India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline

<!doctype html> <html lang="en" class="topic-desktop ui-ie7 ui-ie"> <head prefix="og: https://ogp.me/ns# fb: https://ogp.me/ns/fb#"> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130"> <link rel="preload" as="script" href="https://www.googletagservices.com/tag/js/gpt.js" /> <link rel="icon" href="/favicon.png" /> <meta name="description" content="India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline: There is no general agreement regarding the causes of the breakdown of Harappan urban society. Broadly speaking, the principal theories thus far proposed fall under four headings. The first is gradual environmental change, such as a shift in climatic patterns and consequent agricultural disaster, perhaps resulting from excessive environmental stress caused by population growth and overexploitation of resources. Second, some scholars have postulated more-precipitous environmental changes, such as tectonic events leading to the flooding of Mohenjo-daro, the drying up of the Sarawati River, or other such calamities. Third, it is conceivable that human activities, such as invasions of tribespeople from" /> <meta name="keywords" content="India, encyclopedia, encyclopeadia, britannica, article" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization" /> <title>India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline | Britannica</title> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel"> window.$UI = {}; window.Constants = {"LICENSE_URL": "/bps/license","DEFAULT_TEST_VERSION": "A","DEFAULT_STATE": "XX","QUIZ_URL": "/quiz","SPOTLIGHT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/spotlight","CONTENT_TYPE_TEXT": "text/plain;charset=UTF-8","TOPIC_FACTS_DATA_URL": "/facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_IMAGE_QUIZZES": "images","TOPIC_MEDIA_PATH": "/images-videos","USER_PROFILE_URL": "/user","DEBUG_URL": "/debug","ONE_GOOD_FACT_URL": "/one-good-fact","ERROR_404_URL": "/error404","PROCON_CITED_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/ProCon-in-the-News","PROCON_URL": "/procon","TOPIC_PAGE_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/page","INFINITE_SCROLL_PREFIX_URL": "/scroll","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_BROWSE_URL": "/questions","CC_USD": "USD","domain": "britannica.com","SURVEY_URL": "/survey","CATEGORY_BROWSE_URL": "/browse","STORY_BROWSE_URL": "/stories","COUNTRY_US": "US","OPEN_MEDIA_OVERLAY_PARAMETER": "/media","NEWSLETTER_SUBSCRIPTION_URL": "/newsletter-subscription","MAINTENANCE_ERROR_URL": "https://maintenance.eb.com","IMARS_EDITOR_ID": "12365882","PROFILE_EB_EDITOR_URL": "/editor","WEB_INF_RESOURCES_PATH": "WEB-INF/resources","AI_ABOUT_PAGE_URL": "/about-britannica-ai","TOPIC_ADDITIONAL_INFO_PATH": "/additional-info","SUDOKU_GAME_URL": "/games/sudoku","CC_INR": "INR","ARTICLE_PRINT_URL": "/print/article","FIRST_EDITION_URL": "/subscriber/firstedition","WW1_PORTAL_URL": "/discover/World-War-I","MENDEL_COOKIE": "__mendel","DEMYSTIFIED_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/demystified","LIST_BROWSE_URL": "/list/browse","PROFILE_EXPERT_URL": "/contributor","ASSEMBLY_IMAGE_URL": "/image/assembly","DAY_IN_HISTORY_URL": "/on-this-day","DEFAULT_CURRENCY": "USD","CONTENT_TYPE_XML": "text/xml;charset=UTF-8","PORTAL_FINANCE_BROWSE_URL_PREFIX": "/money/browse","MONEY_IMARS_CATEGORY": "13000","AJAX_PREFIX_URL": "/ajax","TOPIC_BROWSE_URL": "/topic-browse","MARKETING_CONTENT": "/marketing-content","ENV_RUNTIME": "runtime","GALLERY_URL": "/gallery","topicUrlClassesList": "topic|animal|art|biography|event|place|plant|science|sports|technology|procon","CONTENT_TYPE_HTML": "text/html;charset=UTF-8","ENV_LOCAL": "override","MEDIA_OVERLAY_URL": "/media-overlay","CHATBOT_PAGE_URL": "/chatbot","NEWSLETTER_PAGE_URL": "/newsletters","ENV_DEV": "development","MEDIA_URL": "/media","TOPIC_TOP_QUESTION_URL": "/question","PORTAL_FINANCE_URL_PREFIX": "/money","PODCASTS_URL": "/podcasts","STAND_ALONE_VIDEO_URL": "/video","MORE_ON_THIS_DAY_URL": "/more-on-this-day","TOPIC_QUOTES_URL": "/quotes","SEARCH_PAGE_URL": "/search","PROCON_CLASS": "PROCON","KUSTOM_MENDEL_APPLICATION_ID": "1","TOPIC_CONTENT_AJAX_URL": "/topic-content/topic","ENV_BRANCH": "branch","ERROR_URL": "/error","MAIN_VERSION": "mainVersion","DEFAULT_S3_REGION": "US_EAST_1","TOPIC_COLLECTION_URL": "/summary","LOGINBOX_URL": "/auth/loginbox","ONE_GOOD_FACT_BROWSE_URL": "/one-good-fact/all-good-facts","QUIZ_BROWSE_URL": "/quiz/browse","BIO_BROWSE_URL": "/browse/biographies","LIST_URL": "/list","TIGHTROPE_QUIZ_URL": "/quiz/tightrope","ALPHA_BROWSE_URL": "/sitemap","CONTENT_TYPE_JSON": "application/json","DICTIONARY_URL": "/dictionary","COBRAND_IMAGE_URL": "/image/cobrand","PROCON_IN_THE_NEWS_URL": "/procon/pro-and-con-issues-in-the-news","PROCON_BROWSE_URL": "/procon","QUIZ_BROWSE_VOCAB_QUIZZES": "vocabulary-quizzes","SUBMISSION_URL": "/submission","EB_LOG_OUT": "/auth2/logout","ENV_PRODUCTION": "production","EXPLORE_PORTAL_URL": "/explore","TOPIC_AJAX_URL": "/ajax/topic","TOPIC_SUMMARY_BROWSE_URL": "/summaries","WTFACT_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/wtfact","VIDEO_CHANNEL_URL": "/videos","GALLERY_BROWSE_URL": "/gallery/browse","CACHE_URL": "/cache","PROCON_ABOUT_URL": "/procon/About-ProCon","COMPANION_BROWSE_URL": "/stories/companion","MEDIA_FOLDER": "/eb-media","SHOW_ALL_CONTRIBUTORS": "/additional-info#contributors","BRITANNICA_EDITORS_ID": "4419","ENV_CACHE_DISABLED": "mendelCache","CALCULATORS_BROWSE_URL": "/calculators","STORY_URL": "/story","DEFAULT_COUNTRY": "US","NAVBAR_URL": "/ajax/navbar","EB_LOGIN_URL": "/auth/eb-login","NEW_ARTICLES_URL": "/new-articles",}; window.CDN = "https://cdn.britannica.com"; window.CAM_LOGIN_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com"; window.CAM_SIGN_UP_URL = "https://cam.britannica.com/registration" window.Mendel = { "config" : { "domain": "britannica.com", "page": "Topic", "videoPlayerId": "UyMCoK2v", "sharedUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization", "amuselabsUrl": "https://cdn3.amuselabs.com", "resourcesPrefixUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/[url]?v=3.130.14", "date": 20241124, "userInfo": { "type": "ANONYMOUS" ,"currency": "AUUS" ,"country": "SG" ,"state": "XX" ,"timezone": "Asia/Singapore" ,"bcomId": "8198705246094303150" ,"hasAds": true ,"testVersion": "C" ,"adsTestVersion": "C" ,"consumerId": "" ,"instId": "" ,"consumerUserName": "" ,"instUserName": "" ,"cognito": null }, "tvs":{ "r":[25,25,25,25], "a": [25,25,25,25]}, "isLoggedInAsUser": false, "isPhone": false, "isDesktop": true, "logoutUrl": "/auth2/logout", "selfServiceUrl": "https://myaccount.britannica.com", "cdnUrl": "https://cdn.britannica.com", "chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api", "fetchOffset": 800, "mendelCookieName": "__mendel", "mendelCookie": {"surveyShown":false,"visitedTopicId":285248,"currentDate":20241124}, "autocompleteToSearchPage": false,"topicUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/India" ,"freeTopicReason": "PERMANENT_FREE_TOPIC" ,"topicId": 285248 ,"template": "DESKTOP" ,"type": "CORE" ,"hasToc": true ,"chatbotApi": "https://www.britannica.com/chat-api" ,"showPreview": false ,"infiniteScrollList": [{"p":85,"t":285248},{"p":1,"t":718428},{"p":36,"t":266312},{"p":3,"t":285841},{"p":1,"t":72209},{"p":1,"t":225187},{"p":1,"t":2247270},{"p":1,"t":64033},{"p":1,"t":285795},{"p":1,"t":1912794}] ,"sequence": 27 ,"topics": {} }, "GA": {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":27,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} }; </script> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="1887621861548296"/ <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@britannica" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:description" content="India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline: There is no general agreement regarding the causes of the breakdown of Harappan urban society. Broadly speaking, the principal theories thus far proposed fall under four headings. The first is gradual environmental change, such as a shift in climatic patterns and consequent agricultural disaster, perhaps resulting from excessive environmental stress caused by population growth and overexploitation of resources. Second, some scholars have postulated more-precipitous environmental changes, such as tectonic events leading to the flooding of Mohenjo-daro, the drying up of the Sarawati River, or other such calamities. Third, it is conceivable that human activities, such as invasions of tribespeople from"/> <meta property="og:type" content="ARTICLE"/> <meta property="og:title" content="India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline | Britannica"/> <meta property="og:description" content="India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline: There is no general agreement regarding the causes of the breakdown of Harappan urban society. Broadly speaking, the principal theories thus far proposed fall under four headings. The first is gradual environmental change, such as a shift in climatic patterns and consequent agricultural disaster, perhaps resulting from excessive environmental stress caused by population growth and overexploitation of resources. Second, some scholars have postulated more-precipitous environmental changes, such as tectonic events leading to the flooding of Mohenjo-daro, the drying up of the Sarawati River, or other such calamities. Third, it is conceivable that human activities, such as invasions of tribespeople from"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopedia Britannica" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.britannica.com/place/India"/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" /> <meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg" /> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="init opengraph"> Mendel.openGraph = {"type":"ARTICLE","title":"India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline","description":"India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline: There is no general agreement regarding the causes of the breakdown of Harappan urban society. Broadly speaking, the principal theories thus far proposed fall under four headings. The first is gradual environmental change, such as a shift in climatic patterns and consequent agricultural disaster, perhaps resulting from excessive environmental stress caused by population growth and overexploitation of resources. Second, some scholars have postulated more-precipitous environmental changes, such as tectonic events leading to the flooding of Mohenjo-daro, the drying up of the Sarawati River, or other such calamities. Third, it is conceivable that human activities, such as invasions of tribespeople from","imageUrl":"https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg","imageType":"image/jpeg","pageUrl":"https://www.britannica.com/place/India"}</script> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/" > <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/icon?family=Material+Icons"> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/vendor-bundle.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/mendel-css.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <link href="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.css?v=3.130.14" rel="stylesheet" /> <script type="text/javascript"> if (self !== top) { top.location = self.location; } // if ('scrollRestoration' in history) { history.scrollRestoration = 'manual'; } </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/at.js?v=3.130.14" async ></script> <script> dataLayer = []; </script> <script type="text/javascript">(function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= '//www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); })(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-5W6NC8'); </script> <meta name="last-modified" content="2024-11-23" /> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"headline":"India | History, Map, Population, Economy, & Facts","image":{"url":"https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg","@type":"ImageObject"},"author":[{"name":"Stanley A. Wolpert","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/Stanley-A-Wolpert/3247","@type":"Person"},{"name":"T.G. Percival Spear","url":"https://www.britannica.com/contributor/TG-Percival-Spear/2808","@type":"Person"}],"keywords":"India","wordcount":149080,"url":"https://www.britannica.com/place/India","datePublished":"1998-08-12T00:00:00Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T00:00:00Z","description":"India is a country that occupies the greater part of South Asia. It is a constitutional republic that represents a highly diverse population consisting of thousands of ethnic groups. It is made up of eight union territories and 28 states, and its capital is New Delhi. ","publisher":{"name":"Encyclopedia Britannica","@type":"Organization","logo":{"url":"https://corporate.britannica.com/wp-content/themes/eb-corporate/_img/logo.png","@type":"ImageObject"}},"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"article"} </script></head> <body data-leg="C" class="new-topic topic-desktop first-page-false user-ANONYMOUS user-ads md-desktop leg-cb-ie">  <script>Mendel.config.adProvider='ay';</script> <script async src="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net/tag/js/gpt.js"></script> <script> window.googletag = window.googletag || {cmd: []}; googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.defineSlot('/15510053/CMP_1x1', [1, 1], 'div-gpt-ad-1709766812090-0').addService(googletag.pubads()); googletag.pubads().enableSingleRequest(); googletag.enableServices(); }); </script> <script async defer src="https://launchpad-wrapper.privacymanager.io/0ccc6fe8-1870-4ad8-b47b-6d029ac116fc/launchpad-liveramp.js"></script> <script async src="https://JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs.ay.delivery/manager/JRyhoywLYXNLYMAhs" type="text/javascript" referrerpolicy="no-referrer-when-downgrade" ></script><div class="ie-warning d-flex align-items-center align-self-center justify-content-center site-alert bg-orange"> <div> You are using an <strong>outdated</strong> browser. Please <a class="text-white text-underscore" href="https://browsehappy.com/">upgrade your browser</a> to improve your experience and security. </div> </div> <script id="json-navbar-info" type="application/json"> {"topSectionLinks":[{"title":"Ask the Chatbot","url":"/chatbot","navbarId":"CHATBOT"},{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse","navbarId":"QUIZZES"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon","navbarId":"PROCON"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society","navbarId":"HISTORY"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech","navbarId":"SCIENCE"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies","navbarId":"BIOS"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature","navbarId":"ANIMALS"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","selected":true,"navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture","navbarId":"ART"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money","navbarId":"MONEY"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos","navbarId":"VIDEOS"}],"selectedSuperCategory":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"Geography-Travel","description":"Explore geography and travel; geographic regions; historical places; people of the world; countries, states, provinces, cities, and towns; languages; deserts, islands, mountains, plateaus; lakes, oceans, seas, rivers; national parks, tourist attractions","keywords":"geographic regions; historical places; people of the world; countries, states, provinces, cities, and towns; languages; deserts, islands, mountains, plateaus; lakes, oceans, seas, rivers; national parks, tourist attractions ","classId":"GEOGRAPHY","sortOrder":5},"selectedNavbarLink":{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel","selected":true,"navbarId":"GEOGRAPHY"}} </script> <script id="json-hamburger-menu" type="application/json"> {"britannicaMenu1":[{"title":"Home","url":"/"},{"title":"ProCon","url":"/procon"},{"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},{"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},{"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},{"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},{"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},{"title":"Money","url":"/money"}],"britannicaMenu2":[{"title":"Games & Quizzes","url":"/quiz/browse"},{"title":"Videos","url":"/videos"},{"title":"On This Day","url":"/on-this-day"},{"title":"One Good Fact","url":"/one-good-fact"},{"title":"Dictionary","url":"/dictionary"},{"title":"New Articles","url":"/new-articles"}],"browseByCategory":[{"title":{"id":5,"title":"History & Society","url":"/History-Society"},"links":[{"title":"Lifestyles & Social Issues","url":"/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues"},{"title":"Philosophy & Religion","url":"/browse/Philosophy-Religion"},{"title":"Politics, Law & Government","url":"/browse/Politics-Law-Government"},{"title":"World History","url":"/browse/World-History"}]},{"title":{"id":6,"title":"Science & Tech","url":"/Science-Tech"},"links":[{"title":"Health & Medicine","url":"/browse/Health-Medicine"},{"title":"Science","url":"/browse/Science"},{"title":"Technology","url":"/browse/Technology"}]},{"title":{"id":3,"title":"Biographies","url":"/Biographies"},"links":[{"title":"Browse Biographies","url":"/browse/biographies"}]},{"title":{"id":1,"title":"Animals & Nature","url":"/Animals-Nature"},"links":[{"title":"Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates","url":"/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates"},{"title":"Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates","url":"/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates"},{"title":"Environment","url":"/browse/Environment"},{"title":"Fossils & Geologic Time","url":"/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time"},{"title":"Mammals","url":"/browse/Mammals"},{"title":"Plants","url":"/browse/Plants"}]},{"title":{"id":4,"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/Geography-Travel"},"links":[{"title":"Geography & Travel","url":"/browse/Geography-Travel"}]},{"title":{"id":2,"title":"Arts & Culture","url":"/Arts-Culture"},"links":[{"title":"Entertainment & Pop Culture","url":"/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture"},{"title":"Literature","url":"/browse/Literature"},{"title":"Sports & Recreation","url":"/browse/Sports-Recreation"},{"title":"Visual Arts","url":"/browse/Visual-Arts"}]}],"browseByFeature":[{"title":"Companions","url":"/stories/companion"},{"title":"Demystified","url":"/stories/demystified"},{"title":"Image Galleries","url":"/gallery/browse"},{"title":"Lists","url":"/list/browse"},{"title":"Podcasts","url":"/podcasts"},{"title":"Spotlight","url":"/stories/spotlight"},{"title":"Summaries","url":"/summary"},{"title":"The Forum","url":"/stories/the-forum"},{"title":"Top Questions","url":"/question"},{"title":"#WTFact","url":"/stories/wtfact"}],"moreFromBritannica":[{"title":"Britannica Kids","url":"https://kids.britannica.com/","newTab":true}],"menuType":"DEFAULT"} </script> <header id="header" class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="global-nav-top-bar"> <div class="grid gx-0 h-100 justify-content-between align-items-center container-lg mx-auto p-0 position-relative"> <div class="d-flex align-items-center"> <button class="d-flex align-items-center justify-self-start js-toggle js-toggle-hamburger btn btn-link link-white btn-sm rounded-0 p-10"> <div class="hamburger-tooltip"> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24" id="nav-toggle" data-icon="menu"></em> </div> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block font-24 global-nav-search-icon" id="nav-search-icon" data-icon="search" ></em> </button> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center ml-10"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-logo global-nav-logo-left" /> </a> <div class="global-nav-top-search-bar global-nav-top-search-container global-nav-search-container" id="global-nav-top-search-bar"> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> </div> </div> <a href="/" class="d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png" alt="Encyclopedia Britannica" class="global-nav-center global-nav-logo non-homepage-logo" /> </a> <form method="get" action="/search" id="global-nav-search" class="md-search-form m-0 global-nav-search-bar-small global-nav-center search global-nav-center-search-container"> <div class="search-box position-relative col-100"> <label class="sr-only" for="global-nav-search-query">Search Britannica</label> <input name="query" id="global-nav-search-query" placeholder="Search Britannica..." class="form-control form-control-lg rounded-lg font-16 search-query pl-20 pr-70 shadow-sm" maxlength="200" autocomplete="off" aria-label="Search Britannica" /> <button class="search-reset-btn btn btn-link px-10 position-absolute top-0 h-100 d-none" type="reset"> <em class="material-icons" data-icon="close"></em> </button> <button class="search-submit btn btn-link text-blue px-10 position-absolute top-0 right-0 h-100" type="submit" disabled> <span class="sr-only">Click here to search</span> <em class="material-icons search-icon" data-icon="search"></em> </button> </div> </form> <div class="col-35 col-sm-auto text-right order-3 mr-lg-15 align-items-center d-flex justify-content-end"> <div class="d-none d-md-inline-block"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2 marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_DESKTOP2"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-outline-white-orange py-5 mr-10" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <div class="d-inline-block d-md-none mr-5 mr-sm-10"> <SPAN class="marketing-HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HEADER_SUBSCRIPTION_MOBILE"><a href="https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS" class="subscribe-link btn btn-xs btn-orange-dark p-5" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Subscribe </a></SPAN></div> <button class="js-toggle-user-dropdown js-toggle btn btn-sm btn-link link-white rounded-0 px-md-15 pl-5 pr-5"> <span class="d-none d-md-inline-block mr-5">Login</span> <em class="material-icons d-inline-block d-md-none font-16 font-sm-20" data-icon="account_circle"></em> <div class="d-none dropdown-menu-subscription-link">https://subscription.britannica.com/subscribe?partnerCode=BP_Black_Friday_AUUS</div> <em class="material-icons inactive-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_down"></em> <em class="material-icons active-icon d-inline-block font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_up"></em> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none hamburger-menu-subscription-link"><DIV class="marketing-HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA marketing-content" data-marketing-id="HAMBURGER_MENU_CTA"><a href="https://premium.britannica.com/premium-membership/?utm_source=premium&utm_medium=hamburger-menu&utm_campaign=black-friday-2024" class="subscribe-link btn btn-sm btn-orange py-5" target="_blank"> Subscribe <span class="d-none d-md-inline"> Now</span> </a></DIV></div> <div id="global-nav-react"> <div class="d-none"> <ul> <li><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/procon">ProCon</a></li> <li><a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a></li> <li><a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a></li> <li><a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a></li> <li><a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/money">Money</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a></li> <li><a href="/videos">Videos</a></li> <li><a href="/on-this-day">On This Day</a></li> <li><a href="/one-good-fact">One Good Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/dictionary">Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/new-articles">New Articles</a></li> </ul> <a href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Lifestyles-Social-Issues">Lifestyles & Social Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Philosophy-Religion">Philosophy & Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Politics-Law-Government">Politics, Law & Government</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/World-History">World History</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Health-Medicine">Health & Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Technology">Technology</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/biographies">Browse Biographies</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Birds-Reptiles-Vertebrates">Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Bugs-Mollusks-Invertebrates">Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Environment">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Fossil-Geologic-Time">Fossils & Geologic Time</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Mammals">Mammals</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Plants">Plants</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a></li> </ul> <a href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <ul> <li><a href="/browse/Entertainment-Pop-Culture">Entertainment & Pop Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Sports-Recreation">Sports & Recreation</a></li> <li><a href="/browse/Visual-Arts">Visual Arts</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="/stories/companion">Companions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/demystified">Demystified</a></li> <li><a href="/gallery/browse">Image Galleries</a></li> <li><a href="/list/browse">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/podcasts">Podcasts</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/spotlight">Spotlight</a></li> <li><a href="/summary">Summaries</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/the-forum">The Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/question">Top Questions</a></li> <li><a href="/stories/wtfact">#WTFact</a></li> </ul> <ul> <li><a href="https://kids.britannica.com/">Britannica Kids</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </header> <div class="bg-navy-dark"> <div class="container-lg p-0 d-flex justify-content-center global-nav-categories-bar overflow-hidden"> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 global-nav-slider category-snap-slider"> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex font-14 overflow-hidden text-nowrap mx-5"> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-CHATBOT " href="/chatbot">Ask the Chatbot</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-QUIZZES " href="/quiz/browse">Games & Quizzes</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-PROCON " href="/procon">ProCon</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-HISTORY " href="/History-Society">History & Society</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-SCIENCE " href="/Science-Tech">Science & Tech</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-BIOS " href="/Biographies">Biographies</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ANIMALS " href="/Animals-Nature">Animals & Nature</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-GEOGRAPHY selected selected" href="/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-ART " href="/Arts-Culture">Arts & Culture</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-MONEY " href="/money">Money</a> <a class="nav-bar-category mx-5 category-link-VIDEOS " href="/videos">Videos</a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <main> <div class="md-page-wrapper"> <div id="content" class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="285248"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">India</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/India">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref46358"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46358">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46359"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India#ref46359">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46360" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas">The Himalayas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46361"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46361">The Outer Himalayas (the Siwalik Range)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46362">The Lesser Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46363"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46363">The Great Himalayas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46364">Associated ranges and hills</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Himalayas#ref46365">The Indo-Gangetic Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46366" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan">The Deccan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46367">The Western Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46368">The Eastern Ghats</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46369"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46369">Inland regions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46370">Coastal areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46371">Islands</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Deccan#ref46372">Drainage</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46373" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal">Drainage into the Bay of Bengal</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46374">The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46375"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46375">Peninsular rivers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46376">Drainage into the Arabian Sea</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46377"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46377">Lakes and inland drainage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46378"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46378">Soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273210" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref273210">In situ soils</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46380"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Drainage-into-the-Bay-of-Bengal#ref46380">Red-to-yellow soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46381"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils">Black soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46379"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46379">Alluvial soils</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46382"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46382">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46383" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46383">The monsoons</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46384"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Black-soils#ref46384">The southwest monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46385"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon">Rainfall during the retreating monsoon</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46386"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46386">Tropical cyclones</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46387"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46387">Importance to agriculture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rainfall-during-the-retreating-monsoon#ref46388">Temperatures</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46389"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46390"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46390">Vegetation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46391" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46391">Animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46392"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46392">Mammals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46393"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46393">Birds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46394"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46394">Reptiles, fish, and insects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46395"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Plant-and-animal-life#ref46395">Conservation</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46396"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46397"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46397">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46398"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/People#ref46398">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages">Indo-European languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46400"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46400">Dravidian and other languages</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46401"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46401">Lingua francas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46402"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46402">Minor languages and dialects</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46403"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indo-European-languages#ref46403">Religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46404"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste">Caste</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46405"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46405">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46406"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46406">Population density</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46407"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46407">Rural settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46408"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Caste#ref46408">Urban settlement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46409"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends">Demographic trends</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46410"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Demographic-trends#ref46410">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46415"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46416" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46416">Agriculture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273192"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273192">Crops</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273193"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref273193">Livestock</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46417"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46417">Forestry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46418"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref46418">Fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46411"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power">Resources and power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46419"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Resources-and-power#ref46419">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46424"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273194"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273194">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273195"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273195">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273196"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref273196">Labour and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46425"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Finance#ref46425">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46426"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads">Railways and roads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46427"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46427">Water and air transport</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273197"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref273197">Telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46428"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46428">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46429"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Railways-and-roads#ref46429">Constitutional framework</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46430"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure">Constitutional structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46431" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46431">Union government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46432"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46432">Executive branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46433"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46433">Legislative branch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46434"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46434">Bureaucracy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46439"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46439">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46435"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46435">State and local governments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46436"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46436">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46437"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46437">Political process</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46438"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-structure#ref46438">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46441"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273190"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273190">Housing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46440"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46440">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref46442"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref46442">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273200"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Health-and-welfare#ref273200">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46443"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs">Daily life and social customs</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46444"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46444">Family and kinship</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273201"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref273201">Festivals and holidays</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46445"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Daily-life-and-social-customs#ref46445">Cuisine</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46446"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing">Clothing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46447"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref46447">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273202"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273202">Architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273203"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273203">Dance and music</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273204"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Clothing#ref273204">Theatre, film, and literature</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref273205"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46448"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46448">Sports and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46449"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Cultural-institutions#ref46449">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214184"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46800">India from the Paleolithic Period to the decline of the Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46801" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/History#ref46801">The early prehistoric period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic">The Indian Paleolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46803">Mesolithic hunters</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46804">The earliest agriculturalists and pastoralists</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indian-Paleolithic#ref46805">Neolithic agriculture in the Indus valley and Baluchistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin">Developments in the Ganges basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46807">Earliest settlements in peninsular India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46808">Earliest settlements in eastern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46809" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46809">The rise of urbanism in the Indus valley</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46810">Extent and chronology of Early Harappan culture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46811">Principal sites</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46812">Subsistence and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Developments-in-the-Ganges-basin#ref46813">Culture and religion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46814" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization">The Indus civilization</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46815">Character and significance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46816">Chronology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46817">Extent</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46818">Planning and architecture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46819">Important sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Indus-civilization#ref46820">Mohenjo-daro</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa">Harappa</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46822"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46822">Kalibangan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46823">Lothal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46824">Other important sites</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Harappa#ref46825">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry">Agriculture and animal husbandry</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46827">Communications</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46828">Craft and technology</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46829">Trade and external contacts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46830">Language and scripts, weights and measures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46831">Social and political system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46832">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Agriculture-and-animal-husbandry#ref46833">Religion and burial customs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46834"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization">The end of the Indus civilization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46835" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46835">Post-Harappan developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46836">The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46837">The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46838">The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization#ref46839">Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 2000–1000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce">The development of Indian civilization from c. 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to c. 1200 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273188"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273188">Traditional approaches to Indian historiography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref273189"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref273189">Trends in early Indian society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46841" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-development-of-Indian-civilization-from-c-1500-bce-to-c-1200-ce#ref46841">From c. 1500 to c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period">Early Vedic period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46843"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Early-Vedic-period#ref46843">Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46844" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce">The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46845"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46845">Pre-Mauryan states</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46846">Location</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46847">Political systems</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46848">Economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce#ref46849">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy">Magadhan ascendancy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46851">Campaigns of Alexander the Great</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46852">The Mauryan empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46853">Chandragupta Maurya</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Magadhan-ascendancy#ref46854">Bindusara</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors">Ashoka and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46856">Financial base for the empire</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46857">Mauryan society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashoka-and-his-successors#ref46858">Mauryan government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts">Ashoka’s edicts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46860">Mauryan decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46861"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46861">The concept of the state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46862" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46862">From 150 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> to 300 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46863">Rise of small kingdoms in the north</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46864">Indo-Greek rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46865"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46865">Central Asian rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46866"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Ashokas-edicts#ref46866">Oligarchies and kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46867"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom">The Shunga kingdom</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46868"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46868">Kalinga</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46869"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46869">The Andhras and their successors</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46870"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Shunga-kingdom#ref46870">Southern Indian kingdoms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46871"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West">Contacts with the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46872"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46872">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46873"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46873">Guilds</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46874"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46874">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46875"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46875">Impact of trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46876"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Contacts-with-the-West#ref46876">Religious patronage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46877"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46878"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46878">Assimilation of foreigners</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46879" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46879">From 300 to 750 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span></a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46880"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46880">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46881"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46881">The Guptas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46882"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46882">Successor states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46883"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Literature#ref46883">The Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46884"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India">Southern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46885"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46885">Society and culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46886" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46886">From 750 to c. 1200</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46887"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46887">Northern India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46888"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Southern-India#ref46888">The tripartite struggle</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46889"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs">The Rajputs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46890"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46890">The coming of the Turks</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46891"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46891">The Deccan and the south</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46892"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46892">The Colas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46893"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Rajputs#ref46893">The Hoysalas and Pandyas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46894"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture">Society and culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46895"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46895">The economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46896"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46896">Social mobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46897"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46897">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46898"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46898">Literature and the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46899"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46899">The early Muslim period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46900" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46900">North India under Muslim hegemony, c. 1200–1526</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46901"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46901">The Delhi sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46902"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Society-and-culture#ref46902">The Turkish conquest</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46903"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans">The early Turkish sultans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46904"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-early-Turkish-sultans#ref46904">Consolidation of the sultanate</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46905"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis">The Khaljīs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46906"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46906">Centralization and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46907"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46907">Taxation and distribution of revenue resources</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46908"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46908">Expansion and conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46909"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Khaljis#ref46909">The urban economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46910"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs">The Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46911"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46911">Reversal and rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46912"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Tughluqs#ref46912">Society and the state under the Tughluqs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46913"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate">Decline of the sultanate</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46914"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46914">The rise of regional states</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46915"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46915">Struggle for supremacy in northern India</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46916" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46916">The Muslim states of southern India, c. 1350–1680</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46917"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-the-sultanate#ref46917">The Bahmani sultanate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan">Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Bahmani-consolidation-of-the-Deccan#ref46919">External and internal rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref273208"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan">Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46920">Bahmanī decline</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Vizierate-of-Mahmud-Gawan#ref46921">Successors to the Bahmanī</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46922" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646">The Vijayanagar empire, 1336–1646</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46923">Development of the state</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46924">Conquests</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46925"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646#ref46925">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries">Wars and rivalries</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46927">Decentralization and loss of territory</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46928">Later dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46929">Reconsolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46930">Growth of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46931">Renewed decentralization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46932"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Wars-and-rivalries#ref46932">Relations with the Muslim states</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar">Decline of Vijayanagar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46934">Military policies</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46935"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46935">Loss of central control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46936">Breakup of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Decline-of-Vijayanagar#ref46937">Administration of the empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46938"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761">The Mughal Empire, 1526–1761</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46939"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46939">The significance of Mughal rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46940" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46940">The establishment of the Mughal Empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46941">Bābur</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46942">Conquest of Hindustan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Mughal-Empire-1526-1761#ref46943">Bābur’s achievements</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun">Humāyūn</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46945">Sher Shah and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Humayun#ref46946">Restoration of Humāyūn</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46947" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great">The reign of Akbar the Great</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46948">Extension and consolidation of the empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46949">The early years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46950">Struggle for firm personal control</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46951">Subjugation of Rajasthan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46952">Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46953">The frontiers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46954">The state and society under Akbar</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-reign-of-Akbar-the-Great#ref46955">Central, provincial, and local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46956"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility">The composition of the Mughal nobility</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46957">Organization of the nobility and the army</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46958">Revenue system</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46959">Fiscal administration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46960">Coinage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46961">Evolution of a nonsectarian state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46962">Akbar in historical perspective</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46963" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-composition-of-the-Mughal-nobility#ref46963">The empire in the 17th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir">Jahāngīr</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46965">Loss of Kandahār</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46966">Submission of Mewar</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46967">Developments in the Deccan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46968">Rebellion of Khurram (Shah Jahān)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jahangir#ref46969">Mahābat Khan’s coup</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46970"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan">Shah Jahān</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46971">The Deccan problem</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46972">Central Asian policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46973"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Shah-Jahan#ref46973">War of succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb">Aurangzeb</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46975">Local and peasant uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46976">Assessment of Aurangzeb</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46977" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Aurangzeb#ref46977">Mughal decline in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings">The Sikh uprisings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46979">Cracks in the core</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46980">Struggle for a new power center</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46981">The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46982">Nādir Shah’s invasion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46983">The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46984">Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref46985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikh-uprisings#ref46985">Regional states, c. 1700–1850</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46986" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas">The Marathas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46987">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46988">Rise of the <em>peshwa</em>s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46989"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Marathas#ref46989">Subordinate Maratha rulers</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century">Mughal mystique in the 18th century</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46991">The case of Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref46992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46992">Challenge from the northwest</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Mughal-mystique-in-the-18th-century#ref46993">The Afghan factor in northern India, 1747–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46994" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab">The Sikhs in the Punjab</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46995">Early history</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref46996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Sikhs-in-the-Punjab#ref46996">From Banda Singh Bahadur to Ranjit Singh</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century">Rajasthan in the 18th century</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Rajasthan-in-the-18th-century#ref46998">The south: Travancore and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref46999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy">Politics and the economy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47000">Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47001">India and European expansion, c. 1500–1858</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47002" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47002">European activity in India, 1498–c. 1760</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47003">The Portuguese</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Politics-and-the-economy#ref47004">The Dutch</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740">The British, 1600–1740</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47006"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-British-1600-1740#ref47006">The French</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63">The Anglo-French struggle, 1740–63</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Anglo-French-struggle-1740-63#ref47008">European military superiority</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal">Revolution in Bengal</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47010" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47010">The extension of British power, 1760–1856</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Revolution-in-Bengal#ref47011">The period of disorder, 1760–72</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur">The Company Bahadur</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47013">The company and the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-Company-Bahadur#ref47014">Relations with the Marathas and Mysore</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47015"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy">The ascent to paramountcy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47016">The government of Lord Wellesley</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-ascent-to-paramountcy#ref47017">The government of Lord Minto</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings">The government of Lord Hastings</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47019">The settlement of 1818</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47020">Organization and policy in British India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-government-of-Lord-Hastings#ref47021">Organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47022"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy">The determination of policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47023"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47023">The completion of dominion and expansion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47024"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-determination-of-policy#ref47024">The first century of British influence</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47025"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects">Political effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47026"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47026">Economic effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47027"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47027">Social effects</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref47028"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Political-effects#ref47028">Cultural effects</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47029" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59">The mutiny and great revolt of 1857–59</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47030"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47030">Nature and causes of the rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47031"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47031">The revolt and its aftermath</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47032"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47032">British imperial power, 1858–1947</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47033" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-mutiny-and-great-revolt-of-1857-59#ref47033">Climax of the raj, 1858–85</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273209"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858">Government of India Act of 1858</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47034"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47034">Social policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47035"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47035">Government organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47036"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-of-India-Act-of-1858#ref47036">Economic policy and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47037" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy">Foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47038"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47038">The northwest frontier</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47039"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47039">The Second Anglo-Afghan War</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47040"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Foreign-policy#ref47040">The incorporation of Burma</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47041" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920">Indian nationalism and the British response, 1885–1920</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47042"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47042">Origins of the nationalist movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47043"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indian-nationalism-and-the-British-response-1885-1920#ref47043">The early Congress movement</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47044"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal">The first partition of Bengal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47045"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-first-partition-of-Bengal#ref47045">Nationalism in the Muslim community</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47046"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals">Reforms of the British Liberals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47047"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47047">Moderate and militant nationalism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47048" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47048">World War I and its aftermath</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47049"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Reforms-of-the-British-Liberals#ref47049">India’s contributions to the war effort</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47050"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity">Anti-British activity</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47051"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Anti-British-activity#ref47051">The postwar years</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47052"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre">Jallianwala Bagh massacre</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47053"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47053">Gandhi’s strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47054" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Jallianwala-Bagh-massacre#ref47054">Prelude to independence, 1920–47</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47055"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms">Constitutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47056"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Constitutional-reforms#ref47056">The Congress’s ambivalent strategy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47057"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism">Muslim separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47058"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47058">The impact of World War II</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47059"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Muslim-separatism#ref47059">British wartime strategy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47060"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries">The transfer of power and the birth of two countries</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref47061"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47061">The Republic of India</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47062" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/The-transfer-of-power-and-the-birth-of-two-countries#ref47062">The Nehru era, 1947–64</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47063"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics">Government and politics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47064"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47064">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47065"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47065">Economic planning and development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47066" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47066">Post-Nehru politics and foreign policy</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47067"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Government-and-politics#ref47067">The 1965 war with Pakistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47068"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact">Indira Gandhi’s impact</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47069"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47069">The Bangladesh war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47070"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47070">Emergency rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47071"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Indira-Gandhis-impact#ref47071">The Janata interlude and the return of Indira Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47072"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism">Sikh separatism</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref47073" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47073">From Rajiv to Rao: India from the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47074"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47074">The premiership of Rajiv Gandhi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47075"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Sikh-separatism#ref47075">Foreign policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47076"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall">V.P. Singh’s coalition—its brief rise and fall</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref47077"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref47077">Congress government of P.V. Narasimha Rao</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref321317" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref321317">India since the mid-1990s</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273206"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref273206">The first and second BJP governments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342918"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342918">The BJP becomes the largest party in the Lok Sabha</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342919"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342919">BJP gains in elections</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342920"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/V-P-Singhs-coalition-its-brief-rise-and-fall#ref342920">Divisiveness of BJP government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref273207"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh">Congress Party rule under Manmohan Singh</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342921"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342921">Domestic policy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342922"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342922">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref321318"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref321318">Return of the BJP under Narendra Modi</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342923"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342923">Monetary and tax reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref342924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref342924">BJP reelection bids and tensions in Kashmir</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref346476"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref346476">Addressing COVID-19 and its economic impact</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref300767"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref300767">Pre-Mughal Indian dynasties</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref276894"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/India/Congress-Party-rule-under-Manmohan-Singh#ref276894">Prime ministers of India</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/India">Facts & Stats</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/images-videos">Images, Videos & Interactives</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap ml-15"> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-050-008F30FA/Flag-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/61301" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/1597-004-05816F4E/Flag-India.jpg" alt="Flag of India" height="50" /> </a> <a href="" data-href="/media/1/285248/151423" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <em class="material-icons md-48" data-icon="volume_up"></em> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/1598-050-BD4FD93E/India-political-boundaries.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1956" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/1598-004-663FD772/India-political-boundaries.jpg" alt="India" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-050-26B6A00F/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/303219" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/75501-004-7EC317F9/taj-mahal-agra-india.jpg" alt="Agra, India: Taj Mahal" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-050-752A1D62/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1976" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/17/1617-004-D050970C/Rajput-fort-Jaisalmer-Rajasthan-India.jpg" alt="Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, India: fort" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/260897-050-61946074/indian-independence-movement-timeline-banner.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/313134" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/97/260897-049-61946074/indian-independence-movement-timeline-banner.jpg" alt="Timeline of the Indian Independence Movement" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-050-45452C37/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/95244" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/26/84526-004-FE8A09B5/Gateway-monument-India-entrance-Mumbai-Harbour-coast.jpg" alt="Mumbai, India: Gateway of India monument" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-050-8A4D277F/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/1973" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/12/1612-004-F8B86983/Settlement-Kullu-Valley-India-Himachal-Pradesh.jpg" alt="Himachal Pradesh, India: Kullu Valley" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-050-BDAD8752/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/238229" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/196757-004-0ED54B2D/slopes-foothills-mountains-Himalayan-Kalimpong-West-Bengal.jpg" alt="Himalayas" height="50" /> </a> <a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-050-BC7E72FA/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg" data-href="/media/1/285248/61303" class="media-overlay-link d-inline-block mr-5"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/1634-004-D54B5964/map-India-Physical-locator.jpg" alt="Physical features of India" height="50" /> </a> </div> <button disabled class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Previous"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span> </button> <button disabled class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-blue " aria-label="Next"> <span class="material-icons md-24" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span> </button> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-student-links"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> For Students </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/summary/India"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/images/shared/default3.png?v=3.130.14" class="default " height="200" width="200"/> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/summary/India" >India summary</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-quizzes"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Quizzes </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/the-country-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/40/129640-131-0EB20858/Flags-countries-world-flags-Country-blog-geography-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of all countries of the world. Flags of the world. National flags. Country flags. Hompepage blog 2009, history and society, geography and travel, explore discovery" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/the-country-quiz" >The Country Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-area-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/95/168695-131-11055CC5/Geography-Something-globe-Europe-Eurasia-Africa.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="7:023 Geography: Think of Something Big, globe showing Africa, Europe, and Eurasia" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-area-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger By Area? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/91/142291-131-1FF39F2D/Flags-world-blue-sky-Countries-Globalization-relations-2010.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of the world against blue sky. Countries, International. Globalization, global relations, Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, Poland, Palestine, Japan. Homepage 2010, arts and entertainment, history and society" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-by-population-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger By Population? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/64/244164-131-C5EE8DAB/nation-flags-world-map.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Flags of all nations of the world. Grouping of various country flags on a world map." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/which-country-is-larger-quiz" >Which Country Is Larger? Quiz</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/guess-the-country-by-its-neighbors-quiz"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/247338-131-37776892/passport-visas-stamps-world-map.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Opened passport with visas, stamps, seals, world map. (travel, tourism)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/guess-the-country-by-its-neighbors-quiz" >Guess the Country by Its Neighbors Quiz</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-questions"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 pb-0 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-15"> Related Questions </div> <ul> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-are-the-oldest-known-civilizations-of-India">What are the oldest known civilizations of India?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-are-the-major-holidays-and-festivals-of-India">What are the major holidays and festivals of India?</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-discover"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Discover </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/12-greek-gods-and-goddesses"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/23/176123-131-94DCF6F8/Aphrodite.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Aphrodite. Greek mythology. Sculpture. Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love and beauty." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/12-greek-gods-and-goddesses" >12 Greek Gods and Goddesses</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/10-famous-artworks-by-leonardo-da-vinci"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/200006-131-ABB681CF/Leonardo-da-Vinci-Italian-Renaissance-Florence-Engraving-1500.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), Italian Renaissance painter from Florence. Engraving by Cosomo Colombini (d. 1812) after a Leonardo self portrait. Ca. 1500." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/10-famous-artworks-by-leonardo-da-vinci" >10 Famous Artworks by Leonardo da Vinci</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/8-unusual-punishments-inflicted-on-women-throughout-history"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/98/234498-131-6FF17721/Woman-tied-to-ducking-stool-punishment.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Woman tied to a ducking stool, a method of punishment by means of humiliation, beating, or death. (cucking stool)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/8-unusual-punishments-inflicted-on-women-throughout-history" >8 Unusual Punishments Inflicted on Women Throughout History</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/what-is-the-difference-between-daoism-and-confucianism"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/18/189918-131-88EB3997/statue-temple-Confucius-China-Shanghai.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Confucius statue at a Confucian Temple in Shanghai, China. Confucianism religion" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/what-is-the-difference-between-daoism-and-confucianism" >What is the Difference Between Daoism and Confucianism?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/7-winter-solstice-celebrations-from-around-the-world"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/32/172532-131-F613580B/girl-wreath-Day-head-St-Lucia-family.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Saint Lucia Day. Young girl wears Lucia crown (tinsel halo) with candles. Holds Saint Lucia Day currant laced saffron buns (lussekatter or Lucia's cats). Observed December 13 honor virgin martyr Santa Lucia (St. Lucy). Luciadagen, Christmas, Sweden" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/list/7-winter-solstice-celebrations-from-around-the-world" >7 Winter Solstice Celebrations From Around the World</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/where-do-anti-semitic-conspiracy-theories-about-the-rothschild-family-come-from"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/200267-131-4F79E2AC/Mayer-Amschel-Rothschild.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744-1855), founder of the house of Rothschild; lithograph by Friedrich Lieder, c. 1830." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/where-do-anti-semitic-conspiracy-theories-about-the-rothschild-family-come-from" >Where Do Anti-Semitic Conspiracy Theories About the Rothschild Family Come From?</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/story/why-is-thanksgiving-in-the-us-celebrated-on-a-thursday"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/06/212906-131-C791368A/Thanksgiving-celebration-food-table-spread.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Thanksgiving Celebration Traditional Dinner Setting Food Concept" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-is-thanksgiving-in-the-us-celebrated-on-a-thursday" >Why Is Thanksgiving in the U.S. Celebrated on a Thursday?</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm"> <div class="h-100 infinite-pagination-container d-flex flex-column position-relative"> <div class="position-absolute top-0 h-100 w-100"> <div class="toc-sticky-header d-none d-lg-none bg-gray-50 px-10 px-sm-30 position-sticky w-100 "> <div class="toc-sticky-header-inner-container align-items-center d-flex mx-auto h-100 w-100"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-sm btn-white text-blue border-2 border-gray-100 gtm-mobile-toc-header-button js-sections-button d-lg-none p-10"> <em class="material-icons my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Contents </button> <div class="header-ai-ask-button-placeholder"></div> <div class="header-ai-summarize-button-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="grey-box w-100 grey-box-top"> <div class="grey-box-content mx-auto w-100"> <script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context" : "https://schema.org", "@type" : "BreadcrumbList", "itemListElement" : [ { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 1, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Geography-Travel", "name": "Geography & Travel" } } , { "@type" : "ListItem", "position" : 2, "item" : { "@id" : "https://www.britannica.com/browse/Countries-of-the-World", "name": "Countries of the World" } } ] } </script> <nav class="breadcrumb mt-20"> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Geography-Travel">Geography & Travel</a> </span> <span class="breadcrumb-item "> <a class="link-gray-600" href="/browse/Countries-of-the-World">Countries of the World</a> </span> </nav> <div class="page2ref-true topic-content topic-type-COUNTRY" data-student-article="false"> <script class="page-description-json" type="application/json"> { "url": "/place/India/The-end-of-the-Indus-civilization", "shareUrl": "https://www.britannica.com/place/India", "browserTitle": "India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline", "firstTopicPage": false, "topicId":285248 } </script> <div class="reading-channel"> <div class="topic-header"> <div class="d-flex align-items-top justify-content-between"> <div class="d-flex flex-column"> <div> <div> <h2 class="h4">The end of the Indus civilization</h2></div> <div class="in-container"> <em class="material-icons in-arrow" data-icon="subdirectory_arrow_right"></em> <span class="in-bc">in</span><a class="in-link" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">India</a> <span class="in-bc">in</span><a class="in-link" href="/place/India/History">History</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-flex flex-row"> <div class="mr-10 mb-15"> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="d-none d-sm-block md-topic-tools qa-action-buttons mb-15" data-topic-id="285248"> <button class="js-tooltip btn btn-sm btn-outline-blue border pr-10 border-2" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="more_vert"></em> More Actions </button> <div class="md-more-popover popover popover-sm p-0 font-14 z-1"> <div> <button class="js-print-modal-button js-modal gtm-topic-tool btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-print-modal" > <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="print"></em> Print </button> <div class="md-print-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">print</em> Print </div> <div class="mt-20 mb-10"> Please select which sections you would like to print: </div> <form action="/print/article/285248" method="post" target="_blank" rel="noopener"> <div class="print-box-items"> <ul class="list-unstyled"> <li><label><input class="mr-10" type="checkbox" name="sequence[]" value="0">Table Of Contents</label></li> </ul> </div> <input type="submit" class="btn btn-blue md-disabled" value="Print" /> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-modal qa-cite-modal-button btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-cite-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="verified"></em> Cite </button> <div class="md-cite-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom mb-15"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10">verified</em>Cite </div> <div class="font-serif"> While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. </div> <div class="label mt-20 mb-10">Select Citation Style</div> <select class="js-citation-format-select form-select"> <option selected value="mla">MLA</option> <option value="apa">APA</option> <option value="chicago">Chicago Manual of Style</option> </select> <div class="citation font-serif border rounded p-15 mt-20" data-authors="Stanley A. Wolpert, T.G. Percival Spear, Philip B. Calkins, Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Romila Thapar, R. Champakalakshmi, Sanat Pai Raikar, K.R. Dikshit, Joseph E. Schwartzberg, A.L. Srivastava, Muzaffar Alam, Frank Raymond Allchin" data-title="India" data-published-date="23 Nov. 2024" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/India" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="India" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/India" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India">https://www.britannica.com/place/India</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=285248] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/285248"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? Updates? Omissions? Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1902534.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - A study on India’s contribution to United Nations Peacekeeping</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.indianetzone.com/wrestling_india" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">IndiaNetzone - Wrestling in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6515776/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Generic drugs – The Indian scenario</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijfmr.com/papers/2024/3/24020.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research - Aryabhata’s Enduring Contributions to Astronomy in Ancient India: Unveiling the Cosmic Secrets</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2401676.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - Challenges in Managing Slums in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://india.mid.ru/en/history/articles_and_documents/october_revolution_and_the_indian_struggle/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">The Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Republic of India - October Revolution and the Indian Struggle (1986)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR2011017.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - India's role in the SAARC</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.academia.edu/579576/Retable_art_in_India_its_importance_the_empathic_apathy_and_the_future_Cultural_aspects_concerning_conservation" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Academia - Retable art in India: its importance, the empathic apathy and the future. Cultural aspects concerning conservation</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="http://eoiriyadh.gov.in/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Official Site of the Embassy of India in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/sites/default/files/archive_files/Indentured%20Labour%20from%20India%20in%20the%20Age%20of%20Empire%20by%20Sunanda%20Sen.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">South African History Online - Indentured Labour from India in the Age of Empire</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.academia.edu/108109518/Al_Biruni_The_Great_Pioneer_of_Indology" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Academia - Al-Biruni: The Great Pioneer of Indology</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijmrhs.com/medical-research/an-overview-of-buckwheat-fagopyrum-spp-an-underutilized-crop-in-indianutritional-value-and-health-benefits.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Medical Research and Health Sciences - An Overview of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum spp)-An Underutilized Crop in India-Nutritional Value and Health Benefits</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijamtes.org/gallery/33.%20nov%20ijmte%20-%201158.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Management Technology and Engineering - Truffle Trail –An Exploratory Study on Marketability of Truffles in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1810A22.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - Genesis and Development of Forensic Science in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijcmas.com/6-12-2017/Srabani%20Das,%20et%20al.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences - Studies on the Adaptability of Tulip (Tulipa sp.) in Sub-Tropics of West Bengal, India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1912104.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research - Coffee Production Industries Problems and Prospects - An Overview</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.kheljournal.com/archives/2022/vol9issue2/PartD/9-2-79-853.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Physical Education, Sports and Health - Recent developments in rugby: An Indian perspective</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.indianetzone.com/kabaddi" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">IndiaNetzone - Kabaddi in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://ijcrt.org/papers/IJCRT2208287.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Creative Research Thoughts - The Concept of Male Chauvinism in the Context of Indian Patriarchal Society</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ijnrd.org/papers/IJNRD2404482.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">International Journal of Novel Research and Development - The Mission and Impact of St. Francis Xavier in India - An Analysis</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.indianetzone.com/50/impact_hunting_india.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">IndiaNetzone - Hunting in India</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3908467/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Electronic waste – an emerging threat to the environment of urban India</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/India/345707" target="_blank" rel="noopener">India - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/India/275043" target="_blank" rel="noopener">India - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Bhārat, Bhāratavarsha, Republic of India</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Stanley-A-Wolpert/3247" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Stanley A. Wolpert</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Professor of History, University of California, Los Angeles. Author of <i>A New History of India </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Stanley A. Wolpert</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/TG-Percival-Spear/2808" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">T.G. Percival Spear</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Fellow of Selwyn College, Cambridge; Lecturer in History, University of Cambridge, 1963–69. Author of <em>India: A Modern History </em>and others; coauthor and editor of <em>Oxford History of India</em>...</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> T.G. Percival Spear</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-23T00:00:00CST" >Nov 23, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/8ab629945660ee97d58cdbef10136f35" rel="nofollow">A $300B a year deal for climate cash at UN summit sparks outrage for some and hope for others</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 8:46 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/6cc84c72d4b00e0a49160123efdd48e7" rel="nofollow">Modi's party heads for victory in Maharashtra state election while opposition wins Jharkhand</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 23, 2024, 10:47 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/de2f999332e6cc8be1ea78c7fdfb6590" rel="nofollow">2 convicted in human smuggling case after Indian family froze to death on US-Canada border</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:28 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/997837af54ebd0c963da8d30854a41ec" rel="nofollow">Today he is a high school football player. Soon he'll be a Buddhist lama in the Himalayas</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 12:16 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/285248/21c3ffa3c4c17639b18d1719dd98b1a3" rel="nofollow">US bribery and fraud charges are a big test yet for India's Adani, one of Asia's richest men</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 22, 2024, 6:14 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="4" id="ref46834">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">There is no general agreement regarding the causes of the breakdown of Harappan <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/urban-culture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">urban society</a>. Broadly speaking, the principal theories thus far proposed fall under four headings. The first is gradual environmental change, such as a shift in climatic patterns and consequent agricultural disaster, perhaps resulting from excessive environmental stress caused by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/population-growth" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">population growth</a> and overexploitation of resources. Second, some scholars have postulated more-precipitous environmental changes, such as tectonic events leading to the flooding of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mohenjo-daro" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Mohenjo-daro</a>, the drying up of the Sarawati River, or other such <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="calamities" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/calamities" data-type="MW">calamities</a>. Third, it is conceivable that human activities, such as invasions of tribespeople from the hills to the west of the Indus valley, perhaps even Indo-Aryans, contributed to the breakdown of Indus external trade links or more directly disrupted the cities. The fourth theory posits the occurrence of an <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="epidemic" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epidemic" data-type="MW">epidemic</a> or a similar agent of devastation. It appears likely that some complex of natural forces compromised the fabric of society and that subsequent human intervention hastened its complete breakdown.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> <section data-level="3" id="ref46835"> <h2 class="h3">Post-Harappan developments</h2> <section data-level="4" id="ref46836"> <h2 class="h4">The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">It is still far from certain at what date the urban society broke down. The decline probably occurred in several stages, perhaps over a century or more; the period between about 2000 and 1750 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> is a reasonable estimation. The collapse of the urban system does not necessarily imply a complete breakdown in the lifestyle of the population in all parts of the Indus region, but it seems to have involved the end of whatever system of social and political control had preceded it. After that date the cities, as such, and many of their distinctively urban traits—the use of writing and of seals and a number of the specialized urban crafts—disappear. The succeeding era, which lasted until about 750 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>, may be considered as <span id="ref485084"></span>Post-Harappan or, perhaps better, as “Post-Urban.”</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pakistan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Pakistan’s</a> <span id="ref485085"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sindh-province-Pakistan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sind</a> province the Post-Urban phase is recognizable in the <span id="ref485086"></span>Jhukar culture at Chanhu-daro and other sites. There certain copper or bronze weapons and tools appear to be of “foreign” type and may be compared to examples from farther west (Iran and Central Asia); a different but parallel change is seen at Pirak, not far from Mehrgarh. In the <span id="ref485087"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Rann-of-Kachchh" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Kachchh</a> and <span id="ref485088"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kathiawar-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Saurashtra</a> regions there appears to have been a steady increase in the number of settlements, but all are small and none can compare with such undoubtedly Harappan cities as Dholavira. In this region, however, the distinctive foreign metal elements are less prominent.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">An intriguing development occurs along the <span id="ref485089"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Sarasvati-valley-India" class="md-crosslink ">Saraswati</a> valley: there the early Post-Urban stage is associated with the pottery known from the <span id="ref485090"></span>Cemetery H at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Harappa" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Harappa</a>. This coincides with a major reduction in both the number and size of settlements, suggesting a deterioration in the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="environment" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environment" data-type="MW">environment</a>. In the eastern Punjab too there is a disappearance of the larger, urban sites but no comparable reduction in the number of smaller settlements. This is also true of the settlements farther east in the Ganges-Yamuna valleys. It is probably correct to conclude that, in each of these areas during the Post-Urban Period, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/material-culture" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">material culture</a> exhibited some tendency to develop regional variations, sometimes showing continuations of features already present during the Pre-Urban and Urban phases.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref46837"> <h2 class="h4">The appearance of <span id="ref485091"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indo-Aryan-languages" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indo-Aryan</a> speakers</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Scholars have traditionally agreed that a <span id="ref485092"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Aryan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">people</a> speaking Old Indo-Aryan <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="dialects" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dialects" data-type="MW">dialects</a> of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family arrived in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indian-subcontinent" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Indian subcontinent</a> during the late 3rd and 2nd millennia <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. These newcomers purportedly came from the steppes to the north and east of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Caspian-Sea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Caspian Sea</a>, moving first southward into the southern parts of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Central-Asia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Central Asia</a> and from there fanning out across the Iranian plateau and spreading throughout northern India, disrupting the established sedentary <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="culture" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/culture" data-type="MW">culture</a> and driving its Dravidian-speaking inhabitants of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indus-civilization" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Indus civilization</a> southward. The movement itself remains <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="hypothetical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypothetical" data-type="MW">hypothetical</a>, but evidence from cemeteries at Sibri and south of Mehrgarh, near the mouth of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bolan-Pass" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Bolan Pass</a>, shows striking parallels—including foreign copper and bronze tools and weapons and typical pottery forms—with that from cemeteries of the Sapalli-Tepe group in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tajikistan" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tajikistan</a> and Uzbekistan. This correspondence suggests a date of about 2000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> for the presence of these people on the borders of the Indus system.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">However, it is even more difficult to identify traces that may be associated with the movement of Indo-Aryan speakers into the central Indus plains or to determine whether the occasional copper or bronze weapons of foreign type found in late <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="contexts" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/contexts" data-type="MW">contexts</a> at Mohenjo-daro or Chanhu-daro are evidence of their presence there. Moreover, even if Indo-Aryans actually conquered some of the Indus cities and established <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="hegemony" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hegemony" data-type="MW">hegemony</a> over the local population, it has to be explained why they appear to have given up many of their distinctive material products while presumably retaining their distinctive speech.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">One <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="hypothesis" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hypothesis" data-type="MW">hypothesis</a> is that between about 2000 and 1500 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> not an invasion but a continuing spread of Indo-Aryan speakers occurred, carrying them much farther into India, to the east and south, and coinciding with a growing cultural interaction between the native population and the new arrivals. From these processes a new cultural synthesis emerged, giving rise by the end of the 2nd millennium to the conscious expressions of Aryan <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="ethnicity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethnicity" data-type="MW">ethnicity</a> found in the Rigveda, particularly in the later hymns (<em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/India/Early-Vedic-period#ref46842" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Early Vedic Period</a>).</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A more recent and controversial theory put forward by such scholars as American <span id="ref972784"></span>Jim G. Shaffer and Indian <span id="ref972785"></span>B.B. Lal suggests that Aryan civilization did not migrate to the subcontinent but was an original ethnic and linguistic element of pre-Vedic India. This theory would explain the dearth of physical signs of any <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="putative" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/putative" data-type="MW">putative</a> Aryan conquest and is supported by the high degree of physical <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="continuity" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/continuity" data-type="MW">continuity</a> between Harappan and Post-Harappan society.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref46838"> <h2 class="h4">The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Toward the end of the 2nd millennium there appears to have been a further deterioration in the environment throughout the Indus system. Many of the Post-Urban settlements seem to have been abandoned, and traces are found of temporary settlements that were probably associated with nomadic pastoral groups and distinguished by the poverty of their material culture. Along the Saraswati there is further evidence of the drying up of the Derawar oasis, with a further decline in the number and size of settlements. As <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="yet" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/yet" data-type="EB">yet</a>, these events are not properly dated, but they may tentatively be assigned to a period from about 1200–800 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>. In Saurashtra a similar if less extreme decline in the number of settlements is also evident. Even much farther south, in <span id="ref485093"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Maharashtra" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Maharashtra</a>, the opening of the 1st millennium seems to have coincided with a period of desiccation, in which the flourishing agricultural settlements at sites such as <span id="ref485094"></span>Inamgaon declined; temporary encampments of pastoral nomads indicate a general deterioration in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/standard-of-living" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">standard of living</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">To the north, in Punjab, <span id="ref485095"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Haryana" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Haryana</a>, and the upper Gangetic plain, such deterioration is less apparent, perhaps because the proximity of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Himalayas</a> produced a higher level of rainfall. It is in this area that a new tendency emerges—the expansion of settlements associated with the <span id="ref485096"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/pottery" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">pottery</a> known as <span id="ref485097"></span>Painted Gray Ware. This characteristic ceramic accompanied a spread of settlements toward the east into the upper Ganges-Yamuna valleys and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutes" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutes" data-type="MW">constitutes</a> a distinguishing feature of the process of development that, by the second quarter of the 1st millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>, gave rise to the first cities of the Ganges system. (The previous wave of urbanization appears not to have penetrated below the upper Gangetic plain.)</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Another factor that coincided with, if not actually contributed to, the new process of change is the beginning and spread of <span id="ref485098"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/art/ironwork" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">iron working</a>. The earliest dated occurrence of iron is probably that from about 1200 to 1100 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> at Pirak in the Kachchhi region. Comparably early dates are suggested at other widely scattered sites, but it probably took many years for the use of iron in almost all types of toolmaking to become common in all regions. During this period an increasingly marked contrast may be observed between the growing number of cities across the north and the relatively less-developed settlement pattern of peninsular India, where a mixture of small-scale agriculture and pastoralism coincided with the appearance of the various types of “Megalithic” graves and monuments.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref46839"> <h2 class="h4">Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 2000–1000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">It was stated above that the earliest known settlements in peninsular India appeared early in the 3rd <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="millennium" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/millennium" data-type="EB">millennium</a> and showed either a mixed agricultural or strongly pastoral character. From about 2000 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span> there appears to have been a general expansion of these settlements. It is sometimes suggested that this expansion may have been in some way a result of the end of the Indus civilization and that large numbers of “Harappans” migrated to the south. There is little solid evidence to support this view, and it appears rather that the development was primarily indigenous.What is particularly noteworthy is the way in which regional cultural variants occurred throughout peninsular India and often seem to be ancestral to the major cultural regions known from later historical times. In Maharashtra the excavations at Inamgaon have provided the clearest picture so far of the developments and changes that took place in one of these regions. There can be seen the variety of crops and domestic animals, the changing house types, suggestions of tribal chiefdoms, limited craft specialization, and trade. Copper and bronze <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="artifacts" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/artifacts" data-type="MW">artifacts</a>, though still relatively scarce, appear alongside stone blades and axes. This mixed technology continued until the time when iron became common. Farther south, in <span id="ref485099"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Karnataka-state-India" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Karnataka</a> and <span id="ref485100"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tamil-Nadu" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tamil Nadu</a>, there is similar evidence, although the staple crop appears to have been millet, and wheat and barley are absent.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Frank-Raymond-Allchin/48">Frank Raymond Allchin</a></span> </section> </section> </section><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":27,"pagesTotal":85,"pageId":285248,"pageLength":1587,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":27,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

CINXE.COM

India - Indus Valley, Harappan, Decline | Britannica