Philosophy - World History Encyclopedia

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src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=buddhism+Charvaka+Chinese_Philosophy+Greek_Philosophy+jainism+philosophy+Pre-Socratic_Philosophers+Upanishads+zoroastrianism" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/906.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/" data-pin-description="The word philosophy comes from the Greek philo (love) and sophia (wisdom) and so is literally defined as “the love of wisdom”. More broadly understood, it is the study of the most basic and profound matters of human existence. Philosophical schools frequently develop in response to some perceived..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 16 October 2020 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/fr/1-340/philosophie/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/it/1-340/filosofia/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Italian</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-340/filosofia/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Spanish</a>, <a href="/trans/tr/1-340/felsefe/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Turkish</a></div> </div> <style> .audio-player-wrapper * { font-size: 14px !important; } .audio-player-wrapper .summary-wrapper { display: none; } .audio_player #play-btn-wrap svg { color: #222; margin-left: -18px; } #amplift-outer-wrapper { height: 60px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; top: -4px; left: -9px; margin-bottom: 0px; } .audio-player-wrapper .audio_player { visibility: hidden; } </style> <div id="amplift-outer-wrapper"></div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ window.setTimeout(()=>{ async_load_js("https://c.ampliftglobal.com/player/ampliftplayer.js",function() { AHE.ampliftPlayer = new AmpliftPlayer({target: '#amplift-outer-wrapper'}); AHE.ampliftPlayer.init(); window.setTimeout(()=>{ $('.audio-player-wrapper .audio_player').css('visibility','visible'); },1500); }); },1000); }); </script> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=buddhism+Charvaka+Chinese_Philosophy+Greek_Philosophy+jainism+philosophy+Pre-Socratic_Philosophers+Upanishads+zoroastrianism" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/906/antisthenes-bust-british-museum/" title="Antisthenes Bust, British Museum"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/906.jpg.webp?v=1727960655 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/906.jpg.webp?v=1727960655 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/906.jpg?v=1727960655 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/906.jpg?v=1727960655 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/906.jpg?v=1727960655" width="300" height="300" alt="Antisthenes Bust, British Museum (by Trustees of the British Museum, Copyright)" title="Antisthenes Bust, British Museum (by Trustees of the British Museum, Copyright)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Antisthenes Bust, British Museum</div><div class="figauthor">Trustees of the British Museum (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/906/antisthenes-bust-british-museum/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/906/antisthenes-bust-british-museum/","caption":"A portrait of the Greek philosopher Antisthenes (c. 450-370 BCE), founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. Roman copy of a lost Greek original c. 300 BCE. (British Museum, London)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/906.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Trustees of the British Museum - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Trustees of the British Museum"},"creditText":"Trustees of the British Museum / Trustees of the British Museum","dateModified":"2024-11-23T21:28:13+0000","datePublished":"2012-09-23T19:35:09+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Antisthenes Bust, British Museum","height":"600","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_image.aspx?image=k115445.jpg&retpage=18240"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/906/antisthenes-bust-british-museum/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/906/antisthenes-bust-british-museum/","width":"600"} </script> <p>The word <em><dfn>Philosophy</dfn></em> comes from the <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> <em>philo</em> (love) and <em>sophia</em> (wisdom) and so is literally defined as “the love of wisdom”. More broadly understood, it is the study of the most basic and profound matters of human existence. Philosophical schools frequently develop in response to some perceived failure of <a href="/religion/">religion</a> to provide answers to fundamental questions.</p> <p>The topic of exactly when and where philosophy first began to develop is still debated, but the simplest answer is that it would have begun – at any place in the distant past – the first time someone asked why they were born, what their purpose was, and how they were supposed to understand their lives. The term philosophy may apply to a formalized secular or religious system of thought, a personal construct, or a communal understanding of proper attitude and conduct, but in each case, the purpose of the system is to answer such questions.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Philosophical systems are thought to have developed first in the East, and a working outline proceeds from <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a> to <a href="/Rome/">Rome</a> and on to the present:</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <ul> <li><a href="/egypt/">Egypt</a> by c. 4000 BCE: depictions of gods and the afterlife appear on <a href="/tomb/">tomb</a> walls</li> <li>Mesopotamia by c. 2150 BCE: written form of the philosophical narrative of <em>The Epic of <a href="/gilgamesh/">Gilgamesh</a></em></li> <li><a href="/india/">India</a> c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE: the Vedic Period</li> <li><a href="/Persia/">Persia</a> by c. 1500 BCE: development of <a href="/zoroastrianism/">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/china/">China</a> c. 1046-256 BCE: the <a href="/Zhou_Dynasty/">Zhou Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/greece/">Greece</a> c. 585-322 BCE: Time of <a href="/Thales_of_Miletus/">Thales of Miletus</a> to the <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a> of <a href="/aristotle/">Aristotle</a> of Stagira</li> <li>Rome c. 155 BCE onwards: Beginning with the arrival of Stoicism in Rome.</li> </ul> <p>Philosophical systems would continue in <a href="/europe/">Europe</a> during the Middle Ages (c. 476-1500 CE), primarily focused on Christian teachings, and would develop further during the Renaissance in the West. In the East, Islamic scholars after the 7th century CE as well as those of other faiths continued to develop their own systems. Philosophical schools have continued on this same trajectory up through the modern day as people continue to ask the same fundamental questions as their ancient ancestors and work to develop systems of thought to answer them.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <h3>Historical Overview</h3> <div class="big_quote">When religion fails to fully answer a people's questions or address their needs, the people turn to philosophy.</div> <p>A philosophical system may develop independently but usually is a response to religion; when religion fails to fully answer a people's questions or address their needs, the people turn to philosophy. People's existential questions traditionally have been answered by the development of religious systems which assured them of the existence of supernatural entities (gods, divine spirits, one's departed ancestors) who created them, cared for them, and watched over them. These belief structures, institutionalized as part of a <a href="/disambiguation/culture/">culture</a>, work to form a cohesive cultural understanding of one's place in the world and the philosophies which developed in response to that understanding either sought to explain it more clearly or replace it with a new paradigm.</p> <p>Although it is impossible to determine, it seems probable that philosophy was already established in Egypt by c. 4000 BCE, the date depictions of gods and the afterlife of the <a href="/Field_of_Reeds/">Field of Reeds</a> first begin appearing on tomb walls. It developed in Mesopotamia at some point before the time <em>The Epic of Gilgamesh</em> was committed to <a href="/writing/">writing</a> between c. 2150-1400 BCE. In India, philosophy develops during the Vedic Period between c. 1500 - c. 500 BCE with the <em><a href="/Upanishads/">Upanishads</a></em>. At about the same time, <a href="/zoroaster/">Zoroaster</a> (c. 1500-1000 BCE) was developing his philosophic vision in ancient Persia while, in China, philosophy is first committed to writing during the time of the <a href="/Zhou_Dynasty/">Zhou</a> Dynasty (1046-256 BCE) and later developed during the Spring and Autumn Period (c. 772-476 BCE) and the <a href="/Warring_States_Period/">Warring States Period</a> (c. 481-221 BCE) in the time associated with the Hundred Schools of Thought.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="996"> <a href="/image/996/confucius-buddha-and-lao-tzu/" title="Confucius, Buddha and Lao-Tzu" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/996.jpg.webp?v=1731091026 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/996.jpg.webp?v=1731091026 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/996.jpg?v=1731091026 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/996.jpg?v=1731091026 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/996.jpg?v=1731091026" alt="Confucius, Buddha and Lao-Tzu" class="in_text_image" width="346" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Confucius, Buddha and Lao-Tzu</div><div class="figauthor">Lucas (CC BY)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/996/confucius-buddha-and-lao-tzu/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/996/confucius-buddha-and-lao-tzu/","caption":"A Qing Dynasty print showing Confucius presenting Gautama Buddha to the philosopher Lao-Tzu.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/996.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Lucas - CC BY - This license lets others distribute, remix, tweak, and build upon your work, even commercially, as long as they credit you for the original creation. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Lucas"},"creditText":"Lucas / Flickr","dateModified":"2024-11-23T21:28:13+0000","datePublished":"2012-12-20T16:51:25+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Confucius, Buddha and Lao-Tzu","height":"1197","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.flickr.com/photos/ancientartpodcast/8040371009/"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/996/confucius-buddha-and-lao-tzu/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/996/confucius-buddha-and-lao-tzu/","width":"827"} </script> </p> <p>Philosophy in the West begins in the Ionian Greek colonies of <a href="/Asia_Minor/">Asia Minor</a> with <a href="/Thales_of_Miletus/">Thales</a> of Miletus (l. c. 585 BCE) who inspired the later writers known as the <a href="/Pre-Socratic_Philosophers/">Pre-Socratic philosophers</a> whose ideas would then inform and influence the iconic works of <a href="/plato/">Plato</a> (l. 424/423-348/347 BCE) and his student Aristotle of Stagira (l. 384-322 BCE) which form the foundation of Western philosophical thought. <a href="/Roman_Philosophy/">Roman philosophy</a> developed from the Greek after the arrival in the <a href="/city/">city</a> of Diogenes of <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a> (l. c. 230 - c. 140 BCE) in 155 BCE, a stoic philosopher from the Athenian school founded by <a href="/Zeno_of_Citium/">Zeno of Citium</a> (l. c. 336-265 BCE) whose system was inspired by <a href="/socrates/">Socrates</a>. Stoicism would afterwards become the most popular philosophical system in Rome and inform aspects of Christian philosophical systems which came later.</p> <h3>Philosophy in Egypt & Mesopotamia</h3> <p>The earliest philosophical system seems to have developed in Egypt as a response to the religious vision of a paradise after death known as the Field of Reeds, a mirror image of one's life on earth, where the souls of the justified dead would live eternally. The question which seems to have inspired <a href="/disambiguation/Egyptian/">Egyptian</a> philosophy is how one should live in order to ensure a place in this paradise. Evidence of the development of an answer to this question comes from tomb paintings c. 4000 BCE instructing people on where they came from, why they existed, and how to live well and attain paradise.</p> <p>Egyptian philosophy developed the concept of <em><a href="/Ma'at/">ma'at</a></em> (harmony and balance) as the central value by which one could live the best life and be assured of paradise but then addressed itself to the aspects of the soul, the concept of immortality, the possibility of reincarnation, and the nature of the divine.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="5428"> <a href="/image/5428/the-offering-of-maat/" title="The Offering of Ma'at" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5428.jpg.webp?v=1725505387 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5428.jpg.webp?v=1725505387 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5428.jpg?v=1725505387 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/5428.jpg?v=1725505387 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/5428.jpg?v=1725505387" alt="The Offering of Ma'at" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="334" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">The Offering of Ma'at</div><div class="figauthor">Terry Feuerborn (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5428/the-offering-of-maat/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5428/the-offering-of-maat/","caption":"This is a raised and colored relief within the interior of the Temple of Beit el-Wali, Lake Nasser, Aswan, Egypt (c. 1276 BC). On the left, Ramesses II makes an offering of the goddess Ma'at to the god Amun.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/5428.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Terry Feuerborn - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Terry Feuerborn"},"creditText":"Terry Feuerborn / Flickr","dateModified":"2024-11-23T21:28:13+0000","datePublished":"2016-07-29T08:56:47+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Offering of Ma'at","height":1365,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://www.flickr.com/photos/travfotos/23127330245/"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5428/the-offering-of-maat/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5428/the-offering-of-maat/","width":2048} </script> </p> <p>In Mesopotamia, the people understood themselves as co-workers with the gods. As in Egypt, the gods had created humanity and humans owed them a debt of gratitude which was paid through worship and proper behavior. In keeping with other ancient religious systems, the Mesopotamians understood their gods as operating on a <em>quid pro quo</em> (“this for that”) basis, which worked well as long as the individual felt the agreement was being honored, but when it seemed to fail, one naturally questioned its validity, and this sort of existential crisis inspires philosophical inquiry.</p> <p>This situation is illustrated in <em>The Epic of Gilgamesh</em> in which Gilgamesh, King of <a href="/uruk/">Uruk</a>, loses his best friend, Enkidu and embarks on a quest to find an escape from inevitable death. His story has been interpreted as a parable of philosophical development in that there is no evidence that Gilgamesh questions his relationship with the gods until the death of Enkidu which requires answers his religious beliefs cannot provide.</p> <h3>Indian Philosophy</h3> <p>In India, philosophy developed in response to <a href="/The_Vedas/">the Vedas</a>, the scriptures of <a href="/hinduism/">Hinduism</a> (known as <em>Sanatan Dharma</em>, “Eternal Order”, to adherents), in the form of the <em>Upanishads</em> (the earliest written c. 800-500 BCE). The <a href="/The_Vedas/">Vedas</a> were understood as the emanations of the Universe, the literal words of <a href="/God/">God</a>, and the <em>Upanishads</em> were composed to clarify and explain aspects of this message.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="12360"> <a href="/image/12360/kena-upanishad/" title="Kena Upanishad" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12360.jpg.webp?v=1727185698 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/12360.jpg.webp?v=1727185698 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/12360.jpg.webp?v=1727185698 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/12360.jpg.webp?v=1727185698 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12360.jpg?v=1727185698 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/12360.jpg?v=1727185698 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/12360.jpg?v=1727185698 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/12360.jpg?v=1727185698 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/12360.jpg?v=1727185698" alt="Kena Upanishad" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="360" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Kena Upanishad</div><div class="figauthor">Ms Sarah Welch (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12360/kena-upanishad/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12360/kena-upanishad/","caption":"Kena Upanishad, verses 1.1\u20133, partially 4 (opens with salutations to Ganesha)\r\n\r\nThe thick text is the Upanishad scripture, the small text in the margins and edges are an unknown scholar's notes and comments in the typical Hindu style of a minor bhasya.\r\n\r\nThe early Upanishads (Upanisad, Upanisat) are scriptures of Hinduism. Variously dated by scholars to have been composed between 900 BCE to about 200 BCE, these texts are in Sanskrit language and embedded within a layer of the Vedas. They contain a mixture of philosophy and mystical speculations, many set in the form of dialogues or pedagogic style. Their central teachings include the concepts of Atman (soul, self) and Brahman (metaphysical reality).\r\nThese manuscripts are preserved at the Lalchand Research Library, Ancient Indian Manuscript Collection, DAV College Digital Library Initiative, Chandigarh India, in association with SP Lohia and Indorama Charitable Trust. The texts are over 2000 years old, the re-copying into this particular manuscript is dated to a pre-1867 reproduction (exact date unknown). The manuscript shows significant decay and damage on the sides and its edges.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12360.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Ms Sarah Welch - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Ms Sarah Welch"},"creditText":"Ms Sarah Welch / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T21:28:13+0000","datePublished":"2020-06-11T06:35:43+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Kena Upanishad","height":1053,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kena_Upanishad_1.1_to_1.4_verses,_Samaveda,_Sanskrit,_Devanagari.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12360/kena-upanishad/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12360/kena-upanishad/","width":2194} </script> </p> <p>Around 600 BCE, a social and religious reform movement in the region resulted in the development of other philosophical systems which rejected orthodox Hinduism. These included the materialist school of <a href="/Charvaka/">Charvaka</a> (c. 600 BCE), the system of <a href="/jainism/">Jainism</a> (formulated by <a href="/Vardhamana/">Mahavira</a>/<a href="/Vardhamana/">Vardhamana</a>, l. c. 599-527 BCE), and <a href="/buddhism/">Buddhism</a> (founded by <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Siddhartha Gautama</a>, the <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Buddha</a>, l. c. 563 - c. 483 BCE). Although Jainism and Buddhism would later take on religious dimensions, they were originally philosophical schools of thought, although it should be noted there was no distinction between “religious” and “philosophical” thought in Asia at that time nor is there in the present.</p> <h3>Persian Philosophy</h3> <p>Persian philosophy was almost certainly already developed before c. 1500 BCE as evidenced by the <em><a href="/Avesta/">Avesta</a></em> (Zoroastrian scriptures) which draws on concepts from the polytheistic Early Iranian Religion. Zoroaster conceived of a new religious paradigm of a single god, <a href="/Ahura_Mazda/">Ahura Mazda</a>, creator and sustainer of the universe, whose supernatural adversary was Angra Mainyu (also known as <a href="/Ahriman/">Ahriman</a>), the lord of darkness and chaos.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="2637"> <a href="/image/2637/a-faravahar-symbol-in-a-fire-temple/" title="A Faravahar symbol in a Fire Temple" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2637.jpg.webp?v=1728547384 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2637.jpg.webp?v=1728547384 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2637.jpg.webp?v=1728547384 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/2637.jpg.webp?v=1728547384 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/2637.jpg?v=1728547384 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/2637.jpg?v=1728547384 1000w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2637.jpg?v=1728547384 750w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/2637.jpg?v=1728547384 1500w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/2637.jpg?v=1728547384" alt="A Faravahar symbol in a Fire Temple" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="326" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">A Faravahar symbol in a Fire Temple</div><div class="figauthor">ninara (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2637/a-faravahar-symbol-in-a-fire-temple/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2637/a-faravahar-symbol-in-a-fire-temple/","caption":"A Faravahar or Frawahr symbol in a Zoroastrian Fire Temple in Yazd, Iran, one of the symbols adopted by Zoroastrianism.\r\n\r\nThis symbol represents a winged guardian or fravashi, an angelic being of the Zoroastrian religion.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/2637.jpg","copyrightNotice":"ninara - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"ninara"},"creditText":"ninara / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T21:28:13+0000","datePublished":"2014-05-17T07:08:55+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"A Faravahar symbol in a Fire Temple","height":1955,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Faravahar_Atashkadeh_Yazd.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2637/a-faravahar-symbol-in-a-fire-temple/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/2637/a-faravahar-symbol-in-a-fire-temple/","width":4498} </script> </p> <p>The question left unanswered by Zoroaster's construct, however, was the source of evil and suffering in the world since Ahriman was understood as a created being and Ahura Mazda, who had no evil in him, as the source of all creation. This problem encouraged the development of the philosophical school of <a href="/Zorvanism/">Zorvanism</a>, sometime in the late <a href="/Achaemenid_Empire/">Achaemenid Empire</a> (c. 550-330 BCE) which claimed Zorvan, god of Infinite Time, created both Ahura Mazda and Ahriman and these two brother-deities were locked in an eternal struggle which human beings had no choice but to take sides in. One's purpose in life was the exercise of free will in deciding to devote one's self to the cause of good or evil.</p><div class="intext_6"></div> <h3><a href="/collection/218/chinese-philosophy/">Chinese Philosophy</a></h3> <div class="big_quote"><a href="/Chinese_Philosophy/">Chinese philosophy</a> was initially a response to social disorder as well as the failure of religious belief to explain the world & reassure people of a divine plan.</div> <p>The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period in China were times of chaos as the Zhou Dynasty was declining, and Chinese philosophy was developed in response to this disorder. The early texts of <a href="/Confucianism/">Confucianism</a> are thought to have been composed during the Zhou Dynasty and later developed by the sage <a href="/Confucius/">Confucius</a> (l. 551-479 BCE). Confucianism was only one belief structure of many which developed during this time referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought and which included many others including <a href="/Taoism/">Taoism</a> (founded by Lao Tzu c. 500 BCE) and <a href="/Legalism/">Legalism</a> (founded by <a href="/Han_Dynasty/">Han</a> Feizi, l. c. 280-233 BCE).</p> <p>These schools, and the many others, differed from each other significantly but were all an attempt to establish order in a time of chaos. The traditional understanding of <em>Tian</em> (heaven) as maintaining order through a mandate which legitimized a monarch's rule could no longer be sustained as the monarchs of different states fought each other for supremacy. Chinese philosophy, then, was initially a response to social disorder as well as the failure of religious belief to explain the world and reassure people of a divine plan.</p> <h3><a href="/Greek_Philosophy/">Greek Philosophy</a></h3> <p>Greek philosophy began in the 6th century BCE with Thales of Miletus who initiated it with the question “What is the basic 'stuff' of the universe?” (<em>Ancient Philosophy</em>, 8). Thales' inquiry seems an anomaly because of the religious beliefs of his time which seem to have been meeting the needs of the people. Ancient <a href="/Greek_Religion/">Greek religion</a> held that the gods had created the world and human beings and, as with other world religions of the time, questioning this basic premise was not appreciated nor encouraged. Thales seems to have avoided problems with the religious authorities by never denying the existence of gods, but this does not explain his initial impulse. Scholars suggest that, since he studied at Babylon, he most likely drew on Mesopotamian and Egyptian philosophies in formulating his own.</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="934"> <a href="/image/934/thales-of-miletus/" title="Thales of Miletus" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/934.jpg.webp?v=1732257368 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/934.jpg.webp?v=1732257368 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/934.jpg?v=1732257368 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/934.jpg?v=1732257368 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/934.jpg?v=1732257368" alt="Thales of Miletus" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Thales of Miletus</div><div class="figauthor">Peter Paul Rubens (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/934/thales-of-miletus/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/934/thales-of-miletus/","caption":"A head of Thales of Miletus, sheet from a drawing book, with an inscription in Greek: \"\u0398\u0391\u039b\u0397\u03a4\u039f\u03a3 \u039c\u0399\u039b\u0397\u03a3\u0399\u039f\u03a5\".","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/934.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Peter Paul Rubens - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Peter Paul Rubens"},"creditText":"Peter Paul Rubens / Trustees of the British Museum","dateModified":"2024-11-23T21:28:13+0000","datePublished":"2012-10-24T07:40:25+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Thales of Miletus","height":"501","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.britishmuseum.org/system_pages/beta_collection_introduction/beta_collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=3191384&partId=1&searchText=thales"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/934/thales-of-miletus/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/934/thales-of-miletus/","width":"501"} </script> </p> <p>Thales established the Milesian School, considered the first philosophical school in the West, and was followed by <a href="/Anaximander/">Anaximander</a> (l. c. 610 - c. 546 BCE) and <a href="/Anaximenes/">Anaximenes</a> (l. c. 546 BCE) who rejected Thales' claim that the First Cause was water and suggested their own. Philosophical thought then developed through the efforts of the other Pre-Socratic philosophers, finally culminating in the works of Plato and then of Aristotle. Later thinkers, notably <a href="/Plotinus/">Plotinus</a> (l. c. 202-274 CE), would develop these concepts further in establishing the foundation of Western Philosophy.</p> <h3>Branches of Philosophy</h3> <p>The areas of interest of modern-day philosophy apply equally to the East and West but the names by which they are known were developed by the Greeks. Although various schools may break some into sub-sections, the branches of study are:</p> <p><strong>Metaphysics</strong> – The Study of Existence, so named for Aristotle's work on the subject. Far from being a definitive term in Aristotle's day to denote the study of philosophy or religion, the term 'metaphysics' was given to Aristotle's book on the subject by his editor who placed it after his work 'Physics'. In Greek, <em>meta</em> simply means 'after', and the title was originally only meant to clarify that the one piece came after the first. However that may be, the term has since been applied to the study of first causes, underlying form of existence, and definitions concerning the meaning of time and even the meaning of “meaning”.</p><div class="intext_7"></div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="877"> <a href="/image/877/aristotle-bust-palazzo-altemps/" title="Aristotle Bust, Palazzo Altemps" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/877.jpg.webp?v=1724806217 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/877.jpg.webp?v=1724806217 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/877.jpg?v=1724806217 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/877.jpg?v=1724806217 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/877.jpg?v=1724806217" alt="Aristotle Bust, Palazzo Altemps" class="in_text_image" width="339" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Aristotle Bust, Palazzo Altemps</div><div class="figauthor">SquinchPix.com (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/877/aristotle-bust-palazzo-altemps/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/877/aristotle-bust-palazzo-altemps/","caption":"2nd century AD marble bust of Aristotle (Museo Nazionale Romano,Palazzo Altemps,Rome).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/877.jpg","copyrightNotice":"SquinchPix.com - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"SquinchPix.com"},"creditText":"SquinchPix.com / SquinchPix","dateModified":"2024-11-23T21:28:13+0000","datePublished":"2012-09-13T10:19:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Aristotle Bust, Palazzo Altemps","height":"900","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.squinchpix.com/searchn.php?zoom_query=^14382&dmode=gallery"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/877/aristotle-bust-palazzo-altemps/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/877/aristotle-bust-palazzo-altemps/","width":"610"} </script> <br /> <br /> <strong>Epistemology</strong> – The Study of Knowledge (from the Greek <em>episteme</em>, knowledge, and <em>logos</em>, word). Epistemology asks how one knows what one knows, what exactly is 'knowledge', how can it be defined, and how can one know that the meaning one defines a word by will be the meaning another person will understand. Epistemological questions do not seem to have concerned the ancients until the subject is addressed by the Pre-Socratic philosophers of Greece and Plato after them.<br /> <br /> <strong>Ethics</strong> – The Study of Behavior/Action (from the Greek <em>ta ethika</em>, on character), a term popularized by Aristotle in his <em>Nichomachean Ethics,</em> which he wrote for his son, Nichomachus, as a guide to living well. Ethics is concerned with morality, how one should live and upon what basis to make decisions. Ethics was a central concern of all ancient philosophies from Mesopotamia onwards in trying to determine the best way for people to live, not only for their own self-interest but the interests of the wider community and, finally, in accordance with the will of the gods.</p> <div class="big_quote">Questions concerning how one should best live with one's neighbors & what is owed to the community go back thousands of years.</div> <p><strong>Politics</strong> – The Study of Governance (from the Greek <em><a href="/Polis/">polis</a></em>, city, and <em>politikos</em>, meaning 'that which has to do with the city'). Far from simply being concerned with running a government, however, <em>politikos</em> also has to do with how to be a good citizen and neighbor and what one should contribute to one's community. This branch, like all the others, was first definitively examined and popularized in the works of Aristotle in the West but questions concerning how one should best live with one's neighbors and what is owed to the community go back thousands of years to Mesopotamian, Egyptian, Persian, and Indian texts.<br /> <br /> <strong>Aesthetics</strong> – The Study of Art (from the Greek <em>aisthetikos</em>, sense/sentience, or <em>aisthanomai</em>, to perceive or feel). Aesthetics concerns itself with the study of beauty, perception of beauty, culture, and even nature, asking the fundamental question, “What makes something that is beautiful or meaningful 'beautiful' or 'meaningful'?” Both Plato and Aristotle give answers to this question attempting to standardize objectively what is 'beautiful' while the famous Greek Sophist <a href="/protagoras/">Protagoras</a> (l. c. 485-415 BCE) argued that if one believes something to be 'beautiful' then it is beautiful and that all judgments are and must be subjective because any experience is relative to the one experiencing it.</p> <p>These branches were not defined in this way until the time of the Greeks, but the questions they ask and seek to address were voiced by peoples throughout the <a href="/Near_East/">Near East</a>, South Asia, and all over the ancient world.</p> <h3>Conclusion</h3> <p>Plato attributed the vision of his philosophy to his teacher, Socrates, who wrote nothing himself. Almost all of what is known of Socrates' life and teaching comes from Plato and another of Socrates' students, <a href="/xenophon/">Xenophon</a> (l. 430 - c. 354 BCE). Whether Plato's work accurately reflects Socrates' teachings is unknown and will never be known, but scholars generally believe that it does, more or less, and that Socrates is the foundational figure of Western Philosophy. Following his martyrdom in 399 BCE, his followers established their own schools, and the works of Plato and Xenophon were copied and spread throughout the <a href="/disambiguation/mediterranean/">Mediterranean</a>. One copy of Xenophon's <em>Memorabilia</em> was acquired by Zeno of Citium who would go on to establish the Stoic School in <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a> based on Socrates' vision.</p> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/IsdgFJBXb2w?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=en" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="The History of Philosophy: Origins of Ancient Philosophy Around the Globe"></iframe></div></div> <p>Stoicism would travel to Rome via the philosopher Diogenes of Babylon and would influence the thought of <a href="/Epictetus/">Epictetus</a> (l. c. 50 - c. 130 CE), the most famous Stoic philosopher, whose works would establish Stoicism as the most popular philosophy of ancient Rome, even to the point of informing the reign of <a href="/Marcus_Aurelius/">Marcus Aurelius</a> (r. 161-180 CE). Stoicism's claim that there was a natural force (the <em>logos</em>) which was the First Cause and which maintained the universe would contribute to the philosophical concepts of Saint <a href="/Paul_the_Apostle/">Paul the Apostle</a> (l. c. 5-64 CE) in formulating his vision of <a href="/christianity/">Christianity</a> which informs the epistles and <a href="/The_Gospels/">gospels</a> of the Christian <a href="/New_Testament/">New Testament</a>.</p> <p>Philosophy continued to develop, hand in hand, with religion through the Middle Ages and on into the present day. Medieval philosophy sought to explain the world, in the West, according to the Jewish and Christian belief systems and, in the East, in accordance with the <a href="/hinduism/">Hindu</a>, <a href="/buddhism/">Buddhist</a>, and Islamic visions. In the present day, philosophical schools and movements continue to develop in response to religious beliefs, accepted knowledge, or traditional understanding in any area when these authorities fail to fully address the higher needs of the people.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=buddhism+Charvaka+Chinese_Philosophy+Greek_Philosophy+jainism+philosophy+Pre-Socratic_Philosophers+Upanishads+zoroastrianism" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__67d6c8344b0a56df725cfd9b1b653ddc"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0133523292/" rel="sponsored">Baird, F. 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M. <i>Stolen Legacy: The Egyptian Origins of Western Philosophy.</i> Echo Point Books & Media, 2016.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__7e50f82433c1af6ac74d1258b412e99b"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B008UYPMGU/" rel="sponsored">Koller, J. M. <i>Asian Philosophies.</i> Prentice Hall, 2007.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__271db858bda5a362a15ac00f95dd5096"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1250054168/" rel="sponsored">Kriwaczek, P. <i>Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.</i> St. Martin's Griffin, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__f87762c303b24bed1744237e03696337"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1538122936/" rel="sponsored">Long, J. D. <i>Historical Dictionary of Hinduism.</i> Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__646b02c06df21df5c4ce500f7de80c74"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1845116267/" rel="sponsored">Long, J. D. <i>Jainism: An Introduction.</i> I.B. 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H. <i>The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt.</i> Thames & Hudson, 2017.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. Mark is World History Encyclopedia's co-founder and Content Director. He was previously a professor at Marist College (NY) where he taught history, philosophy, literature, and writing. He has traveled extensively and lived in Greece and Germany. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339" title="Joshua J. Mark" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="translations_notice"> <h2 class="translations">Translations</h2> <a href="/trans/fr/1-340/philosophie/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">French</a> <a href="/trans/it/1-340/filosofia/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Italian</a> <a href="/trans/es/1-340/filosofia/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Spanish</a> <a href="/trans/tr/1-340/felsefe/" class="translation_link outline_button" rel="alternate">Turkish</a> <p>We want people all over the world to learn about history. Help us and <a href="/trans/x/1-340/edit/" class="translation_add_button" rel="nofollow">translate this definition</a> into another language!</p> </div> <div class="faq"> <h2>Questions & Answers</h2> <dl> <dt><h4>What is a simple definition of philosophy?</h4></dt> <dd>The word Philosophy is Greek for "the love of wisdom" and is defined as the study of the most basic and profound aspects of human existence including the meaning of life.</dd> <dt><h4>When did philosophy begin?</h4></dt> <dd>The origin of philosophy is debated but was already established in Mesopotamia by c. 2150 BCE. Greek Philosophy developed between the time of Thales of Miletus and the time of Aristotle, so c. 585-322 BCE.</dd> <dt><h4>What are the 5 Branches of Philosophy?</h4></dt> <dd>The 5 Branches of Philosophy are Metaphysics, Epistemology, Ethics, Politics, and Aesthetics.</dd> <dt><h4>Who is the greatest philosopher?</h4></dt> <dd>The definition of the "greatest philosopher" is debated but is generally considered to be Plato whose works provide the foundation for Western Philosophy and have influenced Eastern Philosophy.</dd> </dl> </div> <style> .faq h4 { font-family: "Libre Baskerville", "Palatino Linotype", "Book Antiqua", Palatino, serif; } .faq { margin-bottom: 40px; } </style> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Related Content</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"> <span class="filter_label">Filters:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type selected">All<span class="ci_rel_type_count"> </span></div> <div rel="1" class="ci_type_1 ci_rel_type ">Definitions<span class="ci_rel_type_count">63</span></div> <div rel="2" class="ci_type_2 ci_rel_type ">Articles<span class="ci_rel_type_count">21</span></div> <div rel="3" class="ci_type_3 ci_rel_type ">Images<span class="ci_rel_type_count">4</span></div> <div rel="6" class="ci_type_6 ci_rel_type ">Videos<span class="ci_rel_type_count">6</span></div> <div rel="9" class="ci_type_9 ci_rel_type ">Collections<span class="ci_rel_type_count">5</span></div> </div> <div id="ci_related_content"> <div class="ci_related_content_wrapper ci_two_cols three_cols"> <div class="columns"> <a href="/Charvaka/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11763"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2639.jpg.webp?v=1699631164 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/2639.jpg.webp?v=1699631164 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2639.jpg?v=1699631164 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/2639.jpg?v=1699631164 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2639.jpg?v=1699631164" width="360" height="202" alt="Charvaka" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Charvaka</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Charvaka (also given as Carvaka) was a philosophical school of... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/Upanishads/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11720"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1033.jpg.webp?v=1731158227 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1033.jpg.webp?v=1731158227 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1033.jpg?v=1731158227 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1033.jpg?v=1731158227 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1033.jpg?v=1731158227" width="360" height="202" alt="Upanishads" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Upanishads</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> The Upanishads are the philosophical-religious texts of Hinduism... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/jainism/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 " id="1-11143"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1197.jpg.webp?v=1727381174 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1197.jpg.webp?v=1727381174 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1197.jpg?v=1727381174 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1197.jpg?v=1727381174 720w" type="image/jpg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1197.jpg?v=1727381174" width="360" height="202" alt="Jainism" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Definition </div> <h3>Jainism</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Jainism is one of the oldest religions in the world. 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J. (2020, October 16). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/" class="no_external">Philosophy</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/" class="no_external">Philosophy</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified October 16, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/philosophy/" class="no_external">Philosophy</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 16 Oct 2020. Web. 23 Nov 2024. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 16 October 2020. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. 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c. 500 BCE</div> Indian scholars of the so-called Vedic Period commit <a href="/The_Vedas/">the Vedas</a> to written form; basic tenets of <a href="/hinduism/">Hinduism</a> are established. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_11508" title=""> <div class="date">c. 610 BCE - c. 546 BCE</div> Dates of <a href="/Anaximander/">Anaximander</a> who develops the cosmic theory of the apeiron as the First Cause of existence. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2008" title=""> <div class="date">c. 600 BCE</div> Development of the <a href="/Charvaka/">Charvaka</a> school of <a href="/philosophy/">philosophy</a> in <a href="/india/">India</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2006" title=""> <div class="date">c. 599 BCE - c. 527 BCE</div> Traditional dating of the life of <a href="/Vardhamana/">Vardhamana</a>, according to Jain tradition. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_858" title=""> <div class="date">c. 585 BCE</div> Time in which <a href="/Thales_of_Miletus/">Thales of Miletus</a> lived. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_857" title=""> <div class="date">c. 570 BCE - c. 478 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/Xenophanes_of_Colophon/">Xenophanes of Colophon</a>; claim of One <a href="/God/">God</a> as the First Cause of existence. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1769" title=""> <div class="date">c. 563 BCE - c. 483 BCE</div> The life of <a href="/Siddhartha_Gautama/">Siddhartha Gautama</a> according to modern scholarly consensus. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_11509" title=""> <div class="date">c. 546 BCE</div> Date of <a href="/Anaximenes/">Anaximenes</a>' work; air is claimed as the First Cause of existence. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1854" title=""> <div class="date">c. 500 BCE</div> Life of the Chinese Relativist Philosopher <a href="/Teng_Shih/">Teng Shih</a> (probable date of <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a> 522 or 502 BCE). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1855" title=""> <div class="date">c. 500 BCE</div> Probable life of the Chinese philosopher <a href="/Lao-Tzu/">Lao-Tzu</a>, founder of <a href="/Taoism/">Taoism</a> and author of the Tao-Te-Ching. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1903" title=""> <div class="date">c. 500 BCE</div> Probable life of <a href="/Sun-Tzu/">Sun-Tzu</a>, Military Strategist, author of <a href="/The_Art_of_War/">The Art of War</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2800" title=""> <div class="date">492 BCE - 432 BCE</div> Life of the philosopher Empidocles of <a href="/agrigento/">Agrigento</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_11518" title=""> <div class="date">c. 485 BCE - c. 415 BCE</div> Life of the Sophist <a href="/protagoras/">Protagoras</a> of Abdera; claim that "man is the measure of all things". </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1856" title=""> <div class="date">470 BCE - 391 BCE</div> Life of the Chinese pacifist philosopher <a href="/Mo_Ti/">Mo Ti</a>, founder of Mohism. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_193" title=""> <div class="date">c. 469 BCE - 399 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/socrates/">Socrates</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_11517" title=""> <div class="date">c. 460 BCE - c. 370 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/Democritus/">Democritus</a>, pupil of Leucippus; development of the concept of the atomic universe. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1601" title=""> <div class="date">c. 450 BCE - c. 370 BCE</div> Life of Antisthenes, found of the Cynic school of <a href="/philosophy/">philosophy</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1898" title=""> <div class="date">440 BCE - 360 BCE</div> Life of Chinese Hedonist Philosopher <a href="/Yang_Zhu/">Yang Zhu</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_329" title=""> <div class="date">430 BCE - c. 354 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/xenophon/">Xenophon</a> of <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_202" title=""> <div class="date">427 BCE - 347 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/plato/">Plato</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_501" title=""> <div class="date">c. 424 BCE - 423 BCE</div> <a href="/plato/">Plato</a> is born at <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>, <a href="/greece/">Greece</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_502" title=""> <div class="date">407 BCE</div> <a href="/plato/">Plato</a> meets <a href="/socrates/">Socrates</a>, abandons aspiration to be playwright. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2981" title=""> <div class="date">c. 404 BCE - 323 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/disambiguation/greek/">Greek</a> philosopher <a href="/Diogenes_of_Sinope/">Diogenes of Sinope</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_503" title=""> <div class="date">403 BCE</div> <a href="/plato/">Plato</a> turns away from politics toward <a href="/philosophy/">philosophy</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1231" title=""> <div class="date">399 BCE</div> Trial and <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a> of the philosopher <a href="/socrates/">Socrates</a>, who taught in the court of the <a href="/agora/">Agora</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_209" title=""> <div class="date">384 BCE - 322 BCE</div> Life of <a href="/aristotle/">Aristotle</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_507" title=""> <div class="date">380 BCE</div> <a href="/plato/">Plato</a> founds his Academy outside of <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1857" title=""> <div class="date">372 BCE - 289 BCE</div> Life of the Confucian philosopher <a href="/Mencius/">Mencius</a> (Mang-Tze). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_508" title=""> <div class="date">361 BCE - 360 BCE</div> <a href="/plato/">Plato</a>'s second trip to <a href="/syracuse/">Syracuse</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_844" title=""> <div class="date">343 BCE</div> King <a href="/Philip_II_of_Macedon/">Philip II of Macedon</a> summons <a href="/aristotle/">Aristotle</a> to tutor his young son <a href="/disambiguation/Alexander/">Alexander</a> (later 'The Great'). </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_998" title=""> <div class="date">c. 336 BCE - 265 BCE</div> Life of the philosopher <a href="/Zeno_of_Citium/">Zeno of Citium</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1005" title=""> <div class="date">c. 314 BCE</div> <a href="/Zeno_of_Citium/">Zeno of Citium</a> is shipwrecked and stranded in <a href="/Athens/">Athens</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1866" title=""> <div class="date">213 BCE</div> The Burning of the Books and the Burying of Philosophers Period in <a href="/china/">China</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1781" title=""> <div class="date">c. 1 CE - c. 100 CE</div> The Mahayana movement begins in <a href="/india/">India</a> with its belief in bodhisattva - saintly souls who helped the living. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_3476" title=""> <div class="date">c. 204 CE - 270 CE</div> Life of <a href="/Plotinus/">Plotinus</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_863" title=""> <div class="date">c. 380 CE - c. 418 CE</div> Life time of <a href="/Paul_the_Apostle/">Paulus</a> <a href="/Orosius/">Orosius</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_12449" title=""> <div class="date">c. 470 CE - c. 385 CE</div> Life of the philosopher <a href="/Philolaus/">Philolaus</a>, active in <a href="/Magna_Graecia/">Magna Graecia</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_1782" title=""> <div class="date">c. 500 CE - c. 600 CE</div> In <a href="/india/">India</a> the Tantric expands the number of deities to include helpful demons, contactable through ritual. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_2247" title=""> <div class="date">c. 524 CE - c. 525 CE</div> Boethius writes The Consolation of <a href="/philosophy/">Philosophy</a> while imprisoned by Theodoric in Pavia. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_4301" title=""> <div class="date">617 CE - 686 CE</div> Life of the Korean <a href="/buddhism/">Buddhist</a> philosopher <a href="/Wonhyo/">Wonhyo</a>. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_15899" title=""> <div class="date">1651 CE</div> <a href="/Thomas_Hobbes/">Thomas Hobbes</a> publishes his Leviathan. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_15873" title=""> <div class="date">1689 CE</div> <a href="/John_Locke/">John Locke</a> publishes his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Two Treatises on Government, and Letters on Toleration. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_16202" title=""> <div class="date">1726 CE</div> Francis Hutcheson coins the term "the greatest happiness of the greatest number" in his Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and Evil. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_16193" title=""> <div class="date">1776 CE</div> <a href="/Jeremy_Bentham/">Jeremy Bentham</a> publishes his A Fragment on Government. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_16194" title=""> <div class="date">1789 CE</div> <a href="/Jeremy_Bentham/">Jeremy Bentham</a> publishes his thoughts on <a href="/Utilitarianism/">utilitarianism</a> in his Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_16200" title=""> <div class="date">1859 CE</div> <a href="/John_Stuart_Mill/">John Stuart Mill</a> publishes his On Liberty. </li> <li class="timeline_entry" id="tl_16201" title=""> <div class="date">1863 CE</div> <a href="/John_Stuart_Mill/">John Stuart Mill</a> publishes his <a href="/Utilitarianism/">Utilitarianism</a>. </li> </ul> </div> </div>  <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <img loading="lazy" data-src="/template/images/newsletter-header-red.jpg" class="newsletter_banner" width="300" height="106" alt="Weekly Newsletter"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <p>History delivered to you once a week:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Are you a...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"> <input type="radio" value="1" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-0" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-0">History Enthusiast</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="2" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-1" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-1">Teacher</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="4" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-2" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-2">Student</label><br/> <input type="radio" value="8" name="group[5]" id="mce-group[5]-5-3" required><label for="mce-group[5]-5-3">Librarian</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div>  <input type="hidden" name="tags" value="40497"> <input type="submit" value="Subscribe" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div>  </aside> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad">  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div> <a href="/membership/?utm_campaign=membership&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_en" id="membership_sidebar" title="Membership"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-en.svg?v=1732096425" width="29" height="133" alt="Membership" /> </a> <footer> <div class="print_membership_notice no_membership_only print_only"> <p>World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization publishing free history content that has been carefully researched and reviewed. 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