Literature - World History Encyclopedia

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4px;-moz-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-web-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1);box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1)}.sf-menu ul li{text-transform:none}.sf-menu a{text-decoration:none;zoom:1;transition:all .25s}.sf-menu a{color:#494949;cursor:pointer}.sf-menu li{white-space:nowrap;*white-space:normal;transition:background .25s}.sf-menu ul li{background:#FFF}.sf-menu ul li a{border-bottom:1px solid #f0f0f0;padding:11px 8px;transition:all .25s;margin-left:10px;margin-right:10px;font-size:14px}.sf-menu ul li a:hover{color:#b52600}.sf-menu li:hover,.sf-menu li.sfHover{transition:none}}}</style>  <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="World History Encyclopedia RSS Feed" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/rss2/?lang=en"> <link rel="image_src" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/206.jpg?v=1636655404" /> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-16px.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon shortcut" 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src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=china+egypt+gilgamesh+literature+Mesoamerica+Mesopotamia+plato+sumer+ur+uruk+writing" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/206.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/" data-pin-description="Literature (from the Latin Littera meaning 'letters' and referring to an acquaintance with the written word) is the written work of a specific culture, sub-culture, religion, philosophy or the study of such written work which may appear in poetry or in prose. Literature, in the west, originated in..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 02 September 2009 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/fr/1-562/litterature/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-562/literatura/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Spanish</a>, <a href="/trans/tr/1-562/edebiyat/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Turkish</a></div> </div> <style> .audio-player-wrapper * { font-size: 14px !important; } .audio-player-wrapper .summary-wrapper { display: none; } .audio_player #play-btn-wrap svg { color: #222; margin-left: -18px; } #amplift-outer-wrapper { height: 60px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; top: -4px; left: -9px; margin-bottom: 0px; } .audio-player-wrapper .audio_player { visibility: hidden; } </style> <div id="amplift-outer-wrapper"></div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ window.setTimeout(()=>{ async_load_js("https://c.ampliftglobal.com/player/ampliftplayer.js",function() { AHE.ampliftPlayer = new AmpliftPlayer({target: '#amplift-outer-wrapper'}); AHE.ampliftPlayer.init(); window.setTimeout(()=>{ $('.audio-player-wrapper .audio_player').css('visibility','visible'); },1500); }); },1000); }); </script> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=china+egypt+gilgamesh+literature+Mesoamerica+Mesopotamia+plato+sumer+ur+uruk+writing" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/" title="The Epic of Gilgamesh"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/206.jpg.webp?v=1693486203 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/206.jpg.webp?v=1693486203 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/206.jpg?v=1693486203 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/206.jpg?v=1693486203 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/206.jpg?v=1693486203" width="300" height="366" alt="The Epic of Gilgamesh (by N/A, CC BY-SA)" title="The Epic of Gilgamesh (by N/A, CC BY-SA)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Epic of Gilgamesh</div><div class="figauthor">N/A (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/","caption":"The Deluge Tablet of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh written in Akkadian (1300 - 1000 BCE)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/206.jpg","copyrightNotice":"N/A - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"N/A"},"creditText":"N/A / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-24T00:14:17+0000","datePublished":"2012-04-26T07:45:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Epic of Gilgamesh","height":"543","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.cts.edu/ImageLibrary/Images/July%2012/delutab.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/","width":"446"} </script> <p><dfn>Literature</dfn> (from the Latin <em>Littera</em> meaning 'letters' and referring to an acquaintance with the written word) is the written work of a specific <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a>, sub-culture, <a href="/religion/">religion</a>, <a href="/philosophy/">philosophy</a> or the study of such written work which may appear in poetry or in prose. Literature, in the west, originated in the southern <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a> region of <a href="/sumer/">Sumer</a> (c. 3200) in the <a href="/city/">city</a> of <a href="/uruk/">Uruk</a> and flourished in <a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a>, later in <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> (the written word having been imported there from the <a href="/phoenicia/">Phoenicians</a>) and from there, to <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a>. <a href="/writing/">Writing</a> seems to have originated independently in <a href="/china/">China</a> from divination practices and also independently in Mesoamerica and elsewhere.</p> <p>The first author of literature in the world, known by name, was the high-priestess of <a href="/ur/">Ur</a>, <a href="/Enheduanna/">Enheduanna</a> (2285-2250 BCE) who wrote hymns in praise of the <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerian</a> goddess <a href="/Inanna/">Inanna</a>. Much of the early literature from Mesopotamia concerns the activities of the gods but, in time, humans came to be featured as the main characters in such poems as <em>Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta</em> and <em>Lugalbanda and Mount Hurrum</em> (c.2600-2000 BCE). For the purposes of study, Literature is divided into the categories of fiction or non-fiction today but these are often arbitrary decisions as ancient literature, as understood by those who wrote the tales down, as well as those who heard them spoken or sung pre-literacy, was not understood in the same way as it is in the modern-day.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <h3>The Truth in Literature</h3> <p><a href="/homer/">Homer</a>'s soaring odes to the grandeur of the Grecian fleet sailing for <a href="/troy/">Troy</a> or <a href="/odysseus/">Odysseus</a>'s journey across the wine-dark sea were as real to listeners as his descriptions of the sorceress <a href="/Circe/">Circe</a>, the <a href="/disambiguation/Cyclops/">cyclops</a> Polyphemus or the Sirens. Those tales which today are regarded as myth were then considered as true and sacred as any of the writings contained in the Judeo-Christian <a href="/bible/">Bible</a> or the Muslim Quran are to believers. Designations such as fiction and non-fiction are fairly recent labels applied to written works. The ancient mind understood that, quite often, truth may be apprehended through a fable about a fox and some unattainable grapes. The modern concern with the truth of a story would not have concerned anyone listening to one of Aesop's tales; what mattered was what the story was trying to convey.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <div class="big_quote">One of the earliest known literary works is the Sumerian/Babylonian Epic of <a href="/gilgamesh/">Gilgamesh</a> from c. 2150 BCE. </div> <p>Even so, there was a value placed on accuracy in recording actual events (as ancient criticism of the historian <a href="/herodotus/">Herodotus</a>' accounts of events shows). Early literary works were usually didactic in approach and had an underlying (or often overt) religious purpose such as in the Sumerian <em>Enuma Elish</em> of 1120 BCE or the <em><a href="/Theogony/">Theogony</a></em> of the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> writer <a href="/hesiod/">Hesiod</a> of the 8th century BCE.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>One of the earliest known literary works is the Sumerian/Babylonian <em>Epic of Gilgamesh</em> from c. 2150 BCE which deals with themes of heroism, pride, nationality, friendship, disappointment, <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a>, and the quest for eternal life. Whether what happened in the tale of Gilgamesh 'actually happened' was immaterial to the writer and to the listener. What mattered was what the audience was able to take away from the tale.</p> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7hRrBcWyb98?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=en" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="World Poetry Day: The Female Ancient Poets Sappho, Enheduanna and Zhuo Wenjun"></iframe></div></div> <p>The best example of this is a genre known as <a href="/Mesopotamian_Naru_Literature/">Mesopotamian Naru Literature</a> in which historical figures feature in fictional plots. The best-known works from this genre include <em>The Curse of Agade </em>and <em>The <a href="/article/1869/the-legend-of-cutha/">Legend of Cutha</a></em>, both featuring the great <a href="/disambiguation/akkadian/">Akkadian</a> king <a href="/Naram-Sin/">Naram-Sin</a> (r. 2261-2224 BCE), grandson of <a href="/Sargon_of_Akkad/">Sargon of Akkad</a> (r. 2334-2279 BCE, father of Enheduanna). Both of these works have Naram-Sin behaving in ways which are contradicted by physical evidence and other, more factual, writings. The purpose of Naru Literature, however, was not to relate what `really' happened but to emphasize a moral, cultural, and religious point. </p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <h3>Examples of Ancient Literature</h3> <p><em>The <a href="/pyramid/">Pyramid</a> Texts</em> of Egypt, also considered literature, tell of the journey of the soul to the afterlife in the <a href="/Field_of_Reeds/">Field of Reeds</a> and these works, unlike Mesopotamian Naru Literature, presented the subject as truth. <a href="/disambiguation/Egyptian/">Egyptian</a> religious culture was based on the reality of an afterlife and the role the gods played in one's eternal journey, of which one's life on earth was only one part. Homer's <em><a href="/iliad/">Iliad</a></em> recounts the famous ten-year <a href="/war/">war</a> between the Greeks and the Trojans while his <em><a href="/Odyssey/">Odyssey</a></em> tells of the great hero Odysseus's journey back home after the war to his beloved wife Penelope of Ithaca and this, like the other works mentioned, reinforced cultural values without a concern for what may or may not have happened concerning the war with Troy.</p> <p>The story told in the biblical <em>Book of Exodus</em> (1446 BCE) is considered historical truth by many today, but originally could have been meant to be interpreted as liberation from bondage in a spiritual sense as it was written to empower the worshipers of <a href="/Yahweh/">Yahweh</a>, encouraged them to resist the temptations of the indigenous peoples of <a href="/canaan/">Canaan</a>, and elevated the audience's perception of themselves as a chosen people of an all-powerful <a href="/God/">god</a>. </p> <p><em>The Song of Songs</em> (c. 950 BCE) from the Hebrew scripture of the Tanakh, immortalizes the passionate love between a man and a woman (interpreted by Christians, much later, as the relationship between Christ and the church, though no such interpretation is supported by the original text) and the sacred aspect of such a relationship. The Indian epic <em><a href="/Mahabharata/">Mahabharata</a></em> (c.800-400 BCE) relates the birth of a nation while the <em><a href="/The_Ramayana/">Ramayana</a></em> (c. 200 BCE) tells the tale of the great <a href="/Rama/">Rama</a>'s rescue of his abducted wife Sita from the evil Ravna. The works found in the Assyrian King Asurbanipal's library (647-627 BCE) record the heroic deeds of the gods, goddesses and the struggles and triumphs of heroic kings of ancient Mesopotamia such as Enmerkar, Lugalbanda, and Gilgamesh. Scholar <a href="/samuel/">Samuel</a> <a href="/Noah/">Noah</a> Kramer points out that the early Sumerian works - and, indeed, Sumerian culture as a whole - resonates in the modern day on many levels and is especially apparent in literature. Kramer writes: </p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <blockquote> <p>It is still apparent in a <a href="/Mosaic/">Mosaic</a> <a href="/disambiguation/law/">law</a> and a Solomonic proverb, in the tears of Job and a <a href="/jerusalem/">Jerusalem</a> lament, in the sad tale of the dying man-god, in a Hesiodic cosmogony and a <a href="/hinduism/">Hindu</a> myth, in an Aesopic fable and a Euclidean theorem, in a zodiacal sign and a heraldic design. (5)</p> </blockquote> <h3>Originality in Ancient Literature</h3> <p>Most early works were written in the poetical metre which the writer had heard repeated over time and, therefore, the dating of such pieces as the <em>Enuma Elish</em> or the <em>Odyssey</em> is difficult in that they were finally recorded in writing many years after their oral composition. The great value which modern-day readers and critics place on 'originality' in literature was unknown to ancient people. The very idea of according a work of the imagination of an individual with any degree of respect would never have occurred to anyone of the ancient world. Stories were re-tellings of the feats of great heroes, of the gods, the goddesses, or of creation, as in Hesiod and Homer.</p> <p>So great was the respect for what today would be called 'non-fiction', that Geoffrey of Monmouth (1100-1155 CE) claimed his famous <em>History of the Kings of <a href="/britain/">Briton</a></em> (which he largely made up) was actually a translation from an earlier text he had 'discovered' and Sir <a href="/Thomas_Malory/">Thomas Malory</a> (1405-1471 CE) famed as the author of the <em>Morte D'Arthur</em>, denied any original contributions to the work he compiled from earlier authors, even though today it is clear that he added much to the source material he drew from.</p> <p>This literary tradition of ascribing an original work to earlier, seemingly-authoritative, sources is famously exemplified in <a href="/The_Gospels/">the gospels</a> of the Christian <a href="/New_Testament/">New Testament</a> in that the <a href="/The_Gospels/">gospels</a> of Matthew, <a href="/disambiguation/Mark/">Mark</a>, Luke, and John, understood by many believers to be eye-witness accounts of the ministry of <a href="/Jesus_Christ/">Jesus</a>, were written much later by unknown authors who chose names associated with the early church.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Literature encompasses forms such as poetry, drama, prose, folklore, epic tale, personal narrative, poetry, history, biography, satire, philosophical dialogues, essays, legends and myths, among others. <a href="/plato/">Plato</a>'s <em>Dialogues</em>, while not the first to combine philosophical themes with dramatic form, were the first to make drama work in the cause of philosophical inquiry. Later writers drew on these earlier works for inspiration (as <a href="/virgil/">Virgil</a> did in composing his <em><a href="/The_Aeneid/">Aeneid</a></em>, based on Homer's <em>Iliad</em> and <em>Odyssey</em>, between 30-18 BCE) and this tradition of borrowing lasted until the time of Shakespeare (1564-1616 CE) and continues in the present day.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=china+egypt+gilgamesh+literature+Mesoamerica+Mesopotamia+plato+sumer+ur+uruk+writing" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__cdb6e905b67ab7a12d42343fef9e2967"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0199263116/" rel="sponsored">Black, J. , et. al. <i>The Literature of Ancient Sumer.</i> Oxford University Press, 2005.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__5b0227b69a9c6f901ebe5f369f1806ef"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0671115006/" rel="sponsored">Durant, W. <i>Caesar and Christ.</i> Simon & Schuster, 1980.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__2eb1ef7840202013e34b91495c5c4096"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0393310779/" rel="sponsored">Hamilton, E. <i>The Greek Way.</i> W. W. Norton & Company, 1993.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__09ab4ad5a9c9500c7363d00250e58269"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0674996224/" rel="sponsored">Hesiod. <i>Hesiod.</i> Loeb Classical Library, 2007.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__793bb1671b25e95119858cf8575bc19e"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B001YQG44A/" rel="sponsored">Homer. <i>The Iliad and The Odyssey Translated by Samuel Butler.</i> Buki Editions, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__41cfc4703146f176632b46222a16b954"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/9004101624/" rel="sponsored">Jonker, G. <i>The Topography of Remembrance.</i> Brill Publishing, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__e025c817b8dca0efd2897db4813f7212"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0226452387/" rel="sponsored">Kramer, S. N. <i>The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.</i> University of Chicago Press, 1971.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__271db858bda5a362a15ac00f95dd5096"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1250054168/" rel="sponsored">Kriwaczek, P. <i>Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.</i> St. Martin's Griffin, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__8c5157be6a4cdfb11904663ce241cf61"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B002RI9VZS/" rel="sponsored">Sandars, N. K. <i>The Epic of Gilgamesh.</i> Penguin Classics, 1973.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__7e0934fc9e8173ab9cd977f89174f80a"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0300099207/" rel="sponsored">Simpson, W. K. <i>The Literature of Ancient Egypt.</i> Yale University Press, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__01f2757f17260ae81d3639e4c62fa1ad"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B002R2OFNC/" rel="sponsored">Various Ancient Authors. <i>Holy Bible, New King James Version.</i> Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__6aa433bce8712ecc1898ce1a9228dfa7"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/039305974X/" rel="sponsored">Wise Bauer, S. <i>The History of the Ancient World.</i> W. W. Norton & Company, 2007.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. 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J. (2009, September 02). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/" class="no_external">Literature</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/" class="no_external">Literature</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified September 02, 2009. https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/" class="no_external">Literature</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 02 Sep 2009. Web. 24 Nov 2024. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 02 September 2009. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included. <span class="no_print">Please note that content linked from this page may have different licensing terms.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="editor_tools"> </div> <div class="timeline_outer_wrapper"> <div class="timeline_wrapper"> <h2>Timeline</h2> <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/login/" title="Add Timeline Entry" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Add Event</a> <a href="/ajax/ajax_print_visual_timeline.php?tag=literature&width=950&height=600" rel="nofollow" class="thickbox outline_button visual_timeline_button" title="Visual Timeline">Visual Timeline</a> <ul id="time_list"> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3522" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2500 BCE</div> Beginning of <a href="/literature/">literature</a> in <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerian</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_936" title=""> <div class="date">2285 BCE - 2250 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/Enheduanna/">Enheduanna</a>, daughter of <a href="/Sargon_of_Akkad/">Sargon of Akkad</a>, and world's first author known by name. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_516" title=""> <div class="date">c. 2150 BCE - c. 1400 BCE</div> The tales of <a href="/gilgamesh/">Gilgamesh</a> written which inform The Epic of Gilgamesh </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1025" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1900 BCE - c. 1600 BCE</div> Composition of The Descent of <a href="/Inanna/">Inanna</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_939" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1900 BCE - c. 1600 BCE</div> The poem "Descent of <a href="/Inanna/">Inanna</a>" is written. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1026" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1640 BCE - c. 1700 BCE</div> Written form of the Atrahasis Myth of the Great Flood. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_595" title=""> <div class="date">1345 BCE</div> The world's first manual on training horses is written by the <a href="/Mitanni/">Mitanni</a> horse trainer Kikkuli (found in Hattusa). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_519" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1120 BCE</div> Extant copy of the <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerian</a> Enuma Elish (creation story) is made from much older text. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_521" title=""> <div class="date">c. 800 BCE - c. 700 BCE</div> <a href="/homer/">Homer</a> of <a href="/greece/">Greece</a> writes his <i><a href="/iliad/">Iliad</a></i> and <i><a href="/Odyssey/">Odyssey</a></i>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_520" title=""> <div class="date">c. 700 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> poet <a href="/hesiod/">Hesiod</a> writes his <i><a href="/Theogony/">Theogony</a></i> and <i><a href="/Works_and_Days/">Works and Days</a></i>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_499" title=""> <div class="date">c. 647 BCE - c. 629 BCE</div> Extensive collection of clay tablets acquired known as <a href="/Ashurbanipal/">Ashurbanipal</a>'s Library at <a href="/nineveh/">Nineveh</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4266" title=""> <div class="date">c. 500 BCE</div> The Indian epic <a href="/The_Ramayana/">the Ramayana</a> is composed by the sage Valmiki. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2413" title=""> <div class="date">c. 400 BCE - c. 200 CE</div> The <a href="/Bhagavad_Gita/">Bhagavad Gita</a>, part of the <a href="/Mahabharata/">Mahabharata</a>, is written at some point between 400 BCE and 200 CE. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1866" title=""> <div class="date">213 BCE</div> The Burning of the Books and the Burying of Philosophers Period in <a href="/china/">China</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3534" title=""> <div class="date">c. 205 BCE - 184 BCE</div> <a href="/plautus/">Plautus</a> writes his <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> comedy plays. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3535" title=""> <div class="date">c. 200 BCE</div> <a href="/plautus/">Plautus</a>' comedy play Stichus is first performed. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3536" title=""> <div class="date">c. 191 BCE</div> <a href="/plautus/">Plautus</a>' comedy play Pseudolus is first performed. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2409" title=""> <div class="date">c. 100 BCE</div> <a href="/buddhism/">Buddhist</a> sutras began to be written down in Pali. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_292" title=""> <div class="date">59 BCE - 17 CE</div> Life of <a href="/livy/">Livy</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_299" title=""> <div class="date">43 BCE - 17 CE</div> Life of the <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> writer <a href="/ovid/">Ovid</a>, author of Metamorphoses. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_523" title=""> <div class="date">c. 30 BCE - c. 19 BCE</div> <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> poet <a href="/virgil/">Virgil</a> writes his <a href="/The_Aeneid/">Aeneid</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2817" title=""> <div class="date">23 CE - Aug 79 CE</div> Life of <a href="/Pliny_the_Elder/">Pliny the Elder</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3595" title=""> <div class="date">c. 69 CE - c. 130 CE</div> Life of <a href="/disambiguation/Roman/">Roman</a> biographer <a href="/Suetonius/">Suetonius</a> who wrote 'The Twelve Caesars'. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2412" title=""> <div class="date">148 CE</div> An Shigao is the first <a href="/buddhism/">Buddhist</a> translator mentioned in Chinese sources who established a translation centre in the Chinese imperial capital, <a href="/Luoyang/">Luoyang</a>. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1732096425" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. 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