India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture

<!doctype html> <html lang="en" class="topic-desktop ui-ie7 ui-ie"> <head prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns# fb: https://ogp.me/ns/fb#"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preload" as="script" href="https://www.googletagservices.com/tag/js/gpt.js" /> <link rel="icon" href="/favicon.png" /> <meta name="description" content="India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture: Among the in situ soils of India, the black soils found in the lava-covered areas are the most conspicuous. Those soils are often referred to as regur but are popularly known as “black cotton soils,” since cotton has been the most common traditional crop in areas where they are found. Black soils are derivatives of trap lava and are spread mostly across interior Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh on the Deccan lava plateau and the Malwa Plateau, where there is both moderate rainfall and underlying basaltic rock. Because of their high clay content, black soils develop wide cracks during" /> <meta name="keywords" content="India, encyclopedia, encyclopeadia, britannica, article" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Black-soils" /> <title>India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture | Britannica</title> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel"> window.$UI = {}; window.Constants = {"LICENSE_URL": "/bps/license","DEFAULT_TEST_VERSION": "A","DEFAULT_STATE": "XX","QUIZ_URL": "/quiz","SPOTLIGHT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/spotlight","CONTENT_TYPE_TEXT": "text/plain;charset=UTF-8","TOPIC_FACTS_DATA_URL": "/facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_IMAGE_QUIZZES": "images","TOPIC_MEDIA_PATH": "/images-videos","USER_PROFILE_URL": "/user","DEBUG_URL": "/debug","ONE_GOOD_FACT_URL": "/one-good-fact","ERROR_404_URL": "/error404","PROCON_CITED_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/ProCon-in-the-News","PROCON_URL": "/procon","TOPIC_PAGE_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/page","INFINITE_SCROLL_PREFIX_URL": "/scroll","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_BROWSE_URL": "/questions","CC_USD": "USD","domain": "britannica.com","SURVEY_URL": "/survey","CATEGORY_BROWSE_URL": "/browse","STORY_BROWSE_URL": "/stories","COUNTRY_US": "US","OPEN_MEDIA_OVERLAY_PARAMETER": "/media","NEWSLETTER_SUBSCRIPTION_URL": "/newsletter-subscription","MAINTENANCE_ERROR_URL": "https://maintenance.eb.com","IMARS_EDITOR_ID": "12365882","PROFILE_EB_EDITOR_URL": "/editor","WEB_INF_RESOURCES_PATH": "WEB-INF/resources","AI_ABOUT_PAGE_URL": "/about-britannica-ai","TOPIC_ADDITIONAL_INFO_PATH": "/additional-info","SUDOKU_GAME_URL": "/games/sudoku","CC_INR": "INR","ARTICLE_PRINT_URL": "/print/article","FIRST_EDITION_URL": "/subscriber/firstedition","WW1_PORTAL_URL": "/discover/World-War-I","MENDEL_COOKIE": "__mendel","DEMYSTIFIED_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/demystified","LIST_BROWSE_URL": "/list/browse","PROFILE_EXPERT_URL": "/contributor","ASSEMBLY_IMAGE_URL": "/image/assembly","DAY_IN_HISTORY_URL": "/on-this-day","DEFAULT_CURRENCY": "USD","CONTENT_TYPE_XML": "text/xml;charset=UTF-8","PORTAL_FINANCE_BROWSE_URL_PREFIX": "/money/browse","MONEY_IMARS_CATEGORY": "13000","AJAX_PREFIX_URL": "/ajax","TOPIC_BROWSE_URL": "/topic-browse","MARKETING_CONTENT": "/marketing-content","ENV_RUNTIME": "runtime","GALLERY_URL": "/gallery","topicUrlClassesList": "topic|animal|art|biography|event|place|plant|science|sports|technology|procon","CONTENT_TYPE_HTML": "text/html;charset=UTF-8","ENV_LOCAL": "override","MEDIA_OVERLAY_URL": "/media-overlay","CHATBOT_PAGE_URL": "/chatbot","NEWSLETTER_PAGE_URL": "/newsletters","ENV_DEV": "development","MEDIA_URL": "/media","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_URL": "/question","PORTAL_FINANCE_URL_PREFIX": "/money","PODCASTS_URL": "/podcasts","STAND_ALONE_VIDEO_URL": "/video","MORE_ON_THIS_DAY_URL": "/more-on-this-day","TOPIC_QUOTES_URL": "/quotes","SEARCH_PAGE_URL": "/search","PROCON_CLASS": "PROCON","KUSTOM_MENDEL_APPLICATION_ID": "1","TOPIC_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/topic","ENV_BRANCH": "branch","ERROR_URL": "/error","MAIN_VERSION": "mainVersion","DEFAULT_S3_REGION": "US_EAST_1","TOPIC_COLLECTION_URL": "/summary","LOGINBOX_URL": "/auth/loginbox","ONE_GOOD_FACT_BROWSE_URL": "/one-good-fact/all-good-facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_URL": "/quiz/browse","BIO_BROWSE_URL": "/browse/biographies","LIST_URL": "/list","TIGHTROPE_QUIZ_URL": "/quiz/tightrope","ALPHA_BROWSE_URL": "/sitemap","CONTENT_TYPE_JSON": "application/json","DICTIONARY_URL": "/dictionary","COBRAND_IMAGE_URL": "/image/cobrand","PROCON_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/pro-and-con-issues-in-the-news","PROCON_BROWSE_URL": "/procon","QUIZ_BROWSE_VOCAB_QUIZZES": "vocabulary-quizzes","SUBMISSION_URL": "/submission","EB_LOG_OUT": "/auth2/logout","ENV_PRODUCTION": "production","EXPLORE_PORTAL_URL": "/explore","TOPIC_AJAX_URL": "/ajax/topic","TOPIC_SUMMARY_BROWSE_URL": "/summaries","WTFACT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/wtfact","VIDEO_CHANNEL_URL": "/videos","GALLERY_BROWSE_URL": "/gallery/browse","CACHE_URL": "/cache","PROCON_ABOUT_URL": "/procon/About-ProCon","COMPANION_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/companion","MEDIA_FOLDER": "/eb-media","SHOW_ALL_CONTRIBUTORS": "/additional-info#contributors","BRITANNICA_EDITORS_ID": "4419","ENV_CACHE_DISABLED": "mendelCache","CALCULATORS_BROWSE_URL": "/calculators","STORY_URL": "/story","DEFAULT_COUNTRY": "US","NAVBAR_URL": "/ajax/navbar","EB_LOGIN_URL": "/auth/eb-login","NEW_ARTICLES_URL": "/new-articles",}; window.CDN = "https://cdn.britannica.com"; window.CAM_LOGIN_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com"; window.CAM_SIGN_UP_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com/registration" window.Mendel = { "config" : { "domain": "britannica.com", "page": "Topic", "videoPlayerId": "UyMCoK2v", "sharedUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Black-soils", "amuselabsUrl": "https://cdn3.amuselabs.com", "resourcesPrefixUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/[url]?v=3.130.14", "date": 20241124, "userInfo": { "type": "ANONYMOUS" ,"currency": "AUUS" ,"country": "SG" ,"state": "XX" ,"timezone": "Asia/Singapore" ,"bcomId": "-1764491521894929925" ,"hasAds": true ,"testVersion": "B" ,"adsTestVersion": "B" ,"consumerId": "" ,"instId": "" ,"consumerUserName": "" ,"instUserName": "" ,"cognito": null }, "tvs":{ "r":[25,25,25,25], "a": [25,25,25,25]}, "isLoggedInAsUser": false, "isPhone": false, "isDesktop": true, "logoutUrl": "/auth2/logout", "selfServiceUrl": "https://myaccount.britannica.com", "cdnUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com", "chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api", "fetchOffset": 800, "mendelCookieName": "__mendel", "mendelCookie": {"surveyShown":false,"visitedTopicId":285248,"currentDate":20241124}, "autocompleteToSearchPage": false,"topicUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/India" ,"freeTopicReason": "PERMANENT_FREE_TOPIC" ,"topicId": 285248 ,"template": "DESKTOP" ,"type": "CORE" ,"hasToc": true ,"chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api" ,"showPreview": false ,"infiniteScrollList": [{"p":85,"t":285248},{"p":1,"t":718428},{"p":36,"t":266312},{"p":3,"t":285841},{"p":1,"t":72209},{"p":1,"t":225187},{"p":1,"t":2247270},{"p":1,"t":64033},{"p":1,"t":285795},{"p":1,"t":1912794}] ,"sequence": 5 ,"topics": {} }, "GA": {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":5,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} }; </script> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="1887621861548296"/ <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@britannica" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture: Among the in situ soils of India, the black soils found in the lava-covered areas are the most conspicuous. Those soils are often referred to as regur but are popularly known as “black cotton soils,” since cotton has been the most common traditional crop in areas where they are found. Black soils are derivatives of trap lava and are spread mostly across interior Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh on the Deccan lava plateau and the Malwa Plateau, where there is both moderate rainfall and underlying basaltic rock. Because of their high clay content, black soils develop wide cracks during"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture: Among the in situ soils of India, the black soils found in the lava-covered areas are the most conspicuous. Those soils are often referred to as regur but are popularly known as “black cotton soils,” since cotton has been the most common traditional crop in areas where they are found. Black soils are derivatives of trap lava and are spread mostly across interior Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh on the Deccan lava plateau and the Malwa Plateau, where there is both moderate rainfall and underlying basaltic rock. Because of their high clay content, black soils develop wide cracks during"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopedia Britannica" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.britannica.com/place/India"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="init opengraph"> Mendel.openGraph = {"type":"ARTICLE","title":"India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture","description":"India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture: Among the in situ soils of India, the black soils found in the lava-covered areas are the most conspicuous. Those soils are often referred to as regur but are popularly known as “black cotton soils,” since cotton has been the most common traditional crop in areas where they are found. Black soils are derivatives of trap lava and are spread mostly across interior Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh on the Deccan lava plateau and the Malwa Plateau, where there is both moderate rainfall and underlying basaltic rock. Because of their high clay content, black soils develop wide cracks during","imageUrl":"https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg","imageType":"image/jpeg","pageUrl":"https://www.britannica.com/place/India"}</script> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/" > <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/vendor-bundle.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/mendel-css.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <script type="text/javascript"> if (self !== top) { top.location = self.location; } // if ('scrollRestoration' in history) { history.scrollRestoration = 'manual'; } </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/at.js?v=3.130.14" async ></script> <script> dataLayer = []; </script> <script type="text/javascript">(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= '//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-5W6NC8'); </script> <meta name="last-modified" content="2024-11-23" /> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"headline":"India | History, Map, Population, Economy, & Facts","image":{"url":"https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg","@type":"ImageObject"},"author":[{"name":"Sanjay Subrahmanyam","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Sanjay-Subrahmanyam/4011","@type":"Person"},{"name":"Sanat Pai Raikar","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Sanat-Pai-Raikar/12616791","@type":"Person"}],"keywords":"India","wordcount":149080,"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/India","datePublished":"1998-08-12T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T00:00:00Z","description":"India is a country that occupies the greater part of South Asia. It is a constitutional republic that represents a highly diverse population consisting of thousands of ethnic groups. It is made up of eight union territories and 28 states, and its capital is New Delhi. ","publisher":{"name":"Encyclopedia Britannica","@type":"Organization","logo":{"url":"https://corporate.britannica.com/wp-content/themes/eb-corporate/_img/logo.png","@type":"ImageObject"}},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"article"} </script></head> <body data-leg="B" class="new-topic topic-desktop first-page-false user-ANONYMOUS user-ads md-desktop leg-bb-ie">  <script>Mendel.config.adProvider='ay';</script> <script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> window.googletag = window.googletag || {cmd: []}; googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.defineSlot('/15510053/CMP_1x1', [1, 1], 'div-gpt-ad-1709766812090-0').addService(googletag.pubads()); googletag.pubads().enableSingleRequest(); googletag.enableServices(); }); </script> <script async defer src="https://launchpad-wrapper.privacymanager.io/0ccc6fe8-1870-4ad8-b47b-6d029ac116fc/launchpad-liveramp.js"></script> <script async src="https://JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs.ay.delivery/manager/JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs" type="text/javascript" referrerpolicy="no-referrer-when-downgrade" ></script><div class="ie-warning d-flex align-items-center align-self-center justify-content-center site-alert bg-orange"> <div> You are using an <strong>outdated</strong> browser. Please <a class="text-white text-underscore" href="https://browsehappy.com/">upgrade your browser</a> to improve your experience and security. </div> </div> <script id="json-navbar-info" type="application/json"> {"topSectionLinks":[{"title":"Ask the Chatbot","url":"/chatbot","navbarId":"CHATBOT"},{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse","navbarId":"QUIZZES"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon","navbarId":"PROCON"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society","navbarId":"HISTORY"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech","navbarId":"SCIENCE"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies","navbarId":"BIOS"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature","navbarId":"ANIMALS"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","selected":true,"navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture","navbarId":"ART"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money","navbarId":"MONEY"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos","navbarId":"VIDEOS"}],"selectedSuperCategory":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"Geography-Travel","description":"Explore geography and travel; geographic regions; historical places; people of the world; countries, states, provinces, cities, and towns; languages; deserts, islands, mountains, plateaus; lakes, oceans, seas, rivers; national parks, tourist attractions","keywords":"geographic regions; historical places; people of the world; countries, states, provinces, cities, and towns; languages; deserts, islands, mountains, plateaus; lakes, oceans, seas, rivers; national parks, tourist attractions ","classId":"GEOGRAPHY","sortOrder":5},"selectedNavbarLink":{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","selected":true,"navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"}} </script> <script id="json-hamburger-menu" type="application/json"> {"britannicaMenu1":[{"title":"Home","url":"/"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money"}],"britannicaMenu2":[{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos"},{"title":"On This Day","url":"/on-this-day"},{"title":"One Good Fact","url":"/one-good-fact"},{"title":"Dictionary","url":"/dictionary"},{"title":"New Articles","url":"/new-articles"}],"browseByCategory":[{"title":{"id":5,"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},"links":[{"title":"Lifestyles & Social Issues","url":"/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues"},{"title":"Philosophy & Religion","url":"/browse/Philosophy-Religion"},{"title":"Politics, Law & Government","url":"/browse/Politics-Law-Government"},{"title":"World History","url":"/browse/World-History"}]},{"title":{"id":6,"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},"links":[{"title":"Health & Medicine","url":"/browse/Health-Medicine"},{"title":"Science","url":"/browse/Science"},{"title":"Technology","url":"/browse/Technology"}]},{"title":{"id":3,"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},"links":[{"title":"Browse Biographies","url":"/browse/biographies"}]},{"title":{"id":1,"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},"links":[{"title":"Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates","url":"/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates"},{"title":"Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates","url":"/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates"},{"title":"Environment","url":"/browse/Environment"},{"title":"Fossils & Geologic Time","url":"/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time"},{"title":"Mammals","url":"/browse/Mammals"},{"title":"Plants","url":"/browse/Plants"}]},{"title":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},"links":[{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/browse/Geography-Travel"}]},{"title":{"id":2,"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},"links":[{"title":"Entertainment & Pop Culture","url":"/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture"},{"title":"Literature","url":"/browse/Literature"},{"title":"Sports & Recreation","url":"/browse/Sports-Recreation"},{"title":"Visual Arts","url":"/browse/Visual-Arts"}]}],"browseByFeature":[{"title":"Companions","url":"/stories/companion"},{"title":"Demystified","url":"/stories/demystified"},{"title":"Image Galleries","url":"/gallery/browse"},{"title":"Lists","url":"/list/browse"},{"title":"Podcasts","url":"/podcasts"},{"title":"Spotlight","url":"/stories/spotlight"},{"title":"Summaries","url":"/summary"},{"title":"The Forum","url":"/stories/the-forum"},{"title":"Top Questions","url":"/question"},{"title":"#WTFact","url":"/stories/wtfact"}],"moreFromBritannica":[{"title":"Britannica Kids","url":"https://kids.britannica.com/","newTab":true}],"menuType":"DEFAULT"} </script> <header id="header" class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="global-nav-top-bar"> <div class="grid gx-0 h-100 justify-content-between align-items-center container-lg mx-auto p-0 position-relative"> <div class="d-flex align-items-center"> <button class="d-flex align-items-center justify-self-start js-toggle js-toggle-hamburger btn btn-link link-white btn-sm rounded-0 p-10"> <div class="hamburger-tooltip"> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24" id="nav-toggle" data-icon="menu"></em> </div> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24 global-nav-search-icon" id="nav-search-icon" data-icon="search" ></em> </button> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center ml-10"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-logo global-nav-logo-left" /> </a> <div class="global-nav-top-search-bar global-nav-top-search-container global-nav-search-container" id="global-nav-top-search-bar"> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-center global-nav-logo non-homepage-logo" /> </a> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small global-nav-center search global-nav-center-search-container"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> <div class="col-35 col-sm-auto text-right order-3 mr-lg-15 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-end"> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2 marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-outline-white-orange py-5 mr-10" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <div class="d-inline-block d-md-none mr-5 mr-sm-10"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-xs btn-orange-dark p-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <button class="js-toggle-user-dropdown js-toggle btn btn-sm btn-link link-white rounded-0 px-md-15 pl-5 pr-5"> <span class="d-none d-md-inline-block mr-5">Login</span> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block d-md-none font-16 font-sm-20" data-icon="account_circle"></em> <div class="d-none dropdown-menu-subscription-link">https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS</div> <em class="material-icons inactive-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_down"></em> <em class="material-icons active-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_up"></em> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none hamburger-menu-subscription-link"><DIV class="marketing-HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA"><a href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-orange py-5" target="_blank"> Subscribe <span class="d-none d-md-inline"> Now</span> </a></DIV></div> <div id="global-nav-react"> <div class="d-none"> <ul> <li><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/procon">ProCon</a></li> <li><a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a></li> <li><a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a></li> <li><a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/money">Money</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/videos">Videos</a></li> <li><a href="/on-this-day">On This Day</a></li> <li><a href="/one-good-fact">One Good Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/dictionary">Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/new-articles">New Articles</a></li> </ul> <a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues">Lifestyles & Social Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Philosophy-Religion">Philosophy & Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Politics-Law-Government">Politics, Law & Government</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/World-History">World History</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Health-Medicine">Health & Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Technology">Technology</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/biographies">Browse Biographies</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates">Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates">Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Environment">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time">Fossils & Geologic Time</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Plants">Plants</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture">Entertainment & Pop Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Sports-Recreation">Sports & Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Visual-Arts">Visual Arts</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/stories/companion">Companions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/demystified">Demystified</a></li> <li><a href="/gallery/browse">Image Galleries</a></li> <li><a href="/list/browse">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/podcasts">Podcasts</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/spotlight">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/summary">Summaries</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/the-forum">The Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/question">Top Questions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/wtfact">#WTFact</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="https://kids.britannica.com/">Britannica Kids</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </header> <div class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="container-lg p-0 d-flex justify-content-center global-nav-categories-bar overflow-hidden"> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 global-nav-slider category-snap-slider"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex font-14 overflow-hidden text-nowrap mx-5"> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-CHATBOT " href="/chatbot">Ask the Chatbot</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-QUIZZES " href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-PROCON " href="/procon">ProCon</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-HISTORY " href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-SCIENCE " href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-BIOS " href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ANIMALS " href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-GEOGRAPHY selected selected" href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ART " href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-MONEY " href="/money">Money</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-VIDEOS " href="/videos">Videos</a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="285248"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">India</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/India">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref46358"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46358">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46359"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46359">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46360" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas">The Himalayas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46361"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46361">The Outer Himalayas (the Siwalik Range)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46362">The Lesser Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46363">The Great Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46364">Associated ranges and hills</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46365">The Indo-Gangetic Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46366" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan">The Deccan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46367">The Western Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46368">The Eastern Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46369">Inland regions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46370">Coastal areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46371">Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46372">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46373" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal">Drainage into the Bay of Bengal</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46374">The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46375"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46375">Peninsular rivers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46376">Drainage into the Arabian Sea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46377"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46377">Lakes and inland drainage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46378"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46378">Soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273210" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref273210">In situ soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46380"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46380">Red-to-yellow soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46381"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils">Black soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46379"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46379">Alluvial soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46382"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46382">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46383" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46383">The monsoons</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46384"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46384">The southwest monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46385"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon">Rainfall during the retreating monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46386"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46386">Tropical cyclones</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46387"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46387">Importance to agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46388">Temperatures</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46389"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46390"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46390">Vegetation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46391" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46391">Animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46392"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46392">Mammals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46393"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46393">Birds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46394"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46394">Reptiles, fish, and insects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46395">Conservation</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46396"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46397"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46397">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46398"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46398">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages">Indo-European languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46400">Dravidian and other languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46401">Lingua francas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46402"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46402">Minor languages and dialects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46403"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46403">Religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste">Caste</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46405"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46405">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46406">Population density</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46407">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46408"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46408">Urban settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46410"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends#ref46410">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46416">Agriculture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273192">Crops</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273193"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273193">Livestock</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46417">Forestry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46418">Fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power">Resources and power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power#ref46419">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273194">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273195">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273196">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref46425">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46426"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads">Railways and roads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46427">Water and air transport</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273197"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref273197">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46428"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46428">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46429">Constitutional framework</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure">Constitutional structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46431" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46431">Union government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46432"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46432">Executive branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46433">Legislative branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46434">Bureaucracy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46439">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46435"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46435">State and local governments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46436"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46436">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46437">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46438">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273190"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273190">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46440">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46442"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46442">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273200">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46444">Family and kinship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273201"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref273201">Festivals and holidays</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46445">Cuisine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing">Clothing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref46447">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273202">Architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273203"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273203">Dance and music</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273204"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273204">Theatre, film, and literature</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46448">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46449">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214184"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46800">India from the Paleolithic Period to the decline of the Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46801" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46801">The early prehistoric period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic">The Indian Paleolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46803">Mesolithic hunters</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46804">The earliest agriculturalists and pastoralists</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46805">Neolithic agriculture in the Indus valley and Baluchistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin">Developments in the Ganges basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46807">Earliest settlements in peninsular India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46808">Earliest settlements in eastern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46809" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46809">The rise of urbanism in the Indus valley</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46810">Extent and chronology of Early Harappan culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46811">Principal sites</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46812">Subsistence and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46813">Culture and religion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46814" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization">The Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46815">Character and significance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46816">Chronology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46817">Extent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46818">Planning and architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46819">Important sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46820">Mohenjo-daro</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa">Harappa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46822"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46822">Kalibangan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46823">Lothal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46824">Other important sites</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46825">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry">Agriculture and animal husbandry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46827">Communications</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46828">Craft and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46829">Trade and external contacts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46830">Language and scripts, weights and measures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46831">Social and political system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46832">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46833">Religion and burial customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46834"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization">The end of the Indus civilization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46835" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46835">Post-Harappan developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46836">The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46837">The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46838">The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46839">Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 2000–1000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce">The development of Indian civilization from c. 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to c. 1200 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273188">Traditional approaches to Indian historiography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273189">Trends in early Indian society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46841" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref46841">From c. 1500 to c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period">Early Vedic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46843"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period#ref46843">Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46844" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce">The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46845"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46845">Pre-Mauryan states</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46846">Location</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46847">Political systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46848">Economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46849">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy">Magadhan ascendancy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46851">Campaigns of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46852">The Mauryan empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46853">Chandragupta Maurya</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46854">Bindusara</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors">Ashoka and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46856">Financial base for the empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46857">Mauryan society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46858">Mauryan government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts">Ashoka’s edicts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46860">Mauryan decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46861"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46861">The concept of the state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46862" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46862">From 150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46863">Rise of small kingdoms in the north</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46864">Indo-Greek rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46865"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46865">Central Asian rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46866"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46866">Oligarchies and kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46867"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom">The Shunga kingdom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46868"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46868">Kalinga</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46869"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46869">The Andhras and their successors</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46870"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46870">Southern Indian kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46871"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West">Contacts with the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46872"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46872">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46873"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46873">Guilds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46874"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46874">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46875"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46875">Impact of trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46876"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46876">Religious patronage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46877"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46878"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46878">Assimilation of foreigners</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46879" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46879">From 300 to 750 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46880"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46880">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46881"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46881">The Guptas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46882">Successor states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46883">The Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India">Southern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46885">Society and culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46886" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46886">From 750 to c. 1200</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46887">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46888">The tripartite struggle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs">The Rajputs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46890">The coming of the Turks</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46891">The Deccan and the south</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892">The Colas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46893">The Hoysalas and Pandyas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46895">The economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46896">Social mobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46897">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46898">Literature and the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46899">The early Muslim period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46900" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46900">North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 1200–1526</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46901">The Delhi sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46902">The Turkish conquest</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans">The early Turkish sultans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans#ref46904">Consolidation of the sultanate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis">The Khaljīs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46906"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46906">Centralization and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46907">Taxation and distribution of revenue resources</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46908"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46908">Expansion and conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46909"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46909">The urban economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46910"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs">The Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46911"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46911">Reversal and rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46912"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46912">Society and the state under the Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46913"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate">Decline of the sultanate</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46914"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46914">The rise of regional states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46915"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46915">Struggle for supremacy in northern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46916" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46916">The Muslim states of southern India, c. 1350–1680</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46917"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46917">The Bahmani sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan">Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan#ref46919">External and internal rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref273208"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan">Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46920">Bahmanī decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46921">Successors to the Bahmanī</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46922" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646">The Vijayanagar empire, 1336–1646</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46923">Development of the state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46924">Conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46925"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46925">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries">Wars and rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46927">Decentralization and loss of territory</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46928">Later dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46929">Reconsolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46930">Growth of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46931">Renewed decentralization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46932"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46932">Relations with the Muslim states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar">Decline of Vijayanagar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46934">Military policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46935"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46935">Loss of central control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46936">Breakup of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46937">Administration of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761">The Mughal Empire, 1526–1761</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46939">The significance of Mughal rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46940" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46940">The establishment of the Mughal Empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46941">Bābur</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46942">Conquest of Hindustan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46943">Bābur’s achievements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun">Humāyūn</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46945">Sher Shah and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46946">Restoration of Humāyūn</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46947" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great">The reign of Akbar the Great</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46948">Extension and consolidation of the empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46949">The early years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46950">Struggle for firm personal control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46951">Subjugation of Rajasthan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46952">Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46953">The frontiers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46954">The state and society under Akbar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46955">Central, provincial, and local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46956"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility">The composition of the Mughal nobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46957">Organization of the nobility and the army</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46958">Revenue system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46959">Fiscal administration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46960">Coinage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46961">Evolution of a nonsectarian state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46962">Akbar in historical perspective</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46963" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46963">The empire in the 17th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir">Jahāngīr</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46965">Loss of Kandahār</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46966">Submission of Mewar</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46967">Developments in the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46968">Rebellion of Khurram (Shah Jahān)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46969">Mahābat Khan’s coup</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46970"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan">Shah Jahān</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46971">The Deccan problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46972">Central Asian policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46973"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46973">War of succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46975">Local and peasant uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46976">Assessment of Aurangzeb</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46977" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46977">Mughal decline in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings">The Sikh uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46979">Cracks in the core</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46980">Struggle for a new power center</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46981">The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46982">Nādir Shah’s invasion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46983">The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46984">Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46985">Regional states, c. 1700–1850</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46986" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas">The Marathas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46987">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46988">Rise of the <em>peshwa</em>s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46989"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46989">Subordinate Maratha rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century">Mughal mystique in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46991">The case of Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46992">Challenge from the northwest</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46993">The Afghan factor in northern India, 1747–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46994" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab">The Sikhs in the Punjab</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46995">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46996">From Banda Singh Bahadur to Ranjit Singh</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century">Rajasthan in the 18th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century#ref46998">The south: Travancore and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy">Politics and the economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47000">Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47001">India and European expansion, c. 1500–1858</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47002" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47002">European activity in India, 1498–c. 1760</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47003">The Portuguese</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47004">The Dutch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740">The British, 1600–1740</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47006"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740#ref47006">The French</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63">The Anglo-French struggle, 1740–63</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63#ref47008">European military superiority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal">Revolution in Bengal</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47010" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47010">The extension of British power, 1760–1856</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47011">The period of disorder, 1760–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur">The Company Bahadur</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47013">The company and the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47014">Relations with the Marathas and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47015"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy">The ascent to paramountcy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47016">The government of Lord Wellesley</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47017">The government of Lord Minto</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings">The government of Lord Hastings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47019">The settlement of 1818</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47020">Organization and policy in British India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47021">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy">The determination of policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47023">The completion of dominion and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47024"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47024">The first century of British influence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects">Political effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47026">Economic effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47027"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47027">Social effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47028">Cultural effects</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47029" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59">The mutiny and great revolt of 1857–59</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47030"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47030">Nature and causes of the rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47031"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47031">The revolt and its aftermath</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47032"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47032">British imperial power, 1858–1947</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47033" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47033">Climax of the raj, 1858–85</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273209"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858">Government of India Act of 1858</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47034"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47034">Social policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47035"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47035">Government organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47036"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47036">Economic policy and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47037" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy">Foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47038"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47038">The northwest frontier</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47039"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47039">The Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47040"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47040">The incorporation of Burma</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47041" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920">Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47042"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47042">Origins of the nationalist movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47043"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47043">The early Congress movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47044"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal">The first partition of Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47045"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal#ref47045">Nationalism in the Muslim community</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47046"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals">Reforms of the British Liberals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47047"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47047">Moderate and militant nationalism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47048" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47048">World War I and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47049"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47049">India’s contributions to the war effort</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47050"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity">Anti-British activity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity#ref47051">The postwar years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47053">Gandhi’s strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47054" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47054">Prelude to independence, 1920–47</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47055"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms">Constitutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47056"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms#ref47056">The Congress’s ambivalent strategy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47057"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism">Muslim separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47058"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47058">The impact of World War II</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47059">British wartime strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries">The transfer of power and the birth of two countries</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47061">The Republic of India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47062" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47062">The Nehru era, 1947–64</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics">Government and politics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47064">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47065"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47065">Economic planning and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47066" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47066">Post-Nehru politics and foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47067"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47067">The 1965 war with Pakistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47068"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact">Indira Gandhi’s impact</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47069"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47069">The Bangladesh war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47070"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47070">Emergency rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47071"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47071">The Janata interlude and the return of Indira Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47072"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism">Sikh separatism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47073" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47073">From Rajiv to Rao: India from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47074"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47074">The premiership of Rajiv Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47075"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47075">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47076"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall">V.P. Singh’s coalition—its brief rise and fall</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref47077">Congress government of P.V. Narasimha Rao</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref321317" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref321317">India since the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273206"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref273206">The first and second BJP governments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342918">The BJP becomes the largest party in the Lok Sabha</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342919">BJP gains in elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342920">Divisiveness of BJP government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273207"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh">Congress Party rule under Manmohan Singh</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342921">Domestic policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342922"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342922">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref321318"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref321318">Return of the BJP under Narendra Modi</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342923">Monetary and tax reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342924">BJP reelection bids and tensions in Kashmir</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref346476"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref346476">Addressing COVID-19 and its economic impact</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref300767"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref300767">Pre-Mughal Indian dynasties</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref276894"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref276894">Prime ministers of India</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/India">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/images-videos">Images, Videos & Interactives</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/61301" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-004-05816F4E/Flag-India.jpg" alt="Flag of India" height="50" /> </a> <a href="" data-href="/media/1/285248/151423" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <em class="material-icons md-48" data-icon="volume_up"></em> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/1598-050-BD4FD93E/India-political-boundaries.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1956" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/1598-004-663FD772/India-political-boundaries.jpg" alt="India" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-050-26B6A00F/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/303219" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-004-7EC317F9/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg" alt="Agra, India: Taj Mahal" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-050-752A1D62/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1976" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-004-D050970C/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg" alt="Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, India: fort" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/260897-050-61946074/indian-independence-movement-timeline-banner.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/313134" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/260897-049-61946074/indian-independence-movement-timeline-banner.jpg" alt="Timeline of the Indian Independence Movement" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-050-45452C37/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/95244" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-004-FE8A09B5/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg" alt="Mumbai, India: Gateway of India monument" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-050-8A4D277F/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1973" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-004-F8B86983/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg" alt="Himachal Pradesh, India: Kullu Valley" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-050-BDAD8752/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/238229" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-004-0ED54B2D/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg" alt="Himalayas" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-050-BC7E72FA/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/61303" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-004-D54B5964/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg" alt="Physical features of India" height="50" /> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-student-links"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> For Students </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/summary/India"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.130.14" class="default " height="200" width="200"/> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/summary/India" >India summary</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-quizzes"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Quizzes </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/the-country-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/129640-131-0EB20858/Flags-countries-world-flags-Country-blog-geography-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of all countries of the world. Flags of the world. National flags. Country flags. Hompepage blog 2009, history and society, geography and travel, explore discovery" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/the-country-quiz" >The Country Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-area-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/95/168695-131-11055CC5/Geography-Something-globe-Europe-Eurasia-Africa.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="7:023 Geography: Think of Something Big, globe showing Africa, Europe, and Eurasia" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-area-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger By Area? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/91/142291-131-1FF39F2D/Flags-world-blue-sky-Countries-Globalization-relations-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of the world against blue sky. Countries, International. Globalization, global relations, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, Poland, Palestine, Japan. Homepage 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger By Population? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/244164-131-C5EE8DAB/nation-flags-world-map.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of all nations of the world. Grouping of various country flags on a world map." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/guess-the-country-by-its-neighbors-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/247338-131-37776892/passport-visas-stamps-world-map.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Opened passport with visas, stamps, seals, world map. (travel, tourism)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/guess-the-country-by-its-neighbors-quiz" >Guess the Country by Its Neighbors Quiz</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-questions"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 pb-0 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-15"> Related Questions </div> <ul> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-are-the-oldest-known-civilizations-of-India">What are the oldest known civilizations of India?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-are-the-major-holidays-and-festivals-of-India">What are the major holidays and festivals of India?</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-discover"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Discover </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/9-things-you-might-not-know-about-adolf-hitler"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/58/156058-131-22083D0A/Adolf-Hitler.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Adolf Hitler (Nazi, nazism, German leader)." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/9-things-you-might-not-know-about-adolf-hitler" >9 Things You Might Not Know About Adolf Hitler</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/where-do-anti-semitic-conspiracy-theories-about-the-rothschild-family-come-from"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/200267-131-4F79E2AC/Mayer-Amschel-Rothschild.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744-1855), founder of the house of Rothschild; lithograph by Friedrich Lieder, c. 1830." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/where-do-anti-semitic-conspiracy-theories-about-the-rothschild-family-come-from" >Where Do Anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theories About the Rothschild Family Come From?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/11-egyptian-gods-and-goddesses"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/52/196952-131-0665E4EE/Egyptians-hieroglyphics-carvings.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="An ancient egyptian hieroglyphic painted carving showing the falcon headed god Horus seated on a throne and holding a golden fly whisk. Before him are the Pharoah Seti and the goddess Isis. Interior wall of the temple to Osiris at Abydos, Egypt." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/11-egyptian-gods-and-goddesses" >11 Egyptian Gods and Goddesses</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/177675-131-B7B445EB/detail-Aristotle-School-of-Athens-Plato-Raphael.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Plato (left) and Aristotle, detail from School of Athens, fresco by Raphael, 1508-11; in the Stanza della Segnatura, the Vatican. Plato points to the heavens and the realm of Forms, Aristotle to the earth and the realm of things." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ" >Plato and Aristotle: How Do They Differ?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/secret-service-code-names-of-11-us-presidents"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/45/189145-131-45FF672E/Secret-Service-Agent-Earpiece.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Secret Service Agent Listens To Earpiece" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/secret-service-code-names-of-11-us-presidents" >Secret Service Code Names of 11 U.S. Presidents</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/americas-5-most-notorious-cold-cases-including-one-you-may-have-thought-was-already-solved"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/71/196471-131-8FEA8DDD/Daily-Police-Bulletin-Elizabeth-Short-Black-Dahlia-January-1947.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Los Angeles Police Department wanted flyer on Elizabeth Short, aka the "Black Dahlia," who was brutally murdered in January 1947. The FBI supported the Los Angeles Police Department in the case, including by identifying Short through her fingerprints that" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/americas-5-most-notorious-cold-cases-including-one-you-may-have-thought-was-already-solved" >America’s 5 Most Notorious Cold Cases (Including One You May Have Thought Was Already Solved)</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/10-famous-artworks-by-leonardo-da-vinci"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/200006-131-ABB681CF/Leonardo-da-Vinci-Italian-Renaissance-Florence-Engraving-1500.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. Engraving by Cosomo Colombini (d. 1812) after a Leonardo self portrait. Ca. 1500." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/10-famous-artworks-by-leonardo-da-vinci" >10 Famous Artworks by Leonardo da Vinci</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm"> <div class="h-100 infinite-pagination-container d-flex flex-column position-relative"> <div class="position-absolute top-0 h-100 w-100"> <div class="toc-sticky-header d-none d-lg-none bg-gray-50 px-10 px-sm-30 position-sticky w-100 "> <div class="toc-sticky-header-inner-container align-items-center d-flex mx-auto h-100 w-100"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-sm btn-white text-blue border-2 border-gray-100 gtm-mobile-toc-header-button js-sections-button d-lg-none p-10"> <em class="material-icons my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Contents </button> <div class="header-ai-ask-button-placeholder"></div> <div class="header-ai-summarize-button-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grey-box w-100 grey-box-top"> <div class="grey-box-content mx-auto w-100"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context" : "https://schema.org", "@type" : "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement" : [ { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 1, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Geography-Travel", "name": "Geography & Travel" } } , { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 2, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Countries-of-the-World", "name": "Countries of the World" } } ] } </script> <nav class="breadcrumb mt-20"> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> </span> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Countries-of-the-World">Countries of the World</a> </span> </nav> <div class="page2ref-true topic-content topic-type-COUNTRY" data-student-article="false"> <script class="page-description-json" type="application/json"> { "url": "/place/India/Black-soils", "shareUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/India", "browserTitle": "India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture", "firstTopicPage": false, "topicId":285248 } </script> <div class="reading-channel"> <div class="topic-header"> <div class="d-flex align-items-top justify-content-between"> <div class="d-flex flex-column"> <div> <div> <h2 class="h4">Black soils</h2></div> <div class="in-container"> <em class="material-icons in-arrow" data-icon="subdirectory_arrow_right"></em> <span class="in-bc">in</span><a class="in-link" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">India</a> <span class="in-bc">in</span><a class="in-link" href="/place/India#ref46358">Land</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-flex flex-row"> <div class="mr-10 mb-15"> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-block md-topic-tools qa-action-buttons mb-15" data-topic-id="285248"> <button class="js-tooltip btn btn-sm btn-outline-blue border pr-10 border-2" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="more_vert"></em> More Actions </button> <div class="md-more-popover popover popover-sm p-0 font-14 z-1"> <div> <button class="js-print-modal-button js-modal gtm-topic-tool btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-print-modal" > <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="print"></em> Print </button> <div class="md-print-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">print</em> Print </div> <div class="mt-20 mb-10"> Please select which sections you would like to print: </div> <form action="/print/article/285248" method="post" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> <div class="print-box-items"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li><label><input class="mr-10" type="checkbox" name="sequence[]" value="0">Table Of Contents</label></li> </ul> </div> <input type="submit" class="btn btn-blue md-disabled" value="Print" /> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-modal qa-cite-modal-button btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-cite-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="verified"></em> Cite </button> <div class="md-cite-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom mb-15"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">verified</em>Cite </div> <div class="font-serif"> While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. </div> <div class="label mt-20 mb-10">Select Citation Style</div> <select class="js-citation-format-select form-select"> <option selected value="mla">MLA</option> <option value="apa">APA</option> <option value="chicago">Chicago Manual of Style</option> </select> <div class="citation font-serif border rounded p-15 mt-20" data-authors="Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Sanat Pai Raikar, T.G. Percival Spear, A.L. Srivastava, R. Champakalakshmi, Frank Raymond Allchin, Joseph E. Schwartzberg, Stanley A. Wolpert, Romila Thapar, K.R. Dikshit, Muzaffar Alam, Philip B. Calkins" data-title="India" data-published-date="23 Nov. 2024" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/India" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="India" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/India" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">https://www.britannica.com/place/India</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/285248"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1902534.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - A study on India’s contribution to United Nations Peacekeeping</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.indianetzone.com/wrestling_india" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">IndiaNetzone - Wrestling in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6515776/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Generic drugs – The Indian scenario</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijfmr.com/papers/2024/3/24020.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research - Aryabhata’s Enduring Contributions to Astronomy in Ancient India: Unveiling the Cosmic Secrets</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2401676.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - Challenges in Managing Slums in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://india.mid.ru/en/history/articles_and_documents/october_revolution_and_the_indian_struggle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Republic of India - October Revolution and the Indian Struggle (1986)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2011017.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - India's role in the SAARC</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.academia.edu/579576/Retable_art_in_India_its_importance_the_empathic_apathy_and_the_future_Cultural_aspects_concerning_conservation" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Academia - Retable art in India: its importance, the empathic apathy and the future. Cultural aspects concerning conservation</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="http://eoiriyadh.gov.in/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Official Site of the Embassy of India in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive_files/Indentured%20Labour%20from%20India%20in%20the%20Age%20of%20Empire%20by%20Sunanda%20Sen.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">South African History Online - Indentured Labour from India in the Age of Empire</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.academia.edu/108109518/Al_Biruni_The_Great_Pioneer_of_Indology" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Academia - Al-Biruni: The Great Pioneer of Indology</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijmrhs.com/medical-research/an-overview-of-buckwheat-fagopyrum-spp-an-underutilized-crop-in-indianutritional-value-and-health-benefits.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Medical Research and Health Sciences - An Overview of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp)-An Underutilized Crop in India-Nutritional Value and Health Benefits</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijamtes.org/gallery/33.%20nov%20ijmte%20-%201158.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Management Technology and Engineering - Truffle Trail –An Exploratory Study on Marketability of Truffles in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1810A22.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - Genesis and Development of Forensic Science in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijcmas.com/6-12-2017/Srabani%20Das,%20et%20al.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences - Studies on the Adaptability of Tulip (Tulipa sp.) in Sub-Tropics of West Bengal, India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1912104.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - Coffee Production Industries Problems and Prospects - An Overview</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.kheljournal.com/archives/2022/vol9issue2/PartD/9-2-79-853.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health - Recent developments in rugby: An Indian perspective</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.indianetzone.com/kabaddi" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">IndiaNetzone - Kabaddi in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2208287.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts - The Concept of Male Chauvinism in the Context of Indian Patriarchal Society</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijnrd.org/papers/IJNRD2404482.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Novel Research and Development - The Mission and Impact of St. Francis Xavier in India - An Analysis</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.indianetzone.com/50/impact_hunting_india.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">IndiaNetzone - Hunting in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3908467/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Electronic waste – an emerging threat to the environment of urban India</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/India/345707" target="_blank" rel="noopener">India - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/India/275043" target="_blank" rel="noopener">India - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Bhārat, Bhāratavarsha, Republic of India</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Sanjay-Subrahmanyam/4011" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Sanjay Subrahmanyam</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Doshi Chair in Indian History; Director, Center for India and South Asia, University of California at Los Angeles. Professor of Economic History, University of Delhi, India, 1989–95. Author of <i>The Political...</i></div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Sanjay Subrahmanyam</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Sanat-Pai-Raikar/12616791" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Sanat Pai Raikar</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Sanat Pai Raikar is a quizmaster and writer based out of Bangalore, India. His first quiz book, <em>Three's A Quiz</em>, was written from memory. Sanat has cofounded Quizarre, which provides quiz, crossword,...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Sanat Pai Raikar</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-23T00:00:00CST" >Nov 23, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/8ab629945660ee97d58cdbef10136f35" rel="nofollow">A $300B a year deal for climate cash at UN summit sparks outrage for some and hope for others</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 8:46 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/6cc84c72d4b00e0a49160123efdd48e7" rel="nofollow">Modi's party heads for victory in Maharashtra state election while opposition wins Jharkhand</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 10:47 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/de2f999332e6cc8be1ea78c7fdfb6590" rel="nofollow">2 convicted in human smuggling case after Indian family froze to death on US-Canada border</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:28 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/997837af54ebd0c963da8d30854a41ec" rel="nofollow">Today he is a high school football player. Soon he'll be a Buddhist lama in the Himalayas</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 12:16 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/21c3ffa3c4c17639b18d1719dd98b1a3" rel="nofollow">US bribery and fraud charges are a big test yet for India's Adani, one of Asia's richest men</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:14 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="4" id="ref46381">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Among the in situ soils of India, the black soils found in the lava-covered areas are the most <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="conspicuous" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/conspicuous" data-type="MW">conspicuous</a>. Those soils are often referred to as <em><span id="ref971831"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/regur" class="md-crosslink ">regur</a></em> but are popularly known as “black cotton soils,” since cotton has been the most common traditional crop in areas where they are found. Black soils are derivatives of trap lava and are spread mostly across interior <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gujarat" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gujarat</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Maharashtra" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Maharashtra</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Karnataka-linguistic-region-India" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Karnataka</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Madhya-Pradesh" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Madhya Pradesh</a> on the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Deccan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Deccan</a> lava plateau and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Malwa-Plateau" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Malwa Plateau</a>, where there is both moderate rainfall and underlying basaltic rock. Because of their high clay content, black soils develop wide cracks during the dry season, but their iron-rich granular structure makes them resistant to wind and water erosion. They are poor in humus yet highly moisture-retentive, thus responding well to irrigation. Those soils are also found on many <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="peripheral" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/peripheral" data-type="MW">peripheral</a> tracts where the underlying basalt has been shifted from its original location by fluvial processes. The sifting has only led to an increased concentration of clastic contents.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref46379"> <h2 class="h3"><span id="ref487212"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/alluvium" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Alluvial</a> soils</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Alluvial soils are widespread. They occur throughout the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indo-Gangetic-Plain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Indo-Gangetic Plain</a> and along the lower courses of virtually all the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country’s</a> major rivers (especially the deltas along the east coast). The nondeltaic plains along India’s coasts are also marked by narrow ribbons of alluvium.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">New alluvium found on much of the Indo-Gangetic floodplain is called <em><span id="ref971833"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/khadar" class="md-crosslink ">khadar</a></em> and is extremely fertile and uniform in texture; conversely, the old alluvium on the slightly elevated terraces, termed <em><span id="ref971834"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/bhangar" class="md-crosslink ">bhangar</a></em>, carries patches of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="alkaline" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/alkaline" data-type="EB">alkaline</a> efflorescences, called <em>usar</em>, rendering some areas infertile. In the Ganges basin, sandy aquifers holding an enormous reserve of groundwater ensure irrigation and help make the plain the most agriculturally productive region of the country.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref46382"> <h2 class="h2"><span id="ref487215"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/tropical-monsoon-and-trade-wind-littoral-climate" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Climate</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">India provides the world’s most-pronounced example of a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monsoon climate</a>. The wet and dry seasons of the <span id="ref487216"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Indian-monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indian monsoon</a> system, along with the annual temperature fluctuations, produce three general climatic periods over much of the country: (1) hot wet weather from about mid-June to the end of September, (2) cool dry weather from early October to February, and (3) hot dry weather (though normally with high atmospheric humidity) from about March to mid-June. The actual <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="duration" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/duration" data-type="EB">duration</a> of those periods may vary by several weeks, not only from one part of India to another but also from year to year. Regional differences, which are often considerable, result from a number of internal factors—including elevation, type of relief, and proximity to bodies of water.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="3" id="ref46383"> <h2 class="h3">The <span id="ref487217"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monsoons</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="106996" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/101857-050-D9FB311C/summer-monsoon-Asia-regions.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/106996"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/101857-050-D9FB311C/summer-monsoon-Asia-regions.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/101857-050-D9FB311C/summer-monsoon-Asia-regions.jpg?w=300" alt="monsoon onset in Asia" data-width="2000" data-height="1533" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/101857-050-D9FB311C/summer-monsoon-Asia-regions.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/106996">monsoon onset in Asia</a><span>Average date of onset of the summer monsoon across different regions of Asia.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">A <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/monsoon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">monsoon</a> system is characterized by a seasonal reversal of prevailing wind directions and by alternating wet and dry seasons. In India the wet season, called the southwest monsoon, occurs from about mid-June to early October, when winds from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indian-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indian Ocean</a> carry moisture-laden air across the subcontinent, causing heavy rainfall and often considerable flooding. Usually about three-fourths of the country’s total annual precipitation falls during those months. During the driest months (called the retreating monsoon), especially from November through February, that pattern is reversed, as dry air from the Asian interior moves across India toward the ocean. October and March through May, by contrast, are typically periods of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="desultory" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/desultory" data-type="MW">desultory</a> breezes with no strong prevailing patterns.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <section data-level="4" id="ref46384"> <h2 class="h4">The southwest monsoon</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="118057" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/72/123872-050-49243DF7/Monsoon-clouds-Lucknow-India.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/285248/118057"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/72/123872-050-49243DF7/Monsoon-clouds-Lucknow-India.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/72/123872-050-49243DF7/Monsoon-clouds-Lucknow-India.jpg?w=300" alt="monsoon" data-width="1600" data-height="1200" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/72/123872-050-49243DF7/Monsoon-clouds-Lucknow-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/118057">monsoon</a><span>Monsoon clouds over Lucknow, India.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">Although the winds of the rainy season are called the southwest monsoon, they actually follow two generally distinct branches, one initially flowing eastward from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arabian-Sea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Arabian Sea</a> and the other northward from the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bay-of-Bengal" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Bay of Bengal</a>. The former begins by lashing the west coast of peninsular India and rising over the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="adjacent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/adjacent" data-type="MW">adjacent</a> Western Ghats. When crossing those mountains, the air cools (thus losing its moisture-bearing capacity) and deposits rain copiously on the windward side of that highland barrier. Annual precipitation in parts of the region exceeds 100 inches (2,540 mm) and is as high as 245 inches (6,250 mm) at <span id="ref487218"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mahabaleshwar" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mahabaleshwar</a> on the crest of the <span id="ref487219"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Western-Ghats" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Western Ghats</a>. Conversely, as the winds descend on the leeward side of the Western Ghats, the air’s moisture-bearing capacity increases and the resultant <span id="ref487220"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/rain-shadow" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">rain shadow</a> makes for a belt of semiarid terrain, much of it with less than 25 inches (635 mm) of precipitation per year.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon sweeps across eastern India and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bangladesh" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Bangladesh</a> and, in several areas, gives rise to rainfall in much the same way as occurs along the Western Ghats. The effect is particularly pronounced in the <span id="ref487221"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shillong-Plateau" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Shillong Plateau</a>, where at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Cherrapunji" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Cherrapunji</a> the average annual rainfall is 450 inches (11,430 mm), one of the heaviest in the world. The Brahmaputra valley to the north also experiences a rain-shadow effect; the problem is <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="mitigated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/mitigated" data-type="MW">mitigated</a>, however, by the adjacent <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Himalayas</a>, which cause the winds to rise again, thereby establishing a parallel belt of heavy precipitation. Blocked by the Himalayas, the Bay of Bengal branch of the monsoon is diverted westward up the Gangetic Plain, reaching Punjab only in the first week of July.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the Gangetic Plain the two branches merge into one. By the time they reach the Punjab their moisture is largely spent. The gradual reduction in the amount of rainfall toward the west is evidenced by the decline from 64 inches (1,625 mm) at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kolkata" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kolkata</a> to 26 inches (660 mm) at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Delhi" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Delhi</a> and to desert conditions still farther west. Over the northeastern portion of peninsular India, the two branches also intermittently collide, creating weak weather fronts with <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="sufficient" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/sufficient" data-type="EB">sufficient</a> rainfall to produce patches of fairly high precipitation (more than 60 inches [1,520 mm]) in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chota-Nagpur" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chota Nagpur</a> plateau.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section></section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":5,"pagesTotal":85,"pageId":285248,"pageLength":920,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"B","adLeg":"B","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":5,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

India - Black Soils, Monsoons, Agriculture | Britannica