Litt茅rature - Encyclop茅die de l'Histoire du Monde

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<li class="toplevel"> <a class="first-menu-item" href="/">Accueil anglais</a> </li> <li class="toplevel"> <a class="first-menu-item" href="/static/about/fr/">Qui sommes-nous?</a> </li> <li class="toplevel ui_lang"> <a href="/login/" class="login_link">connexion</a> <ul> <li><a href="/login/?ui_lang=fr" title="Login" class="login_link">connexion</a></li> <li><a href="/register/?ui_lang=fr" title="Registration" class="login_link">S'inscrire</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </nav> </header> <div id="title_bar"> <div class="box_wrapper v_spacing"> <h1 id="page_title_text" class="trans">Litt茅rature</h1> </div> </div> <div id="page">  <img fetchpriority="low" src="https://tracker.metricool.com/c3po.jpg?hash=e6d1989f7dd6d8015b64bbd5e406d15" class="metricoolPixel" /> <div id="content_wrapper"> <div id="content" class="trans_page">  <script> function darkMode() { let css = document.createElement("link"); css.id = 'darkCSS'; css.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet") css.setAttribute("type", "text/css") css.setAttribute("media","screen"); css.setAttribute("href", "/template/css/exclude/dark.css?v=1738769252"); document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(css) document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script> <main class="left_3_column"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contenus</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Imprimer l'article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <h2>D茅finition</h2> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> de <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, traduit par <a href="/user/caroline_2/" rel="translator" title="User Page: Caroline Martin">Caroline Martin</a> <br/> publi茅 le 02 septembre 2009 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Disponible dans ces autres langues: <a href="/literature/" class="translation_link" rel="alternate">anglais</a>, <a href="/trans/es/1-562/literatura/" class="translation_link es " rel="alternate">espagnol</a>, <a href="/trans/tr/1-562/edebiyat/" class="translation_link tr " rel="alternate">Turc</a></div> </div> <div id="audio-outer-wrapper"> <iframe id="audio-frame-contents" data-src="/audioplayer/fr/1-562/" height="80" width="100%" frameborder="no" scrolling="no"></iframe> </div> <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ let litPlayer = $('#audio-frame-contents'); if (litPlayer) { litPlayer.attr('src',litPlayer.attr('data-src')); } }); }); </script> <style> #audio-outer-wrapper { height: 80px; width: 100%; margin: 1em 0em; } #audio-frame-contents { background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; max-height: 80px; } </style> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Imprimer l'article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <article class="body trans"> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/" title="The Epic of Gilgamesh"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/206.jpg.webp?v=1693486203 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/206.jpg.webp?v=1693486203 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/206.jpg?v=1693486203 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/206.jpg?v=1693486203 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/206.jpg?v=1693486203" width="300" height="366" alt="The Epic of Gilgamesh (by N/A, CC BY-SA)" title="The Epic of Gilgamesh (by N/A, CC BY-SA)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">L'脡pop茅e de Gilgamesh</div><div class="figauthor">N/A (CC BY-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/","caption":"The Deluge Tablet of the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh written in Akkadian (1300 - 1000 BCE)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/206.jpg","copyrightNotice":"N/A - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"N/A"},"creditText":"N/A / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2025-02-17T04:00:02+0000","datePublished":"2012-04-26T07:45:12+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"The Epic of Gilgamesh","height":"543","isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"http://www.cts.edu/ImageLibrary/Images/July%2012/delutab.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/206/the-epic-of-gilgamesh/","width":"446"} </script> <p>La litt茅rature <a href="/trans/fr/2-1290/fantomes-nordiques-et-au-dela/"></a><a href="/trans/fr/2-148/textes-des-pyramides-guide-de-lau-dela/"></a><a href="/trans/fr/2-119/les-chaouabtis-la-main-doeuvre-de-lau-dela/"></a><a href="/trans/fr/2-1942/communautes-diasporiques-en-mediterranee-et-au-del/"></a>(du latin <em>Littera</em> signifiant 芦 lettres 禄 et faisant r茅f茅rence 脿 la connaissance de l'茅crit) est l'艙uvre 茅crite d'une culture, d'une sous-culture, d'une religion, d'une <a href="/trans/fr/1-340/philosophie/">philosophie</a> sp茅cifique ou l'茅tude d'une telle 艙uvre 茅crite qui peut appara卯tre en po茅sie ou en prose. En Occident, la litt茅rature est n茅e dans la r茅gion de <a href="/trans/fr/1-114/sumer/">Sumer</a>, en <a href="/trans/fr/1-34/mesopotamie/">M茅sopotamie</a> m茅ridionale (vers 3200 av. JC), dans la ville d'<a href="/trans/fr/1-43/uruk/">Uruk</a>, et elle s'est 茅panouie en 脡gypte, puis en Gr猫ce (l'茅criture y ayant 茅t茅 import茅e des Ph茅niciens) et de l脿, 脿 Rome. L'茅criture semble 锚tre n茅e ind茅pendamment en Chine, 脿 partir de pratiques de divination, et 茅galement ind茅pendamment en M茅so-Am茅rique et ailleurs.</p> <p>Le premier auteur de litt茅rature au monde, connu par son nom, est la grande pr锚tresse d'<a href="/trans/fr/1-128/ur/">Ur</a>, <a href="/trans/fr/1-10021/enheduanna/">Enheduanna</a> (2285-2250 av. JC) qui a 茅crit des hymnes 脿 la gloire de la d茅esse sum茅rienne <a href="/trans/fr/1-10035/inanna/">Inanna</a>. Une grande partie de la litt茅rature ancienne de M茅sopotamie concerne les activit茅s des dieux mais, avec le temps, les humains sont devenus les personnages principaux de po猫mes tels que <em>Enmerkar et le seigneur d'Aratta</em> et <em>Lugalbanda et le mont Hurrum</em> (vers 2600-2000 av. JC). Pour les besoins de l'茅tude, la litt茅rature est aujourd'hui divis茅e en deux cat茅gories : la fiction et la non-fiction, mais il s'agit souvent de d茅cisions arbitraires, car la litt茅rature ancienne, telle qu'elle 茅tait comprise par ceux qui l'ont 茅crite, ainsi que par ceux qui l'ont entendue parl茅e ou chant茅e avant l'alphab茅tisation, n'茅tait pas comprise de la m锚me mani猫re que de nos jours.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header">Publicit茅</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <h3>La v茅rit茅 dans la litt茅rature</h3> <p>Les odes fulgurantes d'<a href="/trans/fr/1-225/homere/">Hom猫re</a> 脿 la grandeur de la flotte grecque en route pour <a href="/trans/fr/1-372/troie/">Troie</a> ou le voyage d'Ulysse sur la mer de vin noire 茅taient aussi r茅elles pour les auditeurs que ses descriptions de la magicienne <a href="/trans/fr/1-15021/circe/">Circ茅</a>, du cyclope Polyph猫me ou des <a href="/trans/fr/1-11879/sirenes/">sir猫nes</a>. Ces r茅cits, que l'on consid猫re aujourd'hui comme des mythes, 茅taient alors consid茅r茅s comme aussi vrais et sacr茅s que les 茅crits contenus dans la <a href="/trans/fr/1-191/bible/">Bible</a> jud茅o-chr茅tienne ou le Coran musulman le sont pour les croyants. Les d茅signations telles que 芦 fiction 禄 et 芦 non-fiction 禄 sont des 茅tiquettes assez r茅centes appliqu茅es aux 艙uvres 茅crites. L'esprit ancien comprenait que, bien souvent, la v茅rit茅 pouvait 锚tre appr茅hend茅e 脿 travers une fable sur un renard et des raisins inatteignables. La pr茅occupation moderne concernant la v茅rit茅 d'une histoire n'aurait pas concern茅 quiconque 茅coutait l'un des contes d'脡sope ; ce qui importait 茅tait ce que l'histoire essayait de transmettre.</p> <div class="big_quote">L'UNE DES PLUS ANCIENNES 艗UVRES LITT脡RAIRES CONNUES EST L'脡POP脡E DE <a href="/trans/fr/1-781/gilgamesh/">GILGAMESH</a>, SUM脡RO-BABYLONIENNE, DATANT D'ENVIRON 2150 AV. JC.</div> <p>M锚me ainsi, on accordait de l'importance 脿 l'exactitude dans l'enregistrement des 茅v茅nements r茅els (comme le montre la critique ancienne des r茅cits de l'historien <a href="/trans/fr/1-234/herodote/">H茅rodote</a>). Les premi猫res 艙uvres litt茅raires avaient g茅n茅ralement une approche didactique et un objectif religieux sous-jacent (ou souvent manifeste), comme dans l'艙uvre sum茅rienne <em>Enuma Elish</em> de 1120 av. JC ou <em><a href="/trans/fr/1-16590/theogonie/">Th茅ogonie</a></em> de l'茅crivain grec <a href="/trans/fr/1-785/hesiode/">H茅siode</a> du 8e si猫cle av. JC.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header">Publicit茅</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile"> </div> </div> <p>L'une des plus anciennes 艙uvres litt茅raires connues est l'<em>脡pop茅e de Gilgamesh, </em>sum茅ro-babylonienne, datant d'environ 2150 av. JC, qui aborde les th猫mes de l'h茅ro茂sme, de la fiert茅, de la nationalit茅, de l'amiti茅, de la d茅ception, de la mort et de la qu锚te de la vie 茅ternelle. Pour l'auteur et l'auditeur, il importait peu que ce qui se passait dans le r茅cit de Gilgamesh se soit r茅ellement produit. Ce qui importait, c'茅tait ce que le public 茅tait capable de retirer du conte.</p> <p><div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"><div class="youtube-embed-container"><iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/7hRrBcWyb98?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=fr" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="World Poetry Day: The Female Ancient Poets Sappho, Enheduanna and Zhuo Wenjun"></iframe></div></div></p> <p>Le meilleur exemple de ce ph茅nom猫ne est un genre connu sous le nom de 芦 Litt茅rature de Naru 禄 m茅sopotamienne, dans lequel des personnages historiques apparaissent dans des intrigues fictives. Les 艙uvres les plus connues de ce genre sont<em> La mal茅diction d'<a href="/trans/fr/1-363/akkad/">Akkad</a></em> et <em>La l茅gende de Cutha</em>, qui mettent toutes deux en sc猫ne le grand roi akkadien Naram-Sin (r. 2261-2224 av. JC), petit-fils de <a href="/trans/fr/1-625/sargon-dakkad/">Sargon d'Akkad</a> (r. 2334-2279 avant J.-C., p猫re d'Enheduanna). Dans ces deux ouvrages, Naram-Sin se comporte d'une mani猫re qui est contredite par des preuves physiques et d'autres 茅crits plus factuels. L'objectif de la litt茅rature de Naru n'est cependant pas de raconter ce qui s'est 芦 r茅ellement 禄 pass茅, mais de souligner un point moral, culturel et religieux.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header">Publicit茅</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <h3>Exemples de litt茅rature ancienne</h3> <p><em>Les textes des pyramides</em> d'脡gypte, 茅galement consid茅r茅s comme de la litt茅rature, racontent le voyage de l'芒me vers l'au-del脿 dans le champ des roseaux et ces 艙uvres, contrairement 脿 la litt茅rature de Naru m茅sopotamienne, pr茅sentent le sujet comme une v茅rit茅. La culture religieuse 茅gyptienne 茅tait fond茅e sur la r茅alit茅 d'une vie apr猫s la mort et sur le r么le jou茅 par les dieux dans le voyage 茅ternel d'une personne, dont la vie sur terre n'茅tait qu'une partie. L'<em><a href="/trans/fr/1-226/iliade/">Iliade</a></em> d'Hom猫re raconte la fameuse <a href="/trans/fr/1-154/guerre/">guerre</a> de dix ans entre les Grecs et les Troyens, tandis que l'<em><a href="/trans/fr/1-14584/odyssee/">Odyss茅e</a></em> relate le retour du grand h茅ros Ulysse chez lui apr猫s la guerre, aupr猫s de sa femme bien-aim茅e P茅n茅lope d'Ithaque. Cette 艙uvre, comme les autres mentionn茅es, renforce les valeurs culturelles sans se soucier de ce qui a pu se passer ou non concernant la guerre avec Troie.</p> <p>L'histoire racont茅e dans le<em> livre de l'Exode</em> biblique (1446 av. JC) est consid茅r茅e comme une v茅rit茅 historique par beaucoup aujourd'hui, mais 脿 l'origine, elle aurait pu 锚tre interpr茅t茅e comme une lib茅ration de l'esclavage dans un sens spirituel, car elle a 茅t茅茅crite pour donner du pouvoir aux adorateurs de Yahv茅, les encourager 脿 r茅sister aux tentations des peuples indig猫nes de <a href="/trans/fr/1-162/canaan/">Canaan</a> et 茅lever la perception du public en tant que peuple 茅lu d'un <a href="/trans/fr/1-10299/dieu/">dieu</a> tout-puissant.</p> <p><em>Le Cantique des cantiques</em> (vers 950 av. JC), tir茅 des 茅critures h茅bra茂ques du Tanakh, immortalise l'amour passionn茅 entre un homme et une femme (interpr茅t茅 par des chr茅tiens, bien plus tard, comme la relation entre le Christ et l'脡glise, bien qu'une telle interpr茅tation ne soit pas soutenue par le texte original) et l'aspect sacr茅 d'une telle relation. L'茅pop茅e indienne <em><a href="/trans/fr/1-12122/mahabharata/">Mahabharata</a></em> (vers 800-400 av. JC) relate la naissance d'une nation, tandis que <em><a href="/trans/fr/1-15104/ramayana/">Ramayana</a></em> (vers 200 av. JC) raconte le sauvetage par le grand Rama de sa femme Sita, enlev茅e par le mal茅fique Ravna. Les ouvrages trouv茅s dans la biblioth猫que du roi assyrien Asurbanipal (647-627 av. JC) relatent les actes h茅ro茂ques des dieux et des d茅esses, ainsi que les luttes et les triomphes des rois h茅ro茂ques de l'ancienne M茅sopotamie, comme Enmerkar, Lugalbanda et Gilgamesh. L'assyriologne <a href="/trans/fr/1-20614/samuel/">Samuel</a> Noah Kramer souligne que les premi猫res 艙uvres sum茅riennes - et, en fait, la culture sum茅rienne dans son ensemble - trouvent un 茅cho dans les temps modernes 脿 de nombreux niveaux et sont particuli猫rement apparentes dans la litt茅rature. Kramer 茅crit :</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header">Publicit茅</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <blockquote> <p>Elle est encore apparente dans une loi <a href="/trans/fr/1-943/mosaique/">mosa茂que</a> et un proverbe salomonien, dans les larmes de Job et une complainte de <a href="/trans/fr/1-194/jerusalem/">J茅rusalem</a>, dans le triste r茅cit de l'homme-dieu mourant, dans une cosmogonie h茅siodique et un mythe hindou, dans une fable 茅sopique et un th茅or猫me euclidien, dans un signe zodiacal et un dessin h茅raldique. (5)</p> </blockquote> <h3>L'originalit茅 dans la litt茅rature antique</h3> <p>La plupart des 艙uvres anciennes 茅taient 茅crites dans le m猫tre po茅tique que l'auteur avait entendu r茅p茅ter au fil du temps et, par cons茅quent, la datation de pi猫ces telles que<em> Enuma Elish</em> ou l'<em>Odyss茅e </em>est difficile dans la mesure o霉 elles ont finalement 茅t茅 consign茅es par 茅crit de nombreuses ann茅es apr猫s leur composition orale. La grande valeur que les lecteurs et les critiques d'aujourd'hui accordent 脿芦 l'originalit茅禄 en litt茅rature 茅tait inconnue des anciens. L'id茅e m锚me d'accorder un quelconque respect 脿 une 艙uvre issue de l'imagination d'un individu n'aurait jamais effleur茅 l'esprit de quiconque dans le monde antique. Les histoires 茅taient des r茅cits des exploits des grands h茅ros, des dieux, des d茅esses ou de la cr茅ation, comme chez H茅siode et Hom猫re.</p> <p>Le respect pour ce que l'on appellerait aujourd'hui 芦 non-fiction 禄茅tait si grand que Geoffrey de Monmouth (1100-1155) affirmait que sa c茅l猫bre <em>Histoire des rois de Bretagne </em>(qu'il avait en grande partie invent茅e) 茅tait en fait une traduction d'un texte ant茅rieur qu'il avait 芦 d茅couvert 禄 et que Sir <a href="/trans/fr/1-18093/thomas-malory/">Thomas Malory</a> (1405-1471), c茅l猫bre auteur de <em>Le Morte d'Arthur</em>, niait toute contribution originale 脿 l'艙uvre qu'il avait compil茅e 脿 partir d'auteurs ant茅rieurs, m锚me s'il est clair aujourd'hui qu'il a beaucoup ajout茅 au mat茅riel source dont il s'est inspir茅.</p> <p>Cette tradition litt茅raire consistant 脿 attribuer une 艙uvre originale 脿 des sources ant茅rieures, apparemment autoris茅es, est illustr茅e de mani猫re c茅l猫bre dans les 茅vangiles du Nouveau Testament chr茅tien. En effet, les 茅vangiles de Matthieu, Marc, Luc et Jean, consid茅r茅s par de nombreux croyants comme des r茅cits de t茅moins oculaires du minist猫re de J茅sus, ont 茅t茅茅crits beaucoup plus tard par des auteurs inconnus qui ont choisi des noms associ茅s 脿 l'脡glise primitive.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header">Publicit茅</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer intext innerwrapper mobile desktop"> </div> </div> <p>La litt茅rature englobe des formes telles que la po茅sie, le th茅芒tre, la prose, le folklore, le r茅cit 茅pique, le r茅cit personnel, la po茅sie, l'histoire, la biographie, la satire, les dialogues philosophiques, les essais, les l茅gendes et les mythes, entre autres. <em>Dialogues</em> de <a href="/trans/fr/1-349/platon/">Platon</a>, bien qu'ils ne soient pas les premiers 脿 combiner des th猫mes philosophiques avec une forme dramatique, ont 茅t茅 les premiers 脿 mettre le th茅芒tre au service de la recherche philosophique. Les auteurs ult茅rieurs se sont inspir茅s de ces 艙uvres ant茅rieures (comme l'a fait <a href="/trans/fr/1-784/virgile/">Virgile</a> en composant<em> <a href="/trans/fr/1-13207/eneide/">脡n茅ide</a></em>, bas茅 sur l'<em>Iliade</em> et l'<em>Odyss茅e</em> d'Hom猫re, entre 30 et 18 av. JC) et cette tradition d'emprunt a dur茅 jusqu'脿 l'茅poque de Shakespeare (1564-1616) et se poursuit aujourd'hui.</p> </article> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header">Publicit茅</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliographie</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__cdb6e905b67ab7a12d42343fef9e2967"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0199263116/" rel="sponsored">Black, J. , et. al. <i>The Literature of Ancient Sumer.</i> Oxford University Press, 2005.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__5b0227b69a9c6f901ebe5f369f1806ef"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0671115006/" rel="sponsored">Durant, W. <i>Caesar and Christ.</i> Simon & Schuster, 1980.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__2eb1ef7840202013e34b91495c5c4096"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0393310779/" rel="sponsored">Hamilton, E. <i>The Greek Way.</i> W. W. Norton & Company, 1993.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__09ab4ad5a9c9500c7363d00250e58269"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0674996224/" rel="sponsored">Hesiod. <i>Hesiod.</i> Loeb Classical Library, 2007.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__793bb1671b25e95119858cf8575bc19e"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B001YQG44A/" rel="sponsored">Homer. <i>The Iliad and The Odyssey Translated by Samuel Butler.</i> Buki Editions, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__41cfc4703146f176632b46222a16b954"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/9004101624/" rel="sponsored">Jonker, G. <i>The Topography of Remembrance.</i> Brill Publishing, 1995.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__e025c817b8dca0efd2897db4813f7212"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0226452387/" rel="sponsored">Kramer, S. N. <i>The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.</i> University of Chicago Press, 1971.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__271db858bda5a362a15ac00f95dd5096"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1250054168/" rel="sponsored">Kriwaczek, P. <i>Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.</i> St. Martin's Griffin, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__8c5157be6a4cdfb11904663ce241cf61"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B002RI9VZS/" rel="sponsored">Sandars, N. K. <i>The Epic of Gilgamesh.</i> Penguin Classics, 1973.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__7e0934fc9e8173ab9cd977f89174f80a"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0300099207/" rel="sponsored">Simpson, W. K. <i>The Literature of Ancient Egypt.</i> Yale University Press, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__01f2757f17260ae81d3639e4c62fa1ad"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/B002R2OFNC/" rel="sponsored">Various Ancient Authors. <i>Holy Bible, New King James Version.</i> Thomas Nelson Publishers, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__6aa433bce8712ecc1898ce1a9228dfa7"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/039305974X/" rel="sponsored">Wise Bauer, S. <i>The History of the Ancient World.</i> W. W. 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Lectrice passionn茅e depuis son plus jeune 芒ge, elle a d茅velopp茅 un amour de l'histoire qui remonte a ses ann茅es sur les bancs de l鈥櫭ヽole. Elle s'int茅resse maintenant beaucoup 脿 l'histoire en g茅n茅ral et 脿 la g茅opolitique. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/caroline-martin-905963/" title="Caroline Martin" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <h2>Auteur</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. Mark est cofondateur et Directeur de Contenu de la World History Encyclopedia. Il 茅tait auparavant professeur au Marist College (NY) o霉 il a enseign茅 l'histoire, la philosophie, la litt茅rature et l'茅criture. Il a beaucoup voyag茅 et a v茅cu en Gr猫ce et en Allemagne. </div> <div class="sm_links"> <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/pub/joshua-j-mark/38/614/339" title="Joshua J. 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https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/2570.jpg.webp?v=1739380684-1727079903 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2570.jpg?v=1739380684-1727079903 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/2570.jpg?v=1739380684-1727079903 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2570.jpg?v=1739380684-1727079903" width="360" height="202" alt="Gilgamesh" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> D茅finition </div> <h3>Gilgamesh</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Gilgamesh est le roi semi-mythique d'Uruk, en M茅sopotamie, connu... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/trans/fr/2-2133/gilgamesh-et-le-taureau-celeste/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 ci_no_img" id="2-2133" data-score="827023" data-ci-type-id="2"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/10763.jpg.webp?v=1736607126 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/10763.jpg.webp?v=1736607126 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/10763.jpg?v=1736607126 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/10763.jpg?v=1736607126 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/10763.jpg?v=1736607126" width="360" height="202" alt="Gilgamesh et le Taureau C茅leste" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>Gilgamesh et le Taureau C茅leste</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Gilgamesh et le taureau c茅leste est un po猫me sum茅rien relatant... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/trans/fr/1-114/sumer/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 ci_no_img" id="1-114" data-score="777906" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1352.jpg.webp?v=1728738546 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1352.jpg.webp?v=1728738546 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1352.jpg?v=1728738546 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1352.jpg?v=1728738546 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1352.jpg?v=1728738546" width="360" height="202" alt="Sumer" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> D茅finition </div> <h3>Sumer</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Sumer 茅tait la r茅gion la plus m茅ridionale de l'ancienne M茅sopotamie... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/trans/fr/2-2135/la-mort-de-gilgamesh/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 ci_no_img" id="2-2135" data-score="765529" data-ci-type-id="2"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2570.jpg.webp?v=1739380684-1727079903 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/2570.jpg.webp?v=1739380684-1727079903 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2570.jpg?v=1739380684-1727079903 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/2570.jpg?v=1739380684-1727079903 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2570.jpg?v=1739380684-1727079903" width="360" height="202" alt="La Mort de Gilgamesh" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>La Mort de Gilgamesh</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> La Mort de Gilgamesh est un po猫me sum茅rien relatant la mort et... </div> </div> </a> <a href="/trans/fr/1-349/platon/" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 ci_no_img" id="1-349" data-score="736022" data-ci-type-id="1"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1165.jpg.webp?v=1738019284 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1165.jpg.webp?v=1738019284 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1165.jpg?v=1738019284 360w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/720x404/1165.jpg?v=1738019284 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/1165.jpg?v=1738019284" width="360" height="202" alt="Platon" class="ci_image " /> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> D茅finition </div> <h3>Platon</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Platon (vers 424/423-348/347 av. 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J. (2009, septembre 02). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-562/litterature/" class="no_external">Litt茅rature [Literature]</a>. (C. Martin, Traducteur). <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Extrait de https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-562/litterature/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Style Chicago</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-562/litterature/" class="no_external">Litt茅rature</a>." Traduit par Caroline Martin. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. modifi茅 le septembre 02, 2009. https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/1-562/litterature/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>Style MLA</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/literature/" class="no_external">Litt茅rature</a>." Traduit par Caroline Martin. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 02 sept. 2009. Web. 17 f茅vr. 2025. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>Licence & Copyright</h2> <p> 脡crit par <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, publi茅 le 02 septembre 2009. 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