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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Working_time_and_family_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Working time and family care </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Working_time_and_family_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Pensions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_and_safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_and_safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Health and safety </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_and_safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_liberties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_liberties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Civil liberties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_liberties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Workplace_participation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Workplace_participation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Workplace participation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Workplace_participation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Workplace participation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Workplace_participation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Labor_unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Labor unions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labor_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_bargaining" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_bargaining"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Collective bargaining </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_bargaining-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_organize" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_organize"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Right to organize </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_organize-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Collective action </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_vote_at_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_vote_at_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Right to vote at work </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_vote_at_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equality_and_discrimination" class="vector-toc-list-item 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id="toc-Equal_impact_and_remedies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equal_impact_and_remedies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Equal impact and remedies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equal_impact_and_remedies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affirmative_action" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affirmative_action"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Affirmative action </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affirmative_action-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Free_movement_and_immigration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Free_movement_and_immigration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Free movement and immigration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Free_movement_and_immigration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Job_security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a 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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Full_employment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Full employment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Full_employment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade_and_international_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade_and_international_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Trade and international law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade_and_international_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labor_law_in_individual_states" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labor_law_in_individual_states"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Labor law in individual states </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Labor_law_in_individual_states-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Labor law in individual states subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Labor_law_in_individual_states-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-California" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#California"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 California </div> </a> <ul id="toc-California-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Jersey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Jersey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 New Jersey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Jersey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Laws_restricting_unions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Laws_restricting_unions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Laws restricting unions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Laws_restricting_unions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enforcement_of_rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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</label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">United States labor law</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_laboral_en_Estados_Unidos" title="Derecho laboral en Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho laboral en Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87" title="قانون کار ایالات متحده – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قانون کار ایالات متحده" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_du_travail_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Droit du travail aux États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit du travail aux États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99_%D7%A2%D7%91%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="דיני עבודה בארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דיני עבודה בארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E3%81%AE%E5%8A%B4%E5%83%8D%E6%B3%95" title="アメリカ合衆国の労働法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国の労働法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a 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i USA" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%8B%9E%E5%8B%95%E6%B3%95" title="美國勞動法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美國勞動法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3039782#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=US_labor_law&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">US laws on fair pay and conditions, unions, democracy, equality and security at work</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_liberty,_sunset.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Statue_of_liberty%2C_sunset.jpg/400px-Statue_of_liberty%2C_sunset.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Statue_of_liberty%2C_sunset.jpg/600px-Statue_of_liberty%2C_sunset.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Statue_of_liberty%2C_sunset.jpg/800px-Statue_of_liberty%2C_sunset.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2618" data-file-height="945" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a> greeted millions of <a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">people who migrated</a> to America for <a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">work</a>, saying "<a href="/wiki/The_New_Colossus" title="The New Colossus">Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free...</a>" In 2013, in a 155.5 million <a href="/wiki/Working_population" class="mw-redirect" title="Working population">working population</a>, union membership was 35.9% in the public sector, 6.6% in the private sector.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> In 2017, unemployment was 4.3%, excluding people in prison. The US ranks 28th in the world <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">inequality-adjusted</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_inequality-adjusted_HDI" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI">human development index</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a></figcaption></figure> United States labor law sets the rights and duties for employees, <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">labor unions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Employer" class="mw-redirect" title="Employer">employers</a> in the US. Labor law's basic aim is to remedy the "<a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">inequality of bargaining power</a>" between employees and employers, especially employers "organized in the <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporate</a> or other forms of ownership association".<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Over the 20th century, federal law created minimum <a href="/wiki/Social_and_economic_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Social and economic rights">social and economic rights</a>, and encouraged state laws to go beyond the minimum to favor employees.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> requires a federal <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a>, currently $7.25 but higher in 29 states and D.C., and discourages working weeks over 40 hours through time-and-a-half <a href="/wiki/Overtime_pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Overtime pay">overtime pay</a>. There are no federal laws, and few state laws, requiring <a href="/wiki/Paid_holidays" class="mw-redirect" title="Paid holidays">paid holidays</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paid_family_leave" class="mw-redirect" title="Paid family leave">paid family leave</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a> creates a limited right to 12 weeks of unpaid leave in larger employers. There is no automatic right to an occupational pension beyond federally guaranteed <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_(United_States)" title="Social Security (United States)">Social Security</a>,<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> but the <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a> requires standards of prudent management and good governance if employers agree to provide pensions, health plans or other benefits. The <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_of_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970">Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970</a> requires employees have a safe system of work. A <a href="/wiki/Contract_of_employment" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract of employment">contract of employment</a> can always create better terms than statutory minimum rights. But to increase their <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">bargaining power</a> to get better terms, employees organize labor unions for <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Act of 1914">Clayton Act of 1914</a> guarantees all people the right to organize,<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> creates rights for most employees to organize without detriment through <a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfair labor practices">unfair labor practices</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Reporting_and_Disclosure_Act_of_1959" title="Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959">Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959</a>, labor union governance follows democratic principles. If a majority of employees in a workplace support a union, employing entities have a duty to bargain in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a>. Unions can take collective action to defend their interests, including withdrawing their labor on strike. There are not yet general rights to directly participate in enterprise governance, but many employees and unions have experimented with securing influence through pension funds,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and representation on <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporate</a> boards.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Since the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat employees equally, without discrimination based on "race, color, religion, sex, or national origin".<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a>. Additional groups with "protected status" were added by the <a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</a>. There is no federal law banning all sexual orientation or <a href="/wiki/Sexual_identity" title="Sexual identity">identity</a> discrimination, but 22 states had passed laws by 2016. These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring and terms of employment, and make discharge because of a protected characteristic unlawful. In 2020, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled in <a href="/wiki/Bostock_v._Clayton_County" title="Bostock v. Clayton County">Bostock v. Clayton County</a> that discrimination solely on the grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. There is no federal law against <a href="/wiki/Unfair_dismissal" title="Unfair dismissal">unjust discharge</a>, and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">termination of employment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">Collective agreements</a> made by labor unions and some individual contracts require that people are only discharged for a "<a href="/wiki/Just_cause_(employment_law)" title="Just cause (employment law)">just cause</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Worker_Adjustment_and_Retraining_Notification_Act_of_1988" title="Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988">Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988</a> requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs. Federal law has aimed to reach <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> through <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a> and spending on infrastructure. Trade policy has attempted to put labor rights in international agreements, to ensure open markets in a <a href="/wiki/Global_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Global economy">global economy</a> do not undermine <a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">fair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_labor_law_in_the_United_States" title="History of labor law in the United States">History of labor law in the United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labor_history_of_the_United_States" title="Labor history of the United States">Labor history of the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif/220px-US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif/330px-US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif/440px-US_Slave_Free_1789-1861.gif 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption>After the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the US">slavery in the US</a> was progressively abolished in the north, but only finished by the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a> in 1865 near the end of the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>.</figcaption></figure> Modern US labor law mostly comes from statutes passed between <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">1935</a> and <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">1974</a>, and changing interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> However, laws regulated the rights of people at work and employers from colonial times on. Before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776, the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> was either uncertain or hostile to labor rights.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Unions were classed as conspiracies, and potentially criminal.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> It tolerated <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the colonial United States">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servitude in the Americas">indentured servitude</a>. From the <a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a> in <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> from 1636 onwards, <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">were enslaved</a> by European settlers. More than half of the European immigrants arrived as prisoners, or in <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a>,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> where they were not free to leave their employers until a <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">debt bond</a> had been repaid. Until its abolition, the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> brought millions of Africans to do forced labor in the Americas. However, in 1772, the English <a href="/wiki/Court_of_King%27s_Bench_(England)" title="Court of King's Bench (England)">Court of King's Bench</a> held in <a href="/wiki/Somerset_v_Stewart" title="Somerset v Stewart">Somerset v Stewart</a> that slavery was to be presumed unlawful at common law.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stewart_(customs_official)" title="Charles Stewart (customs official)">Charles Stewart</a> from <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> had bought <a href="/wiki/James_Somerset" title="James Somerset">James Somerset</a> as a slave and taken him to <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. With the help of <a href="/wiki/Abolitionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolitionists">abolitionists</a>, Somerset escaped and sued for a writ of <a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a> (that "holding his body" had been unlawful). <a href="/wiki/Lord_Mansfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Mansfield">Lord Mansfield</a>, after declaring he should "<a href="/wiki/Let_justice_be_done_whatever_be_the_consequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Let justice be done whatever be the consequence">let justice be done whatever be the consequence</a>", held that slavery was "so odious" that nobody could take "a slave by force to be sold" for any "reason whatever". This was a major grievance of southern slave owning states, leading up to the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> in 1776.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1790_United_States_census" title="1790 United States census">1790 United States census</a> recorded 694,280 slaves (17.8 per cent) of a total 3,893,635 population. After independence, the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> halted the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">1807</a>,<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and abolished slavery in its own territories, by paying off slave owners in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">1833</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In the US, northern states progressively abolished slavery. However, southern states did not. In <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a> the Supreme Court held the federal government could not regulate slavery, and also that people who were slaves had no legal rights in court.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> was the result. <a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln" class="mw-redirect" title="President Lincoln">President Lincoln</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> in 1863 made abolition of slavery a war aim, and the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment</a> of 1865 enshrined the abolition of most forms of slavery in the Constitution. Former slave owners were further prevented from holding people in involuntary servitude for debt by the <a href="/wiki/Peonage_Act_of_1867" title="Peonage Act of 1867">Peonage Act of 1867</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In 1868, the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> ensured equal access to justice, and the <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth Amendment</a> required that everyone would have the right to vote. The <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a> was also meant to ensure equality in access to housing and transport, but in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a>, the Supreme Court found it was "unconstitutional", ensuring that racial segregation would continue. In dissent, <a href="/wiki/Harlan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan J">Harlan J</a> said the majority was leaving people "practically at the mercy of corporations".<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Even if people were formally free, they remained factually dependent on <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> owners for work, income and basic services. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:25em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <a href="/wiki/Contract_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract labour">Labor</a> is prior to and independent of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>. Capital is only the fruit of labor, and could never have existed if labor had not first existed. Labor is the superior of capital, and deserves much the higher consideration ... The prudent, penniless beginner in the world labors for wages awhile, saves a surplus with which to buy tools or land for himself, then labors on his own account another while, and at length hires another new beginner to help him. This is the just and generous and prosperous system which opens the way to all, gives hope to all, and consequent energy and progress and improvement of condition to all. No men living are more worthy to be trusted than those who toil up from <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>; none less inclined to take or touch aught which they have not honestly earned. Let them beware of surrendering a <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">political power</a> which they already possess, and which if surrendered will surely be used to close the door of advancement against such as they and to fix new disabilities and burdens upon them till all of <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> shall be lost. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>, First Annual Message (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/december-3-1861-first-annual-message">1861</a>)</cite></div> </div> Like slavery, common law repression of labor unions was slow to be undone.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> In 1806, <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Pullis" title="Commonwealth v. Pullis">Commonwealth v. Pullis</a> held that a <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> shoemakers union striking for higher wages was an illegal "conspiracy",<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> even though <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporations</a>—combinations of employers—were lawful. Unions still formed and acted. The first federation of unions, the <a href="/wiki/National_Trades_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="National Trades Union">National Trades Union</a> was established in 1834 to achieve a <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">10 hour working day</a>, but it did not survive the soaring unemployment from the financial <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a>. In 1842, <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Hunt" title="Commonwealth v. Hunt">Commonwealth v. Hunt</a>, held that Pullis was wrong, after the Boston Journeymen Bootmakers' Society struck for higher wages.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The first instance judge said unions would "render property insecure, and make it the spoil of the multitude, would annihilate property, and involve society in a common ruin". But in the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Supreme_Judicial_Court" title="Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court">Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_Shaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice Shaw">Shaw CJ</a> held people "are free to work for whom they please, or not to work, if they so prefer" and could "agree together to exercise their own acknowledged rights, in such a manner as best to subserve their own interests." This stopped criminal cases, although civil cases persisted.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> In 1869 an organisation called the <a href="/wiki/Knights_of_Labor" title="Knights of Labor">Knights of Labor</a> was founded by Philadelphia artisans, joined by miners 1874, and urban tradesmen from 1879. It aimed for racial and gender equality, political education and cooperative enterprise,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> yet it supported the <a href="/wiki/Alien_Contract_Labor_Law" title="Alien Contract Labor Law">Alien Contract Labor Law</a> of 1885 which suppressed workers migrating to the US under a contract of employment. Industrial conflicts on <a href="/wiki/Railroads_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Railroads in the United States">railroads</a> and <a href="/wiki/Telegraphs" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraphs">telegraphs</a> from 1883 led to the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor" title="American Federation of Labor">American Federation of Labor</a> in 1886, with the simple aim of improving workers wages, housing and job security "here and now".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> It also aimed to be the sole federation, to create a strong, unified labor movement. Business reacted with litigation. The <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act_of_1890" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890">Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890</a>, which was intended to sanction business cartels acting in <a href="/wiki/Restraint_of_trade" title="Restraint of trade">restraint of trade</a>,<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> was applied to labor unions. In 1895, the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> in <a href="/wiki/In_re_Debs" title="In re Debs">In re Debs</a> affirmed an injunction, based on the Sherman Act, against the striking workers of the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Company" title="Pullman Company">Pullman Company</a>. The strike leader <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Eugene Debs</a> was put in prison.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In notable dissent among the judiciary,<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Holmes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes J">Holmes J</a> argued in <a href="/wiki/Vegelahn_v._Guntner" title="Vegelahn v. Guntner">Vegelahn v. Guntner</a> that any union taking <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> was lawful: even if strikes caused economic loss, this was equally legitimate as economic loss from corporations competing with one another.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Holmes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes J">Holmes J</a> was elevated to the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a>, but was again in a minority on labor rights. In 1905, <a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a> held that <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> limiting bakers' working day to 60 hours a week violated employers' <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_contract" title="Freedom of contract">freedom of contract</a>. The Supreme Court majority supposedly unearthed this "right" in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, that no State should "deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law."<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> With <a href="/wiki/Harlan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan J">Harlan J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holmes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes J">Holmes J</a> dissented, arguing that the "<a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">constitution</a> is not intended to embody a particular economic theory" but is "made for people of fundamentally differing views". On questions of social and economic policy, courts should never declare legislation "unconstitutional". The Supreme Court, however, accelerated its attack on labor in <a href="/wiki/Loewe_v._Lawlor" title="Loewe v. Lawlor">Loewe v. Lawlor</a>, holding that triple damages were payable by a striking union to its employers under the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Act_of_1890" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Act of 1890">Sherman Act of 1890</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> This line of cases was finally quashed by the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Act of 1914">Clayton Act of 1914</a> §6. This removed labor from <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">antitrust law</a>, affirming that the "<a href="/wiki/Labour_is_not_a_commodity" title="Labour is not a commodity">labor of a human being is not a commodity</a> or article of commerce" and nothing "in the antitrust laws" would forbid the operation of labor organizations "for the purposes of mutual help".<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/220px--Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="169" data-durationhint="95" data-mwtitle="Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="470" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="312" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Second_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="469" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASecond_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3ASecond_Bill_of_Rights_Speech.ogv&lang=sk&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="sk" label="slovenčina ‪(sk)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>In his <a href="/wiki/State_of_the_Union" title="State of the Union">State of the Union</a> address of 1944, President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> urged that America develop <a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a> through legislation, including the right to fair employment, an end to unfair competition, to education, health, and social security.</figcaption></figure> Throughout the early 20th century, states enacted labor rights to advance social and economic progress. But despite the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Act">Clayton Act</a>, and abuses of employers documented by the <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" title="Commission on Industrial Relations">Commission on Industrial Relations</a> from 1915, the Supreme Court struck labor rights down as unconstitutional, leaving management powers virtually unaccountable.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In this <a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a>, the Courts held that employers could force workers to not belong to labor unions,<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> that a minimum wage for women and children was void,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> that states could not ban <a href="/wiki/Employment_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Employment agencies">employment agencies</a> charging fees for work,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> that workers could not strike in solidarity with colleagues of other firms,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> and even that the federal government could not ban child labor.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> It also imprisoned socialist activists, who opposed the fighting in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, meaning that <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Eugene Debs</a> ran as the Socialist Party's candidate for <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> in <a href="/wiki/1920_United_States_presidential_election" title="1920 United States presidential election">1920</a> from prison.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Critically, the courts held state and federal attempts to create Social Security to be unconstitutional.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Because they were unable to save in safe public pensions, millions of people bought shares in corporations, causing massive growth in the <a href="/wiki/Stock_market" title="Stock market">stock market</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Because the Supreme Court precluded regulation for good information on what people were buying, <a href="/wiki/Corporate_promoters" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate promoters">corporate promoters</a> tricked people into paying more than stocks were really worth. The <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a> wiped out millions of people's savings. Business lost investment and fired millions of workers. Unemployed people had less to spend with businesses. Business fired more people. There was a downward spiral into the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>. This led to the election of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> for president in 1932, who promised a "<a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>". Government committed to create <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> and a system of <a href="/wiki/Social_and_economic_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Social and economic rights">social and economic rights</a> enshrined in federal law.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> But despite the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic Party</a>'s overwhelming electoral victory, the Supreme Court continued to strike down legislation, particularly the <a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act_of_1933" title="National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933">National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933</a>, which regulated enterprise in an attempt to ensure fair wages and prevent <a href="/wiki/Unfair_competition" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfair competition">unfair competition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Finally, after Roosevelt's <a href="/wiki/1936_United_States_presidential_election" title="1936 United States presidential election">second overwhelming victory</a> in 1936, and Roosevelt's threat to create more judicial positions if his laws were not upheld, one Supreme Court judge <a href="/wiki/The_switch_in_time_that_saved_nine" title="The switch in time that saved nine">switched positions</a>. In <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a> the Supreme Court found that <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a> legislation was constitutional,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> letting the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> go on. In labor law, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> guaranteed every employee the right to unionize, collectively bargain for fair wages, and take collective action, including <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_action" title="Solidarity action">in solidarity</a> with employees of other firms. The <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> created the right to a minimum wage, and time-and-a-half <a href="/wiki/Overtime" title="Overtime">overtime</a> pay if employers asked people to work over 40 hours a week. The <a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act_of_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Security Act of 1935">Social Security Act of 1935</a> gave everyone the right to a basic pension and to receive insurance if they were unemployed, while the <a href="/wiki/Securities_Act_of_1933" title="Securities Act of 1933">Securities Act of 1933</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Securities_Exchange_Act_of_1934" title="Securities Exchange Act of 1934">Securities Exchange Act of 1934</a> ensured buyers of securities on the <a href="/wiki/Stock_market" title="Stock market">stock market</a> had good information. The <a href="/wiki/Davis%E2%80%93Bacon_Act_of_1931" title="Davis–Bacon Act of 1931">Davis–Bacon Act of 1931</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walsh%E2%80%93Healey_Public_Contracts_Act_of_1936" title="Walsh–Healey Public Contracts Act of 1936">Walsh–Healey Public Contracts Act of 1936</a> required that in federal government contracts, all employers would pay their workers fair wages, beyond the minimum, at prevailing local rates.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> To reach <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> and out of depression, the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Relief_Appropriation_Act_of_1935" title="Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935">Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935</a> enabled the federal government to spend huge sums of money on building and creating jobs. This accelerated as <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> began. In 1944, his health waning, Roosevelt urged Congress to work towards a "<a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a>" through legislative action, because "unless there is security here at home there cannot be lasting peace in the world" and "we shall have yielded to the spirit of <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a> here at home."<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/220px--Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="589" data-mwtitle="Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_(July_2,_1964)_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_(July_2,_1964)_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="640" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv/Remarks_upon_Signing_the_Civil_Rights_Bill_%28July_2%2C_1964%29_Lyndon_Baines_Johnson.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="480" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption>President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> explains the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> as it was signed, to end discrimination and segregation in voting, education, public services, and employment.</figcaption></figure> Although the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> had created a minimum safety net of labor rights, and aimed to enable <a href="/wiki/Fair_pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair pay">fair pay</a> through <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>, a Republican dominated Congress revolted when Roosevelt died. Against the veto of <a href="/wiki/President_Truman" class="mw-redirect" title="President Truman">President Truman</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 1947 limited the right of labor unions to take <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_action" title="Solidarity action">solidarity action</a>, and enabled states to ban unions requiring all people in a workplace becoming union members. A series of Supreme Court decisions, held the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> not only created minimum standards, but stopped or "<a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preempted</a>" states enabling better union rights, even though there was no such provision in the statute.<a href="#cite_note-auto4-49">[49]</a> Labor unions became extensively regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Reporting_and_Disclosure_Act_of_1959" title="Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959">Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959</a>. Post-war prosperity had raised people's living standards, but most workers who had no union, or <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a> rights remained vulnerable to unemployment. As well as the crisis triggered by <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a>,<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> and the need to dismantle segregation, job losses in agriculture, particularly among <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a> was a major reason for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>, culminating in the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> Although Roosevelt's <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a> of 1941 had prohibited <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a> in the national defense industry, people still suffered discrimination because of their <a href="/wiki/Skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Skin color">skin color</a> across other workplaces. Also, despite the increasing numbers of women in work, sex discrimination was endemic. The government of <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a>, requiring equal pay for women and men. <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> introduced the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, finally prohibiting discrimination against people for "race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." Slowly, a new generation of equal rights laws spread. At federal level, this included the <a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_Discrimination_Act" title="Pregnancy Discrimination Act">Pregnancy Discrimination Act</a> of 1978, and the <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</a>, now overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_2" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/220px--Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="135" data-mwtitle="Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/8/85/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/Unions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AUnions_are_my_Family_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> became the most successful <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Socialist">Democratic Socialist</a> presidential candidate since <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Eugene Debs</a>, winning 22 states and 43.1% of votes in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_presidential_primaries,_2016" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Party presidential primaries, 2016">2016 Democratic primary</a>. He co-authored the 2016 Democratic platform,<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> before <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a> lost the <a href="/wiki/United_States_electoral_college" class="mw-redirect" title="United States electoral college">electoral college</a> to <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>.</figcaption></figure> Although people, in limited fields, could claim to be equally treated, the mechanisms for fair pay and treatment were dismantled after the 1970s. The last major labor law statute, the <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a> created rights to well regulated <a href="/wiki/Occupational_pensions" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational pensions">occupational pensions</a>, although only where an employer had already promised to provide one: this usually depended on <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> by unions. But in 1976, the Supreme Court in <a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a> held anyone could spend unlimited amounts of money on political campaigns, as a part of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> right to "<a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a>". After the Republican <a href="/wiki/President_Reagan" class="mw-redirect" title="President Reagan">President Reagan</a> took office in 1981, he dismissed all <a href="/wiki/Professional_Air_Traffic_Controllers_Organization_(1968)" title="Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (1968)">air traffic control staff</a> who went on strike, and replaced the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> members with pro-management men. Dominated by Republican appointees, the Supreme Court suppressed labor rights, removing rights of professors, religious school teachers, or illegal immigrants to organize in a union,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> allowing employees to be searched at work,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> and eliminating employee rights to sue for medical malpractice in their own health care.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Only limited statutory changes were made. The <a href="/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986" title="Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986">Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986</a> criminalized large numbers of migrants. The <a href="/wiki/Worker_Adjustment_and_Retraining_Notification_Act_of_1988" title="Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988">Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988</a> guaranteed workers some notice before a mass termination of their jobs. The <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a> guaranteed a right to 12 weeks leave to take care for children after birth, all unpaid. The <a href="/wiki/Small_Business_Job_Protection_Act_of_1996" title="Small Business Job Protection Act of 1996">Small Business Job Protection Act of 1996</a> cut the minimum wage, by enabling employers to take the tips of their staff to subsidize the minimum wage. A series of proposals by Democratic and independent politicians to advance labor rights were not enacted,<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> and the United States began to fall behind most other developed countries in labor rights.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> In relation to <a href="/wiki/Government_procurement_in_the_United_States" title="Government procurement in the United States">federal government contracting</a>, Executive Order 13673, entitled Fair Pay and Safe Workplaces, was issued by President <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> on 31 July 2014. It contained "new requirements designed to increase efficiency and cost savings in the Federal contracting process",<a href="#cite_note-g13673-57">[57]</a> specifically referring to "contracting with responsible sources who comply with labor laws".<a href="#cite_note-e13673-58">[58]</a> The Occupational Safety and Health Administration published guidance on 25 August 2016.<a href="#cite_note-g13673-57">[57]</a> The order listed 14 federal laws which were defined as "labor laws", and extended coverage to "equivalent state laws". A breach of any of these laws during the three year period preceding the contract award was treated as non-compliance; for a contract valued over $500,000, <a href="/wiki/Contracting_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Contracting officer">contracting officers</a> were to consider such violations, and any corrective actions taken by the business concerned, in determining contract award. Similar provisions were built into sub-contracting arrangements. To support compliance, each federal agency was required to appoint a "Labor Compliance Advisor".<a href="#cite_note-e13673-58">[58]</a>: Sec. 3  The order was revoked by President <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> on 27 March 2017 under <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_13782" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive Order 13782">Executive Order 13782</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contract_and_rights_at_work">Contract and rights at work</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Contract and rights at work">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/UK_labour_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK labour law">UK labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canadian_labour_law" title="Canadian labour law">Canadian labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australian_labour_law" title="Australian labour law">Australian labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_labour_law" title="European labour law">European labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_labour_law" title="German labour law">German labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_labour_law" title="French labour law">French labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_labour_law" title="Indian labour law">Indian labour law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/South_African_labour_law" title="South African labour law">South African labour law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eleanor_Roosevelt_UDHR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Eleanor_Roosevelt_UDHR.jpg/220px-Eleanor_Roosevelt_UDHR.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Eleanor_Roosevelt_UDHR.jpg/330px-Eleanor_Roosevelt_UDHR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Eleanor_Roosevelt_UDHR.jpg/440px-Eleanor_Roosevelt_UDHR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5912" data-file-height="4640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a> believed the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> of 1948 "may well become the international Magna Carta of all". Based on the President's call for a <a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a> in 1944, articles 22–24 elevated rights to "social security", "just and favourable conditions of work", and the "right to rest and leisure" to be as important as the "right to own property".<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/US_contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US contract law">Contracts</a> between employees and employers (mostly <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporations</a>) usually begin an employment relationship, but are often not enough for a decent livelihood. Because individuals <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">lack bargaining power</a>, especially against wealthy corporations, labor law creates legal rights that override arbitrary market outcomes. Historically, the law faithfully enforced property rights and <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_contract" title="Freedom of contract">freedom of contract</a> on any terms,<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> whether or not this was inefficient, exploitative and unjust. In the early 20th century, as more people favored the introduction of democratically determined <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_social_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic and social rights">economic and social rights</a> over rights of property and contract, state and federal governments introduced law reform. First, the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> created a minimum wage (now $7.25 at federal level, higher in 28 states) and <a href="/wiki/Overtime_pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Overtime pay">overtime pay</a> of one and a half times. Second, the <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a> creates very limited rights to take unpaid leave. In practice, good employment contracts improve on these minimums. Third, while there is no right to an <a href="/wiki/Occupational_pension" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational pension">occupational pension</a> or other benefits, the <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a> ensures employers guarantee those benefits if they are promised. Fourth, the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970">Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970</a> demands a safe system of work, backed by professional inspectors. Individual states are often empowered to go beyond the federal minimum, and function as <a href="/wiki/Laboratories_of_democracy" title="Laboratories of democracy">laboratories of democracy</a> in social and economic rights, where they have not been constrained by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scope_of_protection">Scope of protection</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scope of protection">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Workplace_protection_cases" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_worker_scope" title="Template:Slist worker scope"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_worker_scope" title="Template talk:Slist worker scope"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_worker_scope" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist worker scope"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Workplace_protection_cases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Workplace protection cases</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Silk" title="United States v. Silk">United States v. Silk</a>, 331 U.S. 704 (1947)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Hearst_Publications" title="NLRB v. Hearst Publications">NLRB v. Hearst Publications</a>, 322 U.S. 111 (1944)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golden_State_Bottling_Co_Inc_v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golden State Bottling Co Inc v. NLRB (page does not exist)">Golden State Bottling Co Inc v. NLRB</a>, 414 U.S. 168 (1973)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/South_Prairie_Const._Co._v._Local_No._627,_International_Union_of_Operating_Engineers,_AFL-CIO" title="South Prairie Const. Co. v. Local No. 627, International Union of Operating Engineers, AFL-CIO">South Prairie Co v. Local No 627 IUOE</a>, 425 U.S. 800 (1976)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Yeshiva_University" title="NLRB v. Yeshiva University">NLRB v. Yeshiva University</a>, 444 U.S. 672 (1980)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lemmerman_v._A.T._Williams_Oil_Co." title="Lemmerman v. A.T. Williams Oil Co.">Lemmerman v. A.T. Williams Oil Co.</a>, 350 SE 2d 83 (1986)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Community_for_Creative_Non-Violence_v._Reid" title="Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid">Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid</a>, 490 U.S. 730 (1989)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Nationwide_Mut._Ins._Co._v._Darden" class="mw-redirect" title="Nationwide Mut. Ins. Co. v. Darden">Nationwide Mut. Ins. Co. v. Darden</a>, 503 U.S. 318 (1992)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Castillo_v._Case_Farms_of_Ohio" title="Castillo v. Case Farms of Ohio">Castillo v. Case Farms of Ohio</a>, 96 F Supp. 2d 578 (1999)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Clackamas_Gastroenterology_Ass_v._Wells&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clackamas Gastroenterology Ass v. Wells (page does not exist)">Clackamas Gastroenterology Ass v. Wells</a>, 538 U.S. 440 (2003)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_v._SmithKline_Beecham_Corp." title="Christopher v. SmithKline Beecham Corp.">Christopher v. SmithKline Beecham Corp</a>, 567 U.S. 142 (2012)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/U.S._labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. labor law">U.S. labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">inequality of bargaining power</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Work_(human_activity)#Workers" title="Work (human activity)">Work (human activity) § Workers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employee" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee">Employee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">Inequality of bargaining power</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a>, state and federal statutes usually confer labor rights on "employees", but not people who are autonomous and have sufficient <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">bargaining power</a> to be "independent contractors". In 1994, the <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Commission_on_the_Future_of_Worker-Management_Relations:_Final_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations: Final Report">Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations: Final Report</a> recommended a unified definition of an employee under all federal labor laws, to reduce litigation, but this was not implemented. As it stands, Supreme Court cases have stated various general principles, which will apply according to the context and purpose of the statute in question. In <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Hearst_Publications,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB v. Hearst Publications, Inc.">NLRB v. Hearst Publications, Inc.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> newsboys who sold newspapers in Los Angeles claimed that they were "employees", so that they had a right to collectively bargain under the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a>. The newspaper corporations argued the newsboys were "independent contractors", and they were under no duty to bargain in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a>. The Supreme Court held the newsboys were employees, and common law tests of employment, particularly the summary in the <a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_the_Law_of_Agency,_Second" class="mw-redirect" title="Restatement of the Law of Agency, Second">Restatement of the Law of Agency, Second</a> §220, were no longer appropriate. They were not "independent contractors" because of the degree of control employers had. But the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> could decide itself who was covered if it had "a reasonable basis in law." Congress reacted, first, by explicitly amending the <a href="/wiki/NLRA" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA">NLRA</a> §2(1) so that independent contractors were exempt from the law while, second, disapproving that the common law was irrelevant. At the same time, the Supreme Court decided <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Silk" title="United States v. Silk">United States v. Silk</a>,<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> holding that "economic reality" must be taken into account when deciding who is an employee under the Social Security Act of 1935. This meant a group of coal loaders were employees, having regard to their economic position, including their <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">lack of bargaining power</a>, the degree of discretion and control, and the risk they assumed compared to the coal businesses they worked for. By contrast, the Supreme Court found truckers who owned their own trucks, and provided services to a carrier company, were independent contractors.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Thus, it is now accepted that multiple factors of traditional common law tests may not be replaced if a statute gives no further definition of "employee" (as is usual, e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a>, <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a>). Alongside the purpose of labor legislation to mitigate inequality of bargaining power and redress the economic reality of a worker's position, the multiple factors found in the <a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Restatement of Agency">Restatement of Agency</a> must be considered, though none is necessarily decisive.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michael_Mc_Nelis,_8_years_old,_a_newsboy._This_boy_has_just_recovered_from_his_second_attack_of_pneumonia._Was_found..._-_NARA_-_523323.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Michael_Mc_Nelis%2C_8_years_old%2C_a_newsboy._This_boy_has_just_recovered_from_his_second_attack_of_pneumonia._Was_found..._-_NARA_-_523323.jpg/220px-Michael_Mc_Nelis%2C_8_years_old%2C_a_newsboy._This_boy_has_just_recovered_from_his_second_attack_of_pneumonia._Was_found..._-_NARA_-_523323.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Michael_Mc_Nelis%2C_8_years_old%2C_a_newsboy._This_boy_has_just_recovered_from_his_second_attack_of_pneumonia._Was_found..._-_NARA_-_523323.jpg/330px-Michael_Mc_Nelis%2C_8_years_old%2C_a_newsboy._This_boy_has_just_recovered_from_his_second_attack_of_pneumonia._Was_found..._-_NARA_-_523323.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Michael_Mc_Nelis%2C_8_years_old%2C_a_newsboy._This_boy_has_just_recovered_from_his_second_attack_of_pneumonia._Was_found..._-_NARA_-_523323.jpg/440px-Michael_Mc_Nelis%2C_8_years_old%2C_a_newsboy._This_boy_has_just_recovered_from_his_second_attack_of_pneumonia._Was_found..._-_NARA_-_523323.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2409" /></a><figcaption>"<a href="/wiki/Newspaper_hawker" title="Newspaper hawker">Newsboys</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">L.A.</a> were held in the leading case, <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Hearst_Publications,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB v. Hearst Publications, Inc.">NLRB v. Hearst Publications, Inc.</a>, to be employees with labor rights, not independent contractors, on account of their <a href="/wiki/Unequal_bargaining_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal bargaining power">unequal bargaining power</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">Common law</a> agency tests of who is an "employee" take account of an employer's control, if the employee is in a distinct business, degree of direction, skill, who supplies tools, length of employment, method of payment, the regular business of the employer, what the parties believe, and whether the employer has a business.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Some statutes also make specific exclusions that reflect the common law, such as for independent contractors, and others make additional exceptions. In particular, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §2(11) exempts supervisors with "authority, in the interest of the employer", to exercise discretion over other employees' jobs and terms. This was originally a narrow exception. Controversially, in <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Yeshiva_University" title="NLRB v. Yeshiva University">NLRB v. Yeshiva University</a>,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> a 5 to 4 majority of the Supreme Court held that full time professors in a <a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University" title="Yeshiva University">university</a> were excluded from collective bargaining rights, on the theory that they exercised "managerial" discretion in academic matters. The dissenting judges pointed out that management was actually in the hands of university administration, not professors. In <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Kentucky_River_Community_Care,_Inc." title="NLRB v. Kentucky River Community Care, Inc.">NLRB v. Kentucky River Community Care, Inc.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> the Supreme Court held, again 5 to 4, that six registered nurses who exercised supervisory status over others fell into the "professional" exemption. <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a>, for the dissent, argued that if "the 'supervisor' is construed too broadly", without regard to the Act's purpose, protection "is effectively nullified".<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Similarly, under the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Christopher_v._SmithKline_Beecham_Corp." title="Christopher v. SmithKline Beecham Corp.">Christopher v. SmithKline Beecham Corp.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> the Supreme Court held 5 to 4 that a traveling medical salesman for <a href="/wiki/GlaxoSmithKline" class="mw-redirect" title="GlaxoSmithKline">GSK</a> of four years was an "outside salesman", and so could not claim overtime. People working unlawfully are often regarded as covered, so as not to encourage employers to exploit vulnerable employees. For instance in <a href="/wiki/Lemmerman_v._A.T._Williams_Oil_Co." title="Lemmerman v. A.T. Williams Oil Co.">Lemmerman v. A.T. Williams Oil Co.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> under the North Carolina Workers' Compensation Act an eight-year-old boy was protected as an employee, even though children working under the age of 8 was unlawful. However, in <a href="/wiki/Hoffman_Plastic_Compounds,_Inc._v._NLRB" title="Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB">Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB</a>,<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> the Supreme Court held 5 to 4 that an undocumented worker could not claim back pay, after being discharged for organizing in a union. The gradual withdrawal of more and more people from the scope of labor law, by a slim majority of the Supreme Court since 1976, means that the US falls below international law standards, and standards in other democratic countries, on core labor rights, including <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UberTaxiProtestChicago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/UberTaxiProtestChicago.jpg/220px-UberTaxiProtestChicago.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/UberTaxiProtestChicago.jpg/330px-UberTaxiProtestChicago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/UberTaxiProtestChicago.jpg/440px-UberTaxiProtestChicago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>In September 2015, the <a href="/wiki/California_Labor_and_Workforce_Development_Agency" title="California Labor and Workforce Development Agency">California Labor and Workforce Development Agency</a> held that <a href="/wiki/Uber" title="Uber">Uber</a> drivers are controlled and sanctioned by the company and are therefore not self-employed.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></figcaption></figure> Common law tests were often important for determining who was, not just an employee, but the relevant employers who had "<a href="/wiki/Vicarious_liability" title="Vicarious liability">vicarious liability</a>". Potentially there can be multiple, joint-employers could who share responsibility, although responsibility in <a href="/wiki/US_tort_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US tort law">tort law</a> can exist regardless of an employment relationship. In <a href="/wiki/Ruiz_v._Shell_Oil_Co" title="Ruiz v. Shell Oil Co">Ruiz v. Shell Oil Co</a>,<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Circuit">Fifth Circuit</a> held that it was relevant which employer had more control, whose work was being performed, whether there were agreements in place, who provided tools, had a right to discharge the employee, or had the obligation to pay.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Local_217,_Hotel_%26_Restaurant_Employees_Union_v._MHM_Inc" title="Local 217, Hotel & Restaurant Employees Union v. MHM Inc">Local 217, Hotel & Restaurant Employees Union v. MHM Inc</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> the question arose under the <a href="/wiki/Worker_Adjustment_and_Retraining_Notification_Act_of_1988" title="Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988">Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988</a> whether a subsidiary or parent corporation was responsible to notify employees that the hotel would close. The <a href="/wiki/Second_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Circuit">Second Circuit</a> held the subsidiary was the employer, although the trial court had found the parent responsible while noting the subsidiary would be the employer under the <a href="/wiki/NLRA" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA">NLRA</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>, 29 USC §203(r), any "enterprise" that is under common control will count as the employing entity. Other statutes do not explicitly adopt this approach, although the <a href="/wiki/NLRB" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB">NLRB</a> has found an enterprise to be an employer if it has "substantially identical management, business purpose, operation, equipment, customers and supervision."<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> In <a href="/wiki/South_Prairie_Const._Co._v._Local_No._627,_International_Union_of_Operating_Engineers,_AFL-CIO" title="South Prairie Const. Co. v. Local No. 627, International Union of Operating Engineers, AFL-CIO">South Prairie Const. Co. v. Local No. 627, International Union of Operating Engineers, AFL-CIO</a>,<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> the Supreme Court found that the DC Circuit had legitimately identified two corporations as a single employer given that they had a "very substantial qualitative degree of centralized control of labor",<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> but that further determination of the relevant bargaining unit should have been remitted to the <a href="/wiki/NLRB" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB">NLRB</a>. When employees are hired through an agency, it is likely that the end-employer will be considered responsible for statutory rights in most cases, although the agency may be regarded as a joint employer.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contracts_of_employment">Contracts of employment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contracts of employment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Employment_contract_cases" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_employment_contract" title="Template:Slist employment contract"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_employment_contract" title="Template talk:Slist employment contract"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_employment_contract" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist employment contract"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Employment_contract_cases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Employment contract cases</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/JI_Case_Co_v_National_Labor_Relations_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="JI Case Co v National Labor Relations Board">JI Case Co v National Labor Relations Board</a>, 321 US 322 (1944)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Torosyan_v_Boehringer_Ingelheim_Pharma,_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Torosyan v Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma, Inc">Torosyan v Boehringer Ingelheim Pharma, Inc</a>, 662 A2d 89 (1995)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Demasse_v_ITT_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Demasse v ITT Corp (page does not exist)">Demasse v ITT Corp</a>, 984 P2d 1138 (1999)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Asmus_v_Pacific_Bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Asmus v Pacific Bell">Asmus v Pacific Bell</a>, 999 P2d 71 (2000)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stark_v_Circle_K_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stark v Circle K Corp (page does not exist)">Stark v Circle K Corp</a>, 751 P2d 162 (1988)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Foley_v_Interactive_Data_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foley v Interactive Data Corp (page does not exist)">Foley v Interactive Data Corp</a>, 765 P2d 373 (1988)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_v_Gardner-Denver_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander v Gardner-Denver Co">Alexander v Gardner-Denver Co</a>, 415 US 36 (1974)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/14_Penn_Plaza_LLC_v_Pyett" class="mw-redirect" title="14 Penn Plaza LLC v Pyett">14 Penn Plaza LLC v Pyett</a>, 556 US 247 (2009)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">inequality of bargaining power</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/United_States_contract_law" title="United States contract law">United States contract law</a></div> When people start work, there will almost always be a <a href="/wiki/Contract_of_employment" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract of employment">contract of employment</a> that governs the relationship of employee and the employing entity (usually a <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporation</a>, but occasionally a human being).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> A "contract" is an agreement enforceable in law. Very often it can be written down, or signed, but an <a href="/wiki/Oral_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral agreement">oral agreement</a> is also a fully enforceable contract. Because employees have <a href="/wiki/Unequal_bargaining_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal bargaining power">unequal bargaining power</a> compared to almost all employing entities, most employment contracts are "<a href="/wiki/Standard_form_contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard form contracts">standard form</a>".<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Most terms and conditions are photocopied or reproduced for many people. Genuine <a href="/wiki/Negotiation" title="Negotiation">negotiation</a> is rare, unlike in commercial transactions between two business corporations. This has been the main justification for enactment of rights in federal and state law. The federal right to <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>, by a labor union elected by its employees, is meant to reduce the inherently unequal bargaining power of individuals against organizations to make <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The federal right to a minimum wage, and increased <a href="/wiki/Overtime" title="Overtime">overtime</a> pay for working over 40 hours a week, was designed to ensure a "minimum standard of living necessary for health, efficiency, and general well-being of workers", even when a person could not get a high enough wage by individual bargaining.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> These and other rights, including <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_1993" class="mw-redirect" title="Family and Medical Leave Act 1993">family leave</a>, rights against <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Act 1964">discrimination</a>, or basic <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a> standards, were designed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> and state legislatures to replace individual contract provisions. Statutory rights override even an express written term of a contract, usually unless the contract is more beneficial to an employee. Some federal statutes also envisage that state law rights can improve upon minimum rights. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> entitles states and municipalities to set minimum wages beyond the federal minimum. By contrast, other statutes such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act">National Labor Relations Act</a> of 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_of_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970">Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970</a>,<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> have been interpreted in a series of contentious judgments by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> to "<a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preempt</a>" state law enactments.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> These interpretations have had the effect to "stay experimentation in things social and economic" and stop states wanting to "serve as a laboratory" by improving labor rights.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Where minimum rights do not exist in federal or state statutes, principles of <a href="/wiki/US_contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US contract law">contract law</a>, and potentially <a href="/wiki/US_tort_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US tort law">torts</a>, will apply. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecrivains_consult_-_Texte_4_mains.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ecrivains_consult_-_Texte_4_mains.jpg/220px-Ecrivains_consult_-_Texte_4_mains.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Ecrivains_consult_-_Texte_4_mains.jpg/330px-Ecrivains_consult_-_Texte_4_mains.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Ecrivains_consult_-_Texte_4_mains.jpg 2x" data-file-width="407" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Employment contracts are subject to minimum rights in state and federal statute, and those created by <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a></figcaption></figure> Aside from terms in oral or written agreements, terms can be incorporated by reference. Two main sources are <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a> and company handbooks. In <a href="/wiki/JI_Case_Co_v._National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board">JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board</a> an employing corporation argued it should not have to bargain in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> with a labor union, and did not commit an <a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practice" title="Unfair labor practice">unfair labor practice</a> by refusing, because it had recently signed individual contracts with its employees.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> The <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> held unanimously that the "very purpose" of collective bargaining and the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act 1935">National Labor Relations Act 1935</a> was "to supersede the terms of separate agreements of employees with terms which reflect the strength and bargaining power and serve the welfare of the group". Terms of collective agreements, to the advantage of individual employees, therefore supersede individual contracts. Similarly, if a written contract states that employees do not have rights, but an employee has been told they do by a supervisor, or rights are assured in a company handbook, they will usually have a claim.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Torosyan_v._Boehringer_Ingelheim_Pharmaceuticals,_Inc." title="Torosyan v. Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.">Torosyan v. Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.</a> the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Connecticut" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Connecticut">Supreme Court of Connecticut</a> held that a promise in a handbook that an employee could be dismissed only for a good reason (or "just cause") was binding on the employing corporation. Furthermore, an employer had no right to unilaterally change the terms.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> Most other state courts have reached the same conclusion, that contracts cannot be altered, except for employees' benefit, without new <a href="/wiki/Consideration" title="Consideration">consideration</a> and true agreement.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> By contrast, a slight majority on the <a href="/wiki/California_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="California Supreme Court">California Supreme Court</a>, appointed by Republican governors, held in <a href="/wiki/Asmus_v._Pacific_Bell" title="Asmus v. Pacific Bell">Asmus v. Pacific Bell</a> that a company policy of indefinite duration can be altered after a reasonable time with reasonable notice, if it affects no vested benefits.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The four dissenting judges, appointed by Democratic governors, held this was a "patently unfair, indeed unconscionable, result—permitting an employer that made a promise of continuing job security ... to repudiate that promise with impunity several years later". In addition, a basic term of <a href="/wiki/Good_faith_(law)" title="Good faith (law)">good faith</a> which cannot be waived, is implied by common law or equity in all states. This usually demands, as a general principle that "neither party shall do anything, which will have the effect of destroying or injuring the right of the other party, to receive the fruits of the contract".<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The term of <a href="/wiki/Good_faith_(law)" title="Good faith (law)">good faith</a> persists throughout the employment relationship. It has not yet been used extensively by state courts, compared to other jurisdictions. The <a href="/wiki/Montana_Supreme_Court" title="Montana Supreme Court">Montana Supreme Court</a> has recognized that extensive and even punitive damages could be available for breach of an employee's reasonable expectations.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> However others, such as the <a href="/wiki/California_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="California Supreme Court">California Supreme Court</a> limit any recovery of damages to contract breaches, but not damages regarding the manner of termination.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> By contrast, in the <a href="/wiki/UK_labour_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK labour law">United Kingdom</a> the requirement for "<a href="/wiki/Good_faith_(law)" title="Good faith (law)">good faith</a>"<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> has been found to limit the power of discharge except for fair reasons<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> (but not to conflict with statute<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a>), in Canada it may limit unjust discharge also for self-employed persons,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> and in Germany it can preclude the payment of wages significantly below average.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Finally, it was traditionally thought that arbitration clauses could not displace any employment rights, and therefore limit access to justice in public courts.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> However, in <a href="/wiki/14_Penn_Plaza_LLC_v._Pyett" title="14 Penn Plaza LLC v. Pyett">14 Penn Plaza LLC v. Pyett</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> in a 5 to 4 decision under the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Arbitration_Act" title="Federal Arbitration Act">Federal Arbitration Act</a> of 1925, individual employment contract arbitration clauses are to be enforced according to their terms. The four dissenting judges argued that this would eliminate rights in a way that the law never intended.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wages_and_pay">Wages and pay</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Wages and pay">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wage_regulation_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_wage" title="Template:Slist wage"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_wage" title="Template talk:Slist wage"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_wage" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist wage"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wage_regulation_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Wage regulation sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co_v_Parrish" class="mw-redirect" title="West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish</a>, 300 US 379 (1937)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §§201-211</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Minimum_Wage_Fixing_Convention_1970" title="Minimum Wage Fixing Convention 1970">Minimum Wage Fixing Convention 1970</a> (no 131)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walling_v_Jacksonville_Paper_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walling v Jacksonville Paper Co (page does not exist)">Walling v Jacksonville Paper Co</a>, 317 US 564 (1943)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Auer_v_Robbins" class="mw-redirect" title="Auer v Robbins">Auer v Robbins</a>,</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Long_Island_Care_at_Home_Ltd_v_Coke" class="mw-redirect" title="Long Island Care at Home Ltd v Coke">Long Island Care at Home Ltd v Coke</a>,</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Jewell_Ridge_Coal_Corp_v_UMW" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewell Ridge Coal Corp v UMW">Jewell Ridge Coal Corp v UMW</a>,</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Anderson_v_Mount_Clemens_Pottery_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="Anderson v Mount Clemens Pottery Co">Anderson v Mount Clemens Pottery Co</a>,</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Armour_%26_Co_v_Wantock" class="mw-redirect" title="Armour & Co v Wantock">Armour & Co v Wantock</a>, 323 US 126 (1944)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Steiner_v_Mitchell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steiner v Mitchell (page does not exist)">Steiner v Mitchell</a>, 350 US 247 (1956)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §§203-207</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Walling_v_Helmerich_and_Payne_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Walling v Helmerich and Payne Inc">Walling v Helmerich and Payne Inc</a>, 323 US 37 (1944)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Christensen_v_Harris_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Christensen v Harris County">Christensen v Harris County</a>,</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Portal_to_Portal_Act_of_1947" title="Portal to Portal Act of 1947">Portal to Portal Act of 1947</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §§251-262</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_Credit_Protection_Act_of_1968" title="Consumer Credit Protection Act of 1968">Consumer Credit Protection Act of 1968</a>, <a href="/wiki/15_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="15 USC">15 USC</a> §§1671-1675</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Skidmore_v_Swift_%26_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore v Swift & Co">Skidmore v Swift & Co</a>,</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act">Fair Labor Standards Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Minimum wage in the US">Minimum wage in the US</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._minimum_wages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. minimum wages">List of U.S. minimum wages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Executive_pay_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive pay in the US">Executive pay in the US</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Income tax in the US">Income tax in the US</a></div> While contracts often determine wages and terms of employment, the law refuses to enforce contracts that do not observe basic standards of fairness for employees.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Today, the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> aims to create a national minimum wage, and a voice at work, especially through collective bargaining should achieve fair wages. A growing body of <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">law</a> also regulates <a href="/wiki/Executive_pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive pay">executive pay</a>, although a system of "<a href="/wiki/Maximum_wage" title="Maximum wage">maximum wage</a>" regulation, for instance by the former <a href="/wiki/Stabilization_Act_of_1942" title="Stabilization Act of 1942">Stabilization Act of 1942</a>, is not currently in force. Historically, the law actually suppressed <a href="/wiki/Wage_regulation" title="Wage regulation">wages</a>, not of the highly paid, by ordinary workers. For example, in 1641 the <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_General_Court" title="Massachusetts General Court">legislature</a> (dominated by property owners and the official church) required wage reductions, and said rising wages "tende to the ruin of the Churches and the <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_(U.S._state)" title="Commonwealth (U.S. state)">Commonwealth</a>".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> In the early 20th century, democratic opinion demanded everyone had a <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage" title="Minimum wage">minimum wage</a>, and could bargain for fair wages beyond the minimum. But when states tried to introduce new laws, the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> held them unconstitutional. A right to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_contract" title="Freedom of contract">freedom of contract</a>, argued a majority, could be construed from the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>'s protection against being deprived "of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law". Dissenting judges argued that "due process" did not affect the legislative power to create social or economic rights, because employees "are not upon a full <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">level of equality</a> of choice with their employer".<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Timeline_of_federal_minimum_hourly_wage_for_the_United_States_(including_inflation-adjusted)._Congressional_Research_Service.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Timeline_of_federal_minimum_hourly_wage_for_the_United_States_%28including_inflation-adjusted%29._Congressional_Research_Service.gif/220px-Timeline_of_federal_minimum_hourly_wage_for_the_United_States_%28including_inflation-adjusted%29._Congressional_Research_Service.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Timeline_of_federal_minimum_hourly_wage_for_the_United_States_%28including_inflation-adjusted%29._Congressional_Research_Service.gif/330px-Timeline_of_federal_minimum_hourly_wage_for_the_United_States_%28including_inflation-adjusted%29._Congressional_Research_Service.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Timeline_of_federal_minimum_hourly_wage_for_the_United_States_%28including_inflation-adjusted%29._Congressional_Research_Service.gif/440px-Timeline_of_federal_minimum_hourly_wage_for_the_United_States_%28including_inflation-adjusted%29._Congressional_Research_Service.gif 2x" data-file-width="1589" data-file-height="1431" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">real</a> federal minimum wage has declined by 46% since February 1968. Lower line is <a href="/wiki/Real_versus_nominal_value_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Real versus nominal value (economics)">nominal dollars</a>. Top line is <a href="/wiki/Inflation-adjusted" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation-adjusted">inflation-adjusted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CRS-2023-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FRED-graph-112">[112]</a></figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash">Wall Street Crash</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> with the election of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, the majority in the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> was changed. In <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a> <a href="/wiki/Hughes_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Hughes CJ">Hughes CJ</a> held (over four dissenters still arguing for <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Contract" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of Contract">Freedom of Contract</a>) that a <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> law setting minimum wages for women was constitutional because the state legislatures should be enabled to adopt legislation in the public interest.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> This ended the "<a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner</a> era", and Congress enacted the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Under §202(a) the federal minimum wage aims to ensure a "standard of living necessary for health, efficiency and general well being".<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Under §207(a)(1), most employees (but with many exceptions) working over 40 hours a week must receive 50 per cent more <a href="/wiki/Overtime" title="Overtime">overtime</a> pay on their hourly wage.<a href="#cite_note-auto5-116">[116]</a> Nobody may pay lower than the minimum wage, but under §218(a) states and municipal governments may enact higher wages.<a href="#cite_note-auto-117">[117]</a> This is frequently done to reflect local productivity and requirements for decent living in each region.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> However the federal minimum wage has no automatic mechanism to update with inflation. Because the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican Party</a> has opposed raising wages, the federal <a href="/wiki/Real_wages" title="Real wages">real minimum wage</a> is over 33 per cent lower today than in 1968, among the lowest in the industrialized world. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fight_for_$15_on_4-15_(17160512642).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Fight_for_%2415_on_4-15_%2817160512642%29.jpg/220px-Fight_for_%2415_on_4-15_%2817160512642%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Fight_for_%2415_on_4-15_%2817160512642%29.jpg/330px-Fight_for_%2415_on_4-15_%2817160512642%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Fight_for_%2415_on_4-15_%2817160512642%29.jpg/440px-Fight_for_%2415_on_4-15_%2817160512642%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5458" data-file-height="3634" /></a><figcaption>People have campaigned for a $15 an hour minimum wage, because the <a href="/wiki/Real_wage" class="mw-redirect" title="Real wage">real minimum wage</a> has fallen by 43% compared to 1968.<a href="#cite_note-FRED-graph-112">[112]</a> In "<a href="/wiki/Gratuity" title="Gratuity">tipped</a>" jobs, some states still enable employers to take their workers' tips for between $2.13 and the $7.25 minimum wage per hour.</figcaption></figure> Although there is a federal minimum wage, it has been restricted in (1) the scope of who it covers, (2) the time that counts to calculate the hourly minimum wage, and (3) the amount that employers' can take from their employees' tips or deduct for expenses. First, five <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> judges held in <a href="/wiki/Alden_v._Maine" title="Alden v. Maine">Alden v. Maine</a> that the federal minimum wage cannot be enforced for employees of state governments, unless the state has consented, because that would violate the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> <a href="/wiki/Souter_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Souter J">Souter J</a>, joined by three dissenting justices,<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> held that no such "sovereign immunity" existed in the <a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">Eleventh Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_States" title="Minimum wage in the United States">Twenty-eight states</a>, however, did have minimum wage laws higher than the federal level in 2016. Further, because the <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">article one</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">section 8, clause 3</a> only allows the federal government to "regulate <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a> ... among the several States", employees of any "enterprise" under $500,000 making goods or services that do not enter commerce are not covered: they must rely on state minimum wage laws.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a> §203(s) explicitly exempts establishments whose only employees are close family members.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Under §213 the minimum wage may not be paid to 18 categories of employee, and paying overtime to 30 categories of employee.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> This include under §213(a)(1) employees of "bona fide executive, administrative, or professional capacity". In <a href="/wiki/Auer_v._Robbins" title="Auer v. Robbins">Auer v. Robbins</a> police sergeants and lieutenants at the <a href="/wiki/St_Louis" class="mw-redirect" title="St Louis">St Louis</a> Police Department, <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> claimed they should not be classed as executives or professional employees, and should get overtime pay.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scalia_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalia J">Scalia J</a> held that, following <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Department of Labor</a> guidance, the St Louis police commissioners were entitled to exempt them. This has encouraged employers to attempt to define staff as more "senior" and make them work longer hours while avoiding overtime pay.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Another exemption in §213(a)(15) is for people "employed in domestic service employment to provide companionship services". In <a href="/wiki/Long_Island_Care_at_Home,_Ltd._v._Coke" title="Long Island Care at Home, Ltd. v. Coke">Long Island Care at Home, Ltd. v. Coke</a>, a corporation claimed exemption, although <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> for a unanimous court agreed with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Department of Labor</a> that it was only intended for carers in private homes.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Second, because §206(a)(1)(C) says the minimum wage is $7.25 per hour, courts have grappled with which hours count as "working".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Early cases established that time traveling to work did not count as work, unless it was controlled by, required by, and for the benefit of an employer, like traveling through a coal mine.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> For example, in, <a href="/wiki/Anderson_v._Mt._Clemens_Pottery_Co." title="Anderson v. Mt. Clemens Pottery Co.">Anderson v. Mt. Clemens Pottery Co.</a> a majority of five to two justices held that employees had to be paid for the long walk to work through an employer's Mount Clemens Pottery Co facility.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Murphy_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Murphy J">Murphy J</a> this time, and time setting up workstations, involved "exertion of a physical nature, controlled or required by the employer and pursued necessarily and primarily for the employer's benefit."<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Armour_%26_Co._v._Wantock" title="Armour & Co. v. Wantock">Armour & Co. v. Wantock</a> <a href="/wiki/Firefighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Firefighters">firefighters</a> claimed they should be fully paid while on call at their station for fires. The <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> held that, even though the firefighters could sleep or play cards, because "[r]eadiness to serve may be hired quite as much as service itself" and time waiting on call was "a benefit to the employer".<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> By contrast, in 1992 the <a href="/wiki/Sixth_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth Circuit">Sixth Circuit</a> controversially held that needing to be infrequently available by phone or pager, where movement was not restricted, was not working time.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Time spent doing unusual cleaning, for instance showering off toxic substances, does count as working time,<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> and so does time putting on special protective gear.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Under §207(e) pay for overtime should be one and a half times the regular pay. In <a href="/wiki/Walling_v._Helmerich_%26_Payne,_Inc." title="Walling v. Helmerich & Payne, Inc.">Walling v. Helmerich & Payne, Inc.</a>, the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> held that an employer's scheme of paying lower wages in the morning, and higher wages in the afternoon, to argue that overtime only needed to be calculated on top of (lower) morning wages was unlawful. Overtime has to be calculated based on the average regular pay.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> However, in <a href="/wiki/Christensen_v._Harris_County" title="Christensen v. Harris County">Christensen v. Harris County</a> six <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> judges held that police in <a href="/wiki/Harris_County,_Texas" title="Harris County, Texas">Harris County, Texas</a> could be forced to use up their accumulated "compensatory time" (allowing time off with full pay) before claiming overtime.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> Writing for the dissent, <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a> said the majority had misconstrued §207(o)(2), which requires an "agreement" between employers, unions or employees on the applicable rules, and the Texas police had not agreed.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Third, §203(m) allows employers to deduct sums from wages for food or housing that is "customarily furnished" for employees. The <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a> may determine what counts as fair value. Most problematically, outside states that have banned the practice, they may deduct money from a "tipped employee" for money over the "cash wage required to be paid such an employee on August 20, 1996"—and this was $2.13 per hour. If an employee does not earn enough in tips, the employer must still pay the $7.25 minimum wage. But this means in many states tips do not go to workers: tips are taken by employers to subsidize low pay. Under <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a> §216(b)-(c) the Secretary of State can enforce the law, or individuals can claim on their own behalf. Federal enforcement is rare, so most employees are successful if they are in a labor union. The <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Credit_Protection_Act_of_1968" title="Consumer Credit Protection Act of 1968">Consumer Credit Protection Act of 1968</a> limits deductions or "garnishments" by employers to 25 per cent of wages,<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> though many states are considerably more protective. Finally, under the <a href="/wiki/Portal_to_Portal_Act_of_1947" title="Portal to Portal Act of 1947">Portal to Portal Act of 1947</a>, where Congress limited the minimum wage laws in a range of ways, §254 puts a two-year time limit on enforcing claims, or three years if an employing entity is guilty of a willful violation.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Historical_Income_Tax_Rates_and_brackets.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Historical_Income_Tax_Rates_and_brackets.png/350px-Historical_Income_Tax_Rates_and_brackets.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Historical_Income_Tax_Rates_and_brackets.png/525px-Historical_Income_Tax_Rates_and_brackets.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Historical_Income_Tax_Rates_and_brackets.png/700px-Historical_Income_Tax_Rates_and_brackets.png 2x" data-file-width="12870" data-file-height="6753" /></a><figcaption> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  Top <a href="/wiki/Marginal_income_tax_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal income tax rate">marginal</a> income tax rates</div> <div><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tax_bracket" title="Tax bracket"> Tax brackets</a></li></ul></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Lowest marginal income tax rates</div> </figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Income tax in the United States">Income tax in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history_of_income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Legal history of income tax in the United States">Legal history of income tax in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_income_tax" title="State income tax">State income tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Payroll_tax" title="Payroll tax">Payroll tax</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_Insurance_Contributions_Act" title="Federal Insurance Contributions Act">Federal Insurance Contributions Act</a> tax</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Working_time_and_family_care">Working time and family care</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Working time and family care">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Working_time_law_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_time" title="Template:Slist time"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_time" title="Template talk:Slist time"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_time" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist time"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Working_time_law_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Working time law sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Holidays_with_Pay_Convention_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Holidays with Pay Convention 1970">Holidays with Pay Convention 1970</a> (no 132)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/5_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="5 USC">5 USC</a> §§6103-6304</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §207</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lochner_v_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Lochner v New York">Lochner v New York</a>, 300 US 379 (1905)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co_v_Parrish" class="mw-redirect" title="West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish</a>, 300 US 379 (1937)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §2601</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ragsdale_v_Wolverine_World_Wide,_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Ragsdale v Wolverine World Wide, Inc">Ragsdale v Wolverine World Wide, Inc</a>, 535 US 81 (2002)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Public holidays in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maternity_leave_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternity leave in the United States">Maternity leave in the United States</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93family_balance_in_the_United_States" title="Work–family balance in the United States">Work–family balance in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clock_200_Fifth_Av_jeh.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Clock_200_Fifth_Av_jeh.JPG/220px-Clock_200_Fifth_Av_jeh.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Clock_200_Fifth_Av_jeh.JPG/330px-Clock_200_Fifth_Av_jeh.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Clock_200_Fifth_Av_jeh.JPG/440px-Clock_200_Fifth_Av_jeh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3390" data-file-height="3052" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> of 1948 article 23 requires "reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay", but there is no federal or state right to <a href="/wiki/Paid_annual_leave" class="mw-redirect" title="Paid annual leave">paid annual leave</a>: Americans have the least in the developed world.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></figcaption></figure> People in the United States work among the longest hours per week in the <a href="/wiki/Industrialized_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialized world">industrialized world</a>, and have the least annual leave.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> of 1948 article 24 states: "Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and <a href="/wiki/List_of_minimum_annual_leave_by_country" title="List of minimum annual leave by country">periodic holidays with pay</a>." However, there is no general federal or state legislation requiring paid annual leave. Title 5 of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a> §6103 specifies ten <a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">public holidays</a> for federal government employees, and provides that holidays will be paid.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Many states do the same, however, no state law requires private sector employers to provide paid holidays. Many private employers follow the norms of federal and state government, but the right to annual leave, if any, will depend upon <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a> and individual employment contracts. State law proposals have been made to introduce paid annual leave. A 2014 <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> Bill from <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">United States House of Representatives</a> member <a href="/wiki/Gael_Tarleton" title="Gael Tarleton">Gael Tarleton</a> would have required a minimum of 3 weeks of paid holidays each year to employees in businesses of over 20 staff, after 3 years work. Under the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> <a href="/wiki/Holidays_with_Pay_Convention_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Holidays with Pay Convention 1970">Holidays with Pay Convention 1970</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> three weeks is the bare minimum. The Bill did not receive enough votes.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> By contrast, employees in all <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> countries have the right to at least 4 weeks (i.e. 28 days) of paid annual leave each year.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Furthermore, there is no federal or state law on limits to the length of the working week. Instead, the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> §207 creates a financial disincentive to longer working hours. Under the heading "Maximum hours", §207 states that <a href="/wiki/Time_and_a_half" class="mw-redirect" title="Time and a half">time and a half</a> pay must be given to employees working more than 40 hours in a week.<a href="#cite_note-auto5-116">[116]</a> It does not, however, set an actual limit, and there are at least 30 exceptions for categories of employee which do not receive overtime pay.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Shorter working time was one of the labor movement's original demands. From the first decades of the 20th century, collective bargaining produced the practice of having, and the word for, a two-day "weekend".<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> State legislation to limit working time was, however, suppressed by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> The <a href="/wiki/New_York_State_Legislature" title="New York State Legislature">New York State Legislature</a> had passed the Bakeshop Act of 1895, which limited work in bakeries to 10 hours a day or 60 hours a week, to improve health, safety and people's living conditions. After being prosecuted for making his staff work longer in his <a href="/wiki/Utica,_New_York" title="Utica, New York">Utica</a>, Mr Lochner claimed that the law violated the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> on "<a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a>". Despite the dissent of four judges, a majority of five judges held that the law was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court, however, did uphold Utah's mine workday statute in 1898.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> The Mississippi State Supreme Court upheld a ten hour workday statute in 1912 when it ruled against the due process arguments of an interstate lumber company.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The whole <a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a> of jurisprudence was reversed by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> in 1937,<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> but experimentation to improve working time rights, and "<a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_balance_in_the_United_States" title="Work–life balance in the United States">work-life balance</a>" has not yet recovered. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Childcare_Development_Center-Crestwood_High_School_cheerleaders_120815-F-PG936-400.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Childcare_Development_Center-Crestwood_High_School_cheerleaders_120815-F-PG936-400.jpg/220px-Childcare_Development_Center-Crestwood_High_School_cheerleaders_120815-F-PG936-400.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Childcare_Development_Center-Crestwood_High_School_cheerleaders_120815-F-PG936-400.jpg/330px-Childcare_Development_Center-Crestwood_High_School_cheerleaders_120815-F-PG936-400.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/Childcare_Development_Center-Crestwood_High_School_cheerleaders_120815-F-PG936-400.jpg/440px-Childcare_Development_Center-Crestwood_High_School_cheerleaders_120815-F-PG936-400.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Because there is no right to education and <a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">child care</a> for <a href="/wiki/Pre-kindergarten" title="Pre-kindergarten">children under five</a>, the costs of child care fall on parents. But in 2016, four states had legislated for <a href="/wiki/Paid_family_leave" class="mw-redirect" title="Paid family leave">paid family leave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a></figcaption></figure> Just as there are no rights to paid annual leave or maximum hours, there are no rights to paid time off for child care or <a href="/wiki/Parental_leave" title="Parental leave">family leave</a> in federal law. There are minimal rights in some states. Most collective agreements, and many individual contracts, provide paid time off, but employees who lack <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">bargaining power</a> will often get none.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> There are, however, limited federal rights to unpaid leave for family and medical reasons. The <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a> generally applies to employers of 50 or more employees in 20 weeks of the last year, and gives rights to employees who have worked over 12 months and 1250 hours in the last year.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> Employees can have up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for child birth, adoption, to care for a close relative in poor health, or because of an employee's own poor health.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Child care leave should be taken in one lump, unless agreed otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Employees must give notice of 30 days to employers if birth or adoption is "foreseeable",<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> and for serious health conditions if practicable. Treatments should be arranged "so as not to disrupt unduly the operations of the employer" according to medical advice.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> Employers must provide benefits during the unpaid leave.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Under §2652(b) states are empowered to provide "greater family or medical leave rights". In 2016 California, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> had laws for paid family leave rights. Under §2612(2)(A) an employer can make an employee substitute the right to 12 unpaid weeks of leave for "accrued paid vacation leave, personal leave or family leave" in an employer's personnel policy. Originally the Department of Labor had a penalty to make employers notify employees that this might happen. However, five judges in the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ragsdale_v._Wolverine_World_Wide,_Inc." title="Ragsdale v. Wolverine World Wide, Inc.">Ragsdale v. Wolverine World Wide, Inc.</a> held that the statute precluded the right of the Department of Labor to do so. Four dissenting judges would have held that nothing prevented the rule, and it was the Department of Labor's job to enforce the law.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> After unpaid leave, an employee generally has the right to return to his or her job, except for employees who are in the top 10% of highest paid and the employer can argue refusal "is necessary to prevent substantial and grievous economic injury to the operations of the employer."<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Employees or the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a> can bring enforcement actions,<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> but there is no right to a jury for reinstatement claims. Employees can seek damages for lost wages and benefits, or the cost of child care, plus an equal amount of liquidated damages unless an employer can show it acted in good faith and reasonable cause to believe it was not breaking the law.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> There is a two-year limit on bringing claims, or three years for willful violations.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> Despite the lack of rights to leave, there is no right to free <a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">child care</a> or <a href="/wiki/Day_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Day care">day care</a>. This has encouraged several proposals to create a public system of free child care, or for the government to subsize parents' costs.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pensions">Pensions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pensions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pension_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_pensions" title="Template:Slist pensions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_pensions" title="Template talk:Slist pensions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_pensions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist pensions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pension_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Pension sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a> §1003(a)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> §§1022-1133 and 1052-9</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Guidry_v_Sheet_Metal_Workers_Pension_Fund&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guidry v Sheet Metal Workers Pension Fund (page does not exist)">Guidry v Sheet Metal Workers Pension Fund</a> 493 US 365 (1990)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Corp_v_Spink" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockheed Corp v Spink">Lockheed Corp v Spink</a> 517 US 882 (1996)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Mead_Corp_v_Tilley" class="mw-redirect" title="Mead Corp v Tilley">Mead Corp v Tilley</a> 490 US 714 (1989)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> §§1081-1102 and 1140</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Peacock_v_Thomas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peacock v Thomas (page does not exist)">Peacock v Thomas</a> 516 US 349 (1996)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> §§1102-1132</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Donovan_v_Bierwirth" class="mw-redirect" title="Donovan v Bierwirth">Donovan v Bierwirth</a> 680 F2d 263 (1982)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Varity_Corp_v_Howe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Varity Corp v Howe (page does not exist)">Varity Corp v Howe</a> 516 US 489 (1996)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Local_144,_Nursing_Home_Pension_v_Demisay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Local 144, Nursing Home Pension v Demisay (page does not exist)">Local 144, Nursing Home Pension v Demisay</a> 508 US 581 (1992)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Reporting_and_Disc_Act_of_1959" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor Management Reporting and Disc Act of 1959">Labor Management Reporting and Disc Act of 1959</a> §§401-531</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> §1144</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shaw_v_Delta_Air_Lines,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shaw v Delta Air Lines, Inc (page does not exist)">Shaw v Delta Air Lines, Inc</a> 463 US 85 (1983)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metropolitan_Life_Insurance_Co_v_Massachusetts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metropolitan Life Insurance Co v Massachusetts (page does not exist)">Metropolitan Life Insurance Co v Massachusetts</a> 471 US 724 (1985)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=FMC_Corp_v_Holliday&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FMC Corp v Holliday (page does not exist)">FMC Corp v Holliday</a> 498 US 52 (1990)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ingersoll-Rand_Co_v_McClendon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingersoll-Rand Co v McClendon">Ingersoll-Rand Co v McClendon</a> 498 US 133 (1990)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Egelhoff_v_Egelhoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Egelhoff v Egelhoff">Egelhoff v Egelhoff</a> 532 US 141 (2001)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Rush_Prudential_HMO,_Inc._v_Moran" class="mw-redirect" title="Rush Prudential HMO, Inc. v Moran">Rush Prudential HMO, Inc. v Moran</a> 536 US 355 (2002)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> §§1102-3 and <a href="/wiki/LMRA_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="LMRA 1947">LMRA 1947</a> §186(c)(5)(B)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v_Amax_Coal_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v Amax Coal Co (page does not exist)">NLRB v Amax Coal Co</a> 453 US 322 (1981)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_the_United_States" title="Pensions in the United States">pensions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Pensions_in_the_United_States" title="Pensions in the United States">Pensions in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_pension_schemes_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest pension schemes in the US">List of largest pension schemes in the US</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Investment_manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Investment manager">Investment manager</a></div> In the early 20th century, the possibility of having a "retirement" became real as people lived longer,<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> and believed the elderly should not have to work or rely on charity until they died.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> The law maintains an income in retirement in three ways (1) through a public <a href="/wiki/Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">social security</a> program created by the Social Security Act of 1935,<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> (2) occupational pensions managed through the employment relationship, and (3) private pensions or <a href="/wiki/Life_insurance" title="Life insurance">life insurance</a> that individuals buy themselves. At work, most <a href="/wiki/Occupational_pension" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational pension">occupational pension</a> schemes originally resulted from <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> during the 1920s and 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Unions usually bargained for employers across a sector to pool funds, so that employees could keep their pensions if they moved jobs. Multi-employer retirement plans, set up by <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreement" title="Collective agreement">collective agreement</a> became known as "<a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Taft–Hartley plan">Taft–Hartley plans</a>" after the <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 194] required joint management of funds by employees and employers.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> Many employers also voluntarily choose to provide pensions. For example, the pension for professors, now called <a href="/wiki/TIAA" title="TIAA">TIAA</a>, was established on the initiative of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a> in 1918 with the express requirement for participants to have voting rights for the plan trustees.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> These could be collective and <a href="/wiki/Defined_benefit" class="mw-redirect" title="Defined benefit">defined benefit</a> schemes: a percentage of one's income (e.g. 67%) is replaced for retirement, however long the person lives. But more recently more employers have only provided individual "<a href="/wiki/401(k)" title="401(k)">401(k)</a>" plans. These are named after the <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue Code</a> §<a href="/wiki/401(k)" title="401(k)">401(k)</a>,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> which allows employers and employees to pay no tax on money that is saved in the fund, until an employee retires. The same <a href="/wiki/Tax_deferral" title="Tax deferral">tax deferral</a> rule applies to all pensions. But unlike a "<a href="/wiki/Defined_benefit" class="mw-redirect" title="Defined benefit">defined benefit</a>" plan, a <a href="/wiki/401(k)" title="401(k)">401(k)</a> only contains whatever the employer and employee <a href="/wiki/Defined_contribution_plan" title="Defined contribution plan">contribute</a>. It will run out if a person lives too long, meaning the retiree may only have minimum social security. The <a href="/wiki/Pension_Protection_Act_of_2006" title="Pension Protection Act of 2006">Pension Protection Act of 2006</a> §902 codified a model for employers to <a href="/wiki/Automatic_enrolment" title="Automatic enrolment">automatically enroll</a> their employees in a pension, with a right to opt out.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> However, there is no right to an occupational pension. The <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a> does create a series of rights for employees if one is set up. It also applies to health care or any other "employee benefit" plan.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Morgan_Stanley_Building_(WTM_by_official-ly_cool_112).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Morgan_Stanley_Building_%28WTM_by_official-ly_cool_112%29.jpg/220px-The_Morgan_Stanley_Building_%28WTM_by_official-ly_cool_112%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Morgan_Stanley_Building_%28WTM_by_official-ly_cool_112%29.jpg/330px-The_Morgan_Stanley_Building_%28WTM_by_official-ly_cool_112%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Morgan_Stanley_Building_%28WTM_by_official-ly_cool_112%29.jpg/440px-The_Morgan_Stanley_Building_%28WTM_by_official-ly_cool_112%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Investment managers, like <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Stanley" title="Morgan Stanley">Morgan Stanley</a> and all pension trustees, are <a href="/wiki/Fiduciaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciaries">fiduciaries</a>. This means they must avoid <a href="/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflicts of interest">conflicts of interest</a>. During a takeover bid, <a href="/wiki/Donovan_v._Bierwirth" title="Donovan v. Bierwirth">Donovan v. Bierwirth</a> held trustees must take advice or not vote on corporate stocks if in doubt about <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflicts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></figcaption></figure> Five main rights for beneficiaries in <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> include information, <a href="/wiki/Funding" title="Funding">funding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vesting" title="Vesting">vesting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-discrimination">anti-discrimination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duties" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duties">fiduciary duties</a>. First, each beneficiary should receive a "summary plan description" in 90 days of joining, plans must file annual reports with the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a>, and if beneficiaries make claims any refusal must be justified with a "full and fair review".<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> If the "summary plan description" is more beneficial than the actual plan documents, because the pension fund makes a mistake, a beneficiary may enforce the terms of either.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> If an employer has pension or other plans, all employees must be entitled to participate after at longest 12 months, if working over 1000 hours.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Second, all promises must be funded in advance.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Pension_Benefit_Guaranty_Corporation" title="Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation">Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation</a> was established by the federal government to be an insurer of last resort, but only up to $60,136 per year for each employer. Third, employees' benefits usually cannot be taken away (they "<a href="/wiki/Vesting" title="Vesting">vest</a>") after 5 years,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> and contributions must <a href="/wiki/Accrue" class="mw-redirect" title="Accrue">accrue</a> (i.e. the employee owns contributions) at a proportionate rate.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> If employers and pension funds merge, there can be no reduction in benefits,<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> and if an employee goes bankrupt their creditors cannot take their occupational pension.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> However, the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> has enabled benefits to be withdrawn by employers simply amending plans. In <a href="/wiki/Lockheed_Corp._v._Spink" title="Lockheed Corp. v. Spink">Lockheed Corp. v. Spink</a> a majority of seven judges held that an employer could alter a plan, to deprive a 61-year-old man of full benefits when he was reemployed, unbound by <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duties" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duties">fiduciary duties</a> to preserve what an employee had originally been promised.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> In dissent, <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Souter_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Souter J">Souter J</a> reserved any view on such "highly technical, important matters".<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Steps to terminate a plan depend on whether it is individual, or multi-employer, and <a href="/wiki/Mead_Corp._v._Tilley" title="Mead Corp. v. Tilley">Mead Corp. v. Tilley</a> a majority of the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> held that employers could recoup excess benefits paid into pension plans after <a href="/wiki/PBGC" class="mw-redirect" title="PBGC">PBGC</a> conditions are fulfilled. <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a>, dissenting, contended that all contingent and future liabilities must be satisfied.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> Fourth, as a general principle, employees or beneficiaries cannot suffer any discrimination or detriment for "the attainment of any right" under a plan.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Fifth, managers are bound by responsibilities of competence and loyalty, called "<a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duties" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duties">fiduciary duties</a>".<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> Under §1102, a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> is anyone who administers a plan, its trustees, and investment managers who are delegated control. Under §1104, <a href="/wiki/Fiduciaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciaries">fiduciaries</a> must follow a "<a href="/wiki/Prudent_person" class="mw-redirect" title="Prudent person">prudent</a>" person standard, involving three main components. First, a fiduciary must act "in accordance with the documents and instruments governing the plan".<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Second, they must act with "care, skill and diligence", including "diversifying the investments of the plan" to "minimize the risk of large losses".<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> Liability for carelessness extends to making misleading statements about benefits,<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> and have been interpreted by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Department of Labor</a> to involve a duty to vote on proxies when <a href="/wiki/Corporate_stocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate stocks">corporate stocks</a> are purchased, and publicizing a statement of investment policy.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Third, and codifying fundamental equitable principles, a <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> must avoid any possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> Fiduciaries must act "solely in the interest of the participants ... for the exclusive purpose of providing benefits" with "reasonable expenses",<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> and specifically avoiding <a href="/wiki/Self-dealing" title="Self-dealing">self-dealing</a> with a related "party in interest".<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Donovan_v._Bierwirth" title="Donovan v. Bierwirth">Donovan v. Bierwirth</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Circuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Circuit">Second Circuit</a> held that trustees of a pension which owned shares in the employees' company as a <a href="/wiki/Takeover" title="Takeover">takeover</a> bid was launched, because they faced a potential <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a>, had to get independent legal advice on how to vote, or possibly abstain.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Remedies for these duties have, however, been restricted by the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> to disfavor damages.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> In these fields, according to §1144, <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> will "supersede any and all State laws insofar as they may now or hereafter relate to any employee benefit plan".<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> ERISA did not, therefore, follow the model of the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a>, which encourage states to legislate for improved protection for employees, beyond the minimum. The preemption rule led the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> to strike down a <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> that required giving benefits to pregnant employees in <a href="/wiki/ERISA" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA">ERISA</a> plans.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> It held a case under <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> law for damages for denying vesting of benefits was preempted, so the claimant only had <a href="/wiki/ERISA" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA">ERISA</a> remedies.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> It struck down a <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">Washington</a> law which altered who would receive life insurance designation on death.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> However, under §1144(b)(2)(A) this does not affect 'any law of any State which regulates insurance, banking, or <a href="/wiki/Securities" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities">securities</a>.' So, the Supreme Court has also held valid a <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> law requiring mental health to be covered by employer group health policies.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> But it struck down a <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> statute which prohibited employers becoming subrogated to (potentially more valuable) claims of employees for insurance after accidents.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Yet more recently, the court has shown a greater willingness to prevent laws being preempted,<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> however the courts have not yet adopted the principle that state law is not preempted or "superseded" if it is more protective to employees than a federal minimum. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernie_Sanders_in_East_Los_Angeles_(27211671695).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Bernie_Sanders_in_East_Los_Angeles_%2827211671695%29.jpg/220px-Bernie_Sanders_in_East_Los_Angeles_%2827211671695%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Bernie_Sanders_in_East_Los_Angeles_%2827211671695%29.jpg/330px-Bernie_Sanders_in_East_Los_Angeles_%2827211671695%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Bernie_Sanders_in_East_Los_Angeles_%2827211671695%29.jpg/440px-Bernie_Sanders_in_East_Los_Angeles_%2827211671695%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Workplace_Democracy_Act_of_1999" class="mw-redirect" title="Workplace Democracy Act of 1999">Workplace Democracy Act of 1999</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto1-206">[206]</a> proposed by <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> but not yet passed, would give every employee the representatives on boards of their pension plans, to control how vote are cast on <a href="/wiki/Corporate_stocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate stocks">corporate stocks</a>. Currently <a href="/wiki/Investment_managers" class="mw-redirect" title="Investment managers">investment managers</a> control most voting rights in the economy using "other people's money".<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a></figcaption></figure> The most important rights that <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> did not cover were who controls investments and <a href="/wiki/Securities" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities">securities</a> that beneficiaries' retirement savings buy. The largest form of retirement fund has become the <a href="/wiki/401(k)" title="401(k)">401(k)</a>. This is often an individual account that an employer sets up, and an <a href="/wiki/Investment_management" title="Investment management">investment management</a> firm, such as <a href="/wiki/The_Vanguard_Group" title="The Vanguard Group">Vanguard</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fidelity_Investments" title="Fidelity Investments">Fidelity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morgan_Stanley" title="Morgan Stanley">Morgan Stanley</a> or <a href="/wiki/BlackRock" title="BlackRock">BlackRock</a>, is then delegated the task of trading fund assets. Usually they also vote on corporate shares, assisted by a "proxy advice" firm such as <a href="/wiki/Institutional_Shareholder_Services" title="Institutional Shareholder Services">ISS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Glass_Lewis" title="Glass Lewis">Glass Lewis</a>. Under <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> §1102(a),<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> a plan must merely have named fiduciaries who have "authority to control and manage the operation and administration of the plan", selected by "an employer or employee organization" or both jointly. Usually these <a href="/wiki/Fiduciaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciaries">fiduciaries</a> or <a href="/wiki/Trustees" class="mw-redirect" title="Trustees">trustees</a>, will delegate management to a professional firm, particularly because under §1105(d), if they do so, they will not be liable for an investment manager's breaches of duty.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> These investment managers buy a range of assets, particularly <a href="/wiki/Corporate_stocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate stocks">corporate stocks</a> which have voting rights, as well as <a href="/wiki/Government_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Government bonds">government bonds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corporate_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate bonds">corporate bonds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Commodities" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodities">commodities</a>, real estate or <a href="/wiki/Derivative_(finance)" title="Derivative (finance)">derivatives</a>. Rights on those assets are in practice monopolized by investment managers, unless pension funds have organized to take voting in house, or to instruct their investment managers. Two main types of pension fund to do this are union organized <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Taft–Hartley plan">Taft–Hartley plans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_employee_pension_plans_in_the_United_States" title="Public employee pension plans in the United States">state public pension plans</a>. Under the amended <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §302(c)(5)(B) a union bargained plan has to be jointly managed by representatives of employers and employees.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> Although many local pension funds are not consolidated and have had critical funding notices from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">Department of Labor</a>,<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> more funds with employee representation ensure that corporate voting rights are cast according to the preferences of their members. <a href="/wiki/Public_employee_pension_plans_in_the_United_States" title="Public employee pension plans in the United States">State public pensions</a> are often larger, and have greater <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">bargaining power</a> to use on their members' behalf. State pension schemes invariably disclose the way trustees are selected. In 2005, on average more than a third of trustees were elected by employees or beneficiaries.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/California_Government_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="California Government Code">California Government Code</a> §20090 requires that its public employee pension fund, <a href="/wiki/CalPERS" title="CalPERS">CalPERS</a> has 13 members on its board, 6 elected by employees and beneficiaries. However, only pension funds of sufficient size have acted to replace <a href="/wiki/Investment_manager" class="mw-redirect" title="Investment manager">investment manager</a> voting. Furthermore, no general legislation requires voting rights for employees in pension funds, despite several proposals.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Workplace_Democracy_Act_of_1999" class="mw-redirect" title="Workplace Democracy Act of 1999">Workplace Democracy Act of 1999</a>, sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> then in the <a href="/wiki/US_House_of_Representatives" class="mw-redirect" title="US House of Representatives">US House of Representatives</a>, would have required all single employer pension plans to have trustees appointed equally by employers and employee representatives.<a href="#cite_note-auto1-206">[206]</a> There is, furthermore, currently no legislation to stop investment managers voting with other people's money as the <a href="/wiki/Dodd%E2%80%93Frank_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd–Frank Act">Dodd–Frank Act</a> of 2010 §957 banned <a href="/wiki/Broker-dealer" title="Broker-dealer">broker-dealers</a> voting on significant issues without instructions.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> This means votes in the largest <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporations</a> that people's retirement savings buy are overwhelmingly exercised by investment managers, whose interests potentially conflict with the interests of beneficiaries' on <a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">labor rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fair_pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair pay">fair pay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">job security</a>, or pension policy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_safety">Health and safety</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Health and safety">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970">Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_tort_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US tort law">US tort law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Affordable_Care_Act" title="Affordable Care Act">Affordable Care Act</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act">Occupational Safety and Health Act</a>,<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> signed into law in 1970 by President <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, creates specific standards for workplace safety. The Act has spawned years of litigation by industry groups that have challenged the standards limiting the amount of permitted exposure to chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Benzene" title="Benzene">benzene</a>. The Act also provides for protection for "whistleblowers" who complain to governmental authorities about unsafe conditions while allowing workers the right to refuse to work under unsafe conditions in certain circumstances. The Act allows states to take over the administration of OSHA in their jurisdictions, so long as they adopt state laws at least as protective of workers' rights as under federal law. More than half of the states have done so. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labor_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor laws in the United States">Child labor laws in the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_liberties">Civil liberties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Civil liberties">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Liberty_at_work_cases" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_work_liberties" title="Template:Slist work liberties"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_work_liberties" title="Template talk:Slist work liberties"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_work_liberties" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist work liberties"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Liberty_at_work_cases" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Liberty at work cases</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment" class="mw-redirect" title="First Amendment">First Amendment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Pickering_v_Board_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Pickering v Board of Education">Pickering v Board of Education</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Connick_v_Myers" class="mw-redirect" title="Connick v Myers">Connick v Myers</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Rankin_v_McPherson" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankin v McPherson">Rankin v McPherson</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v_Ortega" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Connor v Ortega">O'Connor v Ortega</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Waters_v_Churchill" class="mw-redirect" title="Waters v Churchill">Waters v Churchill</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Whistleblower_Protection_Act_of_1989" class="mw-redirect" title="Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989">Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Huffman_v_Office_of_Personnel_Management" class="mw-redirect" title="Huffman v Office of Personnel Management">Huffman v Office of Personnel Management</a>, 263 F3d 1341 (2001)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=City_of_San_Diego,_California_v_Roe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="City of San Diego, California v Roe (page does not exist)">City of San Diego, California v Roe</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Garcetti_v_Ceballos" class="mw-redirect" title="Garcetti v Ceballos">Garcetti v Ceballos</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ontario_v_Quon" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontario v Quon">Ontario v Quon</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">civil liberties</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pickering_v._Board_of_Education" title="Pickering v. Board of Education">Pickering v. Board of Education</a>, 391 US 563 (1968) 8 to 1, a public school teacher was dismissed for writing a letter to a newspaper that criticized the way the school board was raising money. This violated the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connick_v._Myers" title="Connick v. Myers">Connick v. Myers</a>, 461 U.S. 138 (1983) 5 to 4, a public attorney employee was not unlawfully dismissed after distributing a questionnaire to other staff on a supervisor's management practices after she was transferred under protest. In dissent, Brennan J held that all the matters were of public concern and should therefore be protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankin_v._McPherson" title="Rankin v. McPherson">Rankin v. McPherson</a>, 483 U.S. 378 (1987) 5 to 4, a Texas deputy constable had a First Amendment right to say, after the assassination attempt on <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> "Shoot, if they go for him again, I hope they get him." Dismissal was unlawful and she had to be reinstated because even extreme comments (except potentially advocating actual murder) against a political figure should be protected. She could not be fired for merely exercising a right in the Constitution.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waters_v._Churchill" title="Waters v. Churchill">Waters v. Churchill</a>, 511 U.S. 661 (1994) 7 to 2, a public hospital nurse stating, outside work at dinner, that the <a href="/wiki/Cross-training_(business)" title="Cross-training (business)">cross-training</a> policies of the hospital were flawed, could be dismissed without any violation of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> because it could be seen as interfering with the employer's operations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcetti_v._Ceballos" title="Garcetti v. Ceballos">Garcetti v. Ceballos</a>, 547 U.S. 410 (2006) 5 to 4, no right against dismissal or protected speech when the speech relates to a matter in one's profession</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employee_Polygraph_Protection_Act" title="Employee Polygraph Protection Act">Employee Polygraph Protection Act</a> (1988) outlawed the use of lie detectors by private employers except in narrowly prescribed circumstances</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whistleblower_Protection_Act" title="Whistleblower Protection Act">Whistleblower Protection Act</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huffman_v._Office_of_Personnel_Management" title="Huffman v. Office of Personnel Management">Huffman v. Office of Personnel Management</a>, 263 F.3d 1341 (Fed. Cir. 2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_v._Ortega" title="O'Connor v. Ortega">O'Connor v. Ortega</a>, 480 U.S. 709 (1987) searches in the workplace</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Ontario_v._Quon" title="City of Ontario v. Quon">City of Ontario v. Quon</a>, 130 S.Ct. 2619, (2010) the right of privacy did not extend to employer owned electronic devices so an employee could be dismissed for sending sexually explicit messages from an employer owned pager.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heffernan_v._City_of_Paterson" title="Heffernan v. City of Paterson">Heffernan v. City of Paterson</a>, 578 US __ (2016)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Workplace_participation">Workplace participation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Workplace participation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">Collective bargaining</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">US corporate law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Codetermination" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetermination">Codetermination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Work_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Work council">Work council</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oblique_facade_3,_US_Supreme_Court.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Oblique_facade_3%2C_US_Supreme_Court.jpg/220px-Oblique_facade_3%2C_US_Supreme_Court.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Oblique_facade_3%2C_US_Supreme_Court.jpg/330px-Oblique_facade_3%2C_US_Supreme_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Oblique_facade_3%2C_US_Supreme_Court.jpg/440px-Oblique_facade_3%2C_US_Supreme_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a>'s policy of <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a> since 1953 means federal <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> rules cancel state rules, even if state law is more beneficial to employees.<a href="#cite_note-auto4-49">[49]</a> Despite preemption, many unions, <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporations</a>, and states have experimented with direct participation rights, to get a "<a href="/wiki/Fair_day%27s_wage_for_a_fair_day%27s_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair day's wage for a fair day's work">fair day's wage for a fair day's work</a>".<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a></figcaption></figure> The central right in <a href="/wiki/Labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor law">labor law</a>, beyond minimum standards for pay, hours, pensions, safety or privacy, is to participate and vote in workplace governance.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> The American model developed from the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a>,<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> which declared the "labor of a <a href="/wiki/Human_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Human being">human being</a> is not a <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a> or article of commerce" and aimed to take workplace relations out of the reach of courts hostile to collective bargaining. Lacking success, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> changed the basic model, which remained through the 20th century. Reflecting the "<a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">inequality of bargaining power</a> between employees ... and employers who are organized in the <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporate</a> or other forms of ownership association",<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> codified basic rights of employees to organize a <a href="/wiki/Labor_union" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor union">union</a>, requires employers to bargain in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> (at least on paper) after a union has majority support, binds employers to <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a>, and protects the right to take <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> including a strike. Union membership, collective bargaining, and standards of living all increased rapidly until Congress forced through the <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 1947. Its amendments enabled states to pass laws restricting agreements for all employees in a workplace to be unionized, prohibited collective action against associated employers, and introduced a list of unfair labor practices for unions, as well as employers. Since then, the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> chose to develop a doctrine that the rules in the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> preempted any other state rules if an activity was "arguably subject" to its rights and duties.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> While states were inhibited from acting as "<a href="/wiki/Laboratories_of_democracy" title="Laboratories of democracy">laboratories of democracy</a>", and particularly as unions were targeted from 1980 and membership fell, the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> has been criticized as a "failed statute" as US labor law "ossified".<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> This has led to more innovative experiments among states, progressive corporations and unions to create direct participation rights, including the right to vote for or <a href="/wiki/Codetermine" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetermine">codetermine</a> directors of corporate boards, and elect <a href="/wiki/Work_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Work councils">work councils</a> with binding rights on workplace issues. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labor_unions">Labor unions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Labor unions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sources_on_labor_unions" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sourcelist_unions" title="Template:Sourcelist unions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sourcelist_unions" title="Template talk:Sourcelist unions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sourcelist_unions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sourcelist unions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sources_on_labor_unions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Sources on labor unions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="First Amendment to the US Constitution">First Amendment to the US Constitution</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Association_Convention_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of Association Convention 1948">Freedom of Association Convention 1948</a> (c 87)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Reporting_and_Disclosure_Act_of_1959" title="Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959">Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Trbovich_v._United_Mine_Workers" title="Trbovich v. United Mine Workers">Trbovich v. United Mine Workers</a>, 404 U.S. 528 (1972)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Dunlop_v._Bachowski" title="Dunlop v. Bachowski">Dunlop v. Bachowski</a>, 421 U.S. 560 (1975)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/De_Veau_v._Braisted" title="De Veau v. Braisted">De Veau v. Braisted</a>, 363 U.S. 144 (1960)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Hotel_and_Rest._Employees" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown v. Hotel and Rest. Employees">Brown v. Hotel and Rest. Employees</a>, 468 U.S. 491 (1984)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Machinists_v._Street" class="mw-redirect" title="Machinists v. Street">Machinists v. Street</a>, 367 U.S. 740 (1961)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/CWA_v._Beck" class="mw-redirect" title="CWA v. Beck">CWA v. Beck</a>, 487 U.S. 735 (1988)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Locke_v._Karass" title="Locke v. Karass">Locke v. Karass</a>, 555 U.S. 207 (2009)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Abood_v._Detroit_Board_of_Education" title="Abood v. Detroit Board of Education">Abood v. Detroit Board of Education</a>, 431 U.S. 209 (1977)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Davenport_v._Washington_Education_Ass%27n" title="Davenport v. Washington Education Ass'n">Davenport v. Washington Education Ass'n</a>, 551 U.S. 177 (2007)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Janus_v._AFSCME" title="Janus v. AFSCME">Janus v. AFSCME</a> , 585 U.S. ___ (2018)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade unions in the United States">unions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor unions in the US">Labor unions in the US</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_labor_unions_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="List of labor unions in the US">List of labor unions in the US</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a> in labor unions has always been fundamental to the development of democratic society, and is protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> In early <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">colonial history</a>, labor unions were routinely suppressed by the government. Recorded instances include cart drivers being fined for striking in 1677 in New York City, and carpenters prosecuted as criminals for striking in <a href="/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia" title="Savannah, Georgia">Savannah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a> in 1746.<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, however, courts departed from repressive elements of <a href="/wiki/English_common_law" class="mw-redirect" title="English common law">English common law</a>. The first reported case, <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Pullis" title="Commonwealth v. Pullis">Commonwealth v. Pullis</a> in 1806 did find shoemakers in <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a> guilty of "a combination to raise their wages".<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> Nevertheless, unions continued, and the first federation of trade unions was formed in 1834, the <a href="/wiki/National_Trades%27_Union" title="National Trades' Union">National Trades' Union</a>, with the primary aim of a 10-hour working day.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> In 1842 the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Massachusetts" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Massachusetts">Supreme Court of Massachusetts</a> held in <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Hunt" title="Commonwealth v. Hunt">Commonwealth v. Hunt</a> that a strike by the Boston Journeymen Bootmakers' Society for higher wages was lawful.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_Shaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Justice Shaw">Chief Justice Shaw</a> held that people "are free to work for whom they please, or not to work, if they so prefer" and "to agree together to exercise their own acknowledged rights". The abolition of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> by <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> was necessary to create genuine rights to organize, but was not sufficient to ensure freedom of association. Using the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Act_of_1890" class="mw-redirect" title="Sherman Act of 1890">Sherman Act of 1890</a>, which was intended to break up business cartels, the Supreme Court imposed an injunction on striking workers of the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Company" title="Pullman Company">Pullman Company</a>, and imprisoned the leader, and future presidential candidate, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Eugene Debs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> The Court also enabled unions to be sued for triple damages in <a href="/wiki/Loewe_v._Lawlor" title="Loewe v. Lawlor">Loewe v. Lawlor</a>, a case involving a <a href="/wiki/Hat_maker" class="mw-redirect" title="Hat maker">hat maker</a> union in <a href="/wiki/Danbury,_Connecticut" title="Danbury, Connecticut">Danbury, Connecticut</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto3-228">[228]</a> The President and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> responded by passing the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Act of 1914">Clayton Act of 1914</a> to take labor out of <a href="/wiki/Antitrust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust law">antitrust law</a>. Then, after the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> passed the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> to positively protect the right to organize and take collective action. After that, the law increasingly turned to regulate unions' internal affairs. The <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 1947 regulated how members can join a union, and the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Reporting_and_Disclosure_Act_of_1959" title="Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959">Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959</a> created a "bill of rights" for union members. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Richard_Trumka_2008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Richard_Trumka_2008.jpg/220px-Richard_Trumka_2008.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Richard_Trumka_2008.jpg/330px-Richard_Trumka_2008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Richard_Trumka_2008.jpg/440px-Richard_Trumka_2008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Richard_Trumka" title="Richard Trumka">Richard Trumka</a> was the late president of the <a href="/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="AFL–CIO">AFL–CIO</a>, a federation of unions, with 12.5m members. The <a href="/wiki/Change_to_Win_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Change to Win Federation">Change to Win Federation</a> has 5.5m members in affiliated unions. The two have negotiated merging to create a united American labor movement.</figcaption></figure> While union governance is founded upon <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a>, the law requires basic standards of democracy and accountability to ensure members are truly free in shaping their associations.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Fundamentally, all unions are democratic organizations,<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> but they divide between those where members elect delegates, who in turn choose the executive, and those where members directly elect the executive. In 1957, after the <a href="/wiki/McClellan_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="McClellan Committee">McClellan Committee</a> of the <a href="/wiki/US_Senate" class="mw-redirect" title="US Senate">US Senate</a> found evidence of two rival <a href="/wiki/Teamsters_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Teamsters Union">Teamsters Union</a> executives, <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Hoffa" title="Jimmy Hoffa">Jimmy Hoffa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dave_Beck" title="Dave Beck">Dave Beck</a>, falsifying delegate vote counts and stealing union funds,<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Reporting_and_Disclosure_Act_of_1959" title="Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959">Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959</a>. Under § 411, every member has the right to vote, attend meetings, speak freely and organize, not have fees raised without a vote, not be deprived of the right to sue, or be suspended unjustly.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Under § 431, unions should file their constitutions and bylaws with the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of Labor">Secretary of Labor</a> and be accessible by members:<a href="#cite_note-auto2-233">[233]</a> today union constitutions are online. Under § 481 elections must occur at least every 5 years, and local officers every 3 years, by secret ballot.<a href="#cite_note-auto2-233">[233]</a> Additionally, state law may bar union officials who have prior convictions for felonies from holding office.<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> As a response to the Hoffa and Beck scandals, there is also an express <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiduciary duty">fiduciary duty</a> on union officers for members' money, limits on loans to executives, requirements for bonds for handling money, and up to a $10,000 fine or up to 5 years prison for <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a>. These rules, however, restated most of what was already the law, and codified principles of governance that unions already undertook.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> On the other hand, under § 501(b) to bring a lawsuit, a union member must first make a demand on the executive to correct wrongdoing before any claim can be made to a court, even for misapplication of funds, and potentially wait four months' time. The Supreme Court has held that union members can intervene in enforcement proceedings brought by the <a href="/wiki/US_Department_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of Labor">US Department of Labor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Federal courts may review decisions by the Department to proceed with any prosecutions.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> The range of rights, and the level of enforcement has meant that labor unions display significantly higher standards of accountability, with fewer scandals, than corporations or <a href="/wiki/Financial_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial institutions">financial institutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sharan_Burrow_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sharan_Burrow_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg/220px-Sharan_Burrow_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sharan_Burrow_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg/330px-Sharan_Burrow_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sharan_Burrow_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg/440px-Sharan_Burrow_World_Economic_Forum_2013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6053" data-file-height="4380" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sharan_Burrow" title="Sharan Burrow">Sharan Burrow</a> leads the <a href="/wiki/International_Trade_Union_Confederation" title="International Trade Union Confederation">International Trade Union Confederation</a>, which represents labor union members worldwide, via each national group including the <a href="/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="AFL–CIO">AFL–CIO</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a></figcaption></figure> Beyond members rights within a labor union, the most controversial issue has been how people become members in unions. This affects union membership numbers, and whether labor rights are promoted or suppressed in democratic politics. Historically, unions made <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a> with employers that all new workers would have to join the union. This was to prevent employers trying to dilute and divide union support, and ultimately refuse to improve wages and conditions in <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>. However, after the <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 1947, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> § 158(a)(3) was amended to ban employers from refusing to hire a non-union employee. An employee can be required to join the union (if such a collective agreement is in place) after 30 days.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> But § 164(b) was added to codify a right of states to pass so called "<a href="/wiki/Right_to_work_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to work law">right to work laws</a>" that prohibit unions making collective agreements to register all workers as union members, or collect fees for the service of collective bargaining.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> Over time, as more states with <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> governments passed laws restricting union membership agreements, there has been a significant decline of <a href="/wiki/Union_density" title="Union density">union density</a>. Unions have not, however, yet experimented with agreements to <a href="/wiki/Automatically_enroll" class="mw-redirect" title="Automatically enroll">automatically enroll</a> employees in unions with a right to opt out. In <a href="/wiki/International_Ass%27n_of_Machinists_v._Street" title="International Ass'n of Machinists v. Street">International Ass'n of Machinists v. Street</a>, a majority of the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a>, against three dissenting justices, held that the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> precluded making an employee become a union member against their will, but it would be lawful to collect fees to reflect the benefits from collective bargaining: fees could not be used for spending on political activities without the member's consent.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Unions have always been entitled to publicly campaign for members of Congress or presidential candidates that support <a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">labor rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> But the urgency of political spending was raised when in 1976 <a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a> decided, over powerful dissents of <a href="/wiki/White_J" class="mw-redirect" title="White J">White J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Marshall J</a>, that candidates could spend unlimited money on their own political campaign,<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> and then in <a href="/wiki/First_National_Bank_of_Boston_v._Bellotti" title="First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti">First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti</a>,<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> that corporations could engage in election spending. In 2010, over four dissenting justices, <a href="/wiki/Citizens_United_v._FEC" title="Citizens United v. FEC">Citizens United v. FEC</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> held there could be essentially no limits to corporate spending. By contrast, every other democratic country caps spending (usually as well as regulating donations) as the original <a href="/wiki/Federal_Election_Campaign_Act_of_1971" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971">Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971</a> had intended to do. A unanimous court held in <a href="/wiki/Abood_v._Detroit_Board_of_Education" title="Abood v. Detroit Board of Education">Abood v. Detroit Board of Education</a> that <a href="/wiki/Union_security_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Union security agreements">union security agreements</a> to collect fees from non-members were also allowed in the public sector.<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> However, in <a href="/wiki/Harris_v._Quinn" title="Harris v. Quinn">Harris v. Quinn</a> five <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> judges reversed this ruling apparently banning public sector union security agreements,<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> and were about to do the same for all unions in <a href="/wiki/Friedrichs_v._California_Teachers_Association" title="Friedrichs v. California Teachers Association">Friedrichs v. California Teachers Association</a> until <a href="/wiki/Scalia_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalia J">Scalia J</a> died, halting an anti-labor majority on the Supreme Court.<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> In 2018, <a href="/wiki/Janus_v._AFSCME" title="Janus v. AFSCME">Janus v. AFSCME</a> the Supreme Court held by 5 to 4 that collecting mandatory union fees from public sector employees violated the First Amendment. The dissenting judges argued that union fees merely paid for benefits of collective bargaining that non-members otherwise received for free. These factors led campaign finance reform to be one of the most important issues in the <a href="/wiki/2016_US_Presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="2016 US Presidential election">2016 US Presidential election</a>, for the future of the labor movement, and democratic life. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collective_bargaining">Collective bargaining</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Collective bargaining">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Collective_bargain_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_collective_bargain" title="Template:Slist collective bargain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_collective_bargain" title="Template talk:Slist collective bargain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_collective_bargain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist collective bargain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Collective_bargain_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Collective bargain sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Right_to_Organise_and_Collective_Bargaining_Convention,_1949" title="Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949">Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949</a> c 98</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §§157-159 and 185</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Borg-Warner_Corp.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Borg-Warner Corp. (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Borg-Warner Corp.</a> 356 US 342 (1958)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_National_Maintenance_Corp._v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First National Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB (page does not exist)">First National Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB</a> 452 US 666 (1981)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/JI_Case_Co_v._National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board">JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board</a> 321 US 332 (1944)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Wallace_Corp._v._NLRB" title="Wallace Corp. v. NLRB">Wallace Corp. v. NLRB</a> 323 US 248 (1944)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Sands_Manufacturing_Co." title="NLRB v. Sands Manufacturing Co.">NLRB v. Sands Manufacturing Co.</a> 306 US 332 (1939)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/New_Process_Steel,_L.P._v._NLRB" title="New Process Steel, L.P. v. NLRB">New Process Steel, L.P. v. NLRB</a> 560 US 674 (2010)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Steelworkers_v._American_Manufact._Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Steelworkers v. American Manufact. Co. (page does not exist)">United Steelworkers v. American Manufact. Co.</a> 363 US 564 (1960)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Steelworkers_v._Warrior_%26_Gulf_Nav._Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Steelworkers v. Warrior & Gulf Nav. Co. (page does not exist)">United Steelworkers v. Warrior & Gulf Nav. Co.</a> 363 US 574 (1960)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Paperworkers_v._Misco,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Paperworkers v. Misco, Inc. (page does not exist)">United Paperworkers v. Misco, Inc.</a> 484 US 29 (1987)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">unions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">Collective bargaining</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arbitration_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Arbitration in the US">Arbitration in the US</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act 1935">National Labor Relations Act 1935</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Federal_Service_Labor-Management_Relations_Statute" title="Federal Service Labor-Management Relations Statute">Federal Service Labor-Management Relations Statute</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Railway_Labor_Act" title="Railway Labor Act">Railway Labor Act</a></div> Since the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, collective bargaining has been the main way to get <a href="/wiki/Fair_pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair pay">fair pay</a>, improved conditions, and a voice at work. The need for positive rights to organize and bargain was gradually appreciated after the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a>. Under §6,<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> labor rights were declared to be outside of <a href="/wiki/Antitrust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust law">antitrust law</a>, but this did not stop hostile employers and courts suppressing unions. In <a href="/wiki/Adair_v._United_States" title="Adair v. United States">Adair v. United States</a>,<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coppage_v._Kansas" title="Coppage v. Kansas">Coppage v. Kansas</a>,<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a>, over powerful dissents,<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> asserted the Constitution empowered employers to require employees to sign <a href="/wiki/Yellow-dog_contract" title="Yellow-dog contract">contracts</a> promising they would not join a union. These "<a href="/wiki/Yellow-dog_contract" title="Yellow-dog contract">yellow-dog contracts</a>" were offered to employees on a "<a href="/wiki/Hobson%27s_choice" title="Hobson's choice">take it or leave it</a>" basis, and effectively stopped unionization. They lasted until the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Norris%E2%80%93La_Guardia_Act" title="Norris–La Guardia Act">Norris–La Guardia Act</a> of 1932 banned them.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> This also prevented the courts from issuing any injunctions or enforcing any agreements in the context of a labor dispute.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/1932_United_States_presidential_election" title="1932 United States presidential election">landslide election</a> of <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> was drafted to create positive rights for collective bargaining in most of the private sector.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> It aimed to create a system of federal rights so that, under §157, employees would gain the legal "right to self-organization", "to bargain collectively" and use "concerted activities" including strikes for "mutual aid or other protection".<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> The Act was meant to increase <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">bargaining power</a> of employees to get better terms in than individual contracts with employing corporations. However §152 excluded many groups of workers, such as state and <a href="/wiki/Federal_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1978" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Labor Relations Act of 1978">federal government employees</a>,<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/Railway_Labor_Act" title="Railway Labor Act">railway and airline</a> staff,<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> domestic and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">agriculture</a> workers.<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> These groups depend on special federal statutes like the <a href="/wiki/Railway_Labor_Act" title="Railway Labor Act">Railway Labor Act</a> or state law rules, like the <a href="/wiki/California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1975" title="California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975">California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975</a>. In 1979, five <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> judges, over four forceful dissents, also introduced an exception for church operated schools, apparently because of "serious <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> questions".<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Furthermore, "independent contractors" are excluded, even though many are economically dependent workers. Some courts have attempted to expand the "independent contractor" exception. In 2009, in <a href="/wiki/FedEx_Home_Delivery_v._NLRB" title="FedEx Home Delivery v. NLRB">FedEx Home Delivery v. NLRB</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Circuit_Court_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia">DC Circuit</a>, adopting submissions of <a href="/wiki/FedEx" title="FedEx">FedEx</a>'s lawyer <a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz" title="Ted Cruz">Ted Cruz</a>, held that post truck drivers were independent contractors because they took on "entrepreneurial opportunity". <a href="/wiki/Merrick_Garland" title="Merrick Garland">Garland J</a> dissented, arguing the majority had departed from common law tests.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> The "independent contractor" category was estimated to remove protection from 8 million workers.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> While many states have higher rates, the US has an 11.1 per cent <a href="/wiki/Unionization_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Unionization rate">unionization rate</a> and 12.3 per cent rate of <a href="/wiki/Coverage_by_collective_agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Coverage by collective agreement">coverage by collective agreement</a>. This is the lowest in the industrialized world.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NLRB_picketing_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/NLRB_picketing_2007.jpg/220px-NLRB_picketing_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/NLRB_picketing_2007.jpg/330px-NLRB_picketing_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/NLRB_picketing_2007.jpg/440px-NLRB_picketing_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="375" /></a><figcaption>After <a href="/wiki/Professional_Air_Traffic_Controllers_Organization_(1968)" title="Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization (1968)">1981 air traffic control strike</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> fired every air traffic controller,<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> was staffed by people opposed to collective bargaining. Between 2007 and 2013 the NLRB was shut down as the President and then <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> refused to make appointments.</figcaption></figure> At any point employers can freely bargain with union representatives and make a <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreement" title="Collective agreement">collective agreement</a>. Under <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> §158(d) the mandatory subjects of collective bargaining include "wages, hours, and other terms and conditions of employment".<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> A collective agreement will typically aim to get rights including a <a href="/wiki/Fair_day%27s_wage_for_a_fair_day%27s_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair day's wage for a fair day's work">fair day's wage for a fair day's work</a>, reasonable notice and severance pay before any necessary <a href="/wiki/Layoff" title="Layoff">layoffs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Just_cause_(employment_law)" title="Just cause (employment law)">just cause</a> for any job termination, and <a href="/wiki/Arbitration_in_the_United_States" title="Arbitration in the United States">arbitration</a> to resolve disputes. It could also extend to any subject by mutual agreement. A union can encourage an employing entity through <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> to sign a deal, without using the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> procedure. But, if an employing entity refuses to deal with a union, and a union wishes, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> (NLRB) may oversee a legal process up to the conclusion of a legally binding <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreement" title="Collective agreement">collective agreement</a>. By law, the NLRB is meant to have five members "appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>",<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> and play a central role in promoting collective bargaining. First, the NLRB will determine an appropriate "<a href="/wiki/Bargaining_unit" title="Bargaining unit">bargaining unit</a>" of employees with employers (e.g., offices in a city, or state, or whole economic sector),<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> The NLRB favors "<a href="/wiki/Enterprise_bargaining" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterprise bargaining">enterprise bargaining</a>" over "<a href="/wiki/Sectoral_collective_bargaining" title="Sectoral collective bargaining">sectoral collective bargaining</a>", which means US unions have traditionally been smaller with less <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">bargaining power</a> by international standards. Second, a union with "majority" support of employees in a bargaining unit becomes "the exclusive representatives of all the employees".<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> But to ascertain majority support, the NLRB supervises the fairness of elections among the workforce. It is typical for the NLRB to take six weeks from a petition from workers to an election being held.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> During this time, managers may attempt to persuade or coerce employees using high-pressure tactics or <a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfair labor practices">unfair labor practices</a> (e.g. threatening job termination, alleging unions will bankrupt the firm) to vote against recognizing the union. The average time for the <a href="/wiki/NLRB" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB">NLRB</a> to decide upon complaints of unfair labor practices had grown to 483 days in 2009 when its last annual report was written.<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> Third, if a union does win majority support in a bargaining unit election, the employing entity will have an "obligation to bargain collectively". This means meeting union representatives "at reasonable times and confer in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> with respect to wages, hours, and other terms" to put in a "written contract". The NLRB cannot compel an employer to agree, but it was thought that the NLRB's power to sanction an employer for an "unfair labor practice" if they did not bargain in good faith would be sufficient. For example, in <a href="/wiki/JI_Case_Co_v._National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board">JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> held an employer could not refuse to bargain on the basis that individual contracts were already in place.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> Crucially, in <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Corp._v._NLRB" title="Wallace Corp. v. NLRB">Wallace Corp. v. NLRB</a> the Supreme Court also held that an employer only bargaining with a <a href="/wiki/Company_union" title="Company union">company union</a>, which it dominated, was an <a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practice" title="Unfair labor practice">unfair labor practice</a>. The employer should have recognized the truly <a href="/wiki/Independent_union" title="Independent union">independent union</a> affiliated to the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> (CIO).<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> However, in <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Sands_Manufacturing_Co." title="NLRB v. Sands Manufacturing Co.">NLRB v. Sands Manufacturing Co.</a> the Supreme Court held an employer did not commit an unfair trade practice by shutting down a water heater plant, while the union was attempting to prevent new employees being paid less.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> Moreover, after 2007 President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> refused to make any appointments to the Board, and it was held by five judges, over four dissents, in <a href="/wiki/New_Process_Steel,_L.P._v._NLRB" title="New Process Steel, L.P. v. NLRB">New Process Steel, L.P. v. NLRB</a> that rules made by two remaining members were ineffective.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> While appointments were made in 2013, agreement was not reached on one vacant seat. Increasingly it has been made politically unfeasible for the <a href="/wiki/NLRB" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB">NLRB</a> to act to promote collective bargaining. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernie_Sanders_%26_Hillary_Clinton_(28205920271).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bernie_Sanders_%26_Hillary_Clinton_%2828205920271%29.jpg/220px-Bernie_Sanders_%26_Hillary_Clinton_%2828205920271%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bernie_Sanders_%26_Hillary_Clinton_%2828205920271%29.jpg/330px-Bernie_Sanders_%26_Hillary_Clinton_%2828205920271%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bernie_Sanders_%26_Hillary_Clinton_%2828205920271%29.jpg/440px-Bernie_Sanders_%26_Hillary_Clinton_%2828205920271%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>The proposed <a href="/wiki/Employee_Free_Choice_Act" title="Employee Free Choice Act">Employee Free Choice Act</a>, sponsored repeatedly by <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> and Democrat representatives, would require employers to bargain in 90 days or go to arbitration, if a simple majority of employees sign cards supporting the union.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> It has been blocked by <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> in <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a>.</figcaption></figure> Once collective agreements have been signed, they are legally enforceable, often through <a href="/wiki/Arbitration_in_the_United_States" title="Arbitration in the United States">arbitration</a>, and ultimately in federal court.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Federal law must be applied for national uniformity, so state courts must apply federal law when asked to deal with collective agreements or the dispute can be removed to federal court.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> Usually, collective agreements include provisions for sending grievances of employees or disputes to binding <a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">arbitration</a>, governed by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Arbitration_Act" title="Federal Arbitration Act">Federal Arbitration Act</a> of 1925.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/United_Steelworkers_v._Warrior_%26_Gulf_Navigation_Co" title="United Steelworkers v. Warrior & Gulf Navigation Co">United Steelworkers v. Warrior & Gulf Navigation Co</a> a group of employees at a steel transportation works in <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw,_Alabama" title="Chickasaw, Alabama">Chickasaw, Alabama</a> requested the corporation go to <a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">arbitration</a> over layoffs and outsourcing of 19 staff on lower pay to do the same jobs. The <a href="/wiki/United_Steelworkers" title="United Steelworkers">United Steelworkers</a> had a collective agreement which contained a provision for arbitration. <a href="/wiki/Douglas_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Douglas J">Douglas J</a> held that any doubts about whether the agreement allowed the issue to go to arbitration "should be resolved in favor of coverage."<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> An arbitrator's award is entitled to judicial enforcement so long as its essence is from the collective agreement.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> Courts can decline to enforce an agreement based on <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a>, but this is different from "general considerations of supposed public interests".<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> But while federal policy had encouraged arbitration where unions and employers had made agreements, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a> drew a clear distinction for arbitration over individual statutory rights. In <a href="/wiki/Alexander_v._Gardner-Denver_Co." title="Alexander v. Gardner-Denver Co.">Alexander v. Gardner-Denver Co.</a> an employee claimed he was unjustly terminated, and suffered unlawful <a href="/wiki/Race_discrimination" class="mw-redirect" title="Race discrimination">race discrimination</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>. The Supreme Court held that he was entitled to pursue remedies both through arbitration and the public courts, which could re-evaluate the claim whatever the arbitrator had decided.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> But then, in 2009 in <a href="/wiki/14_Penn_Plaza_LLC_v._Pyett" title="14 Penn Plaza LLC v. Pyett">14 Penn Plaza LLC v. Pyett</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas J">Thomas J</a> announced with four other judges that apparently "[n]othing in the law suggests a distinction between the status of arbitration agreements <a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">signed by an individual employee</a> and those agreed to by a union representative."<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> This meant that a group of employees were denied the right to go to a public court under the <a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967</a>, and instead potentially be heard only by arbitrators their employer selected. <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Souter_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Souter J">Souter J</a>, joined by <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> dissented, pointing out that rights cannot be waived even by collective bargaining.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Arbitration_Fairness_Act_of_2011" title="Arbitration Fairness Act of 2011">Arbitration Fairness Act of 2011</a> has been proposed to reverse this, urging that "employees have little or no meaningful choice whether to submit their claims to arbitration".<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> It remains unclear why <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> §1, recognizing workers' "<a href="/wiki/Inequality_of_bargaining_power" title="Inequality of bargaining power">inequality of bargaining power</a>" was not considered relevant to ensure that collective bargaining can only improve upon rights, rather than take them away. To address further perceived defects of the NLRA 1935 and the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a>'s interpretations, major proposed reforms have included the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Reform_Act_of_1977" title="Labor Reform Act of 1977">Labor Reform Act of 1977</a>,<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Workplace_Democracy_Act" title="Workplace Democracy Act">Workplace Democracy Act</a> of 1999, and the <a href="/wiki/Employee_Free_Choice_Act" title="Employee Free Choice Act">Employee Free Choice Act</a> of 2009.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> All focus on speeding the election procedure for union recognition, speeding hearings for <a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfair labor practices">unfair labor practices</a>, and improving remedies within the existing structure of labor relations. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Right_to_organize">Right to organize</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Right to organize">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Right_to_organize_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_organize" title="Template:Slist organize"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_organize" title="Template talk:Slist organize"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_organize" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist organize"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Right_to_organize_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Right to organize sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Association_Convention_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of Association Convention 1948">Freedom of Association Convention 1948</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO:12100:P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312232:NO">c 87</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §158</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lechmere,_Inc._v._NLRB" title="Lechmere, Inc. v. NLRB">Lechmere, Inc. v. NLRB</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_502" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 502">502</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/502/527/">527</a> (1992)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Hague_v._CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="Hague v. CIO">Hague v. CIO</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_307" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 307">307</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/307/496/">496</a> (1939)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Hoffman_Plastic_Compounds,_Inc._v._NLRB" title="Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB">Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_535" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 535">535</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/535/137/">137</a> (2002)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._J_Weingarten,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. J Weingarten, Inc (page does not exist)">NLRB v. J Weingarten, Inc</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_420" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 420">420</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/420/251/">251</a> (1975)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Teamsters_Local_776" title="Garner v. Teamsters Local 776">Garner v. Teamsters Local 776</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1953/113.html">346 US 485</a> (1953)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=San_Diego_Building_Unions_v._Garmon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="San Diego Building Unions v. Garmon (page does not exist)">San Diego Building Unions v. Garmon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1959/66.html">359 US 236</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Machinists_v._Wisconsin_Employment_Relations_Commission" title="Machinists v. Wisconsin Employment Relations Commission">Machinists v. Wisconsin ERC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1976/140.html">427 US 132</a> (1976)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golden_State_Transit_Corp_v._Los_Angeles&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golden State Transit Corp v. Los Angeles (page does not exist)">Golden State Transit Corp v. Los Angeles</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1986/62.html">475 US 608</a> (1986)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce_v._Brown" title="Chamber of Commerce v. Brown">Chamber of Commerce v. Brown</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/2008/22.html">522 US 60</a> (2008)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Building_Trades_Council_v._ABC_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Building Trades Council v. ABC Inc. (page does not exist)">Building Trades Council v. ABC Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1993/27.html">507 US 218</a> (1993)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade unions in the United States">unions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">Freedom of association</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practice" title="Unfair labor practice">Unfair labor practice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Federal preemption</a></div> To ensure that employees are effectively able to bargain for a collective agreement, the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> created a group of rights in §158 to stall "<a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfair labor practices">unfair labor practices</a>" by employers. These were considerably amended by the <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 1947, where the <a href="/wiki/US_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Congress">US Congress</a> over the veto of President <a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> decided to add a list of unfair labor practices for labor unions. This has meant that union organizing in the US may involve substantial levels of <a href="/wiki/Litigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Litigation">litigation</a> which most workers cannot afford. The fundamental principle of freedom of association, however, is recognized worldwide to require various rights. It extends to the state, so in <a href="/wiki/Hague_v._Committee_for_Industrial_Organization" title="Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization">Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization</a> held the <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> mayor violated the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> when trying to shut down <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">CIO</a> meetings because he thought they were "communist".<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> Among many rights and duties relating to unfair labor practices, five main groups of case have emerged. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weltec_stopwork_meeting,_19_March_2009_(3367324864).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Weltec_stopwork_meeting%2C_19_March_2009_%283367324864%29.jpg/220px-Weltec_stopwork_meeting%2C_19_March_2009_%283367324864%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Weltec_stopwork_meeting%2C_19_March_2009_%283367324864%29.jpg/330px-Weltec_stopwork_meeting%2C_19_March_2009_%283367324864%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Weltec_stopwork_meeting%2C_19_March_2009_%283367324864%29.jpg/440px-Weltec_stopwork_meeting%2C_19_March_2009_%283367324864%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2880" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfair labor practices">Unfair labor practices</a>, made unlawful by the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §153, prohibit employers discriminating against people who organize a union and <a href="/wiki/Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote">vote</a> to get a <a href="/wiki/Voice_at_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Voice at work">voice at work</a>.</figcaption></figure> First, under §158(a)(3)–(4) a person who joins a union must suffer no discrimination or retaliation in their chances for being hired, terms of their work, or in termination.<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> For example, in one of the first cases, <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Jones_%26_Laughlin_Steel_Corp" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp">NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp</a>, the US Supreme Court held that the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> was entitled to order workers be rehired after they had been dismissed for organizing a union at their plant in <a href="/wiki/Aliquippa" class="mw-redirect" title="Aliquippa">Aliquippa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> It is also unlawful for employers to monitor employees who are organizing, for instance by parking outside a union meeting,<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> or videotaping employees giving out union fliers.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> This can include giving people incentives or bribes to not join a union. So in <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Erie_Resistor_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Erie Resistor Corp (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Erie Resistor Corp</a> the Supreme Court held it was unlawful to give 20 years extra seniority to employees who crossed a <a href="/wiki/Picket_line" title="Picket line">picket line</a> while the union had called a strike.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> Second, and by contrast, the Supreme Court had decided in <a href="/wiki/Textile_Workers_Union_of_America_v._Darlington_Manufacturing_Co_Inc" title="Textile Workers Union of America v. Darlington Manufacturing Co Inc">Textile Workers Union of America v. Darlington Manufacturing Co Inc</a> that actually shutting down a recently unionized division of an enterprise was lawful, unless it was proven that the employer was motivated by hostility to the union.<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> Third, union members need the right to be represented, in order to carry out basic functions of collective bargaining and settle grievances or disciplinary hearings with management. This entails a <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_fair_representation" title="Duty of fair representation">duty of fair representation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> In <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._J._Weingarten,_Inc." title="NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc.">NLRB v. J. Weingarten, Inc.</a> the Supreme Court held that an employee in a unionized workplace had the right to a union representative present in a management interview, if it could result in disciplinary action.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/NLRB" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB">NLRB</a> has changed its position with different political appointees, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_District_of_Columbia_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit">DC Circuit</a> has held the same right goes that non-union workers were equally entitled to be accompanied.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Fourth, under §158(a)(5) it is an unfair labor practice to refuse to bargain in good faith, and out of this a right has developed for a union to receive information necessary to perform collective bargaining work. However, in <a href="/wiki/Detroit_Edison_Co_v._NLRB" title="Detroit Edison Co v. NLRB">Detroit Edison Co v. NLRB</a> the Supreme Court divided 5 to 4 on whether a union was entitled to receive individual testing scores from a program the employer used.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> Also, in <a href="/wiki/Lechmere,_Inc._v._National_Labor_Relations_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Lechmere, Inc. v. National Labor Relations Board">Lechmere, Inc. v. National Labor Relations Board</a> the Supreme Court held 6 to 3 that an employer was entitled to prevent union members, who were not employees, from entering the company parking lot to hand out leaflets.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> Fifth, there are a large group of cases concerning "unfair" practices of labor organizations, listed in §158(b). For example, in <a href="/wiki/Pattern_Makers_League_of_North_America_v._NLRB" title="Pattern Makers League of North America v. NLRB">Pattern Makers League of North America v. NLRB</a> an employer claimed a union had committed an unfair practice by attempting to enforce fines against employees who had been members, but quit during a strike when their membership agreement promised they would not. Five judges to four dissents held that such fines could not be enforced against people who were no longer union members.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_union_membership_and_inequality,_top_1%25_income_share,_1910_to_2010.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/United_States_union_membership_and_inequality%2C_top_1%25_income_share%2C_1910_to_2010.png/400px-United_States_union_membership_and_inequality%2C_top_1%25_income_share%2C_1910_to_2010.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/United_States_union_membership_and_inequality%2C_top_1%25_income_share%2C_1910_to_2010.png/600px-United_States_union_membership_and_inequality%2C_top_1%25_income_share%2C_1910_to_2010.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/United_States_union_membership_and_inequality%2C_top_1%25_income_share%2C_1910_to_2010.png 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>As <a href="/wiki/Union_membership_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Union membership rate">union membership</a> declined <a href="/wiki/Income_inequality" class="mw-redirect" title="Income inequality">income inequality</a> rose, because labor unions have been the main way to participate at work.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a> The US does not yet require <a href="/wiki/Codetermination" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetermination">employee representatives</a> on <a href="/wiki/Boards_of_directors" class="mw-redirect" title="Boards of directors">boards of directors</a>, or elected <a href="/wiki/Work_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Work councils">work councils</a>.<a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> policy of <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a>, developed from 1953,<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> means that states cannot legislate where the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> does operate. The <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> contains no clause requiring <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a> as is found, for example, in the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act 1938</a> §218(a) where deviations from the minimum wage or maximum hours are preempted, unless they are more beneficial to the employee.<a href="#cite_note-auto-117">[117]</a> The first major case, <a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Teamsters_Local_776" title="Garner v. Teamsters Local 776">Garner v. Teamsters Local 776</a>, decided a <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> statute was preempted from providing superior remedies or processing claims quicker than the <a href="/wiki/NLRB" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB">NLRB</a> because "the Board was vested with power to entertain petitioners' grievance, to issue its own complaint" and apparent "Congress evidently considered that centralized administration of specially designed procedures was necessary to obtain uniform application of its substantive rules".<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> In <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Building_Trades_Council_v._Garmon" title="San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon">San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> held that the <a href="/wiki/California_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="California Supreme Court">California Supreme Court</a> was not entitled to award remedies against a union for picketing, because if "an activity is arguably subject to §7 or §8 of the Act, the States as well as the federal courts must defer to the exclusive competence of the National Labor Relations Board".<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> This was true, even though the NLRB had not given any ruling on the dispute because its monetary value was too small.<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> This reasoning was extended in <a href="/wiki/Lodge_76,_International_Association_of_Machinists_v_Wisconsin_Employment_Relations_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Lodge 76, International Association of Machinists v Wisconsin Employment Relations Commission">Lodge 76, International Association of Machinists v Wisconsin Employment Relations Commission</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin" title="Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a> Employment Relations Commission sought to hold a union liable for an unfair labor practice, by refusing to work overtime. <a href="/wiki/Brennan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Brennan J">Brennan J</a> held that such matters were to be left to "be controlled by the free play of economic forces".<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> While some of these judgments appeared beneficial to unions against hostile state courts or bodies, supportive actions also began to be held preempted. In <a href="/wiki/Golden_State_Transit_Corp._v._City_of_Los_Angeles" title="Golden State Transit Corp. v. City of Los Angeles">Golden State Transit Corp. v. City of Los Angeles</a> a majority of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> held that Los Angeles was not entitled to refuse to renew a taxi company's franchise license because the <a href="/wiki/Teamsters_Union" class="mw-redirect" title="Teamsters Union">Teamsters Union</a> had pressured it not to until a dispute was resolved.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> Most recently in <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce_v._Brown" title="Chamber of Commerce v. Brown">Chamber of Commerce v. Brown</a> seven judges on the Supreme Court held that California was preempted from passing a law prohibiting any recipient of state funds either from using money to promote or deter union organizing efforts. <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a> dissented because the law was simply neutral to the bargaining process.<a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> State governments may, however, use their funds to procure corporations to do work that are union or labor friendly.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collective_action">Collective action</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Collective action">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Collective_action_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_strike" title="Template:Slist strike"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_strike" title="Template talk:Slist strike"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_strike" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist strike"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Collective_action_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Collective action sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Vegelahn_v_Guntner" class="mw-redirect" title="Vegelahn v Guntner">Vegelahn v Guntner</a>, 167 Mass 92 (1896)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Act of 1914">Clayton Act of 1914</a> 15 USC §17</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Truax_v_Corrigan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Truax v Corrigan (page does not exist)">Truax v Corrigan</a> 257 US 312 (1921)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §§157-158</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/New_Negro_Alliance_v_Sanitary_Grocery_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="New Negro Alliance v Sanitary Grocery Co">New Negro Alliance v Sanitary Grocery Co</a> 303 US 552 (1938)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v_Mackay_Radio_%26_Telegraph_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB v Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co">NLRB v Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co</a> 304 US 333 (1938)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v_Fansteel_Metallurgical_Corp" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB v Fansteel Metallurgical Corp">NLRB v Fansteel Metallurgical Corp</a> 306 US 240 (1939)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v_Columbian_Enameling_%26_Stamping_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB v Columbian Enameling & Stamping Co">NLRB v Columbian Enameling & Stamping Co</a> 306 US 292 (1939)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Thornhill_v_Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="Thornhill v Alabama">Thornhill v Alabama</a> 310 US 88 (1940)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/US_v_Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="US v Congress of Industrial Organizations">US v Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> 335 US 106 (1948)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v_Electrical_Workers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v Electrical Workers (page does not exist)">NLRB v Electrical Workers</a> 346 US 464 (1953)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/NLRB_v_Truck_Drivers_Local_449" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB v Truck Drivers Local 449">NLRB v Truck Drivers Local 449</a> 353 US 87 (1957)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastex,_Inc_v_NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eastex, Inc v NLRB (page does not exist)">Eastex, Inc v NLRB</a> 437 US 556 (1978)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v_City_Disposal_Systems,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v City Disposal Systems, Inc (page does not exist)">NLRB v City Disposal Systems, Inc</a> 465 US 822 (1984)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans_World_Airlines,_Inc_v_Flight_Attendants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trans World Airlines, Inc v Flight Attendants (page does not exist)">Trans World Airlines, Inc v Flight Attendants</a> 489 US 426 (1989)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade unions in the United States">unions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Strike_action" title="Strike action">Strike action</a> and <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">Collective action</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:-RedForEd_(41008219574).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/-RedForEd_%2841008219574%29.jpg/220px--RedForEd_%2841008219574%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/-RedForEd_%2841008219574%29.jpg/330px--RedForEd_%2841008219574%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/-RedForEd_%2841008219574%29.jpg/440px--RedForEd_%2841008219574%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5760" data-file-height="3840" /></a><figcaption>All workers, like the <a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_education_workers%27_strikes_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="2018–19 education workers' strikes in the United States">Arizona teachers in 2019</a>, are guaranteed the right to take collective action, including strikes, by <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>, federal law and most state laws.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a></figcaption></figure> The right of labor to take <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to strike">right to strike</a>, has been fundamental to <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Hunt" title="Commonwealth v. Hunt">common law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> federal law,<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_labour_law" title="International labour law">international law</a> for over a century.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> As New York teacher unions argued in the 1960s, "If you can't call a strike you don't have real <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>, you have 'collective <a href="/wiki/Begging" title="Begging">begging</a>.'"<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> During the 19th century, many courts upheld the right to strike, but others issued injunctions to frustrate strikes,<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> and when the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Antitrust Act</a> of 1890 was passed to prohibit business combinations in <a href="/wiki/Restraint_of_trade" title="Restraint of trade">restraint of trade</a>, it was first used against labor unions. This resulted in <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Eugene Debs</a>, <a href="/wiki/American_Railway_Union" title="American Railway Union">American Railway Union</a> leader and future <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">Socialist</a> Presidential candidate, being imprisoned for taking part in the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a>.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> The Supreme Court persisted in <a href="/wiki/Loewe_v._Lawlor" title="Loewe v. Lawlor">Loewe v. Lawlor</a> in imposing damages for strikes under <a href="/wiki/Antitrust_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust law">antitrust law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto3-228">[228]</a> until Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Act of 1914">Clayton Act of 1914</a>. Seen as "the <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a> of America's workers",<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> this proclaimed that all collective action by workers was outside antitrust law under the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce Clause</a>, because "<a href="/wiki/Labor_is_not_a_commodity" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor is not a commodity">labor is not a commodity</a> or article of commerce". It became fundamental that no antitrust sanctions could be imposed, if "a union acts in its self-interest and does not combine with non-labor groups."<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> The same principles entered the founding documents of the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> Finally at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Lochner_era" title="Lochner era">Lochner era</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §157 enshrined the right "to engage in other concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection" and in §163, the "right to strike".<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cesar_Chavez_Day.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Cesar_Chavez_Day.jpg/220px-Cesar_Chavez_Day.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Cesar_Chavez_Day.jpg/330px-Cesar_Chavez_Day.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Cesar_Chavez_Day.jpg/440px-Cesar_Chavez_Day.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1201" data-file-height="1801" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cesar_Chavez" title="Cesar Chavez">Cesar Chavez</a> organized the <a href="/wiki/United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a> and campaigned for <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> under the slogan "<a href="/wiki/Yes_We_Can_(slogan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Yes We Can (slogan)">Yes we can</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/S%C3%AD,_se_puede" class="mw-redirect" title="Sí, se puede">Sí, se puede</a>".<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a></figcaption></figure> Although federal law guarantees the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to strike">right to strike</a>, American <a href="/wiki/Labor_unions" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor unions">labor unions</a> face the most severe constraints in the developed world in taking collective action. First, the law constrains the purposes for which strikes are allowed. The <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> only covers "employees" in the private sector, and a variety of state laws attempt to suppress government workers' right to strike, including for teachers,<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> police and firefighters, without adequate alternatives to set fair wages.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> Workers have the right to take <a href="/wiki/Protected_concerted_activity" title="Protected concerted activity">protected concerted activity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> But <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Insurance_Agents%27_International_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Insurance Agents' International Union (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Insurance Agents' International Union</a> held that although employees refusing to perform part of their jobs in a "partial strike" was not a failure to act in good faith, they could be potentially be discharged: perversely, this encourages workers to conduct an all-out strike instead.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> Second, since 1947 the law made it an "unfair labor practice" for employees to take collective action that is not a "primary strike or primary picketing" against the contractual employer.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> This prohibition on <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_action" title="Solidarity action">solidarity action</a> includes a ban on employees of a subsidiary corporation striking in concert with employees of a parent corporation, employees striking with employees of competitors, against outsourced businesses, or against suppliers.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> However the same standards are not applied to employers: in <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Truck_Drivers_Local_449" title="NLRB v. Truck Drivers Local 449">NLRB v. Truck Drivers Local 449</a>, the Supreme Court held that a group of seven employers were entitled to lock out workers of a union at once, in response to a strike at just one of the employers by the union.<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a> This said, employees may peacefully persuade customers to boycott any employer or related employer, for instance by giving out handbills.<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> Third, a union is bound to act in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> if it has negotiated a collective agreement, unless an employer commits an unfair labor practice. The union must also give 60 days warning before undertaking any strike while a collective agreement is in force.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> An employer must also act in good faith, and an allegation of a violation must be based on "substantial evidence": declining to reply to the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a>'s attempts to mediate was held to be insubstantial.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_3" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/220px--What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="142" data-mwtitle="What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3f/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3f/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3f/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3f/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3f/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm/What_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AWhat_the_Communications_Workers_Strike_is_About_-_Bernie_Sanders.webm&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></video><figcaption>2016 Presidential candidate <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> joined the <a href="/wiki/Communication_Workers_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Communication Workers of America">Communication Workers Union</a> strike against <a href="/wiki/Verizon" title="Verizon">Verizon</a>. American workers face serious obstacles to strike action, falling below <a href="/wiki/International_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="International labor law">international labor law</a> standards.</figcaption></figure> The fourth constraint, and most significant, on the right to strike is the lack of protection from unjust discharge. Other countries protect employees from any detriment or discharge for strike action,<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> but the Supreme Court held in <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Mackay_Radio_%26_Telegraph_Co." title="NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co.">NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co.</a> that employees on strike could be replaced by <a href="/wiki/Strikebreakers" class="mw-redirect" title="Strikebreakers">strikebreakers</a>, and it was not an unfair labor practice for the employer to refuse to discharge the strikebreakers after the dispute was over.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a> This decision is widely condemned as a violation of international law.<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> However the Supreme Court further held in <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Fansteel_Metallurgical_Corp." title="NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp.">NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp.</a> that the Labor Board cannot order an employer to rehire striking workers,<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> and has even held that employers could induce younger employees more senior jobs as a reward for breaking a strike.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> Fifth, the Supreme Court has not consistently upheld the right to free speech and peaceful picketing. In <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Electrical_Workers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Electrical Workers (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Electrical Workers</a> the Supreme Court held that an employer could discharge employees who disparaged an employer's TV broadcasts while a labor dispute was running, on the pretext that the employees' speech had no connection to the dispute.<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> On the other hand, the Supreme Court has held there was a right to picket shops that refused to hire African-American workers.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> The Supreme Court declared an Alabama law, which fined and imprisoned a picketer, to be unconstitutional.<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> The Supreme Court held unions could write newspaper publications to advocate for pro-labor political candidates.<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> It also held a union could distribute political leaflets in non-work areas of the employer's property.<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a> In all of these rights, however, the remedies available to employees for unfair labor practices are minimal, because employees can still be locked out and the Board cannot order reinstatement in the course of a good faith labor dispute. For this reason, a majority of labor law experts support the laws on collective bargaining and collective action being rewritten from a clean slate.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Right_to_vote_at_work">Right to vote at work</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Right to vote at work">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Workplace_votes_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_participation" title="Template:Slist participation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_participation" title="Template talk:Slist participation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_participation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist participation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Workplace_votes_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Workplace votes sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law" title="Delaware General Corporation Law">Delaware General Corporation Law</a> §141(a)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/General_Laws_of_Massachusetts" title="General Laws of Massachusetts">General Laws of Massachusetts</a> Part I, Title XII, ch 156, §23</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Dodd-Frank_Act_of_2010" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd-Frank Act of 2010">Dodd-Frank Act of 2010</a> §971</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §8(a)(2)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v_Newport_News_Shipbuilding_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v Newport News Shipbuilding Co (page does not exist)">NLRB v Newport News Shipbuilding Co</a> 308 US 241 (1939)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22" title="Control Council Law No 22">Control Council Law No 22</a> (1946)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Electromation_Inc" title="Electromation Inc">Electromation Inc</a> 309 NLRB No 163 (1992)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/EI_du_Pont_de_Nemours" class="mw-redirect" title="EI du Pont de Nemours">EI du Pont de Nemours</a> 311 NLRB No 88 (1993)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Report" title="Dunlop Report">Dunlop Report</a> (1994)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Reward_Work_Act_of_2018" class="mw-redirect" title="Reward Work Act of 2018">Reward Work Act of 2018</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Codetermination" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetermination">codetermination</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">Economic democracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">US corporate law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Codetermination" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetermination">Codetermination</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Work_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Work council">Work council</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bernie_Sanders_and_Elizabeth_Warren.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bernie_Sanders_and_Elizabeth_Warren.jpg/220px-Bernie_Sanders_and_Elizabeth_Warren.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bernie_Sanders_and_Elizabeth_Warren.jpg/330px-Bernie_Sanders_and_Elizabeth_Warren.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Bernie_Sanders_and_Elizabeth_Warren.jpg/440px-Bernie_Sanders_and_Elizabeth_Warren.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="2497" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Elizabeth Warren</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> co-sponsored the <a href="/wiki/Reward_Work_Act" title="Reward Work Act">Reward Work Act</a>, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Tammy_Baldwin" title="Tammy Baldwin">Tammy Baldwin</a>, for at least one third of listed company boards to be elected by employees,<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> and more for large corporations.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> In 1980 the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a> <a href="/wiki/Collectively_agreed" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectively agreed">collectively agreed</a> <a href="/wiki/Chrysler_Corp" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrysler Corp">Chrysler Corp</a> employees would be on the board of directors, but despite experiments, today asset managers monopolize voting rights in corporations with "<a href="/wiki/Other_People%27s_Money_and_How_the_Bankers_Use_It" title="Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It">other people's money</a>".<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a></figcaption></figure> While <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a> was stalled by <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a> policy, a dysfunctional <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a>, and falling <a href="/wiki/Union_membership_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Union membership rate">union membership rate</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Taft%E2%80%93Hartley_Act" title="Taft–Hartley Act">Taft–Hartley Act</a> of 1947, employees have demanded direct voting rights at work: for corporate <a href="/wiki/Boards_of_directors" class="mw-redirect" title="Boards of directors">boards of directors</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Work_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Work councils">work councils</a> that bind management.<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> This has become an important complement to both strengthening <a href="/wiki/Collective_bargaining" title="Collective bargaining">collective bargaining</a>, and securing the votes in labor's capital on <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pension</a> boards, which buy and vote on <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporate stocks</a>, and control employers.<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a> Labor law has increasingly converged with <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporate law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> and in 2018 the first federal law, the <a href="/wiki/Reward_Work_Act" title="Reward Work Act">Reward Work Act</a> was proposed by three US senators to enable employees to vote for one third of the directors on boards of listed companies.<a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a> In 1919, under the Republican governor <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a> became the first state with a right for employees in manufacturing companies to have employee representatives on the board of directors, but only if corporate stockholders voluntarily agreed.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a> Also in 1919 both <a href="/wiki/Procter_%26_Gamble" title="Procter & Gamble">Procter & Gamble</a> and the General Ice Delivery Company of Detroit had employee representation on boards.<a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a> Board representation for employees spread through the 1920s, many without requiring any <a href="/wiki/Employee_stock_ownership_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee stock ownership plan">employee stock ownership plan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> In the early 20th century, labor law theory split between those who advocated collective bargaining backed by strike action, those who advocated a greater role for binding arbitration,<a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a> and proponents of codetermination as "<a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy" title="Industrial democracy">industrial democracy</a>".<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a> Today, these methods are seen as complements, not alternatives. A majority of countries in the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a> have laws requiring direct participation rights.<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> In 1994, the <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Commission_on_the_Future_of_Worker-Management_Relations:_Final_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations: Final Report">Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations: Final Report</a> examined law reform to improve collective labor relations, and suggested minor amendments to encourage worker involvement.<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> Congressional division prevented federal reform, but labor unions and state legislatures have experimented. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:26em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> ... while there are many contributing causes to unrest ... one cause ... is fundamental. That is the necessary conflict—the contrast between our political <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> and our industrial <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">absolutism</a>. We are as free politically, perhaps, as free as it is possible for us to be. ... On the other hand, in dealing with industrial problems, the position of the ordinary worker is exactly the reverse. The individual employee has no effective voice or <a href="/wiki/Vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Vote">vote</a>. And the main objection, as I see it, to the very large corporation is, that it makes possible—and in many cases makes inevitable—the exercise of industrial <a href="/wiki/Autocracy" title="Autocracy">absolutism</a>. ... The <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> for which we are striving is an incident of our democracy, not its main end ... the end for which we must strive is the attainment of rule by the people, and that involves <a href="/wiki/Industrial_democracy" title="Industrial democracy">industrial democracy</a> as well as political democracy. </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a>, Testimony to <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" title="Commission on Industrial Relations">Commission on Industrial Relations</a> (1916) vol 8, 7659–7660</cite></div> </div> <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">Corporations</a> are chartered under state law, the larger mostly in <a href="/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law" title="Delaware General Corporation Law">Delaware</a>, but leave investors free to organize voting rights and board representation as they choose.<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a> Because of <a href="/wiki/Unequal_bargaining_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal bargaining power">unequal bargaining power</a>, but also because of historic caution among American labor unions about taking on management,<a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> shareholders have come to monopolize voting rights in American corporations. From the 1970s employees and unions sought representation on company boards. This could happen through <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a>, as it historically occurred in Germany or other countries, or through employees demanding further representation through <a href="/wiki/Employee_stock_ownership_plans" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee stock ownership plans">employee stock ownership plans</a>, but they aimed for voice independent from capital risks that could not be <a href="/wiki/Diversification_(finance)" title="Diversification (finance)">diversified</a>. By 1980, workers had attempted to secure board representation at corporations including <a href="/wiki/United_Airlines" title="United Airlines">United Airlines</a>, the <a href="/wiki/General_Tire_and_Rubber_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="General Tire and Rubber Company">General Tire and Rubber Company</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Providence_and_Worcester_Railroad" title="Providence and Worcester Railroad">Providence and Worcester Railroad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> However, in 1974 the <a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a>, run by appointees of <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a>, had rejected that employees who held shares in <a href="/wiki/AT%26T" title="AT&T">AT&T</a> were entitled to make shareholder proposals to include employee representatives on the board of directors.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> This position was eventually reversed expressly by the <a href="/wiki/Dodd%E2%80%93Frank_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodd–Frank Act">Dodd–Frank Act</a> of 2010 §971, which subject to rules by the <a href="/wiki/Securities_and_Exchange_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Securities and Exchange Commission">Securities and Exchange Commission</a> entitles shareholders to put forward nominations for the board.<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> Instead of pursuing board seats through shareholder resolutions the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a>, for example, successfully sought board representation by collective agreement at <a href="/wiki/Chrysler" title="Chrysler">Chrysler</a> in 1980.<a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> The <a href="/wiki/United_Steel_Workers" class="mw-redirect" title="United Steel Workers">United Steel Workers</a> secured board representation in five corporations in 1993.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a> Some representation plans were linked to <a href="/wiki/Employee_stock_ownership_plans" class="mw-redirect" title="Employee stock ownership plans">employee stock ownership plans</a>, and were open to abuse. At the energy company, <a href="/wiki/Enron" title="Enron">Enron</a>, workers were encouraged by management to invest an average of 62.5 per cent of their retirement savings from <a href="/wiki/401(k)" title="401(k)">401(k)</a> plans in Enron stock against basic principles of prudent, <a href="/wiki/Diversification_(finance)" title="Diversification (finance)">diversified investment</a>, and had no board representation. When Enron collapsed in 2003, employees lost a majority of their pension savings.<a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a> For this reason, employees and unions have sought representation because they invest their labor in the firm, and do not want undiversifiable capital risk. Empirical research suggests by 1999 there were at least 35 major employee representation plans with <a href="/wiki/Worker_director" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker director">worker directors</a>, though often linked to corporate stock.<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chattanooga_Phoenix_Solar_AG.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chattanooga_Phoenix_Solar_AG.jpg/220px-Chattanooga_Phoenix_Solar_AG.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chattanooga_Phoenix_Solar_AG.jpg/330px-Chattanooga_Phoenix_Solar_AG.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Chattanooga_Phoenix_Solar_AG.jpg/440px-Chattanooga_Phoenix_Solar_AG.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>Powered by a <a href="/wiki/Solar_farm" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar farm">solar farm</a>,<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Volkswagen_Chattanooga_Assembly_Plant" title="Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant">Volkswagen</a> plant at <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga,_Tennessee" title="Chattanooga, Tennessee">Chattanooga, Tennessee</a> has debated introducing <a href="/wiki/Work_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Work councils">work councils</a> to give employees and its labor union more of a voice at work.</figcaption></figure> As well as representation on a corporation's board of directors, or top management, employees have sought binding rights (for instance, over working time, break arrangement, and layoffs) in their organizations through elected <a href="/wiki/Work_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Work councils">work councils</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="National War Labor Board (1918–1919)">National War Labor Board</a> was established by the <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> administration, firms established work councils with some rights throughout the 1920s.<a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> Frequently, however, management refused to concede the "right to employ and discharge, the direction of the working forces, and the management of the business" in any way,<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a> which from the workforce perspective defeated the object. As the US presidency changed to the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican party</a> during the 1920s, work "councils" were often instituted by employers that did not have free elections or proceedings, to forestall independent labor unions' right to collective bargaining. For this reason, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §158(a)(2) ensured it was an <a href="/wiki/Unfair_labor_practice" title="Unfair labor practice">unfair labor practice</a> for an employer "to dominate or interfere with the formation or administration of any labor organization, or contribute financial or other support to it".<a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a> This was designed to enable free work councils, genuinely independent from management, but not dominated work councils or so called "<a href="/wiki/Company_union" title="Company union">company unions</a>".<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a> For example, a <a href="/wiki/Work_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Work council">work council</a> law was passed by the US government in <a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied-occupied Germany</a> called <a href="/wiki/Control_Council_Law,_No_22" class="mw-redirect" title="Control Council Law, No 22">Control Council Law, No 22</a>. This empowered German workers to organize work councils if elected by democratic methods, with secret ballots, using participation of free labor unions, with basic functions ranging from how to apply <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a>, regulating health and safety, rules for engagements, dismissals and grievances, proposals for improving work methods, and organizing social and welfare facilities.<a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a> These rules were subsequently updated and adopted in German law, although American employees themselves did not yet develop a practice of bargaining for work councils, nor did states implement work council rules, even though neither were <a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preempted</a> by the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a>.<a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a> In 1992, the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a> in its <a href="/wiki/Electromation,_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromation, Inc">Electromation, Inc</a>,<a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> and <a href="/wiki/EI_du_Pont_de_Nemours" class="mw-redirect" title="EI du Pont de Nemours">EI du Pont de Nemours</a>,<a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a> decisions confirmed that while management dominated councils were unlawful, genuine and independent work councils would not be. The <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Report" title="Dunlop Report">Dunlop Report</a> in 1994 produced an inconclusive discussion that favored experimentation with work councils.<a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> Congress did propose a <a href="/wiki/Teamwork_for_Employees_and_Managers_Act_of_1995" class="mw-redirect" title="Teamwork for Employees and Managers Act of 1995">Teamwork for Employees and Managers Act of 1995</a> to repeal §158(a)(2), but this was vetoed by President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> as it would have enabled management dominated unions and councils. In 2014, workers at the <a href="/wiki/Volkswagen_Chattanooga_Assembly_Plant" title="Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant">Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Chattanooga,_Tennessee" title="Chattanooga, Tennessee">Chattanooga, Tennessee</a>, sought to establish a <a href="/wiki/Work_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Work council">work council</a>. This was initially supported by management, but its stance changed in 2016, after the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a> succeeded in winning a ballot for traditional representation in an exclusive <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_unit" title="Bargaining unit">bargaining unit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-379">[379]</a> As it stands, employees have no widespread right to vote in American workplaces, which has increased the gap between <a href="/wiki/Political_democracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Political democracy">political democracy</a> and traditional labor law goals of <a href="/wiki/Workplace_democracy" title="Workplace democracy">workplace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Economic_democracy" title="Economic democracy">economic democracy</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equality_and_discrimination">Equality and discrimination</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Equality and discrimination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/US_employment_discrimination_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US employment discrimination law">US employment discrimination law</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_labour_law" title="European labour law">European labour law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/UK_employment_discrimination_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK employment discrimination law">UK employment discrimination law</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr._addresses_a_crowd_from_the_steps_of_the_Lincoln_Memorial,_USMC-09611.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._addresses_a_crowd_from_the_steps_of_the_Lincoln_Memorial%2C_USMC-09611.jpg/300px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr._addresses_a_crowd_from_the_steps_of_the_Lincoln_Memorial%2C_USMC-09611.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._addresses_a_crowd_from_the_steps_of_the_Lincoln_Memorial%2C_USMC-09611.jpg/450px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr._addresses_a_crowd_from_the_steps_of_the_Lincoln_Memorial%2C_USMC-09611.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._addresses_a_crowd_from_the_steps_of_the_Lincoln_Memorial%2C_USMC-09611.jpg/600px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr._addresses_a_crowd_from_the_steps_of_the_Lincoln_Memorial%2C_USMC-09611.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1126" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption>The world's first general equality law, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, followed the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> in 1963. The head of the movement, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> told America, "<a href="/wiki/I_have_a_dream" class="mw-redirect" title="I have a dream">I have a dream</a> that one day ... little black boys and black girls will be able to join hands with little white boys and white girls as sisters and brothers."</figcaption></figure> Since the <a href="/wiki/US_Declaration_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="US Declaration of Independence">US Declaration of Independence</a> in 1776 proclaimed that "all men are created equal",<a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a> the <a href="/wiki/US_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US constitution">Constitution</a> was progressively amended, and legislation was written, to spread equal rights to all people. While the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_vote" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to vote">right to vote</a> was needed for true political participation, the "<a href="/wiki/Right_to_work" title="Right to work">right to work</a>" and "free choice of employment" came to be seen as necessary for "<a href="/wiki/Life,_Liberty_and_the_pursuit_of_Happiness" title="Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness">Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness</a>".<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a> After state laws experimented, President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_8802" title="Executive Order 8802">Executive Order 8802</a> in 1941 set up the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Employment_Practice_Committee" title="Fair Employment Practice Committee">Fair Employment Practice Committee</a> to ban discrimination by "race, creed, color or national origin" in the defense industry. The first comprehensive statutes were the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a>, to limit discrimination by employers between men and women, and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, to stop discrimination based on "<a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">race</a>, color, <a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Religious discrimination in the United States">religion</a>, sex, or national origin."<a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a> In the following years, more "protected characteristics" were added by state and federal acts. The <a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967</a> protects people over age 40. The <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</a> requires "reasonable accommodation" to <a href="/wiki/Social_inclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social inclusion">include</a> people with disabilities in the workforce. Twenty two state Acts protect people based on <a href="/wiki/LGBT_employment_discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="LGBT employment discrimination in the United States">sexual orientation</a> in public and private employment, but <a href="/wiki/Equality_Act_of_2015" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality Act of 2015">proposed federal laws</a> have been blocked by <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> opposition. There can be no detriment to <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">union members</a>, or people who have <a href="/wiki/Uniformed_Services_Employment_and_Reemployment_Rights_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act">served in the military</a>. In principle, states may require rights and remedies for employees that go beyond the federal minimum. Federal law has multiple exceptions, but generally requires no <a href="/wiki/Disparate_treatment" title="Disparate treatment">disparate treatment</a> by employing entities, no <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> of formally neutral measures, and enables employers to voluntarily take <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> favoring under-represented people in their workforce.<a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a> The law has not, however, succeeded in eliminating the disparities in income by <a href="/wiki/Racial_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Racial inequality in the United States">race</a>, health, age or socio-economic background. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutional_rights">Constitutional rights</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Constitutional rights">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Equality_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_constitutional_equality" title="Template:Slist constitutional equality"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_constitutional_equality" title="Template talk:Slist constitutional equality"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_constitutional_equality" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist constitutional equality"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Equality_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Equality sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a>, 42 USC §1981(a)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Steele_v._Louisville_%26_Nashville_Railway_Co." title="Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co.">Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co.</a> 323 US 192 (1944)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._Railway_Express_Agency" title="Johnson v. Railway Express Agency">Johnson v. Railway Express Agency</a> 421 US 454 (1975)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/California_Federal_Savings_and_Loan_Association_v._Guerra" title="California Federal Savings and Loan Association v. Guerra">California Federal Savings and Loan Association v. Guerra</a> 479 US 272 (1987)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Equal_Remuneration_Convention" title="Equal Remuneration Convention">Equal Remuneration Convention</a> 1951</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">ILO <a href="/wiki/Discrimination_(Employment_and_Occupation)_Convention" title="Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention">Discrimination Convention 1958</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Equal opportunity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></div> The right to equality in employment in the United States comes from at least six major statutes, and limited jurisprudence of the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a>, leaving the law inconsistent and full of exceptions. Originally, the <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a> entrenched gender, race and wealth inequality by enabling states to maintain <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">slavery</a>,<a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a> reserve the vote to white, property owning men,<a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a> and enabling employers to refuse employment to anyone. After the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a> in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifteenth</a> Amendments attempted to enshrined equal civil rights for everyone,<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a> while the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1866" title="Civil Rights Act of 1866">Civil Rights Act of 1866</a>,<a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">1875</a> spelled out that everyone had the right to make contracts, hold <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> and access accommodation, transport and entertainment without discrimination. However, in 1883 the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a> put an end to development by declaring that <a href="/wiki/US_Congress" class="mw-redirect" title="US Congress">Congress</a> was not allowed to regulate the actions of private individuals rather than public bodies.<a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a> In his dissent, <a href="/wiki/Harlan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan J">Harlan J</a> would have held that no "corporation or individual wielding power under state authority for the public benefit" was entitled to "discriminate against freemen or citizens, in their civil rights".<a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boy_feeling_Barack_Obama%27s_hair.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Boy_feeling_Barack_Obama%27s_hair.jpg/220px-Boy_feeling_Barack_Obama%27s_hair.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Boy_feeling_Barack_Obama%27s_hair.jpg/330px-Boy_feeling_Barack_Obama%27s_hair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Boy_feeling_Barack_Obama%27s_hair.jpg/440px-Boy_feeling_Barack_Obama%27s_hair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3500" data-file-height="2333" /></a><figcaption>A constitutional right to equality, based on the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clauses</a> of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments has been disputed. 125 years after <a href="/wiki/Harlan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan J">Harlan J</a> wrote his famous dissent that all social institutions should be bound to equal rights,<a href="#cite_note-390">[390]</a> <a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> won election for President.</figcaption></figure> By 1944, the position had changed. In <a href="/wiki/Steele_v._Louisville_%26_Nashville_Railway_Co." title="Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co.">Steele v. Louisville & Nashville Railway Co.</a>,<a href="#cite_note-391">[391]</a> a Supreme Court majority held a labor union had a <a href="/wiki/Duty_of_fair_representation" title="Duty of fair representation">duty of fair representation</a> and may not discriminate against members based on race under the <a href="/wiki/Railway_Labor_Act" title="Railway Labor Act">Railway Labor Act</a> of 1926 (or the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a>. <a href="/wiki/Murphy_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Murphy J">Murphy J</a> would have also based the duty on a <a href="/wiki/Right_to_equality" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to equality">right to equality</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a>). Subsequently, <a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._Railway_Express_Agency" title="Johnson v. Railway Express Agency">Johnson v. Railway Express Agency</a> admitted that the old <a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a> provided a remedy against private parties.<a href="#cite_note-392">[392]</a> However, the Courts have not yet accepted a general right of equality, regardless of public or private power. Legislation will usually be found unconstitutional, under the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> if discrimination is shown to be intentional,<a href="#cite_note-393">[393]</a> or if it irrationally discriminates against one group. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Board_of_Education_v._LaFleur" title="Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur">Cleveland Board of Education v. LaFleur</a> the Supreme Court held by a majority of 5 to 2, that a school's requirement for women teachers to take mandatory maternity leave was unconstitutional, against the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a>, because it could not plausibly be shown that after child birth women could never perform a job.<a href="#cite_note-394">[394]</a> But while the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> has failed, against dissent, to recognize a constitutional principle of equality,<a href="#cite_note-395">[395]</a> federal and state legislation contains the stronger rules. In principle, federal equality law always enables state law to create better rights and remedies for employees.<a href="#cite_note-396">[396]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equal_treatment">Equal treatment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Equal treatment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Equal_treatment" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_employment_equality" title="Template:Slist employment equality"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_employment_equality" title="Template talk:Slist employment equality"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_employment_equality" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist employment equality"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Equal_treatment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Equal treatment</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 29 of the United States Code">29 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/29/206#d">§ 206(d)</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Corning_Glass_Works_v._Brennan" title="Corning Glass Works v. Brennan">Corning Glass Works v. Brennan</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_417" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 417">417</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/417/188/">188</a> (1974)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_42_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 42 of the United States Code">42 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/2000e-2">§ 2000e-2</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967</a>, <a href="/wiki/Title_29_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 29 of the United States Code">29 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/29/621">§ 621</a>-634</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Community_Affairs_v._Burdine" title="Texas Department of Community Affairs v. Burdine">Texas Department of Community Affairs v. Burdine</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_450" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 450">450</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/450/248/">248</a> (1981)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Honor_Center_v._Hicks" title="St. Mary's Honor Center v. Hicks">St. Mary's Honor Center v. Hicks</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_509" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 509">509</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/509/502/">502</a> (1993)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a> Rule <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalrulesofcivilprocedure.org/rule_23">23</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Brotherhood_of_Teamsters_v._United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. United States (page does not exist)">International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_431" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 431">431</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/431/324/">324</a> (1977)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=General_Telephone_Co._of_Southwest_v._Falcon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="General Telephone Co. of Southwest v. Falcon (page does not exist)">General Telephone Co. of Southwest v. Falcon</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_457" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 457">457</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/457/147/">147</a> (1982)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Meritor_Savings_Bank_v._Vinson" title="Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson">Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_477" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 477">477</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/477/57/">57</a> (1986)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Harris_v._Forklift_Systems,_Inc." title="Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc.">Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc.</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_510" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 510">510</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/510/17/">17</a> (1993)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Faragher_v._City_of_Boca_Raton" title="Faragher v. City of Boca Raton">Faragher v. City of Boca Raton</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_524" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 524">524</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/524/775/">775</a> (1998)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Disparate_treatment" title="Disparate treatment">Disparate treatment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bona_fide_occupational_qualification" title="Bona fide occupational qualification">Bona fide occupational qualification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">Harassment</a>, <a href="/wiki/US_workplace_sexual_harassment" class="mw-redirect" title="US workplace sexual harassment">US workplace sexual harassment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Retaliation_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Retaliation (law)">Retaliation (law)</a></div> Today legislation bans discrimination, that is unrelated to an employee's ability to do a job, based on sex, race,<a href="#cite_note-397">[397]</a> ethnicity, national origin, age and disability.<a href="#cite_note-398">[398]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a> banned gender pay discrimination, amending the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>. Plaintiffs must show an employing entity pays them less than someone of the opposite sex in an "establishment" for work of "equal skill, effort, or responsibility" under "similar working conditions". Employing entities may raise a defense that pay differences result from a seniority or merit system unrelated to sex.<a href="#cite_note-399">[399]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Corning_Glass_Works_v._Brennan" title="Corning Glass Works v. Brennan">Corning Glass Works v. Brennan</a> the Supreme Court held that although women plaintiffs worked at different times in the day, compared to male colleagues, the working conditions were "sufficiently similar" and the claim was allowed.<a href="#cite_note-400">[400]</a> One drawback is the equal pay provisions are subject to multiple exemptions for groups of employees found in the <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a> itself. Another is that equal pay rules only operate within workers of an "enterprise",<a href="#cite_note-401">[401]</a> so that it has no effect upon high paying enterprises being more male dominated, nor <a href="/wiki/Child_care" title="Child care">child care</a> being unequally shared between men and women that affects long-term career progression. Sex discrimination includes discrimination based on pregnancy,<a href="#cite_note-402">[402]</a> and is prohibited in general by the landmark <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>.<a href="#cite_note-403">[403]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:We_Can_Do_It!_NARA_535413_-_Restoration_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/We_Can_Do_It%21_NARA_535413_-_Restoration_2.jpg/220px-We_Can_Do_It%21_NARA_535413_-_Restoration_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/We_Can_Do_It%21_NARA_535413_-_Restoration_2.jpg/330px-We_Can_Do_It%21_NARA_535413_-_Restoration_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/We_Can_Do_It%21_NARA_535413_-_Restoration_2.jpg/440px-We_Can_Do_It%21_NARA_535413_-_Restoration_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6782" data-file-height="8784" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rosie_the_Riveter" title="Rosie the Riveter">Rosie the Riveter</a> symbolized women factory workers in World War II. The <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a> banned pay discrimination within workplaces.<a href="#cite_note-404">[404]</a></figcaption></figure> Beyond gender equality on the specific issue of pay, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> is the general anti-discrimination statute. Titles I to VI protects the equal right to vote, to access public accommodations, public services, schools, it strengthens the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Commission">Civil Rights Commission</a>, and requires equality in federally funded agencies. <a href="/wiki/Title_VII_of_the_Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964">Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> bans discrimination in employment. Under §2000e-2, employers must not refuse to hire, discharge or discriminate "against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions or privileges of employment, because of such individual's <a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">race</a>, color, religion, sex, or <a href="/wiki/National_origin" title="National origin">national origin</a>."<a href="#cite_note-405">[405]</a> <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Segregation</a> in employment is equally unlawful.<a href="#cite_note-406">[406]</a> The same basic rules apply for people <a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">over 40 years old</a>,<a href="#cite_note-407">[407]</a> and for people with <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">disabilities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-408">[408]</a> Although states may go further, a significant limit to federal law is a duty only falls on private employers of more than 15 staff, or 20 staff for age discrimination.<a href="#cite_note-409">[409]</a> Within these limits, people can bring claims against <a href="/wiki/Disparate_treatment" title="Disparate treatment">disparate treatment</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Texas_Department_of_Community_Affairs_v._Burdine" title="Texas Department of Community Affairs v. Burdine">Texas Department of Community Affairs v. Burdine</a> the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> held plaintiffs will establish a prima facie case of discrimination for not being hired if they are in a protected group, qualified for a job, but the job is given to someone of a different group. It is then up to an employer to rebut the case, by showing a legitimate reason for not hiring the plaintiff.<a href="#cite_note-410">[410]</a> However, in 1993, this position was altered in <a href="/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Honor_Center_v._Hicks" title="St. Mary's Honor Center v. Hicks">St. Mary's Honor Center v. Hicks</a> where <a href="/wiki/Scalia_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalia J">Scalia J</a> held (over the dissent of four justices) that if an employer shows no discriminatory intent, an employee must not only show the reason is a pretext, but show additional evidence that discrimination has taken place.<a href="#cite_note-411">[411]</a> <a href="/wiki/Souter_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Souter J">Souter J</a> in dissent, pointed out the majority's approach was "inexplicable in forgiving employers who present false evidence in court".<a href="#cite_note-412">[412]</a> Disparate treatment can be justified under <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a> §2000e-2(e) if an employer shows selecting someone reflects by "religion, sex, or national origin is a <a href="/wiki/Bona_fide_occupational_qualification" title="Bona fide occupational qualification">bona fide occupational qualification</a> reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise."<a href="#cite_note-413">[413]</a> Race is not included. For example, in <a href="/wiki/Dothard_v._Rawlinson" title="Dothard v. Rawlinson">Dothard v. Rawlinson</a> the state of <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> prohibited women from working as prison guards in "contact" jobs, with close proximity to prisoners. It also had minimum height and weight requirements (5"2 and 120 <a href="/wiki/Pound_(mass)" title="Pound (mass)">lbs</a>), which it argued were necessary for proper security. Ms Rawlinson claimed both requirements were unlawful discrimination. A majority of 6 to 3 held that the gender restrictions in contact jobs were a <a href="/wiki/Bona_fide_occupational_qualification" title="Bona fide occupational qualification">bona fide occupational qualification</a>, because there was a heightened risk of sexual assault, although <a href="/wiki/Stewart_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stewart J">Stewart J</a> suggested the result might have differed if the prisons were better run. A majority held the height and weight restrictions, while neutral, had a <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> on women and were not justified by business necessity.<a href="#cite_note-414">[414]</a> By contrast, in <a href="/wiki/Wilson_v._Southwest_Airlines_Co." title="Wilson v. Southwest Airlines Co.">Wilson v. Southwest Airlines Co.</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> District Court held an airline was not entitled to require women only to work as cabin attendants (who were further required to be "dressed in high boots and hot-pants") even if it could show a consumer preference. The essence of the business was transporting passengers, rather than its advertising metaphor of "spreading love all over Texas", so that there was no "bona fide occupational requirement".<a href="#cite_note-415">[415]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/ADEA_1967" class="mw-redirect" title="ADEA 1967">ADEA 1967</a>, age requirements can be used, but only if reasonably necessary, or compelled by law or circumstance. For example, in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Air_Lines,_Inc_v._Criswell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western Air Lines, Inc v. Criswell (page does not exist)">Western Air Lines, Inc v. Criswell</a> the Supreme Court held that airlines could require pilots to retire at age 60, because the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> required this. It could not, however, refuse to employ flight engineers over 60 because there was no comparable FAA rule.<a href="#cite_note-416">[416]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:20em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> We are confronted by powerful forces telling us to rely on the good will and understanding of those who profit by exploiting us. They deplore our discontent, they resent our will to organize, so that we may guarantee that <a href="/wiki/Humanitarianism" title="Humanitarianism">humanity</a> will prevail and <a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">equality</a> will be exacted. They are shocked that action organizations, sit-ins, <a href="/wiki/Civil_disobedience" title="Civil disobedience">civil disobedience</a>, and protests are becoming our everyday tools, just as strikes, demonstrations and union organization became yours to insure that <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">bargaining power</a> genuinely existed on both sides of the table. ... </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, Speech to the Fourth Constitutional Convention <a href="/wiki/AFL%E2%80%93CIO" class="mw-redirect" title="AFL–CIO">AFL–CIO</a> Miami, Florida (11 December 1961)</cite></div> </div> In addition to prohibitions on discriminatory treatment, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_workplace_in_the_United_States" title="Sexual harassment in the workplace in the United States">harassment</a>, and detriment in retaliation for asserting rights, is prohibited. In a particularly obscene case, <a href="/wiki/Meritor_Savings_Bank_v._Vinson" title="Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson">Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson</a> the Supreme Court unanimously held that a bank manager who coerced a woman employee into having sex with him 40 to 50 times, including rape on multiple occasions, had committed unlawful harassment within the meaning of <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> §2000e.<a href="#cite_note-417">[417]</a> But also if employees or managers create a "hostile or offensive working environment", this counts as discrimination. In <a href="/wiki/Harris_v._Forklift_Systems,_Inc." title="Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc.">Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc.</a> the Court held that a "hostile environment" did not have to "seriously affect employees' psychological well-being" to be unlawful. If the environment "would reasonably be perceived, and is perceived, as hostile or abusive" this is enough.<a href="#cite_note-418">[418]</a> Standard principles of agency and vicariously liability apply, so an employer is responsible for the actions of its agents,<a href="#cite_note-419">[419]</a> But according to <a href="/wiki/Faragher_v._City_of_Boca_Raton" title="Faragher v. City of Boca Raton">Faragher v. City of Boca Raton</a> an employing entity can avoid vicarious liability if it shows it (a) exercised reasonable care to prevent and promptly correct any harassment and (b) a plaintiff unreasonably failed to take advantage of opportunities to stop it.<a href="#cite_note-420">[420]</a> In addition, an employing entity may not retaliate against an employee for asserting his or her rights under the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>,<a href="#cite_note-421">[421]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967</a>.<a href="#cite_note-422">[422]</a> In <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_v._Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="University of Pennsylvania v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">University of Pennsylvania v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a>, the Supreme Court held that a university was not entitled to refuse to give up peer review assessment documents in order for the <a href="/wiki/EEOC" class="mw-redirect" title="EEOC">EEOC</a> to investigate the claim.<a href="#cite_note-423">[423]</a> Furthermore, in <a href="/wiki/Robinson_v._Shell_Oil_Co." title="Robinson v. Shell Oil Co.">Robinson v. Shell Oil Co.</a> the Supreme Court held that writing a negative job reference, after a plaintiff brought a race discrimination claim, was unlawful retaliation: employees were protected even if they had been fired.<a href="#cite_note-424">[424]</a> It has also been held that simply being reassigned to a slightly different job, operating forklifts, after making a sex discrimination complaint could amount to unlawful retaliation.<a href="#cite_note-425">[425]</a> This is all seen as necessary to make equal rights effective. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Equal_impact_and_remedies">Equal impact and remedies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Equal impact and remedies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">Disparate impact</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Disparate_impact" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_equal_impact" title="Template:Slist equal impact"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_equal_impact" title="Template talk:Slist equal impact"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_equal_impact" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist equal impact"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Disparate_impact" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Disparate impact</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a>, 401 US 424 (1971)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, 42 USC §2000e-2(k)-6</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ricci_v._DeStefano" title="Ricci v. DeStefano">Ricci v. DeStefano</a>, 557 US 557 (2009)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Dothard_v._Rawlinson" title="Dothard v. Rawlinson">Dothard v. Rawlinson</a>, 433 US 321 (1977)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, Title VII, §703(h)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Schultz_v._Wheaton_Glass_Co." title="Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co.">Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co.</a>, 421 F2d 259 (3rd Cir 1970)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/County_of_Washington_v._Gunther" title="County of Washington v. Gunther">County of Washington v. Gunther</a>, 452 US 161 (1981)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> In addition to <a href="/wiki/Disparate_treatment" title="Disparate treatment">disparate treatment</a>, employing entities may not use practices having an unjustified <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> on protected groups. In <a href="/wiki/Griggs_v._Duke_Power_Co." title="Griggs v. Duke Power Co.">Griggs v. Duke Power Co.</a>, a power company on the <a href="/wiki/Dan_River" title="Dan River">Dan River</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, required a <a href="/wiki/High_school_diploma" title="High school diploma">high school diploma</a> for staff to transfer to higher paying non-manual jobs. Because of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> in states like <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, fewer <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">black employees</a> than <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white employees</a> had diplomas.<a href="#cite_note-426">[426]</a> The Court found a diploma was wholly unnecessary to perform the tasks in higher paying non-manual jobs. <a href="/wiki/Burger_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Burger CJ">Burger CJ</a>, for a unanimous <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">Supreme Court</a>, held the "<a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Act</a> proscribes not only overt discrimination, but also practices that are fair in form, but discriminatory in operation." An employer could show that a practice with <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> followed "business necessity" that was "related to <a href="/wiki/Job_performance" title="Job performance">job performance</a>" but otherwise such practices would be prohibited.<a href="#cite_note-427">[427]</a> It is not necessary to show any intention to discriminate, just a discriminatory effect. Since amendments by the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1991" title="Civil Rights Act of 1991">Civil Rights Act of 1991</a>,<a href="#cite_note-428">[428]</a> if <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> is shown the law requires employers "to demonstrate that the challenged practice is job related for the position in question and consistent with business necessity" and that any non-discriminatory "alternative employment practice" is not feasible.<a href="#cite_note-429">[429]</a> On the other hand, in <a href="/wiki/Ricci_v._DeStefano" title="Ricci v. DeStefano">Ricci v. DeStefano</a> five Supreme Court judges held the <a href="/wiki/City_of_New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="City of New Haven">City of New Haven</a> had acted unlawfully by discarding test results for <a href="/wiki/Firefighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Firefighters">firefighters</a>, which it concluded could have had an unjustified <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> by race.<a href="#cite_note-430">[430]</a> In a further concurrence, <a href="/wiki/Scalia_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalia J">Scalia J</a> said "resolution of this dispute merely postpones the <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a> day" when a <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> might be found <a href="/wiki/Unconstitutional" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconstitutional">unconstitutional</a>, against the [[Equal Protection Clause]] because, in his view, the lack of a good faith defense meant employers were compelled to do "racial decision making" that "is ... discriminatory." In dissent, <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a> pointed out that <a href="/wiki/Disparate_impact" title="Disparate impact">disparate impact</a> theory advances equality, and in no way requires behavior that is not geared to identifying people with skills necessary for jobs.<a href="#cite_note-431">[431]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Secretary_Clinton_Smiles_With_South_African_Minister_Maite_Nkoana-Mashabane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Secretary_Clinton_Smiles_With_South_African_Minister_Maite_Nkoana-Mashabane.jpg/220px-Secretary_Clinton_Smiles_With_South_African_Minister_Maite_Nkoana-Mashabane.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Secretary_Clinton_Smiles_With_South_African_Minister_Maite_Nkoana-Mashabane.jpg/330px-Secretary_Clinton_Smiles_With_South_African_Minister_Maite_Nkoana-Mashabane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Secretary_Clinton_Smiles_With_South_African_Minister_Maite_Nkoana-Mashabane.jpg/440px-Secretary_Clinton_Smiles_With_South_African_Minister_Maite_Nkoana-Mashabane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1195" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Paycheck_Fairness_Act" title="Paycheck Fairness Act">Paycheck Fairness Act</a>, repeatedly proposed by Democrats such as <a href="/wiki/Hillary_Clinton" title="Hillary Clinton">Hillary Clinton</a>, would prevent employer defenses to sex discrimination that are related to gender. It has been rejected by <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republicans</a> in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a>.</figcaption></figure> Both <a href="/wiki/Disparate_treatment" title="Disparate treatment">disparate treatment</a> and disparate impact claims may be brought by an individual, or if there is a "pattern or practice" by the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney_General" title="United States Attorney General">Attorney General</a>,<a href="#cite_note-432">[432]</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Class_action" title="Class action">class action</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a>, Rule 23 a class of people who share a common claim must be numerous, have "questions of law or fact common to the class", have representatives typical of the claimants, who would "fairly and adequately protect the interests of the class".<a href="#cite_note-433">[433]</a> Class actions may be brought, even in favor of people who are not already identified, for instance, if they have been discouraged from applying for jobs,<a href="#cite_note-434">[434]</a> so long as there is sufficiently specific presentation of issues of law and fact to certify the action.<a href="#cite_note-435">[435]</a> A significant practical problem for disparate impact claims is the "<a href="/wiki/Bennett_Amendment" title="Bennett Amendment">Bennett Amendment</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> §703(h). Though introduced as a supposedly "technical" amendment by a Utah Republican Senator, it requires that claims for equal pay between men and women cannot be brought unless they fulfill the requirements of the <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a> § 206(d)(1).<a href="#cite_note-436">[436]</a> This says that employers have a defense to employee claims if unequal pay (purely based on gender) flows from "(i) a seniority system; (ii) a merit system; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv) a differential based on any other factor other than sex." By contrast, for claims alleging discriminatory pay on grounds of race, age, sexual orientation or other protected characteristics, an employer only has the more restricted defenses available in the <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a> §703(h).<a href="#cite_note-437">[437]</a> In <a href="/wiki/County_of_Washington_v._Gunther" title="County of Washington v. Gunther">County of Washington v. Gunther</a><a href="#cite_note-438">[438]</a> the majority of the Supreme Court accepted that this was the correct definition. In principle, this meant that a group of women prison guards, who did less time working with prisoners than men guards, and also did different clerical work, would be able to bring a claim—there was no need to be doing entirely "equal work". However <a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Rehnquist J">Rehnquist J</a> dissented, arguing the Amendment should have put the plaintiffs in an even worse position: they should be required to prove they do "equal work", as is stated in the first part of §703(h).<a href="#cite_note-439">[439]</a> Nevertheless, the majority held that the gender pay provisions could be worse because, for example, an employer could apply ""a bona fide job rating system," so long as it does not discriminate on the basis of sex", whereas the same would not be possible for other claims under the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>. Given that a significant <a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">gender pay gap</a> remains, it is not clear why any discrepancy or less favorable treatment, should remain at all.<a href="#cite_note-440">[440]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affirmative_action">Affirmative action</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Affirmative action">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Affirmative action in the US">Affirmative action in the US</a>, <a href="/wiki/Board_diversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Board diversity">Board diversity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_US" class="mw-redirect" title="Disability in the US">Disability in the US</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_accommodation" title="Reasonable accommodation">Reasonable accommodation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Positive_action" title="Positive action">Positive action</a></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Affirmative_action_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slist_affirmative_action" title="Template:Slist affirmative action"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slist_affirmative_action" title="Template talk:Slist affirmative action"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slist_affirmative_action" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slist affirmative action"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Affirmative_action_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Affirmative action sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> §2000e-(j)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/United_Steelworkers_v._Weber" title="United Steelworkers v. Weber">United Steelworkers v. Weber</a>, 443 US 193 (1979)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bushey_v._New_York_State_Civil_Service_Comm&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bushey v. New York State Civil Service Comm (page does not exist)">Bushey v. New York State Civil Service Comm</a>, 733 F2d 220 (1984)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnson_v._Transportation_Agency,_Santa_Clara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnson v. Transportation Agency, Santa Clara (page does not exist)">Johnson v. Transportation Agency, Santa Clara</a> 480 US 616 (1987)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Wygant_v._Jackson_Board_of_Education" title="Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education">Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education</a> 476 US 267 (1986)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Paradise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Paradise (page does not exist)">United States v. Paradise</a> 480 US 149 (1987)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/City_of_Richmond_v._J.A._Croson_Co." title="City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.">City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.</a>, 488 US 469 (1989)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Pe%C3%B1a" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña</a>, 515 US 200 (1995)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Morton_v._Mancari" title="Morton v. Mancari">Morton v. Mancari</a> 417 US 535 (1974)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">EEOC</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guidelines_on_Affirmative_Action&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guidelines on Affirmative Action (page does not exist)">Guidelines on Affirmative Action</a> (2009) 29 CFR</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Federal_Contract_Compliance_Programs" title="Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs">OFCCP</a> Regulations, 41 CFR §60</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> §2000e-(j)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Steelworkers_v._Weber" title="United Steelworkers v. Weber">United Steelworkers v. Weber</a>, 443 U.S. 193 (1979) 5 to 3 held that the Civil Rights Act did not prohibit preference being given to under-represented groups as a temporary measure to correct historical disadvantage. Black workers were assured half the places in an on the job training program, pursuant to a collective agreement. Rehnquist J dissented.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushey_v._New_York_State_Civil_Service_Commission" title="Bushey v. New York State Civil Service Commission">Bushey v. New York State Civil Service Commission</a>, 733 F2d 220 (2nd 1984) the use of a separate grading curve on the New York Civil Service Commission entrance test for minority candidates was legitimate</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._Transportation_Agency" title="Johnson v. Transportation Agency">Johnson v. Transportation Agency</a> 480 US 616 (1987) 7 to 2, White J and Scalia J dissenting an employer was entitled to give preference to women who possessed qualifications for a job, even if not equally qualified.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Local_No._93,_International_Association_of_Firefighters_v._City_of_Cleveland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Local No. 93, International Association of Firefighters v. City of Cleveland (page does not exist)">Local No. 93, International Association of Firefighters v. City of Cleveland</a> 478 US 501 (1986) a consent decree giving preference in promotions to black fireman in <a href="/wiki/Cleveland" title="Cleveland">Cleveland</a> was lawful under Title VII, although a District Court would not be entitled to impose a similar preference.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Local_28,_Sheet_Metal_Workers%27_International_Association_v._EEOC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Local 28, Sheet Metal Workers' International Association v. EEOC (page does not exist)">Local 28, Sheet Metal Workers' International Association v. EEOC</a> 478 US 421 (1986) a district court could have a goal of minority membership in a union that had a history of race discrimination in the construction industry.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wygant_v._Jackson_Board_of_Education" title="Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education">Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education</a> 476 US 267 (1986) a preference for teachers to be laid off in reverse order of seniority unless this would reduce the percentage of minority teachers was collectively agreed. Held, under strict scrutiny, the preference was unlawful under the Fourteenth Amendment because it was not based on evidence of past discrimination. <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Marshall J</a>, joined by Brennan J, Blackmun J, Stevens J dissented</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=US_v._Paradise&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="US v. Paradise (page does not exist)">US v. Paradise</a> 480 US 149 (1987) a judicially ordered preference to remedy longstanding discrimination in the Alabama Department of Public Safety hiring and promotion of state troopers was lawful.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Richmond_v._J.A._Croson_Co." title="City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.">City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.</a>, 488 US 469 (1989) 6 to 3, government contracting according to diversity criteria unlawful. Race preference is subject to <a href="/wiki/Strict_scrutiny" title="Strict scrutiny">strict scrutiny</a>, or more difficult to justify than other remedies for discrimination.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adarand_Constructors,_Inc._v._Pe%C3%B1a" title="Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña">Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña</a>, 515 US 200 (1995) federal agency contracts and subcontracts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piscataway_School_Board_v._Taxman" title="Piscataway School Board v. Taxman">Piscataway School Board v. Taxman</a>, 91 F3d 1547 (3d Cir. 1996) case dropped, on affirmative action</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_v._Mancari" title="Morton v. Mancari">Morton v. Mancari</a> 417 US 535 (1974) held preference of Native Americans in the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> was compatible with Title VII and the Fifth Amendment, as it was "reasonably designed to further the cause of Indian self-government and to make the BIA more responsive to the needs of its constituent groups."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/EEOC" class="mw-redirect" title="EEOC">EEOC</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guidelines_on_Affirmative_Action&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guidelines on Affirmative Action (page does not exist)">Guidelines on Affirmative Action</a> (2009) 29 CFR <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2014-title29-vol4/xml/CFR-2014-title29-vol4-part1608.xml">§1608</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OFCCP" class="mw-redirect" title="OFCCP">OFCCP</a> Regulations, 41 CFR §60 based on Executive Order 11246, 3 CFR 339</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg/220px-Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg/330px-Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg/440px-Rooseveltinwheelchair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1206" data-file-height="1238" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="Franklin Delano Roosevelt">Franklin Delano Roosevelt</a>, suffering from <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a>, required a <a href="/wiki/Wheelchair" title="Wheelchair">wheelchair</a> through his <a href="/wiki/Presidency" title="Presidency">Presidency</a>.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veterans%27_Preference_Act_of_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterans' Preference Act of 1944">Veterans' Preference Act of 1944</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_Act_of_1973" title="Rehabilitation Act of 1973">Rehabilitation Act of 1973</a>, 29 USC §§705, 791–794e</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Borkowski_v._Valley_Central_School_District&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Borkowski v. Valley Central School District (page does not exist)">Borkowski v. Valley Central School District</a> 63 F3d 131 (2nd 1995) burden of proof</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vande_Zande_v._Wisconsin_Department_of_Administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vande Zande v. Wisconsin Department of Administration (page does not exist)">Vande Zande v. Wisconsin Department of Administration</a> 44 F3d 538 (7th 1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Community_College_v._Davis" title="Southeastern Community College v. Davis">Southeastern Community College v. Davis</a> 442 US 397 (1979) a duty of reasonable accommodation did not apparently amount to a duty of affirmative action under §§501–3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</a>, 42 USC §§12101–12213</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cleveland_v._Policy_Management_Systems_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cleveland v. Policy Management Systems Corp (page does not exist)">Cleveland v. Policy Management Systems Corp</a> 562 US 795 (1999)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sutton_v._United_Airline,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sutton v. United Airline, Inc (page does not exist)">Sutton v. United Airline, Inc</a> 527 US 471 (1999)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Albertson%27s_Inc_v._Kirkingburg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albertson's Inc v. Kirkingburg (page does not exist)">Albertson's Inc v. Kirkingburg</a> 527 US 555 (1999)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Murphy_v._United_Parcel_Service&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murphy v. United Parcel Service (page does not exist)">Murphy v. United Parcel Service</a> 527 US 516 (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toyota_Motor_Manufacturing,_Kentucky,_Inc._v._Williams" title="Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams">Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams</a> 534 US 184 (2002)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=US_Airways_Inc_v._Barnett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="US Airways Inc v. Barnett (page does not exist)">US Airways Inc v. Barnett</a> 535 US 391 (2002) bad back, request for transfer against seniority system. Breyer J saying that (apparently) seniority systems "encourage employees to invest in the employing company, accepting 'less than their value to the firm early in their careers' in return for greater benefits in later years."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_Transit_Authority_v._Beazer" title="New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer">New York City Transit Authority v. Beazer</a> 440 U.S. 568 (1979) Civil Rights Act of 1964, legality of discrimination against methadone users</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equality_Act_of_2015" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality Act of 2015">Equality Act of 2015</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Free_movement_and_immigration">Free movement and immigration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Free movement and immigration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement_under_United_States_law" title="Freedom of movement under United States law">Freedom of movement under United States law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immigration_law" title="Immigration law">Immigration law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration to the United States</a></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corfield_v._Coryell" title="Corfield v. Coryell">Corfield v. Coryell</a>, 6 Fed. Cas. 546 (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_v._Virginia" title="Paul v. Virginia">Paul v. Virginia</a>, 75 U.S. 168 (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoffman_Plastic_Compounds,_Inc._v._NLRB" title="Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB">Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB</a>, 535 U.S. 137 (2002) 5 to 4, an immigrant worker, who had arrived without permission, denied effective rights under the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> for helping in union organizing.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="History of immigration to the United States">History of immigration to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Reform_and_Control_Act_of_1986" title="Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986">Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986</a>, <a href="/wiki/8_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="8 USC">8 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:8%20section:1324b%20edition:prelim)%20OR%20(granuleid:USC-prelim-title8-section1324b)&f=treesort&edition=prelim&num=0&jumpTo=true">§1324b</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:8%20section:1324a%20edition:prelim)%20OR%20(granuleid:USC-prelim-title8-section1324a)&f=treesort&num=0&edition=prelim">§1324a</a> "unlawful employment of aliens"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">Illegal immigration to the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Immigration_Reform_Act_of_2007" title="Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007">Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Job_security">Job security</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Job security">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Job_security" title="Job security">Job security</a> and <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">Full employment</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FDR_Fireside_Chat_December_24,_1943.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/FDR_Fireside_Chat_December_24%2C_1943.jpg/220px-FDR_Fireside_Chat_December_24%2C_1943.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/FDR_Fireside_Chat_December_24%2C_1943.jpg/330px-FDR_Fireside_Chat_December_24%2C_1943.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/FDR_Fireside_Chat_December_24%2C_1943.jpg/440px-FDR_Fireside_Chat_December_24%2C_1943.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2476" data-file-height="1941" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/President_Franklin_D._Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="President Franklin D. Roosevelt">President Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> brought <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">unemployment</a> down from over 20% to under 2%, with the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a>'s investment in jobs during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Great Depression</a>.</figcaption></figure> Job security laws in the United States are the weakest in the developed world, as there are no federal statutory rights yet.<a href="#cite_note-441">[441]</a> Any employment contract can require job security, but employees other than corporate executives or managers rarely have the <a href="/wiki/Unequal_bargaining_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Unequal bargaining power">bargaining power</a> to contract for job security.<a href="#cite_note-442">[442]</a> Collective agreements often aim to ensure that employees can only be terminated for a "<a href="/wiki/Just_cause_(employment_law)" title="Just cause (employment law)">just cause</a>", but the vast majority of Americans have no protection other than the rules at common law. Most states follow a rule that an employee can be terminated "<a href="/wiki/At_will_employment" class="mw-redirect" title="At will employment">at will</a>" by the employer: for a "good reason, a bad reason, or no reason at all", so long as no statutory rule is violated.<a href="#cite_note-Payne_v._Western_1884-443">[443]</a> Most states have public policy exceptions to ensure that an employee's discharge does not frustrate the purpose of statutory rights. Although the <a href="/wiki/Lloyd%E2%80%93La_Follette_Act_of_1912" class="mw-redirect" title="Lloyd–La Follette Act of 1912">Lloyd–La Follette Act of 1912</a> required that federal civil servants cannot be dismissed except for a "just cause", no federal or state law (outside Montana<a href="#cite_note-Title_39_ch_2_part_9,_§4-444">[444]</a>) protects all employees yet. There are now a growing number of proposals to do this.<a href="#cite_note-445">[445]</a> There are no rights to be given reasonable notice before termination, apart from whatever is stated in a contract or collective agreement, and no requirements for <a href="/wiki/Severance_pay" class="mw-redirect" title="Severance pay">severance pay</a> if an employer lays off employees for economic reasons. The only exception is that the <a href="/wiki/Worker_Adjustment_and_Retraining_Notification_Act_of_1988" title="Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988">Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988</a> requires 60 days notice is given if a business with over 100 employees lays off over 33% of its workforce or over 500 people. While a minority of theorists defend at will employment on the ground that it protects liberty and economic efficiency,<a href="#cite_note-R_Epstein_1984-446">[446]</a> the empirical evidence suggests that job insecurity hampers innovation, reduces productivity, worsens economic recessions,<a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-447">[447]</a> deprives employees of liberty and pay,<a href="#cite_note-448">[448]</a> and creates a culture of fear.<a href="#cite_note-449">[449]</a> US unemployment has historically been extremely volatile, as Republican presidents have consistently increased post-war unemployment, while Democratic presidents have reduced it.<a href="#cite_note-450">[450]</a> In its conduct of <a href="/wiki/Monetary_policy" title="Monetary policy">monetary policy</a>, it is the duty of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a> to achieve "maximum employment",<a href="#cite_note-451">[451]</a> although in reality Federal Reserve chairs prioritize the reducing of inflation. <a href="/wiki/Underemployment" title="Underemployment">Underemployment</a> from growing insecurity of working hours has risen. Government may also use <a href="/wiki/Fiscal_policy" title="Fiscal policy">fiscal policy</a> (by taxing or borrowing and spending) to achieve full employment, but as unemployment affects the power of workers, and wages, this remains highly political.<a href="#cite_note-452">[452]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Termination_and_cause">Termination and cause</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Termination and cause">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Termination_and_cause_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Caselist" title="Template:Caselist"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caselist" title="Template talk:Caselist"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caselist" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caselist"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Termination_and_cause_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Termination and cause sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982" title="Termination of Employment Convention, 1982">Termination of Employment Convention, 1982</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Lloyd-La_Follette_Act_of_1912" class="mw-redirect" title="Lloyd-La Follette Act of 1912">Lloyd-La Follette Act of 1912</a>, 5 USC §7513(a)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Montana_Code_Annotated_2015&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montana Code Annotated 2015 (page does not exist)">Montana Code Annotated 2015</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leg.mt.gov/bills/mca/39/2/39-2-904.htm">Title 39 ch 2 part 9, §4</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=McKennon_v_Nashville_Banner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McKennon v Nashville Banner (page does not exist)">McKennon v Nashville Banner</a>, 513 US 352 (1995)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Restatement_(Second)_of_Contracts_1981" class="mw-redirect" title="Restatement (Second) of Contracts 1981">Restatement (Second) of Contracts 1981</a> §205</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> 28 USC §158(a)(3)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> 42 USC §2000e-2(a)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/California_Labor_Code" title="California Labor Code">California Labor Code</a> §§2922-2928</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Restatement_(Second)_of_Agency_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="Restatement (Second) of Agency 1958">Restatement (Second) of Agency 1958</a> §422</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Schipani_v_Ford_Motor_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schipani v Ford Motor Co (page does not exist)">Schipani v Ford Motor Co</a> 102 Mich 606 (1981)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Torosyan_v_Boehringer_Ingelheim_Pharmaceuticals,_Inc" class="mw-redirect" title="Torosyan v Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc">Torosyan v Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc</a> 662 A2d 89 (1995)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade unions in the United States">unions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wrongful_termination" class="mw-redirect" title="Wrongful termination">Wrongful termination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unfair_dismissal" title="Unfair dismissal">Unfair dismissal</a>, <a href="/wiki/At-will_employment" title="At-will employment">At-will employment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_employment" title="Termination of employment">Termination of employment</a></div> The reasons or "causes" that an employer can give to terminate employment affect everything from people's income, to the ability to pay the rent, to getting health insurance. Despite this, the legal right to have one's job terminated only for a "just cause" is confined to just three groups of people. First, in the <a href="/wiki/Lloyd%E2%80%93La_Follette_Act_of_1912" class="mw-redirect" title="Lloyd–La Follette Act of 1912">Lloyd–La Follette Act of 1912</a> Congress codified executive orders giving federal civil servants the right to have their jobs terminated "only for such cause as will promote the efficiency of the service."<a href="#cite_note-453">[453]</a> Second, in the mid 20th century, courts in New York developed a rule that corporate directors could only be dismissed for a "just cause", requiring reasons related to the director's conduct, competence, or some economic justification.<a href="#cite_note-454">[454]</a> Third, since 1987, <a href="/wiki/Montana" title="Montana">Montana</a> has enacted a "wrongful discharge" law, giving employees the right to damages if "discharge was not for good cause and the employee had completed the employer's probationary period of employment", with a standard probation set at 6 months work.<a href="#cite_note-Title_39_ch_2_part_9,_§4-444">[444]</a> However a right to reasons before termination has never been extended to ordinary employees outside Montana. By contrast, almost all other developed countries have legislation requiring just cause in termination.<a href="#cite_note-455">[455]</a> The standard in the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982" title="Termination of Employment Convention, 1982">Termination of Employment Convention, 1982</a> requires a "valid reason" for termination of a worker contract based on "capacity or conduct" and prohibits reasons related to union membership, being a worker representative, or a protected characteristic (e.g. race, gender, etc.). It also requires reasonable notice, a fair procedure, and a <a href="/wiki/Severance_allowance" class="mw-redirect" title="Severance allowance">severance allowance</a> if the termination is for economic reasons.<a href="#cite_note-arts_4-13-456">[456]</a> Some countries such as Germany also require that elected <a href="/wiki/Work_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Work councils">work councils</a> have the power to veto or delay terminations, to neutralize the employer's potential <a href="/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflicts of interest">conflicts of interest</a>.<a href="#cite_note-457">[457]</a> Most countries treat job security as a fundamental right,<a href="#cite_note-458">[458]</a> as well as necessary to prevent irrational job losses, to reduce unemployment, and to promote innovation.<a href="#cite_note-academic.oup.com-447">[447]</a> An alternative view is that making it easier to fire people encourages employers to hire more people because they will not fear the costs of litigation,<a href="#cite_note-R_Epstein_1984-446">[446]</a> although the empirical credibility of this argument is doubted by a majority of scholars.<a href="#cite_note-459">[459]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Donald-trump-secim-840x420.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Donald-trump-secim-840x420.jpg/220px-Donald-trump-secim-840x420.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Donald-trump-secim-840x420.jpg/330px-Donald-trump-secim-840x420.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Donald-trump-secim-840x420.jpg/440px-Donald-trump-secim-840x420.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4752" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>The slogan "you're fired!" was popularized by <a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a>'s TV show, <a href="/wiki/The_Apprentice_(American_TV_series)" title="The Apprentice (American TV series)">The Apprentice</a> before he became president. This reflects the "<a href="/wiki/At_will_employment" class="mw-redirect" title="At will employment">at will employment</a>" doctrine that deprives employees of job security, and lets people become unemployed for arbitrary reasons.</figcaption></figure> Because most states have not yet enacted proposals for job security rights,<a href="#cite_note-460">[460]</a> the default rule is known as "<a href="/wiki/At-will_employment" title="At-will employment">at-will employment</a>". For example, in 1872, the <a href="/wiki/California_Civil_Code" title="California Civil Code">California Civil Code</a> was written to say "employment having no specified term may be terminated at the will of either party", and even employment for a specified term could be terminated by the employer for a wilful breach, neglect of duty or the employee's incapacity.<a href="#cite_note-461">[461]</a> In the late 19th century, employment at will was popularized by academic writers as an inflexible legal presumption,<a href="#cite_note-462">[462]</a> and state courts began to adopt it, even though many had presumed that contract termination usually required notice and justifications.<a href="#cite_note-463">[463]</a> By the mid-20th century this was summed up to say that an employee's job could be terminated for a "good reason, a bad reason, or no reason at all".<a href="#cite_note-Payne_v._Western_1884-443">[443]</a> However, the employer's discretion to terminate could not violate any statutory prohibition, including termination for union membership,<a href="#cite_note-464">[464]</a> discriminatory termination based on a protected characteristic (e.g. race, gender, age or disability),<a href="#cite_note-465">[465]</a> and bringing claims for occupational health and safety,<a href="#cite_note-466">[466]</a> fair labor standards,<a href="#cite_note-467">[467]</a> retirement income,<a href="#cite_note-468">[468]</a> family and medical leave,<a href="#cite_note-469">[469]</a> and under a series of other specific Acts.<a href="#cite_note-470">[470]</a> Many state courts also added at least four "<a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a>" exceptions,<a href="#cite_note-471">[471]</a> to ensure that the purpose of statutes in general would not be frustrated by firing. First, employees will be wrongfully discharged if are discharged after they refused to act unlawfully, for instance for refusing to perjure themselves in court.<a href="#cite_note-472">[472]</a> Second, employees cannot be terminated if they insist on performing public duties such as serving on a jury or responding to a subpoena even if this affects an employer's business.<a href="#cite_note-473">[473]</a> Third, an employee cannot be discharged for exercising any statutory right, such as refusing to take a lie detector test or filing litigation.<a href="#cite_note-474">[474]</a> Fourth, employees will be wrongfully discharged if they legitimately <a href="/wiki/Whistleblowing" title="Whistleblowing">blow the whistle</a> on unlawful employer conduct, such as violating food labelling laws,<a href="#cite_note-475">[475]</a> or reporting unlawful standards in a nursing home.<a href="#cite_note-476">[476]</a> However none of these exceptions limit the central problem of terminations by an employer that are unrelated to an employee's conduct, capability, or business efficiency.<a href="#cite_note-477">[477]</a> Some states interpret the general duty of <a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a> in contracts to cover discharges,<a href="#cite_note-478">[478]</a> so that an employee cannot, for example, be terminated just before a bonus is due to be paid.<a href="#cite_note-479">[479]</a> However the vast majority of Americans remain unprotected against most arbitrary, irrational or malicious conduct by employers.<a href="#cite_note-480">[480]</a> Despite the default, and absence of job security rights in statute, a contract may require reasons before dismissal as a matter of construction. When there is a "just cause" term in a contract, courts generally interpret this to enable termination for an employee's inadequate job performance after fair warning,<a href="#cite_note-481">[481]</a> and job-related misconduct where the employer consistently enforces a rule,<a href="#cite_note-482">[482]</a> but not actions outside of the job.<a href="#cite_note-483">[483]</a> An employee's job may be constructively and wrongfully terminated if an employer's behavior objectively shows it no longer wishes to be bound by the contract, for instance by unfairly depriving an employee of responsibility.<a href="#cite_note-484">[484]</a> If a written contract does not promise "just cause" protection against termination, statements in a handbook can still be enforceable,<a href="#cite_note-485">[485]</a> and oral agreements can override the written contract.<a href="#cite_note-486">[486]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_layoffs">Economic layoffs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Economic layoffs">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Economic_layoff_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Caselist" title="Template:Caselist"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caselist" title="Template talk:Caselist"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caselist" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caselist"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Economic_layoff_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Economic layoff sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982" title="Termination of Employment Convention, 1982">Termination of Employment Convention, 1982</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22" title="Control Council Law No 22">Control Council Law No 22</a> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22_(10_April_1946)_Works_Councils#Articles_IV">10 April 1946</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_of_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act of 1988">WARN Act of 1988</a>, 29 USC §§2101-2109</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Howard_Johnson_Co_v_Detroit_Local_Joint_Executive_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Howard Johnson Co v Detroit Local Joint Executive Board">Howard Johnson Co v Detroit Local Joint Executive Board</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_417" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 417">417</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/417/249/">249</a> (1974)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade unions in the United States">unions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Layoff" title="Layoff">Layoff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Worker_Adjustment_and_Retraining_Notification_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act">Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act</a></div> Many job terminations in America are economic <a href="/wiki/Layoffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Layoffs">layoffs</a>, where employers believe that employees are redundant. In most countries, economic layoffs are separately regulated because of the <a href="/wiki/Conflicts_of_interest" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflicts of interest">conflicts of interest</a> between workers, management and shareholders, and the risk that workers are discharged to boost profits even if this damages the long-term sustainability of enterprise. The <a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982" title="Termination of Employment Convention, 1982">Termination of Employment Convention, 1982</a> requires a <a href="/wiki/Severance_allowance" class="mw-redirect" title="Severance allowance">severance allowance</a> if the termination is for economic reasons, as well as consultation with worker representatives about ways to avoid layoffs.<a href="#cite_note-arts_4-13-456">[456]</a> Most developed countries regard information and consultation in the event of any economic change as a fundamental right.<a href="#cite_note-487">[487]</a> The United States government also helped write <a href="/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22" title="Control Council Law No 22">Control Council Law No 22</a> for post-war Germany which enabled unions to collectively bargain for elected work councils, which would have the right to participate in decisions about dismissals.<a href="#cite_note-488">[488]</a> However, there are no state or federal laws requiring severance pay or employee participation in layoff decisions. Where employment contracts or collective agreements contain "just cause" provisions, these have been interpreted to give employers broad discretion,<a href="#cite_note-489">[489]</a> and immunity from the social consequences for the laid off workforce. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Blasio_Protests_the_Layoffs_of_500_LICH_Nurses_and_Health_Care_Workers_(10542698924).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/De_Blasio_Protests_the_Layoffs_of_500_LICH_Nurses_and_Health_Care_Workers_%2810542698924%29.jpg/220px-De_Blasio_Protests_the_Layoffs_of_500_LICH_Nurses_and_Health_Care_Workers_%2810542698924%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/De_Blasio_Protests_the_Layoffs_of_500_LICH_Nurses_and_Health_Care_Workers_%2810542698924%29.jpg/330px-De_Blasio_Protests_the_Layoffs_of_500_LICH_Nurses_and_Health_Care_Workers_%2810542698924%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/De_Blasio_Protests_the_Layoffs_of_500_LICH_Nurses_and_Health_Care_Workers_%2810542698924%29.jpg/440px-De_Blasio_Protests_the_Layoffs_of_500_LICH_Nurses_and_Health_Care_Workers_%2810542698924%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1025" /></a><figcaption>American workers do not yet have a right to vote on employer layoff decisions, even though the US government helped draft laws for other countries to have elected work councils.<a href="#cite_note-490">[490]</a></figcaption></figure> The only statutory right for employees is for extreme cases of mass layoffs under the <a href="/wiki/Worker_Adjustment_and_Retraining_Notification_Act_of_1988" title="Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988">Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988</a>. The <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act">WARN Act</a> regulates any "plant closing" where there is an "employment loss" of 33% of employees if that is over 50 employees, or any case of over 500 employee layoffs, and the business employs 100 persons or more.<a href="#cite_note-491">[491]</a> In these cases, employers have to give 60 days notice to employee representatives such as a union, or to each employee if they have none, and the State.<a href="#cite_note-492">[492]</a> Employment loss is defined to include reduction of over 50% of working time, but exclude cases where an employee is offered a suitable alternative job within reasonable commuting distance.<a href="#cite_note-493">[493]</a> Despite the absence of any duty to consult, employers can argue three main defenses for failure to give notice of mass layoff. First, an employer can argue that they believed in good faith that less notice was necessary to improve chances of a capital injection.<a href="#cite_note-494">[494]</a> Second, an employer may argue that business circumstances were unforeseen.<a href="#cite_note-495">[495]</a> Third, an employer can argue it had reasonable grounds for believing its failure was not a violation of the Act.<a href="#cite_note-496">[496]</a> The only remedies are pay that would have been due in the notice period, and a $500 a day penalty to the local governments that were not notified.<a href="#cite_note-497">[497]</a> States such as Massachusetts, Connecticut and Maine have statutes with slightly more stringent notice requirements, but none yet require real voice for employees before facing economic hardship. A common cause of layoffs is that businesses are merged or taken over, either through stock market acquisitions or private equity transactions, where new managements want to fire parts of the workforce to augment profits for shareholders.<a href="#cite_note-498">[498]</a> Outside limited defenses in <a href="/wiki/US_corporate_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US corporate law">corporate law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-499">[499]</a> this issue is largely unregulated. However, if an employer is under a duty to bargain in good faith with a union, and its business is transferred, there will be a duty on the successor employer to continue bargaining if it has retained a substantial number of the previous workforce. This was not made out in the leading case, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Johnson_Co._v._Detroit_Local_Joint_Executive_Board" title="Howard Johnson Co. v. Detroit Local Joint Executive Board">Howard Johnson Co. v. Detroit Local Joint Executive Board</a>, where the new owner of a restaurant and motor lodge business retained 9 out of 53 former employees, but hired 45 new staff of its own.<a href="#cite_note-500">[500]</a> The majority held there must be "substantial continuity of identity" of the business for the good faith bargaining duty to continue. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Full_employment">Full employment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Full employment">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Unemployment_sources" style="width: 350px; text-align: center; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; background-color: #fafafa; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Caselist" title="Template:Caselist"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Caselist" title="Template talk:Caselist"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Caselist" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Caselist"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Unemployment_sources" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Unemployment sources</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948">Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#Article_23">art 23(1)</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights_1966" class="mw-redirect" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights#Article_6">art 6</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Employment_Policy_Convention,_1964" title="Employment Policy Convention, 1964">Employment Policy Convention, 1964</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Truax_v_Raich" class="mw-redirect" title="Truax v Raich">Truax v Raich</a>, 239 US 33 (1915)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Regents_of_State_Colleges_v_Roth" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of Regents of State Colleges v Roth">Board of Regents of State Colleges v Roth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1972/168.html">408 US 564</a> (1972)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Board_of_Retirement_v_Murgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Massachusetts Board of Retirement v Murgia">Massachusetts Board of Retirement v Murgia</a> 427 US 307 (1976)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Relief_Appropriation_Act_of_1935" title="Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935">Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Employment_Act_of_1946" title="Employment Act of 1946">Employment Act of 1946</a>, 15 USC §1021</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Humphrey-Hawkins_Full_Employment_Act_of_1978" class="mw-redirect" title="Humphrey-Hawkins Full Employment Act of 1978">Humphrey-Hawkins Full Employment Act of 1978</a>, 15 USC §3116</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act_1913" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve Act 1913">Federal Reserve Act 1913</a>, 12 USC §225a</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Social_Security_Act_of_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Security Act of 1935">Social Security Act of 1935</a>, 42 USC §§501-4, 1101-5</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_Bureau_of_Employment_Services_v_Hodary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio Bureau of Employment Services v Hodary (page does not exist)">Ohio Bureau of Employment Services v Hodary</a>, 431 US 471 (1977)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue Code</a> §3304(a)(5)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_Employment_Agencies_Convention,_1997" title="Private Employment Agencies Convention, 1997">Private Employment Agencies Convention, 1997</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brazee_v_Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brazee v Michigan (page does not exist)">Brazee v Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_241" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 241">241</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/241/340/">340</a> (1916)</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-off" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Adams_v_Tanner" class="mw-redirect" title="Adams v Tanner">Adams v Tanner</a>, 244 US 590 (1917)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See <a href="/wiki/US_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="US labor law">US labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade unions in the United States">unions</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment in the United States</a>, <a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">Job guarantee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">Full employment</a></div> The right to <a href="/wiki/Full_employment" title="Full employment">full employment</a> or the "<a href="/wiki/Right_to_work" title="Right to work">right to work</a>" in a fair paying job is a universal human right in <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-501">[501]</a> partly inspired by the experience of the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> in the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-502">[502]</a> <a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a> has, however, remained politically divisive because it affects the distribution of wealth and power. When there is full employment under 2%, and everyone can easily find new jobs, worker <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">bargaining power</a> tends to be higher and pay tends to rise, but high unemployment tends to reduce worker power and pay,<a href="#cite_note-503">[503]</a> and may increase shareholder profit. It was long acknowledged that the law should ensure nobody is denied a job by unreasonable restrictions by the state or private parties, and the Supreme Court said in <a href="/wiki/Truax_v._Raich" title="Truax v. Raich">Truax v. Raich</a> that "the right to work for a living in the common occupations of the community is of the very essence of the personal freedom and opportunity".<a href="#cite_note-504">[504]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> with unemployment having reached 20% after the <a href="/wiki/Wall_Street_Crash_of_1929" class="mw-redirect" title="Wall Street Crash of 1929">Wall Street Crash of 1929</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Relief_Appropriation_Act_of_1935" title="Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935">Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935</a> empowered the President to create the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a>, which aimed to directly employ people on fair wages.<a href="#cite_note-505">[505]</a> By 1938, the <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">WPA</a> employed 3.33 million people, and built streets, bridges and buildings across the country. Also created by the 1935 Act, the <a href="/wiki/Rural_Electrification_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Rural Electrification Administration">Rural Electrification Administration</a> brought electrification of farms from 11% in 1934 to 50% by 1942, and nearly 100% by 1949. After war production brought full employment, the WPA was wound up in 1943. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_unemployment_with_incarceration_1892-2016.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/United_States_unemployment_with_incarceration_1892-2016.png/450px-United_States_unemployment_with_incarceration_1892-2016.png" decoding="async" width="450" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/United_States_unemployment_with_incarceration_1892-2016.png 1.5x" data-file-width="655" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Unemployment" title="Unemployment">Unemployment</a> since World War I has been lower under Democratic presidents and higher under Republican presidents. The high rate of <a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a> raised real unemployment by around 1.5% since 1980.<a href="#cite_note-506">[506]</a></figcaption></figure> After World War II, the <a href="/wiki/Employment_Act_of_1946" title="Employment Act of 1946">Employment Act of 1946</a> declared a policy of Congress to "promote full employment and production, increased real income... and reasonable price stability".<a href="#cite_note-507">[507]</a> However the Act did not follow the original proposal to say "all Americans... are entitled to an opportunity for useful, remunerative, regular, and full-time employment".<a href="#cite_note-508">[508]</a> By the 1970s, there was a growing opinion that the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection Clause</a> itself in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a> should also mean, according to <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Justice Marshall</a> in <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Regents_of_State_Colleges_v._Roth" title="Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth">Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth</a>, that "every citizen who applies for a government job is entitled to it unless the government can establish some reason for denying the employment."<a href="#cite_note-509">[509]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Humphrey%E2%80%93Hawkins_Full_Employment_Act" title="Humphrey–Hawkins Full Employment Act">Humphrey–Hawkins Full Employment Act</a> of 1978 was passed and enabled the President to create jobs to maintain full employment: it stated "the President shall, as may be authorized by law, establish reservoirs of public employment and private nonprofit employment projects".<a href="#cite_note-510">[510]</a> The Act sets the goal of federal government to ensure unemployment is below "3 per centum among individuals aged twenty and over" with inflation also under 3 per cent.<a href="#cite_note-511">[511]</a> It includes "policy priorities" of the "development of energy sources and supplies, transportation, and environmental improvement".<a href="#cite_note-512">[512]</a> These powers of a <a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">job guarantee</a>, full employment, and environmental improvement have not yet been used. During the <a href="/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis" title="2007–2008 financial crisis">2007–2008 financial crisis</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Recovery_and_Reinvestment_Act_of_2009" title="American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009">American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009</a> was passed to enable more spending, but not a job guarantee. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WPA-Work-Pays-America-Poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/WPA-Work-Pays-America-Poster.jpg/220px-WPA-Work-Pays-America-Poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/WPA-Work-Pays-America-Poster.jpg/330px-WPA-Work-Pays-America-Poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/WPA-Work-Pays-America-Poster.jpg/440px-WPA-Work-Pays-America-Poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="1504" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> from 1935 to 1943,<a href="#cite_note-513">[513]</a> created 8.5m jobs spending $1.3bn a year to get out of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a>.</figcaption></figure> While the laws for a federal or state <a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">job guarantee</a> have not yet been used, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act" title="Federal Reserve Act">Federal Reserve Act</a> 1913 does require that the Board of Governors of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve System">Federal Reserve System</a> should use its powers "to promote effectively the goals of <a href="/wiki/Maximum_employment" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum employment">maximum employment</a>, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates."<a href="#cite_note-514">[514]</a> During the Great Depression it was understood that inequality in the distribution of wealth had contributed to the lack of employment, and that Federal lending policy and bank regulation should pursue a range of objectives.<a href="#cite_note-515">[515]</a> However, the Federal Reserve became dominated by a theory of a <a href="/wiki/Natural_rate_of_unemployment" title="Natural rate of unemployment">natural rate of unemployment</a>, taking the view that attempts to achieve full employment would accelerate inflation to an uncontrollably high. Instead it was said by theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a> that central banks should use monetary policy only to control inflation, according to the <a href="/wiki/Non-accelerating_inflation_rate_of_unemployment" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment">non-accelerating inflation rate of unemployment</a> (NAIRU).<a href="#cite_note-516">[516]</a> It is doubted that any natural rate of unemployment exists, because the United States and other countries have sustained full employment with low inflation before,<a href="#cite_note-517">[517]</a> and the US unemployment rate follows which political party is in the White House.<a href="#cite_note-518">[518]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:26em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> ... my friends, after this <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">war</a>, there will be a great <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">unemployment</a> problem. The munition plants will be closed and useless, and millions of munitions workers will be thrown out upon the market... First they ignore you. Then they ridicule you. And then they attack you and want to burn you. And then they build monuments to you. And that is what is going to happen to the <a href="/wiki/Amalgamated_Clothing_Workers_of_America" title="Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America">Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America</a>. And I say, courage to the strikers, and courage to the delegates, because great times are coming, stressful days are here, and I hope your hearts will be strong, and I hope you will be one hundred per cent union when it comes! </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Klein" title="Nicholas Klein">Nicholas Klein</a>, Biennial Convention of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/And_Then_They_Build_Monuments_to_You">1918</a>)</cite></div> </div> If despite fiscal and monetary policy people are unemployed, the Social Security Act of 1935 creates <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_insurance" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment insurance">unemployment insurance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-519">[519]</a> One of its goals is to stabilize employment by encouraging employers to retain workers in downturns. Unlike other systems, this makes social security highly dependent on employers. It is funded through a federal payroll tax, and employers that make more layoffs pay higher rates based on past experience. A laid off employee brings a claim to state unemployment office, the former employer is informed and may contest whether the employee was laid off fairly: they are given absolute privilege to communicate information regardless of how false or defamatory it is.<a href="#cite_note-520">[520]</a> Employees cannot get benefits if they are laid off for misconduct,<a href="#cite_note-521">[521]</a> and for participation in strikes,<a href="#cite_note-522">[522]</a> even though the reality may be the employer's fault and there are no other jobs available. Social security claimants must also accept any suitable job.<a href="#cite_note-523">[523]</a> Unemployment offices usually provide facilities for claimants to search for work, but many also turn to private employment agencies. The Supreme Court has held that licensing, fees and regulation of employment agencies under state law is constitutional.<a href="#cite_note-524">[524]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade_and_international_law">Trade and international law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Trade and international law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/International_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="International labor law">International labor law</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_trade_law" title="International trade law">International trade law</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1224211176"><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:22em; ; color: #202122;background-color: #c6dbf7;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> [The <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> ...] has for its object the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Universal_peace" class="mw-redirect" title="Universal peace">universal peace</a>, and such a peace can be established only if it is based upon <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> ... conditions of labor exist involving such injustice, hardship, and privation to large numbers of people ... and an improvement of those conditions is urgently required: as, for example, by ... a <a href="/wiki/Working_time" title="Working time">maximum working day</a> and week, the regulation of the labor supply, the prevention of unemployment, the provision of an adequate <a href="/wiki/Living_wage" title="Living wage">living wage</a>, the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment, the protection of <a href="/wiki/Child_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Child labor">children</a>, young persons and women, provision for old age and injury, protection of the interests of workers when employed in countries other than their own, recognition of the principle of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">freedom of association</a>, the organization of vocational and technical education ... </blockquote> <div style="padding-bottom: 0; padding-top: 0.5em"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—<a href="/wiki/Versailles_Treaty_of_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles Treaty of 1919">Versailles Treaty of 1919</a> Part XIII</cite></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Article_I,_Section_8,_Clause_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Article I, Section 8, Clause 3">Article I, Section 8, Clause 3</a>, Congress has the power: "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes." <a href="/wiki/Article_IV,_Section_2,_Clause_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Article IV, Section 2, Clause 1">Article IV, Section 2, Clause 1</a>, "The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement_under_United_States_law" title="Freedom of movement under United States law">Freedom of movement under United States law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbons_v._Ogden" title="Gibbons v. Ogden">Gibbons v. Ogden</a>, 22 US 1 (1824) and <a href="/wiki/Paul_v._Virginia" title="Paul v. Virginia">Paul v. Virginia</a>, 75 US 168 (1869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_Commerce_Act_of_1887" title="Interstate Commerce Act of 1887">Interstate Commerce Act of 1887</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act_of_1914" title="Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914">Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_labor_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="International labor standards">international labor standards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">Bargaining power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom" title="Race to the bottom">race to the bottom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment" title="Foreign direct investment">foreign direct investment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human_development_(humanity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (humanity)">human development</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">technological change</a>, <a href="/wiki/Global_workforce" title="Global workforce">global workforce</a>, immigration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariff_Act_of_1890" class="mw-redirect" title="Tariff Act of 1890">Tariff Act of 1890</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smoot%E2%80%93Hawley_Tariff_Act_of_1930" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act of 1930">Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act of 1930</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_free_trade_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="United States free trade agreements">United States free trade agreements</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_International_Trade_Commission" title="United States International Trade Commission">United States International Trade Commission</a>, <a href="/wiki/19_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="19 USC">19 USC</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1904socialist.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1904socialist.jpg/220px-1904socialist.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1904socialist.jpg/330px-1904socialist.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/1904socialist.jpg/440px-1904socialist.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2321" data-file-height="1529" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eugene_V._Debs" title="Eugene V. Debs">Eugene V. Debs</a>, founder of the <a href="/wiki/American_Railway_Union" title="American Railway Union">American Railway Union</a> and five-time presidential candidate, was jailed twice for organizing the <a href="/wiki/Pullman_Strike" title="Pullman Strike">Pullman Strike</a> and denouncing <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. His life story is told in a documentary by Bernie Sanders.<a href="#cite_note-525">[525]</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trade_Act_of_1974" title="Trade Act of 1974">Trade Act of 1974</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_Agreements_Act_of_1979" title="Trade Agreements Act of 1979">Trade Agreements Act of 1979</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_Act_of_2002" title="Trade Act of 2002">Trade Act of 2002</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trade_Preferences_Extension_Act_of_2015" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015">Trade Preferences Extension Act of 2015</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fast_track_(trade)" title="Fast track (trade)">Fast track (trade)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a>, 19 USC ch 21, §3301</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uruguay_Round_Agreements_Act_of_1994" class="mw-redirect" title="Uruguay Round Agreements Act of 1994">Uruguay Round Agreements Act of 1994</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_normal_trade_relations" title="Permanent normal trade relations">Permanent normal trade relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Pacific_Partnership" title="Trans-Pacific Partnership">Trans-Pacific Partnership</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transatlantic_Trade_and_Investment_Partnership" title="Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership">Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership</a></li> <li>Three potential views are: <ul><li>(1) expansion of trade is good because it increases the scope for <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> and expanding markets. So, all customs, taxes, and equivalent restrictions against <a href="/wiki/Market_access" title="Market access">market access</a> should be dismantled</li> <li>(2) free trade is bad because it exacerbates labor's inequality of bargaining power against global capital. Trade should be limited and regulated by systems of taxes and tariffs according to the state of other countries' development</li> <li>(3) trade, without barriers to movement of capital, goods and services, improves living standards if labor standards are improved in all countries. This (a) discourages emigration from poorer countries: as people's lives improve they may not want to leave (b) requires standards are improved at a rate to ensure stability in capital and labor flows (c) in turn requires that standard should not enable workers to be paid less than is necessary for <a href="/wiki/Human_development_(humanity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Human development (humanity)">human development</a> and the workers' rate of <a href="/wiki/Productivity" title="Productivity">productivity</a>.</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Labor_law_in_individual_states">Labor law in individual states</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Labor law in individual states">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="California">California</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: California">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/California_Labor_Code" title="California Labor Code">California Labor Code</a> and <a href="/wiki/California_Department_of_Fair_Employment_and_Housing" class="mw-redirect" title="California Department of Fair Employment and Housing">California Department of Fair Employment and Housing</a></div> In 1959, California added the Division of Fair Employment Practices to the <a href="/wiki/California_Department_of_Industrial_Relations" title="California Department of Industrial Relations">California Department of Industrial Relations</a>. The Fair Employment and Housing Act<a href="#cite_note-526">[526]</a> of 1980 gave the division its own <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Fair_Employment_and_Housing" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Fair Employment and Housing">Department of Fair Employment and Housing</a>, with the stated purpose of protecting citizens against <a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">harassment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">employment discrimination</a> on the basis of:<a href="#cite_note-527">[527]</a> age, ancestry, color, creed, denial of family and medical care leave, disability (including HIV/AIDS), marital status, medical condition, national origin, race, religion, sex, transgender status and sexual orientation. <a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a> was not specifically included in the original law but precedent was established based on <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a>. On October 9, 2011, California Governor Edmund G. "Jerry" Brown signed into law Assembly Bill No. 887 alters the meaning of gender for the purposes of discrimination laws that define sex as including gender so that California law now prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender identity and gender expression.<a href="#cite_note-528">[528]</a> The state also has its own labor law covering agricultural workers, the <a href="/wiki/California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="California Agricultural Labor Relations Act">California Agricultural Labor Relations Act</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Jersey">New Jersey</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: New Jersey">edit</a>]</div> In 1945, New Jersey enacted the first statewide civil rights act in the entire nation. with the purpose of protecting citizens against <a href="/wiki/Harassment" title="Harassment">harassment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">employment discrimination</a> on the basis of: race, creed, color, national origin, nationality, or ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-529">[529]</a> This has since been expanded to age, sex, disability, pregnancy, sexual orientation, perceived sexual orientation, marital status, civil union status, domestic partnership status, affectional orientation, gender identity or expression, genetic information, military service, or mental or physical disability, AIDS and HIV related illnesses and atypical hereditary cellular or blood traits.<a href="#cite_note-530">[530]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laws_restricting_unions">Laws restricting unions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Laws restricting unions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Right-to-work_law" title="Right-to-work law">Right-to-work law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Right_to_Work_states.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Right_to_Work_states.svg/220px-Right_to_Work_states.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Right_to_Work_states.svg/330px-Right_to_Work_states.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Right_to_Work_states.svg/440px-Right_to_Work_states.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Right-to-work_law" title="Right-to-work law">Right-to-work states</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Statewide Right-to-work law</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  Local Right-to-work laws</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  No Right-to-work law</div></figcaption></figure> As of 2019<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit">[update]</a>, twenty-six states plus <a href="/wiki/Guam" title="Guam">Guam</a> prevent trade unions from signing collective agreements with employers requiring employees pay fees to the union when they are not members (frequently called "right-to-work" laws by their political proponents). In 2010, the organization "<a href="/wiki/Save_Our_Secret_Ballot" title="Save Our Secret Ballot">Save Our Secret Ballot</a>" pushed four states: Arizona, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Utah to pass constitutional amendments to ban <a href="/wiki/Card_check" title="Card check">card check</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Enforcement_of_rights">Enforcement of rights</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Enforcement of rights">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">United States Department of Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_Motor_Co._v._NLRB" title="Ford Motor Co. v. NLRB">Ford Motor Co. v. NLRB</a>, 305 U.S. 364 (1939) the right of the NLRB to withdraw its submissions to the Court were at the court's discretion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_re_NLRB" title="In re NLRB">In re NLRB</a>, 304 U.S. 486 (1938) to enforce an order, the NLRB must file a petition and transcript with the courts</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Employment_Opportunity_Commission" title="Equal Employment Opportunity Commission">Equal Employment Opportunity Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgin_v._Department_of_Treasury" title="Elgin v. Department of Treasury">Elgin v. Department of Treasury</a>, 567 U.S. ___ (2012) 6 to 3, under the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_Reform_Act_of_1978" title="Civil Service Reform Act of 1978">Civil Service Reform Act of 1978</a> federal employees have no recourse to the federal courts over wrongful discharge cases, but must instead go to the <a href="/wiki/Merit_Systems_Protection_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Merit Systems Protection Board">Merit Systems Protection Board</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Mine_Workers_of_America_v._Gibbs" title="United Mine Workers of America v. Gibbs">United Mine Workers of America v. Gibbs</a>, 383 U.S. 715 (1966) state and federal jurisdiction in labor disputes</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Syndicalism.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Syndicalism.svg/28px-Syndicalism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Syndicalism.svg/42px-Syndicalism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Syndicalism.svg/56px-Syndicalism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="530" data-file-height="530" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Organized_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Organized labour">Organized labour portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor law">Labor law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_labour_law" title="European labour law">European labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UK_labour_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK labour law">UK labour law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit_in_the_United_States" title="Right to sit in the United States">Right to sit in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_law" title="Social law">Social law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labor_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child labor laws in the United States">Child labor laws in the United States</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Organizations</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Rights_at_Work" title="American Rights at Work">American Rights at Work</a>, a charity supporting union rights</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="Congress of Industrial Organizations">Congress of Industrial Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Society_for_Labor_Law_and_Social_Security" title="International Society for Labor Law and Social Security">International Society for Labor Law and Social Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Federation" title="National Labor Federation">National Labor Federation</a>, an organization supporting workers outside the protection of federal labor laws</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">United States Department of Labor</a>, includes a list of <a href="/wiki/Labor_legislation" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor legislation">labor legislation</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, Recent US Labor Market Data (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/washington/ilo-and-the-united-states/spot-light-on-the-us-labor-market/recent-us-labor-market-data/lang--en/index.htm">2013</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> UN, Human Development Report (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/IHDI">Table 3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section151&num=0&edition=prelim">§141</a>. J. R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation (Harper 1916) ch 1, The basis of labor law, 9, "where bargaining power on the one side is power to withhold access to physical <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> and the necessaries of life, and on the other side is only power to withhold labor by doing without those necessaries, then equality of rights may signify inequality of bargaining power." </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Most statutes explicitly encourage this, including the <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act_of_1993" title="Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993">Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993</a>. "<a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Federal preemption</a>" rules have, however, restricted experimentation in key areas. These include the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act 1935">National Labor Relations Act 1935</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">US Supreme Court</a> developed a doctrine not found in the Act, and <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title42/chapter7/subchapter1&edition=prelim">§§301–306</a> on federally funded state programs and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title42/chapter7/subchapter2&edition=prelim">§§401–434</a> on federal old age, survivors and disability insurance benefits. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title15-section17&num=0&edition=prelim">15 USC §17</a>, "The labor of a human being <a href="/wiki/Labour_is_not_a_commodity" title="Labour is not a commodity">is not a commodity</a> or article of commerce. Nothing contained in the antitrust laws shall be construed to forbid the existence and operation of labor, agricultural, or horticultural organizations, instituted for the purposes of mutual help, and not having capital stock or conducted for profit, or to forbid or restrain individual members of such organizations from lawfully carrying out the legitimate objects thereof; nor shall such organizations, or the members thereof, be held or construed to be illegal combinations or conspiracies in restraint of trade, under the antitrust laws." </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> D Webber, The Rise of the Working Class Shareholders: Labor's Last Best Weapon (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674972131">2018</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> E McGaughey, 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sulr/vol42/iss2/18/">42 Seattle University Law Review 697</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a> §703(a)(1), <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title42-section2000e-2&num=0&edition=prelim">§2000e-2(a)</a>, "Employers must not refuse to hire, discharge or otherwise discriminated 'against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions or privileges of employment, because of such individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> cf <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982" title="Termination of Employment Convention, 1982">Termination of Employment Convention, 1982</a> setting out general principles on fair reasons for discharge of workers. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> to the last major statute <a href="/wiki/Employee_Retirement_Income_Security_Act_of_1974" title="Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974">Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974</a>. <a href="/wiki/C._L._Estlund" class="mw-redirect" title="C. L. Estlund">C. L. Estlund</a>, 'The Ossification of American Labor Law' (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1123792">102 Columbia Law Review 1527</a> argues that collective labor right "ossified" with the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Reporting_and_Disclosure_Act_of_1959" title="Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959">Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959</a>, after which there was a "longstanding political impasse at the national level". E. McGaughey, 'Fascism-Lite in America (or the Social Ideal of Donald Trump)' (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=3024584">7(1) British Journal of American Legal Studies</a>, 14, argues that since 1976, "No modern judiciary had engaged in a more sustained assault on democracy and human rights. In particular, its attack on labor and democratic society made inequality soar." </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> See JV Orth, Combination and conspiracy: a legal history of trade unionism, 1721–1906 (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="/wiki/R_v_Journeymen-Taylors_of_Cambridge" title="R v Journeymen-Taylors of Cambridge">R v Journeymen-Taylors of Cambridge</a> (1721) 8 Mod 10, 88 ER 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> C Tomlins, 'Reconsidering Indentured Servitude: European Migration and the Early American Labor Force, 1600–1775' (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00236560123269?journalCode=clah20">42 Labor History 5</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> (1772) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commonlii.org/int/cases/EngR/1772/57.pdf">98 ER 499</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> AW Blumrosen, 'The Profound Influence in America of Lord Mansfield's Decision in Somerset v Stuart' (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/twlr13&div=28&id=&page=">13 Texas Wesleyan Law Review 645</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act_1807" title="Slave Trade Act 1807">Slave Trade Act 1807</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Slavery_Abolition_Act_1833" title="Slavery Abolition Act 1833">Slavery Abolition Act 1833</a> distributed around £20 million, around $3 billion in 2017 dollars. See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/lbs/">UCL Legacies of British Slave-ownership</a> page. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1856/9.html">60 US 393</a> (1857) </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/J._R._Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Commons">J. R. Commons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Labor_Legislation" title="Principles of Labor Legislation">Principles of Labor Legislation</a> (1916) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924020748095#page/n55/mode/2up/search/cambridge">ch II, 38–40</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1883/182.html">109 US 3</a> (1883) </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> S Perlman, A History of Trade Unionism in the United States (1922) </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> 3 Doc Hist 59 (1806) </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> 45 Mass. 111, 4 Metcalf 111 (1842) </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> See EE Witte, 'Early American Labor Cases' (1926) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/789460">35 Yale Law Journal 829</a>, employers brought at least three successful claims against their employees before 1863, and fifteen up to 1880 for "conspiracy". See also FB Sayre, 'Criminal Conspiracy' (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1328648">35 Harvard Law Review 393</a>. W.. Holt, 'Labor Conspiracy Cases in the United States, 1805–1842: Bias and Legitimation in Common Law Adjudication' (1984) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1913&context=ohlj">22 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 591</a>. 'Tortious Interference with Contractual Relations in the Nineteenth Century' (1980) 93 Harvard Law Review 1510. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> L Fink, Workingmen's Democracy: The Knights of Labor and American Politics (1983) xii–xiii, it declined due to a 'titanic' lack of leadership, and divisions. Members turned over quickly. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> See U.S. Congress, Senate, <a href="/wiki/Final_Report_and_Testimony_Submitted_to_Congress_by_the_Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Final Report and Testimony Submitted to Congress by the Commission on Industrial Relations">Final Report and Testimony Submitted to Congress by the Commission on Industrial Relations</a> (Government Printing Office, 1916) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5757/">64th Cong., 1st sess., S. Doc. 415, 2, 1526–1529</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> See TW Hazlett, 'The Legislative History of the Sherman Act Re-examined' (1992) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1297279202?pq-origsite=gscholar">30 Economic Inquiry 263</a>, 266 and H Hovenkamp, 'Labor Conspiracies in American Law, 1880–1930' (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/tlr66&div=45&g_sent=1&collection=journals">66 Texas Law Review 919</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> 64 Fed 724 (CC Ill 1894), <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_158" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 158">158</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/158/564/">564</a> (1895) imposed an injunction on the striking workers of the Pullman Company, leading to <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Debs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene Debs">Eugene Debs</a> being imprisoned. See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w82pFvUq3o8&t=323s">Documentary by Bernie Sanders</a> (1979) </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Oklahoma_v._Coyle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Oklahoma v. Coyle (page does not exist)">Oklahoma v. Coyle</a>, 1913 OK CR 42, 8 Okl.Cr. 686, 130 P. 316 per <a href="/wiki/Henry_Marshall_Furman" title="Henry Marshall Furman">Henry Marshall Furman</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> 167 Mass. 92 (1896) See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plant_v._Woods&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plant v. Woods (page does not exist)">Plant v. Woods</a>, 176 Mass 492, 57 NE 1011 (1900) </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_198" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 198">198</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/198/45/">45</a> (1905) </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_208" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 208">208</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/208/274/">274</a> (1908) </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Now 15 USC §17 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> On the "science" of management that developed, see <a href="/wiki/FW_Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="FW Taylor">FW Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Scientific_Management" title="The Principles of Scientific Management">The Principles of Scientific Management</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/principlesofscie00taylrich#page/n5/mode/2up">1911</a>). Contrast <a href="/wiki/LD_Brandeis" class="mw-redirect" title="LD Brandeis">LD Brandeis</a>, 'The Fundamental Cause of Industrial Unrest' (1916) vol 8, 7659–7660 from the <a href="/wiki/US_Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" class="mw-redirect" title="US Commission on Industrial Relations">US Commission on Industrial Relations</a>, Final Report and Testimony (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/finalreportofcom00unitiala">Government Printing Office 1915</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Adair_v._United_States" title="Adair v. United States">Adair v. United States</a> 208 US 161 (1908) on <a href="/wiki/Yellow-dog_contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow-dog contracts">yellow-dog contracts</a> being banned in the <a href="/wiki/Erdman_Act_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Erdman Act of 1898">Erdman Act of 1898</a> §10 for railroads, not reversed until the <a href="/wiki/Norris-LaGuardia_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Norris-LaGuardia Act">Norris-LaGuardia Act</a>. Also <a href="/wiki/Coppage_v._Kansas" title="Coppage v. Kansas">Coppage v. Kansas</a> 236 US 1 (1915) <a href="/wiki/Holmes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes J">Holmes J</a>, Hughes J and Day J dissenting. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Adkins_v._Children%27s_Hospital" title="Adkins v. Children's Hospital">Adkins v. Children's Hospital</a>, 261 US 525 (1923) </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Adams_v._Tanner" title="Adams v. Tanner">Adams v. Tanner</a>, 244 US 590 (1917) </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Duplex_Printing_Press_Co._v._Deering" title="Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering">Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering</a>, 254 US 443 (1921) </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Hammer_v._Dagenhart" title="Hammer v. Dagenhart">Hammer v. Dagenhart</a>, 247 US 251 (1918) on the <a href="/wiki/Keating-Owen_Act_of_1916" class="mw-redirect" title="Keating-Owen Act of 1916">Keating-Owen Act of 1916</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bailey_v._Drexel_Furniture_Co." title="Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.">Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.</a>, 259 US 20 (1922) on federal tax. </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Debs_v._United_States" title="Debs v. United States">Debs v. United States</a>, 249 US 211 (1919) </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=State_Board_of_Control_v._Buckstegge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="State Board of Control v. Buckstegge (page does not exist)">State Board of Control v. Buckstegge</a>, 158 Pac 837, 842 (1916) Arizona Supreme Court striking down a new state pension law. <a href="/wiki/Railroad_Retirement_Board_v._Alton_Railroad_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co.">Railroad Retirement Board v. Alton Railroad Co.</a>, 295 US 330 (1935) striking down a compulsory contributory pension scheme for rail workers. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> See GC Means, 'The Separation of Ownership and Control in American Industry' (1931) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1883922">46(1) The Quarterly Journal of Economics 68</a> and <a href="/wiki/LD_Brandeis" class="mw-redirect" title="LD Brandeis">LD Brandeis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Other_People%27s_Money_and_How_the_Bankers_Use_It" title="Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It">Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It</a> (1914) </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/FD_Roosevelt" class="mw-redirect" title="FD Roosevelt">FD Roosevelt</a>, Campaign Address on Progressive Government at the Commonwealth Club in San Francisco, California (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Campaign_Address_on_Progressive_Government_at_the_Commonwealth_Club_in_San_Francisco,_California">1932</a>) written by <a href="/wiki/AA_Berle" class="mw-redirect" title="AA Berle">AA Berle</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <a href="/wiki/A.L.A._Schechter_Poultry_Corp._v._United_States" title="A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States">A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States</a>, 295 US 495 (1935) </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> 300 US 379 (1937) </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Copeland_%22Anti-kickback%22_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Copeland "Anti-kickback" Act of 1934">Copeland "Anti-kickback" Act of 1934</a>, 18 USC §874 and <a href="/wiki/McNamara%E2%80%93O%27Hara_Service_Contract_Act_of_1965" class="mw-redirect" title="McNamara–O'Hara Service Contract Act of 1965">McNamara–O'Hara Service Contract Act of 1965</a> wage rates to be paid as prevail in the locality. </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Eleventh State of the Union Address (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Franklin_Delano_Roosevelt%27s_Eleventh_State_of_the_Union_Address">1944</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-auto4-49">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_49-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_49-1">b</a> See <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Building_Trades_Council_v._Garmon" title="San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon">San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon</a> 359 US 236 (1959) but contrast <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce_v._Brown" title="Chamber of Commerce v. Brown">Chamber of Commerce v. Brown</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/2008/22.html">522 US 60</a> (2008) where <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a> dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education_of_Topeka" class="mw-redirect" title="Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka">Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka</a>, 347 US 483 (1954) </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> See 2016 Democratic Party Platform (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.demconvention.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Democratic-Party-Platform-7.21.16-no-lines.pdf">July 21, 2016</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161110225904/https://www.demconvention.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Democratic-Party-Platform-7.21.16-no-lines.pdf">Archived</a> November 10, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Yeshiva_University" title="NLRB v. Yeshiva University">NLRB v. Yeshiva University</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1980/24.html">444 US 672</a>, (1980), <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Catholic_Bishop_of_Chicago" title="NLRB v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago">NLRB v. Catholic Bishop of Chicago</a>, 440 US 490 (1979) 5 to 4 on the National Labor Relations Act of 1935, and <a href="/wiki/Hoffman_Plastic_Compounds,_Inc._v._NLRB" title="Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB">Hoffman Plastic Compounds, Inc. v. NLRB</a>, 535 US 137 (2002) 5 to 4 under the NLRA of 1935 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Hotel_and_Restaurant_Employees" title="Brown v. Hotel and Restaurant Employees">Brown v. Hotel and Restaurant Employees</a>, 468 US 491 (1984) 5 to 4 on the NLRA of 1935 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mertens_v._Hewitt_Associates" title="Mertens v. Hewitt Associates">Mertens v. Hewitt Associates</a>, 508 US 248 (1993) 5 to 4 under <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Report_of_1994" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunlop Report of 1994">Dunlop Report of 1994</a>, <a href="/wiki/Workplace_Democracy_Act" title="Workplace Democracy Act">Workplace Democracy Act</a> of 1999, <a href="/wiki/Employee_Free_Choice_Act" title="Employee Free Choice Act">Employee Free Choice Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paycheck_Fairness_Act" title="Paycheck Fairness Act">Paycheck Fairness Act</a>, <a href="/wiki/Equality_Act_of_2015" class="mw-redirect" title="Equality Act of 2015">Equality Act of 2015</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> See Z. Adams, L. Bishop and S. Deakin, CBR Labour Regulation Index (Dataset of 117 Countries) (Cambridge, <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Business_Research" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre for Business Research">Centre for Business Research</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/256566/cbr-lri-117-countries-codebook-and-methodology.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">2016</a>) 761, United States of America </li> <li id="cite_note-g13673-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-g13673_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-g13673_57-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/federalregister/2016-08-25-0">Guidance for Executive Order 13673, "Fair Pay and Safe Workplaces"; Final Guidance</a>, accessed 10 October 2022 </li> <li id="cite_note-e13673-58">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e13673_58-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-e13673_58-1">b</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13673">Executive Order 13673</a>, accessed 6 November 2022 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> [<a class="external free" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13782">https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_13782</a> accessed 6 November 2022 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="/wiki/UDHR_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="UDHR 1948">UDHR 1948</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights">art 17</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1905/100.html">198 US 45</a> (1905) </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_322" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 322">322</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/322/111/">111</a> (1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_331" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 331">331</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/331/704/">704</a> (1947) </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Goldberg_v._Whitaker_House_Cooperative,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Goldberg v. Whitaker House Cooperative, Inc (page does not exist)">Goldberg v. Whitaker House Cooperative, Inc</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1961/71.html">366 US 28</a> (1961), on homeworkers making 'knitted, crocheted, and embroidered goods of all kinds.' </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nationwide_Mutual_Insurance_Co._v._Darden" title="Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co. v. Darden">Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co. v. Darden</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_503" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 503">503</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/503/318/">318</a> (1992) employee under <a href="/wiki/ERISA" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA">ERISA</a>, rejecting two-prongs of the Fourth Circuit's substitute test, based on expectations and reliance. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_322" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 322">322</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/322/111/">111</a> (1944), confirmed in <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Silk" title="United States v. Silk">United States v. Silk</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_331" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 331">331</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/331/704/">704</a> (1947) and <a href="/wiki/Nationwide_Mutual_Insurance_Co._v._Darden" title="Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co. v. Darden">Nationwide Mutual Insurance Co. v. Darden</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_503" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 503">503</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/503/318/">318</a> (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Restatement_of_the_Law_of_Agency,_Second" class="mw-redirect" title="Restatement of the Law of Agency, Second">Restatement of the Law of Agency, Second</a> §220 and <a href="/wiki/Community_for_Creative_Non-Violence_v._Reid" title="Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid">Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid</a>, 490 US 730 (1989) </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_444" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 444">444</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/444/672/">672</a> (1980) </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_532" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 532">532</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/532/706/">706</a> (2001) </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> cf <a href="/w/index.php?title=Clackamas_Gastroenterology_Associates_v._Wells&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Clackamas Gastroenterology Associates v. Wells (page does not exist)">Clackamas Gastroenterology Associates v. Wells</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_538" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 538">538</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/538/440/">440</a> (2003) a majority of the Supreme Court held four physician shareholders could potentially be "employees" under the <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a>, joined by <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> dissenting on reasoning, held it was clear that they were. </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/11-204">567 US __</a> (2012) </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://casetext.com/case/lemmerman-v-williams-oil-co">350 S.E.2d 83</a> (1986) </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_535" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 535">535</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/535/137/">137</a> (2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Association_and_Protection_of_the_Right_to_Organise_Convention,_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948">Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312232">C087</a> and <a href="/wiki/Right_to_Organize_and_Collective_Bargaining_Convention,_1949" class="mw-redirect" title="Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949">Right to Organize and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO:12100:P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312243:NO">C098</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHern2015" class="citation news cs1">Hern, Alex (September 11, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/sep/11/uber-driver-employee-ruling">"Uber driver declared employee as the company loses another ruling"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Uber+driver+declared+employee+as+the+company+loses+another+ruling&rft.date=2015-09-11&rft.aulast=Hern&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ftechnology%2F2015%2Fsep%2F11%2Fuber-driver-employee-ruling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+labor+law" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USCA5/1969/758.html">413 F.2d 310</a> (1969) </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> See also, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zheng_v._Liberty_Apparel_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zheng v. Liberty Apparel Co (page does not exist)">Zheng v. Liberty Apparel Co</a>, 335 F3d 61 (2003) Second Circuit, Cabranes J finding joint employment. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USCA2/1992/908.html">976 F.2d 805</a> (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Advance_Electric&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Advance Electric (page does not exist)">Advance Electric</a>, 268 NLRB 1001 (1984) </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1976/88.html">425 US 800</a> (1976) </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Local_No_International_Union_of_Operating_Engineers_v._National_Labor_Relations_Board&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Local No International Union of Operating Engineers v. National Labor Relations Board (page does not exist)">Local No International Union of Operating Engineers v. National Labor Relations Board</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USCADC/1975/366.html">518 F.2d 1040</a> (1975) </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Castillo_v._Case_Farms_of_Ohio" title="Castillo v. Case Farms of Ohio">Castillo v. Case Farms of Ohio</a>, 96 F Supp. 2d 578 (1999) an employer who used an <a href="/wiki/Employment_agency" title="Employment agency">employment agency</a> called "American Temp Corps", was responsible for how <a href="/wiki/Migrant_farm_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Migrant farm workers">migrant farm workers</a> hired in Texas to work in an Ohio chicken factory, were packed into sub-human transport and living conditions in violation of the <a href="/wiki/Migrant_and_Seasonal_Agricultural_Workers_Protection_Act_of_1983" title="Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Workers Protection Act of 1983">Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Workers Protection Act of 1983</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> If there is no contract (written, oral, or by conduct) a <a href="/wiki/Quantum_meruit" title="Quantum meruit">quantum meruit</a> claim for <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> can be available. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/F_Kessler" class="mw-redirect" title="F Kessler">F Kessler</a>, 'Contracts of Adhesion—Some Thoughts About Freedom of Contract' (1943) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1117230">43(5) Columbia Law Review 629</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Act 1935">National Labor Relations Act 1935</a> §1, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section151&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §151</a>, "The inequality of bargaining power between employees who do not possess full freedom of association or actual liberty of contract, and employers who are organized in the corporate or other forms of ownership association substantially burdens and affects the flow of commerce, and tends to aggravate recurrent business depressions, by depressing wage rates and the purchasing power of wage earners in industry and by preventing the stabilization of competitive wage rates and working conditions within and between industries." </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="Fair Labor Standards Act 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act 1938</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section202&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §202</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Gade_v._National_Solid_Wastes_Management_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Gade v. National Solid Wastes Management Association">Gade v. National Solid Wastes Management Association</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1992/86.html">505 US 88</a> (1992) holding 5 to 4 that <a href="/wiki/OSHA_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="OSHA 1970">OSHA 1970</a> preempted <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> state law that improved training and handling hazardous waste materials. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ingersoll-Rand_Co._v._McClendon" title="Ingersoll-Rand Co. v. McClendon">Ingersoll-Rand Co. v. McClendon</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1990/159.html">498 US 133</a> (1990) holding 6 to 3 that <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a> precluded a <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> wrongful termination action for denying an employee benefit from the federal statute on general grounds in §514. The minority only endorsed preemption on specific ground in §510. </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> See generally <a href="/wiki/B._I._Sachs" class="mw-redirect" title="B. I. Sachs">B. I. Sachs</a>, 'Despite Preemption: Making Labor Law in Cities and States' (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1788911">124 Harvard Law Review 1153</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> cf <a href="/wiki/New_State_Ice_Co._v._Liebmann" title="New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann">New State Ice Co. v. Liebmann</a>, 285 US 262 (1932) per <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandeis J">Brandeis J</a> "To stay experimentation in things social and economic is a grave responsibility. Denial of the right to experiment may be fraught with serious consequences to the nation. It is one of the happy incidents of the federal system that a single courageous State may, if its citizens choose, serve as a laboratory; and try novel social and economic experiments without risk to the rest of the country. This Court has the power to prevent an experiment." </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <a href="/wiki/JI_Case_Co_v._National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board">JI Case Co v. National Labor Relations Board</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1944/39.html">321 US 322</a> (1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1944/39.html">321 US 322</a> (1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=McLain_v._Great_American_Insurance_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McLain v. Great American Insurance Co (page does not exist)">McLain v. Great American Insurance Co</a>, 208 Cal. App. 3d 1476 (1989) holding the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parol_evidence_presumption&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parol evidence presumption (page does not exist)">parol evidence presumption</a> will rarely apply to employment. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> 662 A2d 89 (1995) </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Demasse_v._ITT_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Demasse v. ITT Corp (page does not exist)">Demasse v. ITT Corp</a>, 984 P2d 1138 (1999) in the <a href="/wiki/Arizona_Supreme_Court" title="Arizona Supreme Court">Arizona Supreme Court</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=Asmus+v+Pacific+Bell&hl=en&as_sdt=2006&case=5124554271174185010&scilh=0">999 P2d 71</a> (2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kirke_La_Shelle_Company_v._The_Paul_Armstrong_Company_et_al&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kirke La Shelle Company v. The Paul Armstrong Company et al (page does not exist)">Kirke La Shelle Company v. The Paul Armstrong Company et al</a> 263 NY 79 (1933) and see <a href="/wiki/Restatement_(Second)_of_Contracts" title="Restatement (Second) of Contracts">Restatement (Second) of Contracts</a> §205 </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stark_v._Circle_K_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stark v. Circle K Corp (page does not exist)">Stark v. Circle K Corp</a>, 230 Mont 468, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://casetext.com/case/stark-v-circle-k-corporation">751 P2d 162</a> (1988) </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Foley_v._Interactive_Data_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Foley v. Interactive Data Corp (page does not exist)">Foley v. Interactive Data Corp</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scocal.stanford.edu/opinion/foley-v-interactive-data-corp-28525">765 P2d 373</a> (1988) </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> This is also referred to as "mutual trust and confidence". See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastwood_v._Magnox_Electric_plc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eastwood v. Magnox Electric plc (page does not exist)">Eastwood v. Magnox Electric plc</a> [2004] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2004/35.html">UKHL 35</a>, per Lord Steyn </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilson_v._Racher&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilson v. Racher (page does not exist)">Wilson v. Racher</a> [1974] ICR 428 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnson_v._Unisys_Limited&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnson v. Unisys Limited (page does not exist)">Johnson v. Unisys Limited</a> [2001] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2001/13.html">UKHL 13</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bhasin_v._Hrynew" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhasin v. Hrynew">Bhasin v. Hrynew</a> [2014] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canlii.org/en/ca/scc/doc/2014/2014scc71/2014scc71.html">SCR 494</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch">Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bgb/englisch_bgb.html#p0417">§138</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/Italian_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Constitution">Italian Constitution</a>, art 36 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_v._Gardner-Denver_Co." title="Alexander v. Gardner-Denver Co.">Alexander v. Gardner-Denver Co.</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_415" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 415">415</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/415/36/">36</a> (1974) state policy favoring arbitration, but arbitrator decision can be reviewed de novo on employment rights. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_556" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 556">556</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/556/247/">247</a> (2009) </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Mobility_LLC_v._Concepcion" title="AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion">AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_563" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 563">563</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/563/333/">333</a> (2011) 5 to 4, binding arbitration can be imposed in class action cases for employment and consumer rights </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> On economic and political theory, see <a href="/wiki/J._S._Mill" class="mw-redirect" title="J. S. Mill">J. S. Mill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Political_Economy" title="Principles of Political Economy">Principles of Political Economy</a> (1848) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/101#Mill_0199_1672">Book V, ch XI, §§9–11</a> and generally <a href="/wiki/Shelley_v._Kraemer" title="Shelley v. Kraemer">Shelley v. Kraemer</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1948/63.html">334 US 1</a> (1948) </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Massachusetts Bay Colony Records (1641) vol I, 223. See also <a href="/wiki/J._R._Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Commons">J. R. Commons</a>, History of Labor in the United States (Macmillan 1918) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyoflabouri01commuoft#page/50/mode/2up">vol I, ch II, 50</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Adkins_v._Children%27s_Hospital" title="Adkins v. Children's Hospital">Adkins v. Children's Hospital</a>, [www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1923/78.html 261 US 525] (1923) per <a href="/wiki/Taft_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Taft CJ">Taft CJ</a> (dissenting). The majority held a minimum wage passed by Congress for young people and women in Washington, D.C. was unconstitutional. Continued in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Murphy_v._Sardell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Murphy v. Sardell (page does not exist)">Murphy v. Sardell</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://casetext.com/case/murphy-v-sardell">269 US 530</a> (1925) wage laws for young people struck down, <a href="/wiki/Brandeis_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Brandeis J">Brandeis J</a> dissenting and <a href="/wiki/Holmes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes J">Holmes J</a> objecting. </li> <li id="cite_note-CRS-2023-111"><a href="#cite_ref-CRS-2023_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCongressional_Research_Service2023" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> (March 2, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43792">"State Minimum Wages: An Overview"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=State+Minimum+Wages%3A+An+Overview&rft.date=2023-03-02&rft.au=Congressional+Research+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcrsreports.congress.gov%2Fproduct%2Fpdf%2FR%2FR43792&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+labor+law" class="Z3988"> Chart on page 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-FRED-graph-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FRED-graph_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FRED-graph_112-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/graph/?graph_id=529071">FRED Graph</a>. Using <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Labor">U.S. Department of Labor</a> data. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/FEDMINNFRWG">Federal Minimum Hourly Wage for Nonfarm Workers for the United States</a>. <a href="/wiki/Inflation_adjusted" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation adjusted">Inflation adjusted</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Economic_Data" title="Federal Reserve Economic Data">FRED</a>) via the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/CPIAUCSL">Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers: All Items in U.S. City Average (CPIAUCSL)</a>. Run cursor over graph to see nominal and real minimum wage by month. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1937/73.html">300 US 379</a> (1937) </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Darby_Lumber_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Darby Lumber Co">United States v. Darby Lumber Co</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1941/49.html">312 US 100</a> (1941) dismissed a challenge to the <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a> being constitutional. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section202&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §202(a)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto5-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_116-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section207&num=0&edition=prelim">"[USC02] 29 USC 207: Maximum hours"</a>. uscode.house.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uscode.house.gov&rft.atitle=%5BUSC02%5D+29+USC+207%3A+Maximum+hours&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuscode.house.gov%2Fview.xhtml%3Freq%3Dgranuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title29-section207%26num%3D0%26edition%3Dprelim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+labor+law" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_117-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section218&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §218(a)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/California_Labor_Code" title="California Labor Code">California Labor Code</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayText.xhtml?lawCode=LAB&division=2.&title=&part=4.&chapter=1.&article=">§1182.12</a>, requiring a $10 per hour wage from 2016. <a href="/wiki/New_York_Consolidated_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Consolidated Laws">New York Consolidated Laws</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/lawssrch.cgi?NVLWO:">LAB art 19</a>, requires $9 per hour from 2016. Lawsuits from business groups have mostly been rejected, e.g. in <a href="/w/index.php?title=New_Mexicans_for_Free_Enterprise_v._Santa_Fe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="New Mexicans for Free Enterprise v. Santa Fe (page does not exist)">New Mexicans for Free Enterprise v. Santa Fe</a>, 138 NM 785 (2005) the City of Santa Fe enacted a minimum wage ordinance, above the federal and state wages. Businesses challenged it as being beyond the City's powers. Fry J held that the ordinance was lawful and constitutional. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1999/62.html">527 US 706</a> (1999) </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Souter J, <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> This brought the effective position back to <a href="/wiki/National_League_of_Cities_v._Usery" title="National League of Cities v. Usery">National League of Cities v. Usery</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_426" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 426">426</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/426/833/">833</a> (1976) where 5 judges to 4, held the <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a> could not be constitutionally applied to state governments. Brennan, White, Marshall, Stevens J dissenting. Yet in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Garcia_v._San_Antonio_Metro_Transit_Authority&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Garcia v. San Antonio Metro Transit Authority (page does not exist)">Garcia v. San Antonio Metro Transit Authority</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_469" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 469">469</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/469/528/">528</a> (1985) 5 judges to 4 upheld extension of the <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a> to state and local government workers. There was authority under the FLSA consistent with the Tenth Amendment to extend the Act's protection to public transport employees. Blackmun J gave the majority opinion. Powell, Burger, Rehnquist, O'Connor J dissenting. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> See today <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section203&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §203(r)–(s)</a>. Previously, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walling_v._Jacksonville_Paper_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walling v. Jacksonville Paper Co. (page does not exist)">Walling v. Jacksonville Paper Co.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1943/25.html">317 US 564</a> (1943). See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=AB_Kirschbaum_Co_v._Walling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="AB Kirschbaum Co v. Walling (page does not exist)">AB Kirschbaum Co v. Walling</a> 316 US 517 (1942), workers building for firms that would not do interstate commerce were not covered, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Borden_Co_v._Borella&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Borden Co v. Borella (page does not exist)">Borden Co v. Borella</a> 325 US 679 (1945) </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section203&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §203(s)(2)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section213&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §213</a> n.b. the statute does not make clear what justifications there are for any exemptions. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1997/13.html">519 US 452</a> (1997) </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Adams_v._United_States" title="Adams v. United States">Adams v. United States</a>, 44 Fed Claims 772 (1999) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erichs_v._Venator_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erichs v. Venator Group (page does not exist)">Erichs v. Venator Group</a>, Inc 128 F Supp 2d 1255 (ND Cal 2001) </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_551" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 551">551</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/551/158/">158</a> (2007) </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Under 29 USC §211(c) employers must keep payroll records for evidence of working time. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Jewell_Ridge_Coal_Corp._v._United_Mine_Workers_of_America" title="Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. United Mine Workers of America">Jewell Ridge Coal Corp. v. United Mine Workers of America</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1945/88.html">325 US 161</a> (1945) time traveling to work through the coal mine did count as working because it (1) required physical and mental exertion that was (2) controlled and required by the employer (3) for the employer's benefit. See also, <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Coal,_Iron_%26_Railroad_Co._v._Muscoda_Local_No._123" title="Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. v. Muscoda Local No. 123">Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. v. Muscoda Local No. 123</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1944/97.html">321 US 590</a> (1944) travel to work, once underground, was working time. </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1946/110.html">328 US 680</a> (1946) </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1946/110.html">328 US 680</a> (1946) per <a href="/wiki/Murphy_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Murphy J">Murphy J</a>. See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Morillion_v._Royal_Packing_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Morillion v. Royal Packing Co (page does not exist)">Morillion v. Royal Packing Co</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/4th/22/575.html">22 Cal 4th 575</a> (2000) the <a href="/wiki/California_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="California Supreme Court">California Supreme Court</a> held an employer must pay for hours traveling on company vehicles. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_323" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 323">323</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/323/126/">126</a> (1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_v._Onion_Turnpike_Commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin v. Onion Turnpike Commission (page does not exist)">Martin v. Onion Turnpike Commission</a> 968 F2d 606 (6th 1992) See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Merrill_v._Exxon_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Merrill v. Exxon Corp (page does not exist)">Merrill v. Exxon Corp</a>, 387 FSupp 458 (SD Tex 1974) while pep meetings are working, but Department of Labor approved standard apprenticeship mandatory training was not working time. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Steiner_v._Mitchell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Steiner v. Mitchell (page does not exist)">Steiner v. Mitchell</a> 350 US 247 (1956) </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <a href="/wiki/IBP,_Inc._v._Alvarez" title="IBP, Inc. v. Alvarez">IBP, Inc. v. Alvarez</a>, 546 US 21 (2005) <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a> for a unanimous court. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> 323 US 37 (1944) <a href="/wiki/Murphy_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Murphy J">Murphy J</a> holding that higher afternoon wages did not count as "premium" pay that could be ignored. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/2000/38.html">529 US 576</a> (2000) </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Skidmore_v._Swift_%26_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="Skidmore v. Swift & Co">Skidmore v. Swift & Co</a>, 323 US 134 (1944) the Department of Labor's recommendations over what counted as overtime would be given a level of deference commensurate with its persuasiveness, the thoroughness of investigation, its consistency, and the validity of its reasoning. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> 15 USC §1672 </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> 29 USC §254. See <a href="/w/index.php?title=McLaughlin_v._Richland_Shoe_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McLaughlin v. Richland Shoe Co (page does not exist)">McLaughlin v. Richland Shoe Co</a>, 468 US 128 (1988) Stevens J, 'willful' means reckless disregard for whether conduct was forbidden by the state. <a href="/wiki/Brennan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Brennan J">Brennan J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blackmun_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackmun J">Blackmun J</a> dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> See R Ray, M Sanes and J Schmitt, 'No Vacation Nation Revisited' (Washington DC 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cepr.net/documents/publications/no-vacation-update-2013-05.pdf">Center for Economic and Policy Research</a> 1, "the average worker in the private sector in the United States receives only about ten days of paid vacation and about six paid holidays per year". </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_Economic_Co-operation_and_Development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</a>, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=ANHRS">Average annual hours actually worked per worker</a>' (Retrieved August 9, 2016) showing 1790 hours per year in the US, 1674 hours in the UK, and 1371 in Germany. OECD, 'Society at a glance 2009: OECD social indicators' (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/download/8109011e.pdf?expires=1470785242&id=id&accname=guest&checksum=B69779C632870268573116DC6B5D56A1">2009</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]) 39, Figure 2.17 </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title5-section6303&num=0&edition=prelim">5 USC §6303</a>. These are (1) New Year's Day (2) <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>'s Birthday (3) Washington's Birthday (4) Memorial Day (5) Independence Day (6) Labor Day (7) Columbus Day (8) Veterans Day (9) <a href="/wiki/Thanksgiving_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Thanksgiving Day">Thanksgiving Day</a> (10) Christmas Day. </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Holidays_with_Pay_Convention_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Holidays with Pay Convention 1970">Holidays with Pay Convention 1970</a> (no 132) </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.leg.wa.gov/billinfo/summary.aspx?bill=2238&year=2013">HB 2238</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/Working_Time_Directive_2003" title="Working Time Directive 2003">Working Time Directive 2003</a> art 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section213&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §213</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> See FT de Vyver, 'The Five-Day Week' (1930) 33(2) Current History 223. Rybczynski, Waiting for the Weekend (1991) 142 </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1905/100.html">198 US 45</a> (1905) </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Robertson, James L. (2019). Heroes, Rascals, and the Law: Constitutional encounters in Mississippi History. Jackson, Ms: University Press of Mississippi. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781496819949" title="Special:BookSources/9781496819949">9781496819949</a>. p. 258. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Robertson, pp. 262 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <a href="/wiki/West_Coast_Hotel_Co._v._Parrish" title="West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish">West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish</a>, 300 US 379 (1937) </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> On the economic effects of rules, see J Frieson, 'The Response of Wages to Protective Labor Legislation: Evidence from Canada' (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ilr.sagepub.com/content/49/2/243.short">49(2) ILR Review 243</a> (showing <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a> that wages do not fall in unionized workplaces where workers have sufficient <a href="/wiki/Bargaining_power" title="Bargaining power">bargaining power</a>). Contrast <a href="/wiki/L_Summers" class="mw-redirect" title="L Summers">L Summers</a>, 'Some simple economics of mandated benefits' (1989) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1827753">79(2) American Economic Review 177</a> (<a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theorizing</a> (without evidence) that pay will fall to compensate for the cost of any mandated benefit, such as family and medical leave). </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> But under 29 USC §2611(2) employees "at which such employer employs less than 50 employees if the total number of employees employed by that employer within 75 miles of that worksite is less than 50." </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> 29 USC §2512(a)(2) and on adoption, see <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kelley_v._Crosfield_Catalysts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kelley v. Crosfield Catalysts (page does not exist)">Kelley v. Crosfield Catalysts</a> 135 F2d 1202 (7th Circuit 1998) The same rules for federal employees were codified in 5 USC §§6381–6387. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> 29 USC §2612(a)(2) and 29 USC §2612(f) mothers and fathers must share time if they work for the same employer. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> 29 USC §2612(e) </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> 29 USC §2612(e)(2) </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> 29 USC §2614(c). If an employee quits, the employer is enabled to recoup costs. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/2002/557.html">535 US 81</a> (2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> 29 USC §2614(b). Under 29 USC §2612(b)(2) employers may transfer employees to another position with similar pay and benefits if health absences could be intermittent. Under §2618 special rules apply for employees of local educational agencies. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> 29 USC §2617, and see <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frizzell_v._Southwest_Motor_Freight&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frizzell v. Southwest Motor Freight (page does not exist)">Frizzell v. Southwest Motor Freight</a>, 154 F3d 641 (6th Circuit 1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> 29 USC §2617(a)(1)(A)(iii) </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moore_v._Payless_Shoe_Source&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moore v. Payless Shoe Source (page does not exist)">Moore v. Payless Shoe Source</a> (8th Circuit 1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> e.g. D. Paquette, 'The enormous ambition of Hillary Clinton's child-care plan' (May 12, 2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2016/05/12/the-enormous-ambition-of-hillary-clintons-child-care-plan/">The Washington Post</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> See generally WC Greenough and FP King, Pension plans and public policy (1976), S Sass, The Promise of Private Pensions: The First 100 Years (Harvard University Press 1997) </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/J._R._Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Commons">J. R. Commons</a> and J. B. Andrews, <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Labor_Legislation" title="Principles of Labor Legislation">Principles of Labor Legislation</a> (1920) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/principlesoflabo00commrich#page/422/mode/2up">423–438</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> ch 7 </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> See L Conant, A Critical Analysis of Industrial Pension Systems (1922) and M. W. Latimer, Trade Union Pension Systems (1932) </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/LMRA_1947" class="mw-redirect" title="LMRA 1947">LMRA 1947</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section186&num=0&edition=prelim">§186(c)(5)(B)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> This followed Carnegie's attendance the <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" title="Commission on Industrial Relations">Commission on Industrial Relations</a> in 1916 to explain labor unrest. See W. Greenough, It's My Retirement Money – Take Good Care of It: The TIAA-CREF Story (Irwin 1990) 11–37, and E. McGaughey, 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sulr/vol42/iss2/18/">42 Seattle University Law Review 697</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="/wiki/26_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="26 USC">26 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title26-section401&num=0&edition=prelim">§401(k)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> On the theory behind <a href="/wiki/Automatic_enrolment" title="Automatic enrolment">automatic enrolment</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Richard_Thaler" title="Richard Thaler">R Thaler</a> and S Benartzi, 'Save more tomorrow: Using Behavioral Economics to Increase Employee Savings' (2004) 112(1) Journal of Political Economy 164 and E McGaughey, 'Behavioural economics and labour law' (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2460685">LSE Legal Studies Working Paper No. 20/2014</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, 29 USC §1003(a). This could include any <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_Employee_Beneficiary_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association">Voluntary Employee Beneficiary Association</a>, such as for child care cover, sick leave, fringe benefits or extra unemployment insurance. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USCA2/1982/447.html">680 F2d 263</a> (1982) </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §§1022–1133 </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhorer_v._Raytheon_Engineers_and_Constructors,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhorer v. Raytheon Engineers and Constructors, Inc (page does not exist)">Rhorer v. Raytheon Engineers and Constructors, Inc</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USCA5/1999/1081.html">181 F3d 364</a> (5th 1999) a plan beneficiary can enforce terms in the summary plan description, even if the underlying document conflicts. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §1052 </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> ERISA 1974, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter18/subchapter1/node551/part3&edition=prelim">§1081–1102</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180623113242/http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=%2Fprelim%40title29%2Fchapter18%2Fsubchapter1%2Fnode551%2Fpart3&edition=prelim">Archived</a> June 23, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, containing detailed rules. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §1053. The employer can extend to 7 years, with staggered vesting and a labor union can collectively agree for up to 10 years. Most will seek the shortest period of time. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §1054 </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §1058 </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Patterson_v._Shumate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Patterson v. Shumate (page does not exist)">Patterson v. Shumate</a>, 504 US 753 (1992) Blackmun J, a pension is treated like a right under a spendthrift trust, so in bankruptcy proceedings, pensions cannot be taken away. Scalia J concurred. See again, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guidry_v._Sheet_Metal_Workers_National_Pension_Fund&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guidry v. Sheet Metal Workers National Pension Fund (page does not exist)">Guidry v. Sheet Metal Workers National Pension Fund</a>, 493 US 365 (1990) </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1996/52.html">517 US 882</a> (1996) </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> cf <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Group_Pension_Trust_Ltd_v_Imperial_Tobacco_Ltd" title="Imperial Group Pension Trust Ltd v Imperial Tobacco Ltd">Imperial Group Pension Trust Ltd v Imperial Tobacco Ltd</a> [1991] 1 WLR 589 and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Equitable_Life_Assurance_Society_v._Hyman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Equitable Life Assurance Society v. Hyman (page does not exist)">Equitable Life Assurance Society v. Hyman</a> [2000] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2000/39.html">UKHL 39</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1989/103.html">490 US 714</a> (1989) </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §1140, however see the highly controversial case <a href="/w/index.php?title=McGann_v._H%26H_Music_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="McGann v. H&H Music Co (page does not exist)">McGann v. H&H Music Co</a> (5th 1991) where a man diagnosed HIV positive, filed for treatment under work health care plan. The employer changed the plan to limit AIDS treatment to $5000. Fifth Circuit held the employer's motive was not specifically to injure the worker but to control costs and apparently lawful. </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> See EP Serota and FA Brodie (eds), ERISA Fiduciary Law (2nd edn 2007). In general, people who manage other people's money will be a "<a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a>" in law, and bound by special duties. The core duty is to avoid any possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a>. Other duties that fiduciaries have (but any agent may also have) include the duty of care, skill and competence (i.e. not to be <a href="/wiki/Negligent" class="mw-redirect" title="Negligent">negligent</a>) and the duty to follow the terms of one's assignment. Discussed further in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peacock_v._Thomas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peacock v. Thomas (page does not exist)">Peacock v. Thomas</a> 516 US 349 (1996) </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section1104&num=0&edition=prelim">§1104(a)(1)(D)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section1104&num=0&edition=prelim">§1104(a)(1)(B)–(C)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Varity_Corp._v._Howe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Varity Corp. v. Howe (page does not exist)">Varity Corp. v. Howe</a> 516 US 489 (1996) </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Labor" title="United States Department of Labor">United States Department of Labor</a>, Interpretive bulletin relating to written statements of investment policy, including proxy voting policy or guidelines (1994) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dol.gov/dol/allcfr/title_29/part_2509/29CFR2509.94-2.htm">29 CFR 2509.94–2</a>, "The fiduciary duties described at <a href="/wiki/ERISA" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA">ERISA</a> Sec. 404(a)(1)(A) and (B), require that, in voting <a href="/wiki/Proxy_voting" title="Proxy voting">proxies</a>, the responsible fiduciary consider those factors that may affect the value of the plan's investment and not subordinate the interests of the participants and beneficiaries in their retirement income to unrelated objectives. These duties also require that the named fiduciary appointing an investment manager periodically monitor the activities of the investment manager with respect to the management of plan assets, including decisions made and actions taken by the investment manager with regard to proxy voting decisions. The named <a href="/wiki/Fiduciary" title="Fiduciary">fiduciary</a> must carry out this responsibility solely in the interest of the participants and beneficiaries and without regard to its relationship to the plan sponsor." </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Meinhard_v._Salmon" title="Meinhard v. Salmon">Meinhard v. Salmon</a>, 164 NE 545 (NY 1928) and <a href="/wiki/Keech_v._Sandford" class="mw-redirect" title="Keech v. Sandford">Keech v. Sandford</a> [1726] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWHC/1726/J76.html">EWHC Ch J76</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section1104&num=0&edition=prelim">§1104(a)(1)(A)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section1106&num=0&edition=prelim">§1106</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USCA2/1982/447.html">680 F2d 263</a> (1982) per Friendly J, "We do not mean by this either that trustees confronted with a difficult decision need always engage independent counsel or that engaging such counsel and following their advice will operate as a complete whitewash. ... perhaps, after the events of late September, resignation was the only proper course." </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Local_144,_Nursing_Home_Pension_Fund_v._Demisay&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Local 144, Nursing Home Pension Fund v. Demisay (page does not exist)">Local 144, Nursing Home Pension Fund v. Demisay</a>, 508 US 581 (1992) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Great-West_Life_%26_Annuity_Insurance_Co_v._Knudson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Great-West Life & Annuity Insurance Co v. Knudson (page does not exist)">Great-West Life & Annuity Insurance Co v. Knudson</a> 534 US 204 (2002) </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section1144&num=0&edition=prelim">§1144</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shaw_v._Delta_Air_Lines,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shaw v. Delta Air Lines, Inc (page does not exist)">Shaw v. Delta Air Lines, Inc</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/463/85/case.html">463 US 85</a> (1983) per <a href="/wiki/Blackmun_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackmun J">Blackmun J</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ingersoll-Rand_Co._v._McClendon" title="Ingersoll-Rand Co. v. McClendon">Ingersoll-Rand Co. v. McClendon</a>, 498 US 133 (1990) </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Egelhoff_v._Egelhoff" title="Egelhoff v. Egelhoff">Egelhoff v. Egelhoff</a>, 532 US 141 (2001) </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metropolitan_Life_Insurance_Co._v._Massachusetts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Massachusetts (page does not exist)">Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Massachusetts</a> 471 US 724 (1985) </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=FMC_Corp._v._Holliday&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="FMC Corp. v. Holliday (page does not exist)">FMC Corp. v. Holliday</a> 498 US 52 (1990) per <a href="/wiki/O%27Connor_J" class="mw-redirect" title="O'Connor J">O'Connor J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a> dissented. See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Columbia_v._Greater_Washington_Board_of_Trade&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Columbia v. Greater Washington Board of Trade (page does not exist)">District of Columbia v. Greater Washington Board of Trade</a>, 506 US 125 (1992) <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a> dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Rush_Prudential_HMO,_Inc._v._Moran" title="Rush Prudential HMO, Inc. v. Moran">Rush Prudential HMO, Inc. v. Moran</a>, 536 US 355 (2002) Souter J, 5 to 4, held an <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> statute requiring 'independent medical review' of a denial of a claim for treatment under an <a href="/wiki/HMO" class="mw-redirect" title="HMO">HMO</a> contract was not preempted because it was insurance regulation. </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-206">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_206-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_206-1">b</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/106/hr1277/text">HR 1277</a>, Title III, §301 </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> See earlier, <a href="/wiki/LD_Brandeis" class="mw-redirect" title="LD Brandeis">LD Brandeis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Other_People%27s_Money_and_How_the_Bankers_Use_It" title="Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It">Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://louisville.edu/law/library/special-collections/the-louis-d.-brandeis-collection/other-peoples-money-by-louis-d.-brandeis">1914</a>) and JS Taub, 'Able but Not Willing: The Failure of Mutual Fund Advisers to Advocate for Shareholders' Rights' (2009) 34(3) The Journal of Corporation Law 843, 876 </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section1102&num=0&edition=prelim">29 USC §1102</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section1105&num=0&edition=prelim">§1105(d)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §302(c)(5)(B) </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/US_Department_of_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="US Department of Labor">US Department of Labor</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dol.gov/ebsa/criticalstatusnotices.html">Critical, Endangered and WRERA Status Notices</a>' (Retrieved August 11, 2016) </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> See D Hess, 'Protecting and Politicizing Public Pension Fund Assets: Empirical Evidence on the Effects of Governance Structures and Practices' (2005–2006) 39 UC Davis LR 187, 195. The recommended <a href="/w/index.php?title=Uniform_Management_of_Public_Employee_Retirement_Systems_Act_of_1997&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uniform Management of Public Employee Retirement Systems Act of 1997 (page does not exist)">Uniform Management of Public Employee Retirement Systems Act of 1997</a> §17(c)(3) suggested funds publicize their governance structures. This was explicitly adopted by a number of states, while others already followed the same best practice. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> See, sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Visclosky" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Visclosky">Peter Visclosky</a>, Joint Trusteeship Bill of 1989 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c101:H.R.2664.IH:">HR 2664</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]. See further R Cook, 'The Case for Joint Trusteeship of Pension Plans' (2002) WorkingUSA 25. Most recently, the Employees' Pension Security Act of 2008 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opencongress.org/bill/110-h5754/text">HR 5754</a>) §101 would have amended ERISA 1974 §403(a) to insert 'The assets of a pension plan which is a single-employer plan shall be held in trust by a joint board of trustees, which shall consist of two or more trustees representing on an equal basis the interests of the employer or employers maintaining the plan and the interests of the participants and their beneficiaries.' </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> This inserted a new Securities Exchange Act of 1934 §6(b)(10) </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> Text of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://finduslaw.com/occupational_safety_and_health_act_osha_29_u_s_code_chapter_15">Occupational Safety and Health Act</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/E._Appelbaum" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Appelbaum">E. Appelbaum</a> and LW Hunter, 'Union Participation in Strategic Decisions of Corporations' in <a href="/wiki/Richard_B._Freeman" title="Richard B. Freeman">Richard B. Freeman</a> (ed), Emerging labor market institutions for the twenty-first century (2005) and L. W Hunter, 'Can Strategic Participation be Institutionalized? Union Representation on American Corporate Board.s' (1998) 51(4) Industrial and Labor Relations Review 557 </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Cox" title="Archibald Cox">Archibald Cox</a>, D. C. Bok, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_W._Finkin" title="Matthew W. Finkin">Matthew W. Finkin</a> and R. A. Gorman, Labor Law: Cases and Materials (2011) </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a href="/wiki/15_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="15 USC">15 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title15-section17&num=0&edition=prelim">§17</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section151&num=0&edition=prelim">§151</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Building_Trades_Council_v._Garmon" title="San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon">San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon</a> 359 US 236 (1959) and previously <a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Teamsters_Local_776" title="Garner v. Teamsters Local 776">Garner v. Teamsters Local 776</a>, 346 US 485, 490 (1953) and most recently <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce_v._Brown" title="Chamber of Commerce v. Brown">Chamber of Commerce v. Brown</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/2008/22.html">522 US 60</a> (2008) <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a> dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> <a href="/wiki/BI_Sachs" class="mw-redirect" title="BI Sachs">BI Sachs</a>, 'Revitalizing labor law' (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43551790">31(2) Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law 333</a> and <a href="/wiki/CL_Estlund" class="mw-redirect" title="CL Estlund">CL Estlund</a>, 'The Ossification of American Labor Law' (2002) 102 Columbia LR 1527. See further <a href="/wiki/BI_Sachs" class="mw-redirect" title="BI Sachs">BI Sachs</a>, 'Despite Preemption: Making Labor Law in Cities and States' (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/10875747/vol124_sachs.pdf?sequence=1">1224 Harvard Law Review 1153</a>, 1162–1163, 'Scholars have repeatedly noted the central problems. When it comes to the rules of organizing, the regime provides employers with too much latitude to interfere with employees' efforts at self-organization, while offering unions too few rights to communicate with employees about the merits of unionization. The <a href="/wiki/NLRB" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRB">NLRB</a>'s election machinery is dramatically too slow, enabling employers to defeat organizing drives through delay and attrition. The NLRB's remedial regime is also too weak to protect employees against employer retaliation. And, with respect to the statute's goal of facilitating collective bargaining, the regime's "<a href="/wiki/Good_faith" title="Good faith">good faith</a>" bargaining obligation is rendered meaningless by the Board's inability to impose contract terms as a remedy for a party's failure to negotiate in good faith.' </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1958/150.html">357 US 449</a> (1958) referring to the "constitutionally protected right of association". </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J._R._Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Commons">J. R. Commons</a>, History of Labor in the United States (Macmillan 1918) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyoflabouri01commuoft#page/24/mode/2up">vol I, ch 1, 25</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> JB Commons, A Documentary History of American Industrial Society (1910) </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Cox" title="Archibald Cox">Archibald Cox</a>, D. C. Bok, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_W._Finkin" title="Matthew W. Finkin">Matthew W. Finkin</a> and R. A. Gorman, Labor Law: Cases and Materials (2006) 11. The federation collapsed during the <a href="/wiki/Panic_of_1837" title="Panic of 1837">Panic of 1837</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> 45 Mass. 111, 4 Metcalf 111 (1842) See further EE Witte, 'Early American Labor Cases' (1926) 35 Yale Law Journal 829, finding that only three cases on conspiracy were brought between 1842 and 1863. But at least 15 cases were brought between 1863 and 1880. </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> <a href="/wiki/In_re_Debs" title="In re Debs">In re Debs</a>, 64 Fed 724 (CC Ill 1894), 158 U.S. 564 (1895) </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-228">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_228-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_228-1">b</a> 208 US 274 (1908) </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> cf <a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Association_Convention_1948" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom of Association Convention 1948">Freedom of Association Convention 1948</a> c 87, art 3(1) "Workers' and employers' organisations shall have the right to draw up their constitutions and rules, to elect their representatives in full freedom, to organise their administration and activities and to formulate their programmes." </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> See historically TW Glocker, The Government of American Trade Unions (1913) ch XI, and <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>, Democracy in Trade Unions: A survey, with a program of action (1943) </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/McClellan_Committee" class="mw-redirect" title="McClellan Committee">McClellan Committee</a>, Interim Report of the Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor or Management Field, S Rep No 1417, 85th Cong, 2d Sess 60 ff. Summarized by Joseph R. Grodin's Union Government and the Law: British and American Experiences (1961) 158–159. There was minor wrongdoing found in four other unions, recounted in <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/The_Enemy_Within_(Kennedy_book)" title="The Enemy Within (Kennedy book)">The Enemy Within</a> (1960) 190–212. At the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bakery_and_Confectionery_Workers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bakery and Confectionery Workers (page does not exist)">Bakery and Confectionery Workers</a>, the president had doubled his salary. At the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Allied_Trades_Unions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Allied Trades Unions (page does not exist)">Allied Trades Unions</a> the Vice President made a self-dealing transaction. At the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Operating_Engineers" title="International Union of Operating Engineers">International Union of Operating Engineers</a> officials had extorted money from employers. At the <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Textile_Workers_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Textile Workers Union (page does not exist)">United Textile Workers Union</a>, the president and treasurer bought second homes. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section411&num=0&edition=prelim">§ 411</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-233">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_233-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_233-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter11/subchapter5&edition=prelim">§ 481</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> <a href="/wiki/De_Veau_v._Braisted" title="De Veau v. Braisted">De Veau v. Braisted</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_363" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 363">363</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/363/144/">144</a> (1960) 5 to 3, the dissenting judges argued that state law could introduce no additional requirement to those in the <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Hotel_and_Restaurant_Employees" title="Brown v. Hotel and Restaurant Employees">Brown v. Hotel and Restaurant Employees</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_468" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 468">468</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/468/491/">491</a> (1984) 4 to 3, New Jersey could impose a requirement that all union officials in a casino had no association with organized crime, consistently with <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> § 7. The dissent argued that the requirement was disproportionate because it applied penalties to the whole union rather than the officials. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> e.g. JR Grodin, Union Government and the Law: British and American Experiences (1961) 159, "there is little doubt that in nearly every case [against Beck] a court would agree that conduct found by the committee to be "improper" was also a violation of the union officer's fiduciary obligation. So far as substance, as distinguished from remedy, is concerned, it appears that existing common law [was] probably adequate." </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Trbovich_v._United_Mine_Workers" title="Trbovich v. United Mine Workers">Trbovich v. United Mine Workers</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_404" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 404">404</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/404/528/">528</a> (1972) See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hall_v._Cole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hall v. Cole (page does not exist)">Hall v. Cole</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_412" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 412">412</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/412/1/">1</a> (1973) holding that if plaintiffs are successful, they can be awarded fees. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_v._Bachowski" title="Dunlop v. Bachowski">Dunlop v. Bachowski</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_421" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 421">421</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/421/560/">560</a> (1975) </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> For a contrasting set of views, compare MJ Nelson, 'Slowing Union Corruption: Reforming the Landrum–Griffin Act to Better Combat Union Embezzlement' (1999–2000) 8 George Mason Law Review 527 </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/ITUC" class="mw-redirect" title="ITUC">ITUC</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ituc-csi.org/IMG/pdf/Const-ENG-W.pdf">Constitution</a> (2006) </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section158&num=0&edition=prelim">§ 158(a)(3)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section164&num=0&edition=prelim">§ 164(b)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_367" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 367">367</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/367/740/">740</a> (1961), states that "a union may constitutionally compel contributions from dissenting nonmembers in an agency shop only for the costs of performing the union's statutory duties as exclusive bargaining agent." See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lincoln_Fed_Labor_Union_19129_v._Northwestern_Iron_%26_Metal_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lincoln Fed Labor Union 19129 v. Northwestern Iron & Metal Co (page does not exist)">Lincoln Fed Labor Union 19129 v. Northwestern Iron & Metal Co</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_335" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 335">335</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/335/525/">525</a> (1949). <a href="/wiki/Communications_Workers_of_America_v._Beck" title="Communications Workers of America v. Beck">Communications Workers of America v. Beck</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_487" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 487">487</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/487/735/">735</a> (1988) 5 to 3 that unions could have an agreement with employers that fees be collected to pay for the union's activities, but only up to the point that it was necessary to cover its costs. <a href="/wiki/Locke_v._Karass" title="Locke v. Karass">Locke v. Karass</a>, 129 S Ct 798 (2008) legitimate costs included the Maine State Employees Association's costs for in national arbitration litigation. </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="United States v. Congress of Industrial Organizations">United States v. Congress of Industrial Organizations</a>, 335 U.S. 106 (1948) there was no violation of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Corrupt_Practices_Act_1910" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Corrupt Practices Act 1910">Federal Corrupt Practices Act 1910</a> in a union publicly advocating for particular Congress members to be elected. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Buckley_v._Valeo" title="Buckley v. Valeo">Buckley v. Valeo</a>, 424 US 1 (1976) </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> 435 US 765 (1978) </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> 558 US 310 (2010) </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> 431 US 209 (1977) See further <a href="/wiki/Lehnert_v._Ferris_Faculty_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Lehnert v. Ferris Faculty Association">Lehnert v. Ferris Faculty Association</a>, 500 US 507 (1991) 5 to 4, the union can require nonmembers to give service fee contributions only for its activities as an exclusive bargaining agent, and not for political activities. Also <a href="/wiki/Davenport_v._Washington_Education_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Davenport v. Washington Education Association">Davenport v. Washington Education Association</a>, 551 US 177 (2007) state legislation could require, consistently with the First Amendment, that a union member opts into the fund for political expenditure. </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> 573 US __ (2014) </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> 578 US __ (2016) </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title15-section17&num=0&edition=prelim">"[USC02] 15 USC 17: Antitrust laws not applicable to labor organizations"</a>. uscode.house.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uscode.house.gov&rft.atitle=%5BUSC02%5D+15+USC+17%3A+Antitrust+laws+not+applicable+to+labor+organizations&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fuscode.house.gov%2Fview.xhtml%3Freq%3Dgranuleid%3AUSC-prelim-title15-section17%26num%3D0%26edition%3Dprelim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+labor+law" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1908/23.html">208 US 161</a> (1908) </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> 236 US 1 (1915) </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> In Adair, from <a href="/wiki/Holmes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes J">Holmes J</a> and <a href="/wiki/McKenna_J" class="mw-redirect" title="McKenna J">McKenna J</a>, and in Coppage from <a href="/wiki/Holmes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Holmes J">Holmes J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Day_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Day J">Day J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hughes_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Hughes J">Hughes J</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter6&edition=prelim">§§101–115</a>. This was approved and applied by <a href="/wiki/New_Negro_Alliance_v._Sanitary_Grocery_Co." title="New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.">New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1938/101.html">303 US 552</a> (1938) </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter6&edition=prelim">§104</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> This reenacted labor provisions from the <a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Recovery_Act_of_1933" title="National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933">National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933</a>, after <a href="/wiki/A.L.A._Schechter_Poultry_Corp._v._United_States" title="A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States">A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1935/122.html">295 US 495</a> (1935) struck it down. </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section157&num=0&edition=prelim">§157</a>, "Employees shall have the right to self-organization, to form, join, or assist labor organizations, to bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing, and to engage in other concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection." </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §152(2). See the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1978" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Labor Relations Act of 1978">Federal Labor Relations Act of 1978</a>. There are special rules for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security" title="United States Department of Homeland Security">United States Department of Homeland Security</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section152&num=0&edition=prelim">§152(2)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> §158(3) </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1979/47.html">440 US 490</a> (1979) <a href="/wiki/Brennan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Brennan J">Brennan J</a> for the four dissenting justices said an exception for this employer was not in §152(2), it was twice rejected in 1935 and 1947, it was "invented by the Court for the purpose of deciding this case", and was a "cavalier exercise in statutory interpretation". Joined by <a href="/wiki/White_J" class="mw-redirect" title="White J">White J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Marshall J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blackmun_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackmun J">Blackmun J</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?q=563+F3d+492+(DC+2009)&hl=en&as_sdt=2006&case=15820652359117123721&scilh=0">563 F3d 492</a> (DC 2009) </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> R Eisenbrey and L Mishel, 'Supervisor in Name Only: Union Rights of Eight Million Workers at Stake in Labor Board Ruling' (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epi.org/page/-/old/issuebriefs/225/ib225.pdf">Economic Policy Institute Issue Brief #225</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a>, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bls.gov/news.release/pdf/union2.pdf">Union Members – 2015</a>' (January 28, 2016) recording 14.8m union members, 16.4m people covered by collective bargaining or union representation. Union membership was 7.4% in private sector, but 39% in the public sector. In the five largest states, California has 15.9% union membership, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> 4.5%, Florida 6.8%, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> 24.7% (the highest in the country), and <a href="/wiki/Illinois" title="Illinois">Illinois</a> 15.2%. See further OECD, Trade Union Density (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oecd.org/employment/emp/UnionDensity_Sourcesandmethods.pdf">1999–2013</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> See H. S. Farber and B. Western, 'Ronald Reagan and the Politics of Declining Union Organization' (2002) 40(3) British Journal of Industrial Relations 385 </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/29/158">29 USC §158(d)</a>. See <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Borg-Warner_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Borg-Warner Corp (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Borg-Warner Corp</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1958/76.html">356 US 342</a> (1958) Burton J held an employer refused to bargain unlawfully by insisting on a clause requiring a pre-strike ballot of employees. Harlan J dissented. See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=First_National_Maintenance_Corp._v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First National Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB (page does not exist)">First National Maintenance Corp. v. NLRB</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1981/155.html">452 US 666</a> (1981) holding there was no mandatory duty to bargain over First National Maintenance Corp's "decision to terminate its Greenpark Care Center operation and to discharge the workers". Brennan J, joined by Marshall J, dissented saying the majority "states that "bargaining over management decisions that have a substantial impact on the continued availability of employment should be required only if the benefit, for labor-management relations and the collective-bargaining process, outweighs the burden placed on the conduct of the business."... I cannot agree with this test, because it takes into account only the interests of management; it fails to consider the legitimate employment interests of the workers and their union." </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section153&num=0&edition=prelim">§153</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section159&num=0&edition=prelim">§159(b)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section159&num=0&edition=prelim">§159(a)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <a href="/wiki/BI_Sachs" class="mw-redirect" title="BI Sachs">BI Sachs</a>, 'Revitalizing labor law' (2010) 31(2) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43551790">BJELL 335</a>–6 </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board" title="National Labor Relations Board">National Labor Relations Board</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlrb.gov/sites/default/files/attachments/basic-page/node-1677/nlrb2009.pdf">Seventy Fourth Annual Report</a> (2009) 152 </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> 321 US 332 (1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> 323 US 248 (1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> 306 US 332 (1939) 5 to 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> 560 US 674 (2010) </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> H.R. 1409, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/111th-congress/senate-bill/560/text">S. 560</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section185&num=0&edition=prelim">§185</a> and see <a href="/w/index.php?title=Textile_Workers_Union_of_America_v._Lincoln_Mills&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Textile Workers Union of America v. Lincoln Mills (page does not exist)">Textile Workers Union of America v. Lincoln Mills</a> 353 US 448 (1957) holding federal law is to be applied to promote national uniformity and carry out policies in the national labor laws. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Dowd_Box_Co_v._Courtney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Dowd Box Co v. Courtney (page does not exist)">Charles Dowd Box Co v. Courtney</a>, 368 US 502 (1962) Also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Avco_Corporation_v._Machinists,_Aero_Lodge_735&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avco Corporation v. Machinists, Aero Lodge 735 (page does not exist)">Avco Corporation v. Machinists, Aero Lodge 735</a>, 390 US 557 (1968) suits to enforce collective agreements may be removed from state court to federal court. </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> <a href="/wiki/9_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="9 USC">9 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title9/chapter1&edition=prelim">§§1 ff</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1960/109.html">363 US 574</a> (1960) See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Steelworkers_v._American_Manufacturing_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Steelworkers v. American Manufacturing Co. (page does not exist)">United Steelworkers v. American Manufacturing Co.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1960/107.html">363 US 564</a> (1960) construction or interpretation of an agreement is for the arbitrator, not the court to decide, and the court must order arbitration even if a claim made seems frivolous. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Steelworkers_v._Enterprise_Wheel_%26_Car_Corp.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Steelworkers v. Enterprise Wheel & Car Corp. (page does not exist)">United Steelworkers v. Enterprise Wheel & Car Corp.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1960/108.html">363 US 593</a> (1960) </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_Paperworkers_v._Misco,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United Paperworkers v. Misco, Inc. (page does not exist)">United Paperworkers v. Misco, Inc.</a> 484 US 29 (1987) </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1974/19.html">415 US 36</a> (1974) </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_556" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 556">556</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/556/247/">247</a> (2009) joined by <a href="/wiki/Roberts_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Roberts CJ">Roberts CJ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scalia_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Scalia J">Scalia J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy J">Kennedy J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alito_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Alito J">Alito J</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Mobility_LLC_v._Concepcion" title="AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion">AT&T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_563" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 563">563</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/563/333/">333</a> (2011) another 5 to 4 decision on consumers. </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> S.987 and H.R.1873 </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> HR 8410, 95th Cong (1977) S 1883, 95th Cong (1977) </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> HR 1409. S 560. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> 307 US 496 (1939) </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section158&num=0&edition=prelim">§158</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1937/80.html">301 US 1</a> (1937) Hughes CJ stated "a single employee was helpless in dealing with an employer; that he was dependent ordinarily on his daily wage for the maintenance of himself and family; that, if the employer refused to pay him the wages that he thought fair, he was nevertheless unable to leave the employ and resist arbitrary and unfair treatment; that union was essential to give laborers opportunity to deal on an equality with their employer." </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Filler_Products,_Inc._v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Filler Products, Inc. v. NLRB (page does not exist)">Filler Products, Inc. v. NLRB</a> 376 F2d 369 (4th 1967) </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sunbelt_Manufacturing_Inc,_AFL-CIO&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sunbelt Manufacturing Inc, AFL-CIO (page does not exist)">Sunbelt Manufacturing Inc, AFL-CIO</a>, 308 NLRB 780 (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1963/94.html">373 US 221</a> (1963) </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1965/60.html">380 US 263</a> (1965) </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Marquez_v._Screen_Actors_Guild_Inc." title="Marquez v. Screen Actors Guild Inc.">Marquez v. Screen Actors Guild Inc.</a>, 525 US 33 (1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> 420 US 251 (1975) </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epilepsy_Foundation_of_North-east_Ohio_v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epilepsy Foundation of North-east Ohio v. NLRB (page does not exist)">Epilepsy Foundation of North-east Ohio v. NLRB</a> (DC 2001) </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> 440 US 301 (1979) Stevens, White, Brennan, Marshall J dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> 502 US 527 (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> 473 US 95 (1985) Blackmun, Brennan, Marshall, Stevens J dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> Sources: E McGaughey, 'Do corporations increase inequality?' (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2697188">TLI Think! Paper 32/2016</a>, 29. <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Labor_Statistics" title="Bureau of Labor Statistics">Bureau of Labor Statistics</a>, Series D 940–945 and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Piketty" title="Thomas Piketty">Thomas Piketty</a> (2014) Technical Appendices, Table S9.2 </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> See further RL Hogler and GJ Grenier, Employee Participation and Labor Law in the American Workplace (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/A_Cox" class="mw-redirect" title="A Cox">A Cox</a> and MJ Seidman, 'Federalism and Labor Relations' (1950) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1336175">64 Harvard Law Review 211</a> called for 'an integrated public labor policy' and warned 'enforcement of ... state regulation will thwart the development of federal policy.' <a href="/wiki/A_Cox" class="mw-redirect" title="A Cox">A Cox</a>, Federalism in the Law of Labor Relations (1954) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1336794">67 Harvard Law Review 1297</a> argued for a 'rule of total federal preemption' for 'uniformity'. <a href="/wiki/A_Cox" class="mw-redirect" title="A Cox">A Cox</a>, 'Labor Law Preemption Revisited' (1972) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1340014">85 Harvard Law Review 1337</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1953/113.html">346 US 485</a> (1953) per Jackson J </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1959/66.html">359 US 236</a> (1959) </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1959/66.html">359 US 236</a> (1959) as <a href="/wiki/Frankfurter_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurter J">Frankfurter J</a> put it, "because the amount of interstate commerce involved did not meet the Board's monetary standards in taking jurisdiction. ... " </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1976/140.html">427 US 132</a> (1976) </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1986/62.html">475 US 608</a> (1986) <a href="/wiki/Rehnquist_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Rehnquist J">Rehnquist J</a> dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/2008/22.html">522 US 60</a> (2008) </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Building_%26_Construction_Trades_Council_v._Associated_Builders_%26_Contractors_of_Massachusetts/Rhode_Island,_Inc." title="Building & Construction Trades Council v. Associated Builders & Contractors of Massachusetts/Rhode Island, Inc.">Building & Construction Trades Council v. Associated Builders & Contractors of Massachusetts/Rhode Island, Inc.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1993/27.html">507 US 218</a> (1993) </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> B Gernigo, A Odero and H Guido, 'ILO Principles Concerning the Right to Strike' (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rhap.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/ILO-Manual-on-Right-to-Strike.pdf">137 International Labour Review 441</a>. In US federal law, see the <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a>, 29 USC §163. </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_v._Hunt" title="Commonwealth v. Hunt">Commonwealth v. Hunt</a> 45 Mass. 111 (1842) decided that a union called the "Boston Journeymen Bootmakers' Society" was entitled to strike against an employer who hired non-union members. <a href="/wiki/Shaw_CJ" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaw CJ">Shaw CJ</a> held that pre-Independence English cases creating liability for "conspiracy" in organizing a union no longer applied. Contrast <a href="/wiki/R_v_Journeymen-Taylors_of_Cambridge" title="R v Journeymen-Taylors of Cambridge">R v Journeymen-Taylors of Cambridge</a> (1721) 88 ER 9 </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a> §6 and <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §163. </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> B Gernigon, A Odero and H Guido, 'ILO Principles Concerning the Right to Strike' (1998) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rhap.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/ILO-Manual-on-Right-to-Strike.pdf">137 International Labour Review 441</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> LJ Siegel, 'The unique bargaining relationship of the New York City Board of Education and the United Federation of Teachers' (1964) 1 Industrial & Labor Relations Forum 1, 46, referring to Jules Kolodney, during teacher strikes, 'In New York, you can't have true collective bargaining without the implied threat of a strike. If you can't call a strike you don't have real collective bargaining, you have 'collective begging.' ... Never give up the right of withholding services; have a threat in the background; the leverage of a strike possibility. We must awaken the public to the fact that the largest single employer in the United States is Government. We could become a nation that can't strike, and that is moving towards Totalitarianism.' Further, A Anderson, 'Labor Relations in the Public Service' [1961] Wisconsin Law Review 601, as 'Collective conferences, collective negotiation, collective dealing, and even collective begging have been used to describe the public employer employee relations.' </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> See EE Witte, 'Early American Labor Cases' (1926) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/789460">35 Yale Law Journal 829</a>, employers brought at least three successful claims against their employees before 1863, and fifteen up to 1880 for "conspiracy". See also F. B. Sayre, 'Criminal Conspiracy' (1922) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1328648">35 Harvard Law Review 393</a>. W. Holt, 'Labor Conspiracy Cases in the United States, 1805-1842: Bias and Legitimation in Common Law Adjudication' (1984) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.osgoode.yorku.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1913&context=ohlj">22 Osgoode Hall Law Journal 591</a>. 'Tortious Interference with Contractual Relations in the Nineteenth Century' (1980) 93 Harvard Law Review 1510. </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <a href="/wiki/In_re_Debs" title="In re Debs">In re Debs</a>, 64 Fed 724 (CC Ill 1894), 158 US 564 (1895) </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Gompers" title="Samuel Gompers">Samuel Gompers</a>, 'Labor and the War: the Movement for Universal Peace Must Assume the Aggressive' (October 1914) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015034112782;view=1up;seq=874">XXI(1) American Federationist 849, 860</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_v._Hutcheson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States v. Hutcheson (page does not exist)">United States v. Hutcheson</a> 312 US 219 (1941) per Justice Frankfurter </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/Versailles_Treaty_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Versailles Treaty 1919">Versailles Treaty 1919</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_International_Labour_Office#Article_427">art 427</a>. The right to strike is now embedded in core Conventions of <a href="/wiki/International_labor_law" class="mw-redirect" title="International labor law">international labor law</a>, ILO <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_Association_and_Protection_of_the_Right_to_Organise_Convention" title="Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention">Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention</a>, No 87. See B Gernigon, A Odero and H Guido, 'ILO Principles Concerning the Right to Strike' (1998) 137 International Labour Review 441, 461–465. </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Coppage_v._Kansas" title="Coppage v. Kansas">Coppage v. Kansas</a> 236 US 1 (1915) purported to allow employees to sign a contract with their employer promising to not join a union (a "<a href="/wiki/Yellow-dog_contract" title="Yellow-dog contract">yellow-dog contract</a>"). <a href="/wiki/Duplex_Printing_Press_Co._v._Deering" title="Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering">Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering</a>, 254 US 443 (1921) holding that the Clayton Act of 1914 §17 did not enable secondary action. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Truax_v._Corrigan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Truax v. Corrigan (page does not exist)">Truax v. Corrigan</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Truax_v._Corrigan/Dissent_Brandeis" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Truax v. Corrigan/Dissent Brandeis">257 US 312</a> (1921) Brandeis J, dissenting, struck down an Arizona law under the 14th amendment that prohibited any injunction against peaceful strikes. The <a href="/wiki/Norris-La_Guardia_Anti-Injunction_Act_of_1932" class="mw-redirect" title="Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act of 1932">Norris-La Guardia Anti-Injunction Act of 1932</a> was subsequently passed to void contracts promising to not join a union, and articulated that no federal court could pass an injunction to stop any non-violent labor dispute. Roughly half the states have enacted their own version of the Norris-LaGuardia Act. </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> 29 USC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter7&edition=prelim">§§157 and 163</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> See '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gLqDu5yZj0M">Cesar Chavez Explains Boycotts</a>' and '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UlLs_fVBWzM">Cesar Chavez speaking at UCLA 10/11/1972</a>'. </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> e.g. in West Virginia, Kentucky, and Oklahoma it has been illegal for teachers to strike - a prohibition that violates <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> - and teachers went on strike, and won anyway. See the <a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%9319_education_workers%27_strikes_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="2018–19 education workers' strikes in the United States">2018–19 education workers' strikes in the United States</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> Notably <a href="/wiki/Calvin_Coolidge" title="Calvin Coolidge">Calvin Coolidge</a>, then <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_Massachusetts" title="Governor of Massachusetts">Governor of Massachusetts</a> said in the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Police_Strike" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston Police Strike">Boston Police Strike</a> of 1919: "There is no right to strike against the public safety, anywhere, anytime." </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> 29 USC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter7&edition=prelim">§157</a>. n.b. <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._City_Disposal_Systems,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. City Disposal Systems, Inc (page does not exist)">NLRB v. City Disposal Systems, Inc</a> 465 US 822 (1984) one man, Brown, without the union was allowed to refuse to work on unsafe machinery, pursuant to a collective agreement. He was protected even without the union also taking action. </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Insurance_Agents%27_International_Union&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Insurance Agents' International Union (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Insurance Agents' International Union</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1960/23.html">361 US 477, 495-496</a> (1960) interpreting <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a>, 29 USC §158(b)(3) </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> 29 USC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter7&edition=prelim">§158(b)(4)(B)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Woodword_Manufacturers_Association_v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="National Woodword Manufacturers Association v. NLRB (page does not exist)">National Woodword Manufacturers Association v. NLRB</a> 386 US 612 (1967) on "hot cargo" agreements under 29 USC §158(e) and work preservation under §158(b)(4)(ii)(A)-(B). </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Truck_Drivers_Local_449" title="NLRB v. Truck Drivers Local 449">NLRB v. Truck Drivers Local 449</a>, 353 US 87 (1957) workers were going strike against the employers one by one, known as a <a href="/wiki/Whipsaw_strike" title="Whipsaw strike">whipsaw strike</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edward_J._DeBartolo_Corp._v._Florida_Gulf_Coast_Building_%26_Construction_Trades_Council&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. v. Florida Gulf Coast Building & Construction Trades Council (page does not exist)">Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. v. Florida Gulf Coast Building & Construction Trades Council</a> 485 US 568 (1988) urging a secondary boycott cannot be an unfair labor practice. </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> 29 USC §158(d) </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Board_v._Columbian_Enameling_%26_Stamping_Co." class="mw-redirect" title="National Labor Relations Board v. Columbian Enameling & Stamping Co.">National Labor Relations Board v. Columbian Enameling & Stamping Co.</a>, 306 U.S. 292 (1939) 5 to 2, Reed J and Black J dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> e.g. under the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> 1950 article 11, the no detriment rule for union membership is seen in <a href="/wiki/Wilson_and_Palmer_v_United_Kingdom" title="Wilson and Palmer v United Kingdom">Wilson and Palmer v United Kingdom</a> [2002] ECHR 552. In the UK, the <a href="/wiki/Trade_Union_and_Labour_Relations_(Consolidation)_Act_1992" title="Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992">Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1992/52/part/V/crossheading/loss-of-unfair-dismissal-protection">s 238A</a> protects employees on strike from unfair dismissal for 12 weeks at least. </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1938/131.html">304 US 333</a> (1938) </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>, Complaint Against the Government of the United States Presented by the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://white.lim.ilo.org/spanish/260ameri/oitreg/activid/proyectos/actrav/sindi/english/casos/usa/usa199101.html">1991</a>) [92] 'The right to strike is one of the essential means through which workers and their organisations may promote and defend their economic and social interests. The Committee considers that this basic right is not really guaranteed when a worker who exercises it legally runs the risk of seeing his or her job taken up permanently by another worker, just as legally. The Committee considers that, if a strike is otherwise legal, the use of labour drawn from outside the undertaking to replace strikers for an indeterminate period entails a risk of derogation from the right to strike which may affect the free exercise of trade union rights.' P Weiler, 'A Principled Re-Shaping of Labor Law for the Twenty-First Century' [2001] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1073&context=jbl">University of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law 201</a>, Mackay is 'the worst contribution that the U.S. Supreme Court has made to the current shape of labor law in this country.' </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRB_v._Fansteel_Metallurgical_Corp." title="NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp.">NLRB v. Fansteel Metallurgical Corp.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1939/46.html">306 US 240</a> (1939) Reed J and Black J dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Trans_World_Airlines,_Inc_v._Flight_Attendants&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Trans World Airlines, Inc v. Flight Attendants (page does not exist)">Trans World Airlines, Inc v. Flight Attendants</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1989/34.html">489 US 426</a> (1989) Brennan J, Marshall J, Blackmun J dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Electrical_Workers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Electrical Workers (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Electrical Workers</a> 346 US 464 (1953) </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> <a href="/wiki/New_Negro_Alliance_v._Sanitary_Grocery_Co." title="New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.">New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.</a>, 303 US 552 (1938) </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thornhill_v._Alabama" title="Thornhill v. Alabama">Thornhill v. Alabama</a>, 310 US 88 (1940) </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" title="United States v. Congress of Industrial Organizations">United States v. Congress of Industrial Organizations</a>, 335 US 106 (1948) holding that unions advocating members vote for particular Congress candidates did not violate the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Corrupt_Practices_Act" title="Federal Corrupt Practices Act">Federal Corrupt Practices Act</a> as amended by the <a href="/wiki/Labor_Management_Relations_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Labor Management Relations Act">Labor Management Relations Act</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastex,_Inc._v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eastex, Inc. v. NLRB (page does not exist)">Eastex, Inc. v. NLRB</a> 437 US 556 (1978) </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.website-files.com/5ddc262b91f2a95f326520bd/5e3096b9feb8524936752fe0_CleanSlate_SinglePages_ForWeb_noemptyspace.pdf">Clean Slate for Worker Power: Building a Just Economy and Democracy</a> (2019) Labor and Worklife Program, Harvard Law School. </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/2605/text">Reward Work Act, S.2605</a>, sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Tammy_Baldwin" title="Tammy Baldwin">Tammy Baldwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Elizabeth Warren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schatz" title="Brian Schatz">Brian Schatz</a>, joined by <a href="/wiki/Kirsten_Gillibrand" title="Kirsten Gillibrand">Kirsten Gillibrand</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> The Sanders "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://berniesanders.com/issues/corporate-accountability-and-democracy/">Corporate Accountability and Democracy</a>" plan proposes 45% of boards to be elected by workers for companies with over $100 million in revenue, while Warren's <a href="/wiki/Accountable_Capitalism_Act" title="Accountable Capitalism Act">Accountable Capitalism Act</a> would require 40% on large federal corporations. </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> See Bernie Sanders, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://berniesanders.com/issues/corporate-accountability-and-democracy/">Corporate Accountability and Democracy: Shareholder Democracy</a>". <a href="/wiki/J._R._Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Commons">J. R. Commons</a>, Industrial Government (1921) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/industrialgovern00comm#page/n13/mode/2up">ch 6</a>, L. D. Brandeis, <a href="/wiki/Other_People%27s_Money_and_How_the_Bankers_Use_It" title="Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It">Other People's Money and How the Bankers Use It</a> (1914). </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> See E. McGaughey, 'Corporate Law Should Embrace Putting Workers On Boards: The Evidence Is Behind Them' (17 September 2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://corpgov.law.harvard.edu/2018/09/17/corporate-law-should-embrace-putting-workers-on-boards-the-evidence-is-behind-them/">Harvard Law School Forum on Corporate Governance and Financial Regulation</a> and 'Democracy in America at Work: The History of Labor's Vote in Corporate Governance' (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.law.seattleu.edu/sulr/vol42/iss2/18/">42 Seattle University Law Review 697</a>. R. L. Hogler and G. J. Grenier, Employee Participation and Labor Law in the American Workplace (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> See D. Webber, The Rise of the Working Class Shareholder: Labor's Last Best Weapon (2018) and the section above on "<a href="#Pensions">Pensions</a>". </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> See the popular text by the former Dean of <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Law_School" title="Harvard Law School">Harvard Law School</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=R._C._Clark&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="R. C. Clark (page does not exist)">R. C. Clark</a>, Corporate Law (1986) 32, 'even if your aim is not to understand all of law's effects on corporate activities but only to grasp the basic legal 'constitution' or make-up of the modern corporation, you must, at the very least, also gain a working knowledge of labor law.' </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> See the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/senate-bill/2605/text">Reward Work Act, S.2605</a>, sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Tammy_Baldwin" title="Tammy Baldwin">Tammy Baldwin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Warren" title="Elizabeth Warren">Elizabeth Warren</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schatz" title="Brian Schatz">Brian Schatz</a>, joined by <a href="/wiki/Kirsten_Gillibrand" title="Kirsten Gillibrand">Kirsten Gillibrand</a>. In the House, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/115/hr6096">HR 6096</a> was sponsored by <a href="/wiki/Keith_Ellison" title="Keith Ellison">Keith Ellison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ro_Khanna" title="Ro Khanna">Ro Khanna</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> Massachusetts Laws, General Laws, Part I Administration of the Government, Title XII Corporations, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://malegislature.gov/Laws/GeneralLaws/PartI/TitleXXII/Chapter156/Section23">ch 156 Business Corporations, §23</a>. This was originally introduced by An Act to enable manufacturing corporations to provide for the representation of their employees on the board of directors (April 3, 1919) Chap. 0070. cf C. Magruder, 'Labor Copartnership in Industry' (1921) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1329012">35 Harvard Law Review 910</a>, 915, mentioning the <a href="/wiki/Dennison_Manufacturing_Co" class="mw-redirect" title="Dennison Manufacturing Co">Dennison Manufacturing Co</a> at <a href="/wiki/Framingham" class="mw-redirect" title="Framingham">Framingham</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> NM Clark, Common Sense in Labor Management (1919) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/commonsenseinlab00claruoft#page/28">ch II, 29–30</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/W._O._Douglas" class="mw-redirect" title="W. O. Douglas">W. O. Douglas</a> and C. M. Shanks, Cases and Materials on the Law of Management of Business Units (Callaghan 1931) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89098553043;view=1up;seq=154">ch 1(7) 130</a> and <a href="/wiki/J._R._Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Commons">J. R. Commons</a>, Industrial Government (1921) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/industrialgovern00comm#page/n13/mode/2up">ch 6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> See generally <a href="/wiki/J._R._Commons" class="mw-redirect" title="J. R. Commons">J. R. Commons</a> and J. B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation (1920) and US Congress, Report of the Committee of the Senate Upon the Relations between Labor and Capital (Washington DC 1885) vol II, 806 on Straiton & Storm. </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Industrial_Relations" title="Commission on Industrial Relations">Commission on Industrial Relations</a>, Final Report and Testimony (1915) vol 1, 92 ff, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=L._D._Brandeis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L. D. Brandeis (page does not exist)">L. D. Brandeis</a>, The Fundamental Cause of Industrial Unrest (1916) vol 8, 7672 and <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Webb" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidney Webb">Sidney Webb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_Webb" title="Beatrice Webb">Beatrice Webb</a>, The History of Trade Unionism (1920) Appendix VIII </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> See further, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worker-participation.eu">www.worker-participation.eu</a>, E McGaughey, 'Votes at Work in Britain: Shareholder Monopolisation and the 'Single Channel' (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2432068">15(1) Industrial Law Journal 76</a> and 'The Codetermination Bargains: The History of German Corporate and Labour Law' (2016) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2579932">23(1) Columbia Journal of European Law 135</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dunlop_Commission_on_the_Future_of_Worker-Management_Relations:_Final_Report" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations: Final Report">Dunlop Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations: Final Report</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=key_workplace">1994</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> n.b. The <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> Revised Statute (1957) §14.9–1 to 3 expressly empowered employee representation on boards, but has subsequently been left out of the code. See further JB Bonanno, 'Employee Codetermination: Origins in Germany, present practice in Europe and applicability to the United States' (1976–1977) 14 Harvard Journal on Legislation 947 </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> e.g. RA Dahl, 'Power to the Workers?' (November 19, 1970) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1970/11/19/power-to-the-workers/">New York Review of Books</a> 20 </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> See B Hamer, 'Serving Two Masters: Union Representation on Corporate Boards of Directors' (1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1122261">81(3) Columbia Law Review 639</a>, 640 and 'Labor Unions in the Boardroom: An Antitrust Dilemma' (1982) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1115&context=facpubs">92(1) Yale Law Journal 106</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> American Telephone & Telegraph Company, CCH Federal Securities Law Reporter 79,658 (1974) see JW Markham, 'Restrictions on Shared Decision-Making Authority in American Business' (1975) 11 California Western Law Review 217, 245–246 </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> This was stalled by litigation in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Business_Roundtable_v._SEC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Business Roundtable v. SEC (page does not exist)">Business Roundtable v. SEC</a>, 647 F3d 1144 (DC Cir 2011). See D Webber, The Rise of the Working Class Shareholder: Labor's Last Best Weapon (2018) </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> J. D. Blackburn, 'Worker Participation on Corporate Directorates: Is America Ready for Industrial Democracy?' (1980–1981) 18 Houston Law Review 349 </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> 'The Unions Step on Board' (October 27, 1993) Financial Times </li> <li id="cite_note-367"><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a> P. J. Purcell, 'The Enron Bankruptcy and Employer Stock in Retirement Plans' (March 11, 2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/9102.pdf">CRS Report for Congress</a> and JH Langbein, SJ Stabile and BA Wolk, Pension and Employee Benefit Law (4th edn Foundation 2006) 640–641 </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> See RB McKersie, 'Union-Nominated Directors: A New Voice in Corporate Governance' (April 1, 1999) MIT Working Paper. Further discussion in <a href="/wiki/E._Appelbaum" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Appelbaum">E. Appelbaum</a> and LW Hunter, 'Union Participation in Strategic Decisions of Corporations' (2003) NBER Working Paper 9590 </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> See E Schelzig, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/business/2013/01/23/tenn-volkswagen-plant-solar/1858937/">Volkswagen powers up 33-acre solar park in Tenn.</a>' (January 23, 2013) USA Today </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Industrial_Conference_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="National Industrial Conference Board">National Industrial Conference Board</a>, Works Councils in the United States (1919) Research Report Number 21, 13, found that in 1919 in a survey of 225 work council plans, 120 were created under Federal government supervision, and 105 on employers initiative. </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> NICB, Works Council Manual (1920) Supplemental to Research Report No 21, 25, Appendix, Model Article II(1) </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> <a href="/wiki/NLRA_1935" class="mw-redirect" title="NLRA 1935">NLRA 1935</a> §158(a)(2) </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> See further <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Newport_News_Shipbuilding_Co.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Newport News Shipbuilding Co. (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Newport News Shipbuilding Co.</a> 308 US 241 (1939) </li> <li id="cite_note-374"><a href="#cite_ref-374">^</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22_(10_April_1946)_Works_Councils">Control Council Law No 22 Works Councils</a> (April 10, 1946) in Official Gazette of the Control Council for Germany (1945–1946) 43 (R498) arts III–V. </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Building_Trades_Council_v._Garmon" title="San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon">San Diego Building Trades Council v. Garmon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1959/66.html">359 US 236</a> (1959) holding that state laws are only preempted for bargaining, rather than outcomes (like setting minimum wages, pension rights, health and safety, or workplace representation) which are protected by "§7 of the National Labor Relations Act, or constitute an unfair labor practice under §8 ... When an activity is arguably subject to § 7 or § 8 of the Act, the States as well as the federal courts must defer to the exclusive competence of the National Labor Relations Board if the danger of state interference with national policy is to be averted." </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> 309 NLRB No 163, 142 LRRM 1001 (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-377"><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a> 311 NLRB No 88, 143 LRRM 1121 (1993) </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> US Department of Labor and US Department of Commerce, Commission on the Future of Worker-Management Relations: Final Report (1994) 22, 27, 30–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> J Ramsey, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.autoblog.com/2015/12/06/vw-chattanooga-unionize-workforce/">VW Chattanooga plant union votes to approve collective bargaining</a>' (December 6, 2015) autoblog.com and NE Boudette, '<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/26/business/volkswagen-reverses-courseon-union-at-tennessee-plant.html?_r=0">Volkswagen Reverses Course on Union at Tennessee Plant</a>' (April 25, 2016) NY Times </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> <a href="/wiki/US_Declaration_of_Independence" class="mw-redirect" title="US Declaration of Independence">US Declaration of Independence</a>, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness. That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the <a href="/wiki/Consent_of_the_governed" title="Consent of the governed">consent of the governed</a>. ... </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> of 1948 and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights_of_1944" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Bill of Rights of 1944">Second Bill of Rights of 1944</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-382"><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> §703(a)(1), <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title42-section2000e-2&num=0&edition=prelim">§2000e-2(a)</a>, "Employers must not refuse to hire, discharge or otherwise discriminated 'against any individual with respect to his compensation, terms, conditions or privileges of employment, because of such individual's race, color, religion, sex, or national origin." </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title42-section2000e-2&num=0&edition=prelim">§2000e-2(j)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1856/9.html">60 US 393</a> (1857). <a href="/wiki/US_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US Constitution">US Constitution</a> <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Article IV, Section 2</a>, "no person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due." This was extended by the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a>, limited by <a href="/wiki/Prigg_v._Pennsylvania" title="Prigg v. Pennsylvania">Prigg v. Pennsylvania</a>, 41 US 539 (1842), restored by the <a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a> and entrenched by <a href="/wiki/Ableman_v._Booth" title="Ableman v. Booth">Ableman v. Booth</a>, 62 US 506 (1859) </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> On the end of this, see <a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_Board_of_Elections" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1966/58.html">383 US 663</a> (1966) and contrast <a href="/wiki/Yick_Wo_v._Hopkins" title="Yick Wo v. Hopkins">Yick Wo v. Hopkins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1886/197.html">118 US 356</a>, 370 (1886) referring to 'the political franchise of voting' as a 'fundamental political right, because [it is] preservative of all rights.' </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> Contrast the <a href="/wiki/Slaughter-House_Cases" title="Slaughter-House Cases">Slaughter-House Cases</a>, 83 US 36 (1873) holding that states were entitled to regulate or shut down slaughter houses, causing pollution, without violating the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">clause</a> that "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States". </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a> <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> §1981(a) </li> <li id="cite_note-388"><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1883/182.html">109 US 3</a> (1883) </li> <li id="cite_note-389"><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1896/151.html">163 US 537</a> (1896) holding that state laws segregating black from white people in public places (or "<a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a>"), such as <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Separate_Car_Act" title="Separate Car Act">Separate Car Act</a> of 1890, were constitutional. <a href="/wiki/Harlan_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Harlan J">Harlan J</a> dissented. See also <a href="/wiki/Lochner_v._New_York" title="Lochner v. New York">Lochner v. New York</a> 198 US 45 (1905) </li> <li id="cite_note-390"><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Cases" title="Civil Rights Cases">Civil Rights Cases</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1883/182.html">109 US 3</a> (1883) where the majority struck down the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1875" title="Civil Rights Act of 1875">Civil Rights Act of 1875</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-391"><a href="#cite_ref-391">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1944/136.html">323 US 192</a> (1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-392"><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1975/90.html">421 US 454</a> (1975) </li> <li id="cite_note-393"><a href="#cite_ref-393">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Washington_v._Davis" title="Washington v. Davis">Washington v. Davis</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1976/107.html">426 US 229</a> (1976) holding that a prima facie case of unconstitutionality would be established by evidence of intent. It was not enough that verbal tests had a disparate impact. Brennan J and Marshall J dissented. </li> <li id="cite_note-394"><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1974/13.html">414 US 632</a> (1974) </li> <li id="cite_note-395"><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Board_of_Retirement_v._Murgia" title="Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia">Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1976/141.html">427 US 307</a> (1976) and <a href="/wiki/Regents_of_the_University_of_California_v._Bakke" title="Regents of the University of California v. Bakke">Regents of the University of California v. Bakke</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1978/145.html">438 US 265</a> (1978). Contrast <a href="/w/index.php?title=K%C3%BCc%C3%BCkdeveci_v._Swedex_GmbH_%26_Co_KG&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kücükdeveci v. Swedex GmbH & Co KG (page does not exist)">Kücükdeveci v. Swedex GmbH & Co KG</a> (2010) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:62007J0555:EN:NOT">C-555/07</a> affirming a constitutional equality principle in <a href="/wiki/EU_law" class="mw-redirect" title="EU law">EU law</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Matadeen_v._Pointu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Matadeen v. Pointu (page does not exist)">Matadeen v. Pointu</a> [1998] <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKPC/1998/9.html">UKPC 9</a>, per <a href="/wiki/Lord_Hoffmann" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Hoffmann">Lord Hoffmann</a> discussing the principle of equality as it is potentially seen in Commonwealth jurisdictions. </li> <li id="cite_note-396"><a href="#cite_ref-396">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=California_Fed_Savings_and_Loan_Ass_v._Guerra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="California Fed Savings and Loan Ass v. Guerra (page does not exist)">California Fed Savings and Loan Ass v. Guerra</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1987/3.html">479 US 272</a> (1987) holding the <a href="/wiki/California_Fair_Employment_and_Housing_Act_of_1959" title="California Fair Employment and Housing Act of 1959">California Fair Employment and Housing Act of 1959</a> §12945(b)(2) was not preempted. </li> <li id="cite_note-397"><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Saint_Francis_College_v._al-Khazraji" title="Saint Francis College v. al-Khazraji">Saint Francis College v. al-Khazraji</a>, 481 US 604 (1987) an Arabic man was protected from race discrimination under <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-398"><a href="#cite_ref-398">^</a> Contrast the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a> <a href="/wiki/Discrimination_Convention_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination Convention 1958">Discrimination Convention 1958</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C111">c 111</a>, art 1(1)(b) applying to "such other distinction, exclusion or preference which has the effect of nullifying or impairing equality of opportunity or treatment in employment or occupation". </li> <li id="cite_note-399"><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a> <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title29-section206&num=0&edition=prelim">§206(d)(1)</a>, "No employer having employees subject to any provisions of this section shall discriminate, within any establishment in which such employees are employed, between employees on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees in such establishment at a rate less than the rate at which he pays wages to employees of the opposite sex in such establishment for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Equal_work&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Equal work (page does not exist)">equal work</a> on jobs the performance of which requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions, except where such payment is made pursuant to (i) a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Seniority_system&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seniority system (page does not exist)">seniority system</a>; (ii) a <a href="/wiki/Merit_system" title="Merit system">merit system</a>; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv) a differential based on any other factor other than sex: Provided, That an employer who is paying a wage rate differential in violation of this subsection shall not, in order to comply with the provisions of this subsection, reduce the wage rate of any employee." §206(d)(2) expressly prevents any discrimination caused by labor unions also. </li> <li id="cite_note-400"><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1974/114.html">417 US 188</a> (1974) See also <a href="/wiki/Schultz_v._Wheaton_Glass_Co." title="Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co.">Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co.</a>, 421 F2d 259 (3rd 1970) if work is "substantially equal" then the work must be paid the same, regardless of the job title. See also <a href="/wiki/County_of_Washington_v._Gunther" title="County of Washington v. Gunther">County of Washington v. Gunther</a>, 452 US 161 (1980). </li> <li id="cite_note-401"><a href="#cite_ref-401">^</a> <a href="/wiki/FLSA_1938" class="mw-redirect" title="FLSA 1938">FLSA 1938</a>, 29 USC §203(r) </li> <li id="cite_note-402"><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a> After the Supreme Court held by 6 to 3 in <a href="/wiki/Geduldig_v._Aiello" title="Geduldig v. Aiello">Geduldig v. Aiello</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1974/129.html">417 US 484</a> (1974) that pregnancy was not included in the concept of sex, Congress reversed the decision by the <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_Discrimination_Act" title="Pregnancy Discrimination Act">Pregnancy Discrimination Act</a> of 1978. But see <a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation_v._Hulteen" class="mw-redirect" title="AT&T Corporation v. Hulteen">AT&T Corporation v. Hulteen</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_556" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 556">556</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> 701 (2009) 7 to 2, holding that maternity leave taken before the <a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_Discrimination_Act" title="Pregnancy Discrimination Act">Pregnancy Discrimination Act</a> 1978 did not need to count as time worked that will contribute to pension earnings. </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title42/chapter21/subchapter6&edition=prelim">§2000e-2</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-404"><a href="#cite_ref-404">^</a> cf <a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a> <a href="/wiki/Equal_Remuneration_Convention_1951" class="mw-redirect" title="Equal Remuneration Convention 1951">Equal Remuneration Convention 1951</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO:12100:P12100_ILO_CODE:C100">c 100</a>, art 2(2) requiring the principle of equal pay through "(a) national laws or regulations; (b) legally established or recognised machinery for wage determination; (c) <a href="/wiki/Collective_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective agreements">collective agreements</a> between employers and workers". </li> <li id="cite_note-405"><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title42-section2000e-2&num=0&edition=prelim">§2000e-2(a)(1)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-406"><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title42-section2000e-2&num=0&edition=prelim">§2000e-2(a)(2)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-407"><a href="#cite_ref-407">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ADEA_1967" class="mw-redirect" title="ADEA 1967">ADEA 1967</a>, <a href="/wiki/29_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="29 USC">29 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter14&edition=prelim">§§623 and 631</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-408"><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ADA_1990" class="mw-redirect" title="ADA 1990">ADA 1990</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title42/chapter126/subchapter1&edition=prelim">§12112(a)–(b)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-409"><a href="#cite_ref-409">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> §2000e(b). See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walters_v._Metropolitan_Educational_Enterprises,_Inc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walters v. Metropolitan Educational Enterprises, Inc (page does not exist)">Walters v. Metropolitan Educational Enterprises, Inc</a> 519 US 202 (1997) </li> <li id="cite_note-410"><a href="#cite_ref-410">^</a> 450 US 248 (1981) and see previously <a href="/wiki/McDonnell_Douglas_Corp._v._Green" title="McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green">McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green</a>, 411 US 792 (1973) </li> <li id="cite_note-411"><a href="#cite_ref-411">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1993/94.html">509 US 502</a> (1993) </li> <li id="cite_note-412"><a href="#cite_ref-412">^</a> Contrast <a href="/w/index.php?title=O%27Connor_v._Consolidated_Coin_Caterers_Corporation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="O'Connor v. Consolidated Coin Caterers Corporation (page does not exist)">O'Connor v. Consolidated Coin Caterers Corporation</a> 517 US 308 (1996) on age discrimination </li> <li id="cite_note-413"><a href="#cite_ref-413">^</a> CRA 1965, 42 USC §2000e-2(e) </li> <li id="cite_note-414"><a href="#cite_ref-414">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1977/143.html">433 US 321</a> (1977) </li> <li id="cite_note-415"><a href="#cite_ref-415">^</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Wilson_v._Southwest_Airlines_Co./Opinion_of_the_Court">517 FSupp 292</a> (ND Tex 1981) </li> <li id="cite_note-416"><a href="#cite_ref-416">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1985/161.html">472 US 400</a> (1985) </li> <li id="cite_note-417"><a href="#cite_ref-417">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1986/139.html">477 US 57</a> (1986) </li> <li id="cite_note-418"><a href="#cite_ref-418">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/92-1168.ZO.html">510 US 17</a> (1993) reversing the Sixth Circuit. </li> <li id="cite_note-419"><a href="#cite_ref-419">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Burlington_Industries_Inc_v._Ellerth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Burlington Industries Inc v. Ellerth (page does not exist)">Burlington Industries Inc v. Ellerth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1998/83.html">524 US 742</a> (1998) relying on Restatement of Torts §219 </li> <li id="cite_note-420"><a href="#cite_ref-420">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1998/84.html">524 US 775</a> (1998) n.b. <a href="/wiki/Oncale_v._Sundowner_Offshore_Services,_Inc." title="Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc.">Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1998/21.html">523 US 75</a> (1998) sexual harassment was possible between members of the same sex. </li> <li id="cite_note-421"><a href="#cite_ref-421">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> §2000e-3 </li> <li id="cite_note-422"><a href="#cite_ref-422">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gomez-Perez_v._Potter" title="Gomez-Perez v. Potter">Gomez-Perez v. Potter</a>, 553 US 474 (2008) 6 to 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-423"><a href="#cite_ref-423">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1990/4.html">493 US 182</a> (1990) </li> <li id="cite_note-424"><a href="#cite_ref-424">^</a> 519 US 337 (1997) </li> <li id="cite_note-425"><a href="#cite_ref-425">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Burlington_Northern_%26_Santa_Fe_(BNSF)_Railway_Co._v._White" class="mw-redirect" title="Burlington Northern & Santa Fe (BNSF) Railway Co. v. White">Burlington Northern & Santa Fe (BNSF) Railway Co. v. White</a>, 548 US 53 (2006) </li> <li id="cite_note-426"><a href="#cite_ref-426">^</a> At the time, only 34% of white men and 12% of black men had high school diplomas: <a href="/wiki/U.S._Bureau_of_the_Census" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Bureau of the Census">U.S. Bureau of the Census</a>, U.S. Census of Population (1960) vol 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 35, Table 47. This rate, under a segregated education system, was worse than most non-segregated systems for European-Americans. </li> <li id="cite_note-427"><a href="#cite_ref-427">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1971/46.html">401 US 424</a> (1971) </li> <li id="cite_note-428"><a href="#cite_ref-428">^</a> This overturned <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wards_Cove_Packing_Co,_Inc_v._Atonio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wards Cove Packing Co, Inc v. Atonio (page does not exist)">Wards Cove Packing Co, Inc v. Atonio</a> 490 US 642 (1989) where it was held 5 to 4 that employees had the burden of showing a disparate impact did not serve an employer's "legitimate employment goals". </li> <li id="cite_note-429"><a href="#cite_ref-429">^</a> <a href="/wiki/CRA_1964" class="mw-redirect" title="CRA 1964">CRA 1964</a>, <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> §2000e–2(k)(1)(A) </li> <li id="cite_note-430"><a href="#cite_ref-430">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_557" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 557">557</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/557/557/">557</a> (2009) <a href="/wiki/Kennedy_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Kennedy J">Kennedy J</a> giving the first judgment. </li> <li id="cite_note-431"><a href="#cite_ref-431">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_557" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 557">557</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> ({{{5}}} <a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">2009</a>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/557/557/">557</a> (dissent) <a href="/wiki/Ginsburg_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Ginsburg J">Ginsburg J</a>, joined by <a href="/wiki/Stevens_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Stevens J">Stevens J</a>, <a href="/wiki/Souter_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Souter J">Souter J</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breyer_J" class="mw-redirect" title="Breyer J">Breyer J</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-432"><a href="#cite_ref-432">^</a> <a href="/wiki/42_USC" class="mw-redirect" title="42 USC">42 USC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title42-section2000e-5&num=0&edition=prelim">§§2000e-5</a> to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title42-section2000e-6&num=0&edition=prelim">2000e-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-433"><a href="#cite_ref-433">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalrulesofcivilprocedure.org/frcp/title-iv-parties/rule-23-class-actions/">Rule 23</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-434"><a href="#cite_ref-434">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Brotherhood_of_Teamsters_v._US&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. US (page does not exist)">International Brotherhood of Teamsters v. US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1977/90.html">431 US 324</a> (1977) </li> <li id="cite_note-435"><a href="#cite_ref-435">^</a> See <a href="/w/index.php?title=General_Telephone_Co_of_Southwest_v._Falcon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="General Telephone Co of Southwest v. Falcon (page does not exist)">General Telephone Co of Southwest v. Falcon</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1982/117.html">457 US 147</a> (1982) </li> <li id="cite_note-436"><a href="#cite_ref-436">^</a> 29 USC §206(d)(1). </li> <li id="cite_note-437"><a href="#cite_ref-437">^</a> This exempts (i) a bona fide seniority system (ii) merit systems (iii) systems measuring earnings by quantity or quality of production. </li> <li id="cite_note-438"><a href="#cite_ref-438">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1981/126.html">452 US 161</a> (1981) </li> <li id="cite_note-439"><a href="#cite_ref-439">^</a> See also <a href="/w/index.php?title=Schultz_v._Wheaton_Glass_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co (page does not exist)">Schultz v. Wheaton Glass Co</a>, 421 F.2d 259 (3rd Cir 1970) </li> <li id="cite_note-440"><a href="#cite_ref-440">^</a> Similar problems are evident in the UK's <a href="/wiki/Equality_Act_2010" title="Equality Act 2010">Equality Act 2010</a> and its separate "equal pay" provisions. It has been argued that they should be scrapped, so that a claimant can choose the most favorable legal avenue. </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> See Centre for Business Research, Labour Regulation Index (Dataset of 117 Countries) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1810/256566/cbr-lri-117-countries-codebook-and-methodology.pdf?sequence=1">2016</a>) 763-4 </li> <li id="cite_note-442"><a href="#cite_ref-442">^</a> See LE Blades, 'Employment at Will vs. Individual Freedom: On Limiting the Abusive Exercise of Employer Power' (1967) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1120937">67(8) Columbia Law Review 1404</a>, 1411-12. Contrast the <a href="/wiki/Delaware_General_Corporation_Law" title="Delaware General Corporation Law">Delaware General Corporation Law</a> §141(k) where a corporation can require a "classified board" where directors can only be removed "with cause". This happens frequently, e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Campbell_v._Loew%27s,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Campbell v. Loew's, Inc. (page does not exist)">Campbell v. Loew's, Inc.</a>, 36 Del Ch 563, 134 A 2d 852 (Ch 1957) referring to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Auer_v._Dressel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auer v. Dressel (page does not exist)">Auer v. Dressel</a>, 306 NY 427, 118 NE 2d 590, 593 (1954) </li> <li id="cite_note-Payne_v._Western_1884-443">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Payne_v._Western_1884_443-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Payne_v._Western_1884_443-1">b</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cusano_v._NLRB&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cusano v. NLRB (page does not exist)">Cusano v. NLRB</a> 190 F 2d 898 (1951) citing <a href="/w/index.php?title=NLRB_v._Condenser_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NLRB v. Condenser Corp (page does not exist)">NLRB v. Condenser Corp</a>, 128 F.2d 67, 75 (3rd Cir 1942) stating "poor reason". See further <a href="/w/index.php?title=Payne_v._Western_%26_Atlantic_Railroad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Payne v. Western & Atlantic Railroad (page does not exist)">Payne v. Western & Atlantic Railroad</a>, 81 Tennessee 507 (1884) </li> <li id="cite_note-Title_39_ch_2_part_9,_§4-444">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Title_39_ch_2_part_9,_§4_444-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Title_39_ch_2_part_9,_§4_444-1">b</a> Montana Code Annotated 2015 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://leg.mt.gov/bills/mca/title_0390/chapter_0020/part_0090/section_0040/0390-0020-0090-0040.html">Title 39 ch 2 part 9, §4</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-445"><a href="#cite_ref-445">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> presidential campaign, Workplace Democracy Plan (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://berniesanders.com/issues/workplace-democracy/">2019</a>). Mike Siegel Congress campaign in Texas 2020, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://siegelfortexas.org/labor-rights/">Dignity for Workers by Protecting and Growing Union Membership</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200322194605/https://siegelfortexas.org/labor-rights/">Archived</a> March 22, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-R_Epstein_1984-446">^ <a href="#cite_ref-R_Epstein_1984_446-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-R_Epstein_1984_446-1">b</a> e.g. R Epstein, 'In Defense of the Contract at Will' (1984) 57 University of Chicago Law Review 947 </li> <li id="cite_note-academic.oup.com-447">^ <a href="#cite_ref-academic.oup.com_447-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-academic.oup.com_447-1">b</a> e.g. V. V. Acharya and R. P. Baghai, 'Labor Laws and Innovation' (2013) 56(4) Journal of Law and Economics 997 and V. V. Acharya, R. P. Baghai, K. V. Subramanian, 'Wrongful Discharge Laws and Innovation' (2014) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/rfs/article-abstract/27/1/301/1573179">27(1) Review of Financial Studies 301</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-448"><a href="#cite_ref-448">^</a> e.g. L. E. Blades, 'Employment at Will vs. Individual Freedom: On Limiting the Abusive Exercise of Employer Power' (1967) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1120937">67(8) Columbia Law Review 1404</a>. C. L. Estlund, 'How Wrong Are Employees About Their Rights, and Why Does It Matter?' (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/nylr77&div=11&id=&page=">77 NYU Law Review 6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-449"><a href="#cite_ref-449">^</a> e.g. L Ryan, 'Ten Ways Employment At Will Is Bad For Business' (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/lizryan/2016/10/03/ten-ways-employment-at-will-is-bad-for-business/#27c5492e157b">October 3, 2016</a>) Forbes. </li> <li id="cite_note-450"><a href="#cite_ref-450">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/File:United_States_unemployment_with_incarceration_1892-2016.png" title="File:United States unemployment with incarceration 1892-2016.png">chart</a> below. E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osf.io/preprints/lawarxiv/udbj8">51(3) Industrial Law Journal 511</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-451"><a href="#cite_ref-451">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act_of_1913" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Reserve Act of 1913">Federal Reserve Act of 1913</a>, 12 USC §225a </li> <li id="cite_note-452"><a href="#cite_ref-452">^</a> M Kalecki, 'Political aspects of full employment' (1943) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pluto.mscc.huji.ac.il/~mshalev/ppe/Kalecki_FullEmployment.pdf">14(4) Political Quarterly 322</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-453"><a href="#cite_ref-453">^</a> 5 USC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title5/part3/subpartF/chapter75/subchapter2&edition=prelim">§7513(a)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-454"><a href="#cite_ref-454">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Campbell_v._Loew%27s,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Campbell v. Loew's, Inc. (page does not exist)">Campbell v. Loew's, Inc.</a>, 36 Del Ch 563, 134 A 2d 852 (Ch 1957) referring to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Auer_v._Dressel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auer v. Dressel (page does not exist)">Auer v. Dressel</a>, 306 NY 427, 118 NE 2d 590, 593 (1954) </li> <li id="cite_note-455"><a href="#cite_ref-455">^</a> e.g. in <a href="/wiki/UK_labour_law" class="mw-redirect" title="UK labour law">UK labour law</a>, see the <a href="/wiki/Employment_Rights_Act_1996" title="Employment Rights Act 1996">Employment Rights Act 1996</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/18/part/X">ss 94 ff</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-arts_4-13-456">^ <a href="#cite_ref-arts_4-13_456-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-arts_4-13_456-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termination_of_Employment_Convention,_1982" title="Termination of Employment Convention, 1982">Termination of Employment Convention, 1982</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_ILO_CODE:C158">arts 4-13</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-457"><a href="#cite_ref-457">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/German_Civil_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="German Civil Code">German Civil Code</a> or <a href="/wiki/B%C3%BCrgerliches_Gesetzbuch_1900" class="mw-redirect" title="Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch 1900">Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch 1900</a> §622 (notice before dismissal) and the <a href="/wiki/Work_Constitution_Act_1972" class="mw-redirect" title="Work Constitution Act 1972">Work Constitution Act 1972</a> or Betriebsverfassungsgesetz 1972 (worker participation). </li> <li id="cite_note-458"><a href="#cite_ref-458">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union">Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union#Article_30_%E2%80%93_Protection_in_the_event_of_unjustified_dismissal">art 30</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-459"><a href="#cite_ref-459">^</a> e.g. WB MacLeod and V Nakavachara, 'Can Wrongful Discharge Law Enhance Employment?' (2007) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ej/article-abstract/117/521/F218/5086529">117 Economic Journal F218</a>, I Marinescu, 'Job Security Legislation and Job Duration: Evidence from the United Kingdom' (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/603643">27(3) Journal of Labor Economics 465</a>. On OECD studies, see E McGaughey, 'OECD Employment Protection Legislation Indicators and Reform' (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=3434922">ssrn.com</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-460"><a href="#cite_ref-460">^</a> cf <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> presidential campaign, Workplace Democracy Plan (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://berniesanders.com/issues/workplace-democracy/">2019</a>). Mike Siegel Congress campaign in Texas 2020, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://siegelfortexas.org/labor-rights/">Dignity for Workers by Protecting and Growing Union Membership</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200322194605/https://siegelfortexas.org/labor-rights/">Archived</a> March 22, 2020, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-461"><a href="#cite_ref-461">^</a> <a href="/wiki/California_Civil_Code" title="California Civil Code">California Civil Code</a> (1872) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/16950100/page/427/mode/2up">§1999</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-462"><a href="#cite_ref-462">^</a> Especially HG Wood, Master and Servant (3rd edn 1886) 134, 'With us the rule is inflexible that a general or indefinite hiring is prima facie a hiring at will, and if the servant seeks to make it out a yearly hiring, the burden is upon him to establish it by proof. A hiring at so much a day, week, month, or year, no time being specified, is an indefinite hiring, and no presumption attaches that it was for a day even, but only at the rate fixed whatever time the party may serve.' </li> <li id="cite_note-463"><a href="#cite_ref-463">^</a> In New York, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adams_v._Fitzpatrick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adams v. Fitzpatrick (page does not exist)">Adams v. Fitzpatrick</a> 125 NY 124 (NY 1891) 'In this country, at least, if a contract for hiring is at so much per month, it will readily be presumed that the hiring was by the month, even if nothing was said about the term of service.' But subsequently in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_v._New_York_Life_Insurance_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin v. New York Life Insurance Co (page does not exist)">Martin v. New York Life Insurance Co</a> 148 NY 117 (NY 1895) the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Supreme_Court" title="New York Supreme Court">New York Supreme Court</a> held the at will doctrine was 'correctly stated by Mr Wood.' Also <a href="/wiki/Adair_v._United_States" title="Adair v. United States">Adair v. United States</a>, 208 US 161 (1908) the minority dissenting against the lawfulness of <a href="/wiki/Yellow-dog_contracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Yellow-dog contracts">yellow-dog contracts</a>, but Harlan J conceding that an employer "was at liberty, in his discretion, to discharge [an employee] from service without giving any reason for doing so." Contrast EA Ross, 'A Legal Dismissal Wage' (1919) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1813991?seq=2">9(1) American Economic Review 132</a> and AS Erofones, 'Contracts. Termination of Employment at Weekly Salary' (1927) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/1330455">40(4) Harvard LR 646</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-464"><a href="#cite_ref-464">^</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1935" title="National Labor Relations Act of 1935">National Labor Relations Act of 1935</a> §8(a)(3) preventing union discrimination </li> <li id="cite_note-465"><a href="#cite_ref-465">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> 42 USC §2000e-2(a). <a href="/wiki/Age_Discrimination_in_Employment_Act_of_1967" title="Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967">Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967</a>, 29 USC §§621-634. <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-466"><a href="#cite_ref-466">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_of_1970" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970">Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970</a>, 29 USC §§651-678 </li> <li id="cite_note-467"><a href="#cite_ref-467">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Fair_Labor_Standards_Act_of_1938" title="Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938">Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938</a>, 29 USC §§20-219 </li> <li id="cite_note-468"><a href="#cite_ref-468">^</a> <a href="/wiki/ERISA_1974" class="mw-redirect" title="ERISA 1974">ERISA 1974</a>, 29 USC §§1140-41 </li> <li id="cite_note-469"><a href="#cite_ref-469">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Family_and_Medical_Leave_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Family and Medical Leave Act">Family and Medical Leave Act</a>, 29 USC §2615 </li> <li id="cite_note-470"><a href="#cite_ref-470">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnam_Era_Veterans_Readjustment_Assistance_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act (page does not exist)">Vietnam Era Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act</a>, 38 USC §2021(a)(A)(i). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vocational_Rehabilitation_Act_of_1973&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (page does not exist)">Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973</a>. <a href="/wiki/Energy_Reorganization_Act_of_1974" title="Energy Reorganization Act of 1974">Energy Reorganization Act of 1974</a>, 42 USC §5851. <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_of_1963" class="mw-redirect" title="Clean Air Act of 1963">Clean Air Act of 1963</a>, 42 USC §7622. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Water_Pollution_Control_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Water Pollution Control Act">Federal Water Pollution Control Act</a>, 33 USC §1367. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Railroad_Safety_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Railroad Safety Act (page does not exist)">Railroad Safety Act</a>, 45 US §441(a). <a href="/wiki/Consumer_Credit_Protection_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer Credit Protection Act">Consumer Credit Protection Act</a>, 15 USC §1674. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judiciary_and_Judicial_Procedure_Act&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judiciary and Judicial Procedure Act (page does not exist)">Judiciary and Judicial Procedure Act</a>, 28 USC §1875 </li> <li id="cite_note-471"><a href="#cite_ref-471">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Petermann_v._International_Brotherhood_of_Teamsters&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petermann v. International Brotherhood of Teamsters (page does not exist)">Petermann v. International Brotherhood of Teamsters</a> 214 Cal App. 2d 155 (Cal App 1959) public policy is 'a prohibition for the good of the community against whatever contravenes good morals or any established interests of society'. </li> <li id="cite_note-472"><a href="#cite_ref-472">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ivy_v._Army_Times_Pub_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ivy v. Army Times Pub Co (page does not exist)">Ivy v. Army Times Pub Co</a> 428 A.2d 831 (DC App 1981) declining to perjure at employer's request. </li> <li id="cite_note-473"><a href="#cite_ref-473">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nees_v._Hocks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nees v. Hocks (page does not exist)">Nees v. Hocks</a> 536 P2d 512 (Or 1975) refusing to seek to be excused from serving on a jury. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_v._Carolina_Sunrock_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel v. Carolina Sunrock Corp (page does not exist)">Daniel v. Carolina Sunrock Corp</a> 335 NC 233 (NC 1993) responding to a subpoena. </li> <li id="cite_note-474"><a href="#cite_ref-474">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Perks_v._Firestone_Tire_%26_Rubber_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Perks v. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co (page does not exist)">Perks v. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co</a> 611 F2d 1363 (3rd Cir 1979) refusing to take a lie detector test where the state prohibited it. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tacket_v._Delco_Remy,_Division_of_General_Motors_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tacket v. Delco Remy, Division of General Motors Corp (page does not exist)">Tacket v. Delco Remy, Division of General Motors Corp</a> 937 F.2d 1201 (7th Cir 1992) filing litigation against the employer </li> <li id="cite_note-475"><a href="#cite_ref-475">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sheets_v._Teddy%27s_Frosted_Foods,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sheets v. Teddy's Frosted Foods, Inc. (page does not exist)">Sheets v. Teddy's Frosted Foods, Inc.</a> 179 Conn. 471, 427 A.2d 385 (1980) plaintiff noticed violations of the Connecticut Uniform Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, told the employer, and was fired. Held, wrongful discharge, as he could not be required to perform an illegal act. </li> <li id="cite_note-476"><a href="#cite_ref-476">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hausman_v._St_Croix_Care_Center,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hausman v. St Croix Care Center, Inc. (page does not exist)">Hausman v. St Croix Care Center, Inc.</a>, 558 NW2d 893 (Wis App 1996) the Wisconsin Supreme Court noting 'a criminal penalty is no remedy to the terminated employee'. Also <a href="/wiki/Fortunato_v._Office_of_Stephen_M._Silston" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortunato v. Office of Stephen M. Silston">Fortunato v. Office of Stephen M. Silston</a>, D.D.S., 856 A.2d 530 (Conn. Super. 2004) the Connecticut Supreme Court held that it was contrary to public policy for an employer to discharge his dental assistant because her daughter was contemplating bringing a medical malpractice against him. It was contrary to public policy because it frustrated a person's right to access the courts. </li> <li id="cite_note-477"><a href="#cite_ref-477">^</a> cf Model Employment Termination Act (8 August 1991) "§1(4) 'Good cause means (i) a reasonable basis related to an individual employee for termination of the employee's employment in view of relevant factors and circumstances, which may include the employee's duties, responsibilities, conduct on the job or otherwise, job performance, and employment record..." </li> <li id="cite_note-478"><a href="#cite_ref-478">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Restatement_(Second)_of_Contracts_1981" class="mw-redirect" title="Restatement (Second) of Contracts 1981">Restatement (Second) of Contracts 1981</a> §205, 'Every contract imposes upon each party a duty of good faith and fair dealing in its performance and enforcement' </li> <li id="cite_note-479"><a href="#cite_ref-479">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fortune_v._National_Cash_Register_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fortune v. National Cash Register Co (page does not exist)">Fortune v. National Cash Register Co</a>, 373 Mass 96, 364 NE 2d 1251 (1977) the employee's employment was terminated shortly before a large commission on sales fell due. Held that this breached an obligation to perform the contract in good faith. But contrast <a href="/wiki/Magnan_v._Anaconda_Industries" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnan v. Anaconda Industries">Magnan v. Anaconda Industries</a>, Inc 193 Conn. 558, 479 A.2d 781 (1984) the Connecticut Supreme Court held that good faith was a rule of construction, which could not contradict the express terms of a contract. However, the rule of good faith did not require a good reason for a discharge under Connecticut law. </li> <li id="cite_note-480"><a href="#cite_ref-480">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Bammert_v._Don%27s_Super_Valu,_Inc." title="Bammert v. Don's Super Valu, Inc.">Bammert v. Don's Super Valu, Inc.</a>, 646 N.W.2d 365 (Wis. 2002) the Wisconsin Supreme Court held that it was not contrary to public policy for an employer to dismiss an employee on grounds of her husband's drunk driving charge. cf <a href="/wiki/Brockmeyer_v._Dun_%26_Bradstreet" title="Brockmeyer v. Dun & Bradstreet">Brockmeyer v. Dun & Bradstreet</a> 113 Wis. 2d 561 (Wis. 1983) employer dismissed an employee after another worker sued for sex discrimination and the case had to be settled. The Wisconsin Supreme Court acknowledged there could be public policy reasons to hold a dismissal is unlawful. Dismissal was justified in this case. </li> <li id="cite_note-481"><a href="#cite_ref-481">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wilking_v._County_of_Ramsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wilking v. County of Ramsey (page does not exist)">Wilking v. County of Ramsey</a> 983 F. Supp. 848 (8th Cir 1998) poor performance claims are more credible if the employer shows it gave a warning about improving. </li> <li id="cite_note-482"><a href="#cite_ref-482">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Taylor_v._Procter_%26_Gamble_Dover_Wipes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taylor v. Procter & Gamble Dover Wipes (page does not exist)">Taylor v. Procter & Gamble Dover Wipes</a> (D Del 2002) terminated worker involved of serious acts that cannot be tolerated at work, like assaulting a fellow worker. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pearson_v._Metro-North_Commuter_Railroad&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pearson v. Metro-North Commuter Railroad (page does not exist)">Pearson v. Metro-North Commuter Railroad</a> 1990 WL 20173 (SDNY 1990) if a rule is not consistently enforced, it cannot be relied on by the employer. </li> <li id="cite_note-483"><a href="#cite_ref-483">^</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Associated_Coal_Corp._v._Mine_Workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Associated Coal Corp. v. Mine Workers">Eastern Associated Coal Corp. v. Mine Workers</a>, 531 US 57 (2000) an employee tested positive for <a href="/wiki/Marijuana" class="mw-redirect" title="Marijuana">marijuana</a> twice. The employee's right to be dismissed for a 'just cause' under a collective agreement contained the remedy of reinstatement. The arbitrator found he was discharged without just cause and ordered reinstatement. The Supreme Court held that this could not be found contrary to public policy. </li> <li id="cite_note-484"><a href="#cite_ref-484">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lincoln_v._University_System_of_Georgia_Board_of_Regents&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lincoln v. University System of Georgia Board of Regents (page does not exist)">Lincoln v. University System of Georgia Board of Regents</a> 697 F2d 928 (11th Cir 1983) a college took teaching away from a faculty member and assigned her to prepare a revision of a handbook and other large clerical duties for grant applications. Held, constructively terminated. </li> <li id="cite_note-485"><a href="#cite_ref-485">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Toussaint_v._Blue_Cross_%26_Blue_Shield_of_Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Toussaint v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Michigan (page does not exist)">Toussaint v. Blue Cross & Blue Shield of Michigan</a>, 408 Mich 579 (1980) employee was told at hiring that he would be employed as long as he did his job. The handbook said the employer's policy was only to terminate for 'just cause'. Held, that both express and implied promises were enforceable, and raised legitimate expectations for the employee. See also <a href="/wiki/Torosyan_v._Boehringer_Ingelheim_Pharmaceuticals,_Inc." title="Torosyan v. Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.">Torosyan v. Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc.</a>, 662 A2d 89 (1995) </li> <li id="cite_note-486"><a href="#cite_ref-486">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Schipani_v._Ford_Motor_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Schipani v. Ford Motor Co (page does not exist)">Schipani v. Ford Motor Co</a> 102 Mich 606 (1981) an employer made an oral agreement, along with personnel manuals, policies and employment practice, for an employee to work till age 65. The written contract, however, said that employment was terminable at will. The employer sought summary judgment. Michigan Court of Appeals held there would be no summary judgment. The other assurances were enough to potentially rebut the written agreement. </li> <li id="cite_note-487"><a href="#cite_ref-487">^</a> cf <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union_2000" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000">Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union 2000</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Charter_of_Fundamental_Rights_of_the_European_Union#Article_27_%E2%80%93_Workers'_right_to_information_and_consultation_within_the_undertaking">art 27</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-488"><a href="#cite_ref-488">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22" title="Control Council Law No 22">Control Council Law No 22</a> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22_(10_April_1946)_Works_Councils#Articles_IV">10 April 1946</a>) art V. Today see the <a href="/wiki/Work_Constitution_Act_1972" class="mw-redirect" title="Work Constitution Act 1972">Work Constitution Act 1972</a> or Betriebsverfassungsgesetz 1972 (worker participation). </li> <li id="cite_note-489"><a href="#cite_ref-489">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Telesphere_International_Inc_v._Scollin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telesphere International Inc v. Scollin (page does not exist)">Telesphere International Inc v. Scollin</a> 489 So 2d 1152 (Fla App 1986) eliminating a product or service. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nixon_v._Celotext_Corp&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nixon v. Celotext Corp (page does not exist)">Nixon v. Celotext Corp</a> 693 F Supp 547 (WD Mich 1988) consolidating operations. </li> <li id="cite_note-490"><a href="#cite_ref-490">^</a> See the <a href="/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22" title="Control Council Law No 22">Control Council Law No 22</a> (<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Control_Council_Law_No_22_(10_April_1946)_Works_Councils#Articles_IV">10 April 1946</a>) art V, in post-war Germany, now re-enacted in the <a href="/wiki/Work_Constitution_Act_1972" class="mw-redirect" title="Work Constitution Act 1972">Work Constitution Act 1972</a> or Betriebsverfassungsgesetz 1972 (worker participation in layoffs). </li> <li id="cite_note-491"><a href="#cite_ref-491">^</a> <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act 1988">WARN Act 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter23&edition=prelim">§2101(a)(2)-(3)</a>. §2101(a)(1), the 100 employee threshold excludes part-time employees. </li> <li id="cite_note-492"><a href="#cite_ref-492">^</a> <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act 1988">WARN Act 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter23&edition=prelim">§2102(a)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-493"><a href="#cite_ref-493">^</a> <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act 1988">WARN Act 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter23&edition=prelim">§§2101(a)(6) and 2101(b)(2)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-494"><a href="#cite_ref-494">^</a> <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act 1988">WARN Act 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter23&edition=prelim">§2102(b)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-495"><a href="#cite_ref-495">^</a> <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act 1988">WARN Act 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter23&edition=prelim">§2102(b)(2)</a> and see <a href="/w/index.php?title=Local_Union_7107,_United_Mine_Workers_v._Clinchfield_Coal_Co&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Local Union 7107, United Mine Workers v. Clinchfield Coal Co (page does not exist)">Local Union 7107, United Mine Workers v. Clinchfield Coal Co</a> 124 F3d 639 (4th Cir 1997) cancellation of major contract in unforeseeable circumstances. </li> <li id="cite_note-496"><a href="#cite_ref-496">^</a> <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act 1988">WARN Act 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter23&edition=prelim">§2104(a)(4)</a>. See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kildea_v._Electro-Wire_Products,_Inc.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kildea v. Electro-Wire Products, Inc. (page does not exist)">Kildea v. Electro-Wire Products, Inc.</a> 60 F. Supp. 2d 710 (6th Cir 1998) not giving notice to employees on a reasonable misunderstanding that they were not entitled to it counts as good faith. </li> <li id="cite_note-497"><a href="#cite_ref-497">^</a> <a href="/wiki/WARN_Act_1988" class="mw-redirect" title="WARN Act 1988">WARN Act 1988</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title29/chapter23&edition=prelim">§2104(a)(1)-(3)</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-498"><a href="#cite_ref-498">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Eileen_Appelbaum" title="Eileen Appelbaum">E. Appelbaum</a> and R Batt, Private Equity at Work – When Wall Street Manages Main Street (2014) </li> <li id="cite_note-499"><a href="#cite_ref-499">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Unocal_Corp._v._Mesa_Petroleum_Co." title="Unocal Corp. v. Mesa Petroleum Co.">Unocal Corp. v. Mesa Petroleum Co.</a> 493 A 2d 946 (Del 1985) </li> <li id="cite_note-500"><a href="#cite_ref-500">^</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_417" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 417">417</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/417/249/">249</a> (1974) </li> <li id="cite_note-501"><a href="#cite_ref-501">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights#Article_23">art 23(1)</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights_1966" class="mw-redirect" title="International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966">International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights 1966</a> <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Economic,_Social_and_Cultural_Rights#Article_6">art 6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-502"><a href="#cite_ref-502">^</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, '<a href="/wiki/Second_Bill_of_Rights" title="Second Bill of Rights">Second Bill of Rights</a>', in State of the Union Address (January 11, 1944) </li> <li id="cite_note-503"><a href="#cite_ref-503">^</a> See AW Phillips, 'The Relation between Unemployment and the Rate of Change of Money Wage Rates in the United Kingdom 1861–1957' (1958) 25 Economica 283 </li> <li id="cite_note-504"><a href="#cite_ref-504">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1915/229.html">239 US 33</a> (1915) per <a href="/wiki/Charles_Evans_Hughes" title="Charles Evans Hughes">Justice Hughes</a>. cf <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Board_of_Retirement_v._Murgia" title="Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia">Massachusetts Board of Retirement v. Murgia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1976/141.html">427 US 307</a> (1976) holding that an age limit of 50 years old for police in Massachusetts was constitutional. </li> <li id="cite_note-505"><a href="#cite_ref-505">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Works_Progress_Administration" title="Works Progress Administration">Works Progress Administration</a> was created by Executive Order 7034, and replaced the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Administration" title="Federal Emergency Relief Administration">Federal Emergency Relief Administration</a> which was itself created by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Emergency_Relief_Act_of_1933" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal Emergency Relief Act of 1933">Federal Emergency Relief Act of 1933</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-506"><a href="#cite_ref-506">^</a> E McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osf.io/preprints/lawarxiv/udbj8">51(3) Industrial Law Journal 511</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-507"><a href="#cite_ref-507">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Employment_Act_of_1946" title="Employment Act of 1946">Employment Act of 1946</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title15/chapter21&edition=prelim">15 USC §1021</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-508"><a href="#cite_ref-508">^</a> See G. J. Santoni, 'The Employment Act of 1946: Some History Notes' (1986) 68(9) Federal Reserve of St Louis Paper 7. K. V. W. Stone, 'A Right to Work in the United States: Historical Antecedents and Contemporary Possibilities' in V Mantouvalou (ed), The Right to Work: Legal and Philosophical Perspectives (2015) ch 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-509"><a href="#cite_ref-509">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Regents_of_State_Colleges_v._Roth" title="Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth">Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldlii.org/us/cases/federal/USSC/1972/168.html">408 US 564, 588</a> (1972) per <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Justice Marshall</a> dissenting. </li> <li id="cite_note-510"><a href="#cite_ref-510">^</a> 15 USC §3116 </li> <li id="cite_note-511"><a href="#cite_ref-511">^</a> 15 USC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title15/chapter21&edition=prelim">§1022a</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-512"><a href="#cite_ref-512">^</a> 15 USC <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title15/chapter21&edition=prelim">§1022c</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-513"><a href="#cite_ref-513">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Emergency_Relief_Appropriation_Act_of_1935" title="Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935">Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-514"><a href="#cite_ref-514">^</a> Amended by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Reform_Act_of_1977" title="Federal Reserve Reform Act of 1977">Federal Reserve Reform Act of 1977</a>, 12 USC §225a </li> <li id="cite_note-515"><a href="#cite_ref-515">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Marriner_Stoddard_Eccles" class="mw-redirect" title="Marriner Stoddard Eccles">Marriner Stoddard Eccles</a>, Beckoning Frontiers: Public and Personal Recollections (1951) "As mass production has to be accompanied by mass consumption, mass consumption, in turn, implies a distribution of wealth ... to provide men with buying power. ... Instead of achieving that kind of distribution, a giant suction pump had by 1929–30 drawn into a few hands an increasing portion of currently produced wealth. ... The other fellows could stay in the game only by borrowing. When their credit ran out, the game stopped." Also <a href="/wiki/J._M._Keynes" class="mw-redirect" title="J. M. Keynes">J. M. Keynes</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_General_Theory_of_Employment,_Interest_and_Money" title="The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money">The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money</a> (1936) ch 22, IV, pointing to "the .chronic tendency of contemporary societies to under-employment is to be traced to under-consumption; — that is to say, to social practices and to a distribution of wealth which result in a propensity to consume which is unduly low." </li> <li id="cite_note-516"><a href="#cite_ref-516">^</a> M Friedman, 'The Role of Monetary Policy' (1968) 58(1) American Economic Review 1. M Friedman, 'Inflation and Unemployment' (1977) 85 Journal of Political Economy 451-72 </li> <li id="cite_note-517"><a href="#cite_ref-517">^</a> See G Marshall, The Marshall Plan Speech (5 June 1947) Harvard (on the investment plan for post-war Europe). SP Hargreaves Heap, 'Choosing the Wrong 'Natural' Rate: Accelerating Inflation or Decelerating Employment and Growth?' (1980) 90(359) Economic Journal 611. </li> <li id="cite_note-518"><a href="#cite_ref-518">^</a> E. McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osf.io/preprints/lawarxiv/udbj8">Centre for Business Research, University of Cambridge, Working Paper no. 496</a>, part 2(1) </li> <li id="cite_note-519"><a href="#cite_ref-519">^</a> Social Security Act of 1935, 42 USC §§501-4, 1101-5. <a href="/wiki/Steward_Machine_Company_v._Davis" class="mw-redirect" title="Steward Machine Company v. Davis">Steward Machine Company v. Davis</a>, 301 US 548 (1937) held <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_benefits" title="Unemployment benefits">unemployment benefits</a> to be constitutional. </li> <li id="cite_note-520"><a href="#cite_ref-520">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Millner_v._Enck&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Millner v. Enck (page does not exist)">Millner v. Enck</a> 709 A 2d 417 (Pa Super 1998) </li> <li id="cite_note-521"><a href="#cite_ref-521">^</a> e.g. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cullison_v._Commonwealth_Unemployment_Compensation_Board_of_Review&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cullison v. Commonwealth Unemployment Compensation Board of Review (page does not exist)">Cullison v. Commonwealth Unemployment Compensation Board of Review</a> 444 A.2d 1330 (Pa 1982) and <a href="/wiki/Employment_Division,_Department_of_Human_Resources_v._Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Employment Division, Department of Human Resources v. Smith">Employment Division, Department of Human Resources v. Smith</a>, 494 US 872 (1988) </li> <li id="cite_note-522"><a href="#cite_ref-522">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ohio_Bureau_of_Employment_Services_v._Hodary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ohio Bureau of Employment Services v. Hodary (page does not exist)">Ohio Bureau of Employment Services v. Hodary</a>, 431 US 471 (1977) </li> <li id="cite_note-523"><a href="#cite_ref-523">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Internal_Revenue_Code" title="Internal Revenue Code">Internal Revenue Code</a> §3304(a)(5) </li> <li id="cite_note-524"><a href="#cite_ref-524">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brazee_v._Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brazee v. Michigan (page does not exist)">Brazee v. Michigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_241" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 241">241</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">US</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/241/340/">340</a> (1916). Contrast <a href="/wiki/Adams_v._Tanner" title="Adams v. Tanner">Adams v. Tanner</a>, 244 US 590 (1917) where over strong dissent the majority held that a ban on private employment agencies was unconstitutional. See now the <a href="/wiki/ILO" class="mw-redirect" title="ILO">ILO</a>, <a href="/wiki/Private_Employment_Agencies_Convention,_1997" title="Private Employment Agencies Convention, 1997">Private Employment Agencies Convention, 1997</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-525"><a href="#cite_ref-525">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jane_Sanders" title="Jane Sanders">Jane Sanders</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oY2mQxm4SNQ">Eugene V. Debs Documentary</a> (1979) </li> <li id="cite_note-526"><a href="#cite_ref-526">^</a> The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://finduslaw.com/california_fair_employment_and_housing_act_feha_government_code_12900_12996">Fair Employment and Housing Act</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-527"><a href="#cite_ref-527">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dfeh.ca.gov/Statutes/feha.asp">Details of law</a> from the DFEH website </li> <li id="cite_note-528"><a href="#cite_ref-528">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes_&_Thornburg_LLP2011" class="citation news cs1">Barnes & Thornburg LLP (October 12, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.natlawreview.com/article/california-enacts-22-new-employment-laws-impacting-all-companies-doing-business-state">"California Enacts 22 New Employment Laws Impacting All Companies Doing Business in the State"</a>. The National Law Review.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=California+Enacts+22+New+Employment+Laws+Impacting+All+Companies+Doing+Business+in+the+State&rft.date=2011-10-12&rft.au=Barnes+%26+Thornburg+LLP&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.natlawreview.com%2Farticle%2Fcalifornia-enacts-22-new-employment-laws-impacting-all-companies-doing-business-state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+labor+law" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-529"><a href="#cite_ref-529">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNew_Jersey1945" class="citation web cs1">New Jersey, Legislature (April 16, 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.njstatelib.org//handle/10929/56526">"L.1945 c.168-174. AN Act concerning civil rights, and amending sections 10 :1-3, 10 :1-6 and 10 :1-8 of the Revised Statutes"</a>. NJ State Library. Retrieved November 15, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NJ+State+Library&rft.atitle=L.1945+c.168-174.+AN+Act+concerning+civil+rights%2C+and+amending+sections+10+%3A1-3%2C+10+%3A1-6+and+10+%3A1-8+of+the+Revised+Statutes.&rft.date=1945-04-16&rft.aulast=New+Jersey&rft.aufirst=Legislature&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdspace.njstatelib.org%2F%2Fhandle%2F10929%2F56526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnited+States+labor+law" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-530"><a href="#cite_ref-530">^</a> The <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.njoag.gov/about/divisions-and-offices/division-on-civil-rights-home/know-the-law/">New Jersey Law Against Discrimination</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Books</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Commons" title="John R. Commons">John R. Commons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Labor_Legislation" title="Principles of Labor Legislation">Principles of Labor Legislation</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Commons" title="John R. Commons">John R. Commons</a>, History of Labor in the United States (Macmillan 1918) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyoflabouri01commuoft#page/n7/mode/2up">vol I</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyoflabouri02commuoft#page/n7/mode/2up">vol II</a></li> <li>R. Covington, Employment Law in a Nutshell (3rd edn 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0314195408" title="Special:BookSources/0314195408">0314195408</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Cox" title="Archibald Cox">Archibald Cox</a>, D. C. Bok, <a href="/wiki/Matthew_W._Finkin" title="Matthew W. Finkin">Matthew W. Finkin</a> and R. A. Gorman, Labor Law: Cases and Materials (2011) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1684679818" title="Special:BookSources/1684679818">1684679818</a></li> <li>K. G. Dau-Schmidt, M. H. Malin, R. L. Corrada and C. D. R. Camron, Labor Law in the Contemporary Workplace (4th edn 2009)</li> <li>M. A. Rothstein and <a href="/wiki/Lance_Liebman" title="Lance Liebman">Lance Liebman</a>, Employment Law Cases and Materials (7th edn Foundation 2011)</li> <li>G. Rutherglen, Employment Discrimination Law: Visions of Equality in Theory and Doctrine (3rd edn 2010)</li></ul> <dl><dt>Articles</dt></dl> <ul><li>J. M. Feinman, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/844727">'The Development of the Employment at Will Rule'</a> (1976) 20(2) The American Journal of Legal History 118</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hovenkamp" title="Herbert Hovenkamp">Herbert Hovenkamp</a>, 'Labor Conspiracies in American Law, 1880–1930' (1988) 66 Texas Law Review 919</li> <li>C. W. Summers, 'Democracy in a One-Party State: Perspectives from Landrum-Griffin' (1984) 43 Maryland Law Review 93</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://topics.law.cornell.edu/wex/table_labor">Labor laws of Federal and State legislatures on law.cornell.edu</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061211185840/http://hrlawindex.com/">Synopses of US Employment Law Cases</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100911111241/http://www.iww.org/en/organize/laborlaw/contract1.shtml">Typical benefits of a union contract</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://PinesFederal.com">Federal employment discrimination law office</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&oldid=1259007554">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_labor_law&oldid=1259007554</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_labor_law" title="Category:United States labor law">United States labor law</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_June_2022" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from June 2022">Articles with dead external links from June 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_August_2021" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from August 2021">Articles with dead external links from August 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_mdy_dates_from_September_2016" title="Category:Use mdy dates from September 2016">Use mdy dates from September 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements_from_2019" title="Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2019">Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2019</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_containing_potentially_dated_statements" title="Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements">All articles containing potentially dated statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_video_clips" title="Category:Articles containing video clips">Articles containing video clips</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 November 2024, at 21:49 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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