziesemer%2C+T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DduVJsAqXlkEC%26q%3Dphotosynthesis%2520terawatt%26pg%3DPA32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061109125803/http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table18.xls">"World Consumption of Primary Energy by Energy Type and Selected Country Groups, 1980–2004"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Energy_Information_Administration" title="Energy Information Administration">Energy Information Administration</a>. 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href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2542863">2542863</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18250316">18250316</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Structural+changes+in+the+Mn4Ca+cluster+and+the+mechanism+of+photosynthetic+water+splitting&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1879-1884&rft.date=2008-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2542863%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18250316&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0707092105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..105.1879P&rft.aulast=Pushkar&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Yano%2C+J&rft.au=Sauer%2C+K&rft.au=Boussac%2C+A&rft.au=Yachandra%2C+VK&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2542863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams-2013-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2013_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Williams-2013_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsJohnstonCovshoffHibberd2013" class="citation journal cs1">Williams BP, Johnston IG, Covshoff S, Hibberd JM (September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3786385">"Phenotypic landscape inference reveals multiple evolutionary paths to C4 photosynthesis"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ELife" title="ELife">eLife</a></i>. <b>2</b>: e00961. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7554%2FeLife.00961">10.7554/eLife.00961</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3786385">3786385</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24082995">24082995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=eLife&rft.atitle=Phenotypic+landscape+inference+reveals+multiple+evolutionary+paths+to+C4+photosynthesis&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=e00961&rft.date=2013-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3786385%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24082995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7554%2FeLife.00961&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=BP&rft.au=Johnston%2C+IG&rft.au=Covshoff%2C+S&rft.au=Hibberd%2C+JM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3786385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Physiology&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-856-8&rft.aulast=Taiz&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Geiger%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fplantphysiology0000taiz_y5k4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonsonSage1999" class="citation book cs1">Monson RK, Sage RF (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H7Wv9ZImW-QC&pg=PA551">"The Taxonomic Distribution of <span class="chemf nowrap">C<span class="nowrap"><span style="display:inline-block;margin-bottom:-0.3em;vertical-align:-0.4em;line-height:1em;font-size:80%;text-align:left"><sup style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline"></sup><br /><sub style="font-size:inherit;line-height:inherit;vertical-align:baseline">4</sub></span></span></span> Photosynthesis"</a>. <i>C<sub>4</sub> plant biology</i>. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27959-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27959-8"><bdi>978-0-521-27959-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119181859/https://books.google.com/books?id=BYALAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plants+and+Microclimate%3A+a+Quantitative+Approach+to+Environmental+Plant+Physiology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27959-8&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=HG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBYALAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdirBar-ZviHarris2020" class="citation journal cs1">Adir N, Bar-Zvi S, Harris D (April 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbabio.2019.07.002">"The amazing phycobilisome"</a>. <i>Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics</i>. Light harvesting. <b>1861</b> (4): 148047. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbabio.2019.07.002">10.1016/j.bbabio.2019.07.002</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31306623">31306623</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:196810874">196810874</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochimica+et+Biophysica+Acta+%28BBA%29+-+Bioenergetics&rft.atitle=The+amazing+phycobilisome&rft.volume=1861&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=148047&rft.date=2020-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A196810874%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31306623&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bbabio.2019.07.002&rft.aulast=Adir&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Bar-Zvi%2C+S&rft.au=Harris%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.bbabio.2019.07.002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Photosynthesis</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Photosynthesis">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBidlackSternJansky2003" class="citation book cs1">Bidlack JE, Stern KR, Jansky S (2003). <i>Introductory Plant Biology</i>. New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-290941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-290941-8"><bdi>978-0-07-290941-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introductory+Plant+Biology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-07-290941-8&rft.aulast=Bidlack&rft.aufirst=JE&rft.au=Stern%2C+KR&rft.au=Jansky%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankenship2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Blankenship" title="Robert E. Blankenship">Blankenship RE</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQztAgAAQBAJ"><i>Molecular Mechanisms of Photosynthesis</i></a> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons" class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons">John Wiley & Sons</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8975-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8975-0"><bdi>978-1-4051-8975-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119182407/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQztAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Mechanisms+of+Photosynthesis&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8975-0&rft.aulast=Blankenship&rft.aufirst=RE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjQztAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGovindjeeBeattyGestAllen2006" class="citation book cs1">Govindjee, Beatty JT, Gest H, Allen JF (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I3gy4r-aBusC"><i>Discoveries in Photosynthesis</i></a>. Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration. Vol. 20. Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3323-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3323-0"><bdi>978-1-4020-3323-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119182408/https://books.google.com/books?id=I3gy4r-aBusC">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-01-19<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Discoveries+in+Photosynthesis&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Advances+in+Photosynthesis+and+Respiration&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3323-0&rft.au=Govindjee&rft.au=Beatty%2C+JT&rft.au=Gest%2C+H&rft.au=Allen%2C+JF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI3gy4r-aBusC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReece2013" class="citation book cs1">Reece JB, et al. (2013). <i>Campbell Biology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Cummings" title="Benjamin Cummings">Benjamin Cummings</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-77565-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-77565-8"><bdi>978-0-321-77565-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Campbell+Biology&rft.pub=Benjamin+Cummings&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-321-77565-8&rft.aulast=Reece&rft.aufirst=JB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Papers">Papers</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuptaMukhtarSingh1999" class="citation journal cs1">Gupta RS, Mukhtar T, Singh B (Jun 1999). "Evolutionary relationships among photosynthetic prokaryotes (<i>Heliobacterium chlorum</i>, <i>Chloroflexus aurantiacus</i>, cyanobacteria, <i>Chlorobium tepidum</i> and proteobacteria): implications regarding the origin of photosynthesis". <i>Molecular Microbiology</i>. <b>32</b> (5): 893–906. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2958.1999.01417.x">10.1046/j.1365-2958.1999.01417.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10361294">10361294</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33477550">33477550</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+relationships+among+photosynthetic+prokaryotes+%28Heliobacterium+chlorum%2C+Chloroflexus+aurantiacus%2C+cyanobacteria%2C+Chlorobium+tepidum+and+proteobacteria%29%3A+implications+regarding+the+origin+of+photosynthesis&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=893-906&rft.date=1999-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A33477550%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10361294&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-2958.1999.01417.x&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=RS&rft.au=Mukhtar%2C+T&rft.au=Singh%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherfordFaller2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rutherford AW, Faller P (Jan 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693113">"Photosystem II: evolutionary perspectives"</a>. <i>Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences</i>. <b>358</b> (1429): 245–253. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1186">10.1098/rstb.2002.1186</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1693113">1693113</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12594932">12594932</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London.+Series+B%2C+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Photosystem+II%3A+evolutionary+perspectives&rft.volume=358&rft.issue=1429&rft.pages=245-253&rft.date=2003-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693113%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12594932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2002.1186&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=AW&rft.au=Faller%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1693113&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.life.uiuc.edu/govindjee/linksPSed.htm">A collection of photosynthesis pages for all levels from a renowned expert (Govindjee)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.life.uiuc.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html">In depth, advanced treatment of photosynthesis, also from Govindjee</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090428090455/http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/biochemistry/photosynthesis.html">Science Aid: Photosynthesis</a> Article appropriate for high school science</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050316052050/http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml">Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis – The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060420081033/http://www.chemsoc.org/networks/learnnet/cfb/Photosynthesis.htm">Overall examination of Photosynthesis at an intermediate level</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.life.uiuc.edu/govindjee/photosynBook.html">Overall Energetics of Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100126064437/http://bcs.whfreeman.com/thelifewire/content/chp08/0802001.html">The source of oxygen produced by photosynthesis</a> Interactive animation, a textbook tutorial</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshall2011" class="citation web cs1">Marshall J (2011-03-29). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120322025811/http://news.discovery.com/earth/artificial-leaf-technology-solar-110329.html">"First practical artificial leaf makes debut"</a>. Discovery News. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.discovery.com/earth/artificial-leaf-technology-solar-110329.html">the original</a> on 2012-03-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-03-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=First+practical+artificial+leaf+makes+debut&rft.pub=Discovery+News&rft.date=2011-03-29&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.discovery.com%2Fearth%2Fartificial-leaf-technology-solar-110329.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhotosynthesis" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology-innovation.co.uk/pages/plant-biology-ecology/photosynthesis/">Photosynthesis – Light Dependent & Light Independent Stages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110910160803/http://www.biology-innovation.co.uk/pages/plant-biology-ecology/photosynthesis/">Archived</a> 2011-09-10 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/video/photosynthesis?playlist=Biology">Khan Academy, video introduction</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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border:0px; background-color:white;"> <div style="left:0px; top:0px; width:800px; position:absolute"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Metabolic_Metro_Map.svg" title="File:Metabolic Metro Map.svg"><img alt="Metro-style map of major metabolic pathways" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Metabolic_Metro_Map_%28no_legends%29.svg/800px-Metabolic_Metro_Map_%28no_legends%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="800" height="600" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Metabolic_Metro_Map_%28no_legends%29.svg/1200px-Metabolic_Metro_Map_%28no_legends%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Metabolic_Metro_Map_%28no_legends%29.svg/1600px-Metabolic_Metro_Map_%28no_legends%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="945" /></a></span> </div> <div style="text-align:center; font-size:8px; line-height:110%"> <div style="background-color:transparent; color:black"><div 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<div id="annotation_215x340" style="position:absolute; left:215px; top:340px; font-size:15px; font-size:15; line-height:17px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle" title="Citric acid cycle"><span style="color:#edb500;">Citric<br />acid cycle</span></a></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_365x505" style="position:absolute; left:365px; top:505px; font-size:15px; font-size:15; line-height:17px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Glyoxylate_cycle" title="Glyoxylate cycle"><span style="color:#edb500;">Glyoxylate<br />cycle</span></a></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_125x398" style="position:absolute; left:125px; top:398px; font-size:15px; font-size:15; line-height:17px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Urea_cycle" title="Urea cycle"><span style="color:#89dd00;">Urea<br />cycle</span></a></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_495x260" style="position:absolute; left:495px; top:260px; font-size:15px; font-size:15; line-height:17px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis" title="Fatty acid synthesis"><span style="color:#00d300;">Fatty<br />acid<br />synthesis</span></a></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_495x335" style="position:absolute; left:495px; top:335px; font-size:15px; font-size:15; line-height:17px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis" title="Fatty acid synthesis"><span style="color:#00d300;">Fatty<br />acid<br />elongation</span></a></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_497x425" style="position:absolute; left:497px; top:425px; font-size:15px; font-size:15; line-height:17px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Beta_oxidation" title="Beta oxidation"><span style="color:#ff66cc;">Beta<br />oxidation</span></a></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_495x495" style="position:absolute; left:495px; top:495px; font-size:12px; font-size:12; line-height:14px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Beta_oxidation#Peroxisomal_beta-oxidation" title="Beta oxidation"><span style="color:#ff66cc;">Peroxisomal</span></a></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_497x510" style="position:absolute; left:497px; top:510px; font-size:15px; font-size:15; line-height:17px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Beta_oxidation#Peroxisomal_beta-oxidation" title="Beta oxidation"><span style="color:#ff66cc;">beta<br />oxidation</span></a></i> </span></div> <p><br /> </p> <div id="annotation_295x42" style="position:absolute; left:295px; top:42px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:right;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Glycogenolysis" title="Glycogenolysis"><span style="color:#8a2c2c;">Glyco-<br />genolysis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_280x80" style="position:absolute; left:280px; top:80px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:left;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Glycogenesis" title="Glycogenesis"><span style="color:#2e427e;">Glyco-<br />genesis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_360x160" style="position:absolute; left:360px; top:160px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:left;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis"><span style="color:#ea0000;">Glyco-<br />lysis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_300x160" style="position:absolute; left:300px; top:160px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:right;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis"><span style="color:#0033cc;">Gluconeo-<br />genesis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_310x332" style="position:absolute; left:310px; top:332px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:right;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Pyruvate_dehydrogenase" title="Pyruvate dehydrogenase"><span style="color:#ea6000;">Pyruvate<br />decarb-<br />oxylation</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_365x335" style="position:absolute; left:365px; top:335px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid_fermentation" title="Lactic acid fermentation"><span style="color:#d47ff0;">Fermentation</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_325x430" style="position:absolute; left:325px; top:430px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:right;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Ketone_bodies" title="Ketone bodies"><span style="color:#e06c1f;">Keto-<br />lysis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_365x430" style="position:absolute; left:365px; top:430px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:left;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Ketogenesis" title="Ketogenesis"><span style="color:#5f8216;">Keto-<br />genesis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_195x470" style="position:absolute; left:195px; top:470px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:left;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis"><span style="color:#0033cc;">feeders to<br />gluconeo-<br />genesis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_225x230" style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:230px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:right;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation#Carbon_concentrating_mechanisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation"><span style="color:#9373d3;">Direct / C4 / CAM<br />carbon intake</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_125x143" style="position:absolute; left:125px; top:143px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Light-dependent_reactions" title="Light-dependent reactions"><span style="color:#9373d3;">Light reaction</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_115x355" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:355px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Oxidative_phosphorylation" title="Oxidative phosphorylation"><span style="color:#c34747;">Oxidative<br />phosphorylation</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_25x415" style="position:absolute; left:25px; top:415px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Deamination" title="Deamination"><span style="color:#4999c2;">Amino acid<br />deamination</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_315x288" style="position:absolute; left:315px; top:288px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid_synthesis#Glycolytic_end_products_are_used_in_the_conversion_of_carbohydrates_into_fatty_acids" title="Fatty acid synthesis"><span style="color:#00d300;">Citrate<br />shuttle</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_590x415" style="position:absolute; left:590px; top:415px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:left;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Lipogenesis" title="Lipogenesis"><span style="color:#00d300;">Lipogenesis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_590x455" style="position:absolute; left:590px; top:455px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px; text-align:left;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Lipolysis" title="Lipolysis"><span style="color:#ff66cc;">Lipolysis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_585x260" style="position:absolute; left:585px; top:260px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Steroid#Steroidogenesis" title="Steroid"><span style="color:#0099cc;">Steroidogenesis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_470x235" style="position:absolute; left:470px; top:235px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Mevalonate_pathway" title="Mevalonate pathway"><span style="color:#0099cc;">MVA pathway</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_460x210" style="position:absolute; left:460px; top:210px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Non-mevalonate_pathway" title="Non-mevalonate pathway"><span style="color:#af753a;">MEP pathway</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_487x153" style="position:absolute; left:487px; top:153px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Shikimate_pathway" title="Shikimate pathway"><span style="color:#00cc99;">Shikimate<br />pathway</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_555x105" style="position:absolute; left:555px; top:105px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)"><span style="color:#79793d;">Transcription &</span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication"><span style="color:#79793d;">replication</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_600x83" style="position:absolute; left:600px; top:83px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)"><span style="color:#79793d;">Translation</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_600x57" style="position:absolute; left:600px; top:57px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Proteolysis" title="Proteolysis"><span style="color:#6666cc;">Proteolysis</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <div id="annotation_687x55" style="position:absolute; left:687px; top:55px; font-size:9px; font-size:9; line-height:11px;"><span style="background-color:; color:inherit;"> <i><b><a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation"><span style="color:#79793d;">Glycosyl-<br />ation</span></a></b></i> </span></div> <p><br /> </p> <div id="annotation_210x38" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:38px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Sugar_acid" title="Sugar acid">Sugar<br />acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_240x38" style="position:absolute; left:240px; top:38px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Disaccharide" title="Disaccharide">Double</a>/<a href="/wiki/Polysaccharide" title="Polysaccharide">multiple<br />sugars</a> & <a href="/wiki/Glycan" title="Glycan">glycans</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_340x38" style="position:absolute; left:340px; top:38px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Monosaccharide" title="Monosaccharide">Simple<br />sugars</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_380x45" style="position:absolute; left:380px; top:45px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Inositol_phosphate" title="Inositol phosphate">Inositol-P</a> </span></div> <div 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title="Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate">Triose-P</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_305x240" style="position:absolute; left:305px; top:240px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">Glycerol</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_300x260" style="position:absolute; left:300px; top:260px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Phosphoglycerate" title="Phosphoglycerate">P-glycerates</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_425x110" style="position:absolute; left:425px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Ribose_5-phosphate" title="Ribose 5-phosphate">Pentose-P</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_470x190" style="position:absolute; left:470px; top:190px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Erythrose_4-phosphate" title="Erythrose 4-phosphate">Tetrose-P</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_410x440" style="position:absolute; left:410px; top:440px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Propionyl-CoA" title="Propionyl-CoA">Propionyl<br />-CoA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_310x495" style="position:absolute; left:310px; top:495px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Succinic_acid" title="Succinic acid">Succinate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_455x530" style="position:absolute; left:455px; top:530px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA" title="Acetyl-CoA">Acetyl<br />-CoA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_150x155" style="position:absolute; left:150px; top:155px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Ribose_5-phosphate" title="Ribose 5-phosphate">Pentose-P</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_230x210" style="position:absolute; left:230px; top:210px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Phosphoglycerate" title="Phosphoglycerate">P-glycerates</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_85x180" style="position:absolute; left:85px; top:180px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Glyoxylic_acid" title="Glyoxylic acid">Glyoxylate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_65x152" style="position:absolute; left:65px; top:152px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Photosystem" title="Photosystem">Photosystems</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_320x310" style="position:absolute; left:320px; top:310px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Pyruvic_acid" title="Pyruvic acid">Pyruvate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_410x308" style="position:absolute; left:410px; top:308px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">Lactate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_365x345" style="position:absolute; left:365px; top:345px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA" title="Acetyl-CoA">Acetyl<br />-CoA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_295x380" style="position:absolute; left:295px; top:380px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Citric_acid" title="Citric acid">Citrate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_270x300" style="position:absolute; left:270px; top:300px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Oxaloacetic_acid" title="Oxaloacetic acid">Oxalo-<br />acetate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_200x310" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:310px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Malic_acid" title="Malic acid">Malate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_195x405" style="position:absolute; left:195px; top:405px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Succinyl-CoA" title="Succinyl-CoA">Succinyl<br />-CoA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_275x405" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:405px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Alpha-Ketoglutaric_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha-Ketoglutaric acid">α-Keto-<br />glutarate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_370x455" style="position:absolute; left:370px; top:455px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Ketone_bodies" title="Ketone bodies">Ketone<br />bodies</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_70x365" style="position:absolute; left:70px; top:365px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Electron_transport_chain" title="Electron transport chain">Respiratory<br />chain</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_370x265" style="position:absolute; left:370px; top:265px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Serine" title="Serine">Serine group</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_395x290" style="position:absolute; left:395px; top:290px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Alanine" title="Alanine">Alanine</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_415x345" style="position:absolute; left:415px; top:345px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Branched-chain_amino_acid" title="Branched-chain amino acid">Branched-chain<br />amino acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_275x275" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:275px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Aspartic_acid" title="Aspartic acid">Aspartate<br />group</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_180x250" style="position:absolute; left:180px; top:250px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Homoserine" title="Homoserine">Homoserine<br />group</a><br />& <a href="/wiki/Lysine" title="Lysine">lysine</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_280x445" style="position:absolute; left:280px; top:445px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Glutamic_acid" title="Glutamic acid">Glutamate<br />group</a><br />& <a href="/wiki/Proline" title="Proline">proline</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_105x465" style="position:absolute; left:105px; top:465px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Arginine" title="Arginine">Arginine</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_40x465" style="position:absolute; left:40px; top:465px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Creatine" title="Creatine">Creatine</a><br />& <a href="/wiki/Polyamine" title="Polyamine">polyamines</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_415x385" style="position:absolute; left:415px; top:385px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Ketogenic_amino_acid" title="Ketogenic amino acid">Ketogenic</a> &<br /><a href="/wiki/Glucogenic_amino_acid" title="Glucogenic amino acid">glucogenic<br />amino acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_550x85" style="position:absolute; left:550px; top:85px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_520x190" style="position:absolute; left:520px; top:190px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Shikimic_acid" title="Shikimic acid">Shikimate</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_635x165" style="position:absolute; left:635px; top:165px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Aromatic_amino_acid" title="Aromatic amino acid">Aromatic amino<br />acids</a> & <a href="/wiki/Histidine" title="Histidine">histidine</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_158x38" style="position:absolute; left:158px; top:38px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Ascorbate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascorbate">Ascorbate</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a>) </span></div> <div id="annotation_275x490" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:490px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Aminolevulinic_acid" title="Aminolevulinic acid">δ-ALA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_155x510" style="position:absolute; left:155px; top:510px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Bile_pigment" class="mw-redirect" title="Bile pigment">Bile<br />pigments</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_210x520" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:520px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">Hemes</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_245x585" style="position:absolute; left:245px; top:585px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Cobalamin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cobalamin">Cobalamins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin B">vitamin B<sub>12</sub></a>) </span></div> <div id="annotation_425x45" style="position:absolute; left:425px; top:45px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_B" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin B">Various<br />vitamin Bs</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_625x300" style="position:absolute; left:625px; top:300px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Calciferol" class="mw-redirect" title="Calciferol">Calciferols</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>) </span></div> <div id="annotation_725x235" style="position:absolute; left:725px; top:235px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Retinoid" title="Retinoid">Retinoids</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">vitamin A</a>) </span></div> <div id="annotation_590x190" style="position:absolute; left:590px; top:190px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Quinone" title="Quinone">Quinones</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">vitamin K</a>)<br />& <a href="/wiki/Tocopherol" title="Tocopherol">tocopherols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E" title="Vitamin E">vitamin E</a>) </span></div> <div id="annotation_665x140" style="position:absolute; left:665px; top:140px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">Cofactors</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_745x140" style="position:absolute; left:745px; top:140px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">Vitamins</a><br />& <a href="/wiki/Metalloprotein" title="Metalloprotein">minerals</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_720x185" style="position:absolute; left:720px; top:185px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">Antioxidants</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_490x140" style="position:absolute; left:490px; top:140px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Phosphoribosyl_pyrophosphate" title="Phosphoribosyl pyrophosphate">PRPP</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_535x140" style="position:absolute; left:535px; top:140px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotides</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_610x140" style="position:absolute; left:610px; top:140px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic<br />acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_665x87" style="position:absolute; left:665px; top:87px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_710x87" style="position:absolute; left:710px; top:87px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">Glycoproteins</a><br />& <a href="/wiki/Proteoglycan" title="Proteoglycan">proteoglycans</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_280x520" style="position:absolute; left:280px; top:520px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophylls</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_410x235" style="position:absolute; left:410px; top:235px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Methylerythritol_phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Methylerythritol phosphate">MEP</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_420x245" style="position:absolute; left:420px; top:245px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Mevalonic_acid" title="Mevalonic acid">MVA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_420x260" style="position:absolute; left:420px; top:260px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Acetyl-CoA" title="Acetyl-CoA">Acetyl<br />-CoA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_440x330" style="position:absolute; left:440px; top:330px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Polyketide" title="Polyketide">Polyketides</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_555x230" style="position:absolute; left:555px; top:230px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Isopentenyl_pyrophosphate" title="Isopentenyl pyrophosphate">Terpenoid<br />backbones</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_625x235" style="position:absolute; left:625px; top:235px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Terpenoid" title="Terpenoid">Terpenoids</a><br />& <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">vitamin A</a>) </span></div> <div id="annotation_640x287" style="position:absolute; left:640px; top:287px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">Cholesterol</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_720x287" style="position:absolute; left:720px; top:287px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Bile_acid" title="Bile acid">Bile acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_640x330" style="position:absolute; left:640px; top:330px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Glycerophospholipid" title="Glycerophospholipid">Glycero-<br />phospholipids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_600x397" style="position:absolute; left:600px; top:397px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Glycerolipid" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycerolipid">Glycerolipids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_620x430" style="position:absolute; left:620px; top:430px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Acyl-CoA" title="Acyl-CoA">Acyl-CoA</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_630x500" style="position:absolute; left:630px; top:500px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">Fatty<br />acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_720x350" style="position:absolute; left:720px; top:350px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Glycosphingolipid" title="Glycosphingolipid">Glyco-<br />sphingolipids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_720x397" style="position:absolute; left:720px; top:397px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Sphingolipid" title="Sphingolipid">Sphingolipids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_720x440" style="position:absolute; left:720px; top:440px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Wax" title="Wax">Waxes</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_680x497" style="position:absolute; left:680px; top:497px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Polyunsaturated_fatty_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyunsaturated fatty acid">Polyunsaturated<br />fatty acids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_470x45" style="position:absolute; left:470px; top:45px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitters" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurotransmitters">Neurotransmitters</a><br />& <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Thyroid hormone">thyroid hormones</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_705x305" style="position:absolute; left:705px; top:305px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">Steroids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_587x330" style="position:absolute; left:587px; top:330px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Endocannabinoid_system" title="Endocannabinoid system">Endo-<br />cannabinoids</a> </span></div> <div id="annotation_735x465" style="position:absolute; left:735px; top:465px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"> <a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">Eicosanoids</a> </span></div></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div style="float:left;margin-right:0.5em"><span typeof="mw:File"><span title="The image above contains clickable links"><img alt="The image above contains clickable links" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/18px-Interactive_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/27px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Interactive_icon.svg/36px-Interactive_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="133" data-file-height="200" /></span></span></div> Major <a href="/wiki/Metabolic_pathway" title="Metabolic pathway">metabolic pathways</a> in <a href="/wiki/Transit_map" title="Transit map">metro-style map</a>. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article.<br />Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes). <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Metabolic_metro_orange.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_orange.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Metabolic_metro_orange.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_orange.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Metabolic_metro_orange.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_orange.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Orange nodes: <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate_metabolism" title="Carbohydrate metabolism">carbohydrate metabolism</a>.</span> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Metabolic_metro_purple.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_purple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Metabolic_metro_purple.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_purple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Metabolic_metro_purple.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_purple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Violet nodes: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">photosynthesis</a>.</span> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Metabolic_metro_red.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Metabolic_metro_red.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Metabolic_metro_red.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Red nodes: <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a>.</span> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Metabolic_metro_pink.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_pink.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Metabolic_metro_pink.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_pink.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Metabolic_metro_pink.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_pink.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Pink nodes: <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">cell signaling</a>.</span> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Metabolic_metro_blue.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_blue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Metabolic_metro_blue.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_blue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Metabolic_metro_blue.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_blue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Blue nodes: <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_metabolism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acid metabolism">amino acid metabolism</a>.</span> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Metabolic_metro_grey.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_grey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Metabolic_metro_grey.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_grey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Metabolic_metro_grey.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_grey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Grey nodes: <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)" title="Cofactor (biochemistry)">cofactor</a> metabolism.</span> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Metabolic_metro_brown.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_brown.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Metabolic_metro_brown.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_brown.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Metabolic_metro_brown.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_brown.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Brown nodes: <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_metabolism" title="Nucleic acid metabolism">nucleotide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein_metabolism" title="Protein metabolism">protein</a> metabolism.</span> <span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Metabolic_metro_green.svg/15px-Metabolic_metro_green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Metabolic_metro_green.svg/23px-Metabolic_metro_green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Metabolic_metro_green.svg/30px-Metabolic_metro_green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="30" data-file-height="34" /></span></span> Green nodes: <a href="/wiki/Lipid_metabolism" title="Lipid metabolism">lipid metabolism</a>.</span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Other_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: Other components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundance_(ecology)" title="Abundance (ecology)">Abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allee_effect" title="Allee effect">Allee effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11982#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="11#"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4045936-6">Germany</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Photosynthesis"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85101413">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Photosynthèse"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933125t">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Photosynthèse"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11933125t">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566168">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="fotosyntéza"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph120339&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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88.975 1 Template:Life_timeline"," 5.55% 86.005 1 Template:Graphical_timeline"," 5.14% 79.618 1 Template:Short_description"," 4.32% 66.951 3 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.970","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":12629107,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAdirBar-ZviHarris2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnon1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnonWhatleyAllen1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadgerAndrewsWhitneyLudwig1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBadgerPrice2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaker2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBakerOxborough2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernacchiPortisNakanovon_Caemmerer2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBidlackSternJansky2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlankenship2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryantFrigaard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuick2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalvin1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbellWilliamsonHeyden2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardona2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapinMatsonMooney2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDasSarmaSchwieterman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDemoulinLaraLambionJavaux2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoddBorlandHaslamGriffiths2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDouglas1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEarlSaid_Ennahli2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEhrenberg2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-Sharkawy1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-SharkawyHesketh1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl-SharkawyMAHesketh1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFieldBehrenfeldRandersonFalkowski1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlexasEscalnonaMedrano1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFryerAndrewsOxboroughBlowers1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFuchs1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGale2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGentyBriantaisBaker1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorgeVincentMackey2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGest2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGest2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGovindjeeBeattyGestAllen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGovindjeeRajni\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuptaMukhtarSingh1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGómez-EspinozaGonzález-RamírezBrestaKarabourniotis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaberlandt1904\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamilton2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHatchSlack1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeFerlezKurashovTank2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerreroFlores2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeskethMoss1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeskethMusgrave1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHildnerBrinksNiederCogdell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooper2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoward2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIngrouilleEddie2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKandler1950\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarpilov1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeeling2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKortschakHartBurr1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKulpHoeftAsaoMadigan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLiuCaiZhangSun2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloyd2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongBernacchi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLundgren2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinThompsonStewartGilbert2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwellJohnson2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiyamoto\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonsonSage1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMullineaux1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuscatineGreene1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNealsonConrad1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlsonReinhardLyons2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaoliRuscheweyhFornerisHubrich2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPushkarYanoSauerBoussac2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRabinowitch1945\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavenAllen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavenEvertEichhorn2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReeceUrryCainWasserman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReeceetal2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReyes-PrietoWeberBhattacharya2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRibas-CarboFlexasRobinsonTcherkez2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenqvistvan_Kooten2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRumphoSummerManhart2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRumphoWorfulLeeKannan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRutherfordFaller2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchreiberKlughammerKolbowski2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSenerOlsenHunterSchulten2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharmaWalshBaptesteRodriguez-Valera2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShimakawaMatsudaBurlacot2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStefanoSnyderKream2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStegerAchterbergBlokBode2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStirbetLazárGuoGovindjee2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSánchez-BaracaldoBianchiniWilsonKnoll2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaizGeiger2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTavanoDonohue2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomitaniKnollCavanaughOhno2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTooulakouGiannopoulosNikolopoulosBresta2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVennLoramDouglas2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerduin1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerduinWhitwerCowell1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhitmarshGovindjee1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsJohnstonCovshoffHibberd2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXiong2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYinStruik2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZengFengMedováDean2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZieheDünschedeSchünemann2018\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Abbr\"] = 3,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Block indent\"] = 2,\n [\"Botany\"] = 1,\n [\"C3\"] = 3,\n [\"C4\"] = 6,\n [\"Chem\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 23,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 78,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 11,\n [\"Co2\"] = 10,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"IPAc-en\"] = 1,\n [\"Lay source\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Life timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Main article\"] = 1,\n [\"MetabolismMap\"] = 1,\n [\"Modelling ecosystems\"] = 1,\n [\"Nowrap\"] = 1,\n [\"Ordered list\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-vandalism\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Respell\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Su\"] = 5,\n [\"Sub\"] = 3,\n [\"Sup\"] = 1,\n [\"Underset\"] = 22,\n [\"Val\"] = 2,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7bbfc6c4f5-2mn9h","timestamp":"20241211123400","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Photosynthesis","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Photosynthesis","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11982","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q11982","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-02T21:22:29Z","dateModified":"2024-12-03T11:11:39Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/55\/Photosynthesis_en.svg","headline":"biological process to convert light into chemical energy"}</script> </body> </html>