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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Infiltration_excess_overland_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infiltration_excess_overland_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Infiltration excess overland flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infiltration_excess_overland_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saturation_excess_overland_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saturation_excess_overland_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Saturation excess overland flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saturation_excess_overland_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antecedent_soil_moisture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antecedent_soil_moisture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Antecedent soil moisture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antecedent_soil_moisture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsurface_return_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsurface_return_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Subsurface return flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsurface_return_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Human influence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_influence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human influence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Urban_runoff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Urban_runoff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Urban runoff</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Urban_runoff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_runoff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_runoff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Industrial runoff</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_runoff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_surface_runoff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_surface_runoff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects of surface runoff</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_surface_runoff-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects of surface runoff subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_surface_runoff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Erosion_and_deposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erosion_and_deposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Erosion and deposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erosion_and_deposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Environmental effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agricultural_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agricultural_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Agricultural issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agricultural_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_Issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_Issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Economic Issues</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_Issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flooding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flooding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Flooding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flooding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation_and_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation_and_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mitigation and treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitigation_and_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_and_mathematical_modeling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_and_mathematical_modeling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Measurement and mathematical modeling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement_and_mathematical_modeling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Surface runoff</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppervlakafloop" title="Oppervlakafloop – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Oppervlakafloop" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%81_%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD%D9%8A" title="صرف سطحي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صرف سطحي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C9%99th_ax%C4%B1m%C4%B1" title="Səth axımı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Səth axımı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A6%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%A2%D8%AE%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="یئراوستو آخینتی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="یئراوستو آخینتی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A0%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8B_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF" title="পৃষ্ঠগড়ানো পানি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পৃষ্ঠগড়ানো পানি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5" title="सतही जलबहाव – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सतही जलबहाव" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA" title="Речен отток – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Речен отток" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escolament_(hidrologia)" title="Escolament (hidrologia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Escolament (hidrologia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84ravool" title="Äravool – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Äravool" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escorrent%C3%ADa" title="Escorrentía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Escorrentía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surfaca_fluado" title="Surfaca fluado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Surfaca fluado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jariatze-ur" title="Jariatze-ur – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Jariatze-ur" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%B3%D8%B7%D8%AD%DB%8C" title="رواناب سطحی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رواناب سطحی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruissellement" title="Ruissellement – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ruissellement" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escorras" title="Escorras – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Escorras" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A7%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A3" title="ધોવાણ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="ધોવાણ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%ED%91%9C%EB%A9%B4_%EC%9C%A0%EC%B6%9C" title="지표면 유출 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지표면 유출" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwararar_ruwa" title="Kwararar ruwa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kwararar ruwa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%AB_%D5%AE%D5%A1%D5%AD%D5%BD" title="Գետի ծախս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գետի ծախս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9" title="अपवाह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अपवाह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otjecanje" title="Otjecanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Otjecanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limpasan_permukaan" title="Limpasan permukaan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Limpasan permukaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruscellamento" title="Ruscellamento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ruscellamento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%A8" title="מי נגר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מי נגר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A9%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="მდინარის ჩამონადენი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მდინარის ჩამონადენი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96_%D0%B0%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Жергілікті ағынды – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жергілікті ағынды" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Res_treustir" title="Res treustir – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Res treustir" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekoulman" title="Ekoulman – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ekoulman" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluss_superficial" title="Fluss superficial – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Fluss superficial" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%94%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AC%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%86%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1" title="မျက်နှာပြင်ဆင်းရေ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="မျက်နှာပြင်ဆင်းရေ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oppervlakteafvoer" title="Oppervlakteafvoer – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oppervlakteafvoer" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E9%9D%A2%E6%B5%81%E5%87%BA" title="表面流出 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="表面流出" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overflateavrenning" title="Overflateavrenning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Overflateavrenning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C5%82yw_powierzchniowy" title="Spływ powierzchniowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Spływ powierzchniowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escorr%C3%AAncia_superficial" title="Escorrência superficial – 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Flow of excess rainwater not infiltrating in the ground over its surface</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Runoff.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Runoff.jpg/170px-Runoff.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Runoff.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="224" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>Runoff flowing into a <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">stormwater drain</a></figcaption></figure> <style 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/250px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/500px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-exhaust_emissions" title="Non-exhaust emissions">Non-exhaust emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_blight" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban blight">Urban blight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Categories</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">By country</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/20px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="17" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/40px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/17px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/26px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/34px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Surface runoff</b> (also known as <b>overland flow</b> or <b>terrestrial runoff</b>) is the unconfined flow of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> over the ground surface, in contrast to <i><a href="/wiki/Channel_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Channel runoff">channel runoff</a></i> (or <i>stream flow</i>). It occurs when excess <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rainwater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meltwater" title="Meltwater">meltwater</a>, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>. This can occur when the soil is <a href="#Saturation_excess_overland_flow">saturated</a> by water to its full capacity, and the rain arrives <a href="#Infiltration_excess_overland_flow">more quickly than the soil can absorb</a> it. Surface runoff often occurs because <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/impervious#Adjective" class="extiw" title="wikt:impervious">impervious</a> areas (such as <a href="/wiki/Roof" title="Roof">roofs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Road_surface" title="Road surface">pavement</a>) do not allow water to soak into the ground. Furthermore, runoff can occur either through natural or human-made processes.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surface runoff is a major component of the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>. It is the primary agent of <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion#Rainfall_and_runoff" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion by water</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The land area producing runoff that drains to a common point is called a <a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">drainage basin</a>. </p><p>Runoff that occurs on the ground surface before reaching a <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">channel</a> can be a <a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">nonpoint source of pollution</a>, as it can carry human-made contaminants or natural forms of pollution (such as rotting leaves). Human-made contaminants in runoff include <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a> and others.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">agricultural pollution</a> is exacerbated by surface runoff, leading to a number of down stream impacts, including <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">nutrient pollution</a> that causes <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>. </p><p>In addition to causing water erosion and pollution, surface <a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">runoff in urban areas</a> is a primary cause of <a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">urban flooding</a>, which can result in property damage, damp and mold in <a href="/wiki/Basements" class="mw-redirect" title="Basements">basements</a>, and street flooding. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Generation">Generation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Runoffrazorback.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Runoffrazorback.jpg/250px-Runoffrazorback.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Runoffrazorback.jpg/330px-Runoffrazorback.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Runoffrazorback.jpg/500px-Runoffrazorback.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Surface runoff from a hillside after soil is saturated</figcaption></figure> <p>Surface runoff is defined as <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> (rain, snow, sleet, or hail<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) that reaches a surface stream without ever passing below the soil surface.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"surface_runoff"_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"surface_runoff"-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is distinct from <b>direct runoff</b>, which is runoff that reaches surface streams immediately after rainfall or melting snowfall and excludes runoff generated by the melting of <a href="/wiki/Snowpack" title="Snowpack">snowpack</a> or glaciers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"direct_runoff"_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"direct_runoff"-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Snowmelt" title="Snowmelt">Snow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacier</a> melt occur only in areas cold enough for these to form permanently. Typically <a href="/wiki/Snowmelt" title="Snowmelt">snowmelt</a> will peak in the spring<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and glacier melt in the summer,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading to pronounced flow maxima in rivers affected by them.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The determining factor of the rate of melting of snow or glaciers is both air temperature and the duration of sunlight.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In high mountain regions, streams frequently rise on sunny days and fall on cloudy ones for this reason. </p><p>In areas where there is no snow, runoff will come from rainfall. However, not all rainfall will produce runoff because storage from soils can absorb light showers. On the extremely ancient soils of <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Proteoid_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteoid root">proteoid roots</a> with their extremely dense networks of root hairs can absorb so much rainwater as to prevent runoff even with substantial amounts of rainfall. In these regions, even on less infertile <a href="/wiki/Vertisol" title="Vertisol">cracking clay soils</a>, high amounts of rainfall and potential evaporation are needed to generate any surface runoff, leading to specialised adaptations to extremely variable (usually ephemeral) streams. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infiltration_excess_overland_flow">Infiltration excess overland flow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Infiltration excess overland flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/220px-seek%3D26-Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="61" data-mwtitle="Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/1e/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv/Runoff_and_filtersoxx.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Stormwater management using trees (animation)</figcaption></figure> <p>This occurs when the rate of <a href="/wiki/Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainfall">rainfall</a> on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltrate</a> the ground, and any depression storage has already been filled. This is also called Hortonian overland flow (after <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Horton" title="Robert E. Horton">Robert E. Horton</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-FailacheZuquette2018_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FailacheZuquette2018-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or unsaturated overland flow.<sup id="cite_ref-CallesKulander1994_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CallesKulander1994-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This more commonly occurs in <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">arid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semi-arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-arid">semi-arid</a> regions, where rainfall intensities are high and the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Infiltration capacity">infiltration capacity</a> is reduced because of <a href="/wiki/Surface_sealing" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface sealing">surface sealing</a>, or in urban areas where pavements prevent water from infiltrating.<sup id="cite_ref-StewartEtal2019_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StewartEtal2019-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saturation_excess_overland_flow">Saturation excess overland flow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Saturation excess overland flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> is saturated and the depression storage filled, and rain continues to fall, the rainfall will immediately produce surface runoff. The level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting the time until soil becomes saturated. This runoff is called saturation excess overland flow,<sup id="cite_ref-StewartEtal2019_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StewartEtal2019-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> saturated overland flow,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Dunne runoff.<sup id="cite_ref-ZhenghuiEtal2003_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ZhenghuiEtal2003-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antecedent_soil_moisture">Antecedent soil moisture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Antecedent soil moisture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Soil retains a degree of moisture after a <a href="/wiki/Rainfall" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainfall">rainfall</a>. This residual water moisture affects the soil's <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Infiltration capacity">infiltration capacity</a>. During the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different rate. The higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the more quickly the soil becomes saturated. Once the soil is saturated, runoff occurs. Therefore, surface runoff is a significantly factor in the controlling of soil moisture after medium and low intensity storms.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsurface_return_flow">Subsurface return flow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Subsurface return flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and exfiltrate (flow out of the soil) closer to a channel. This is called subsurface return flow or <a href="/wiki/Throughflow" title="Throughflow">throughflow</a>. </p><p>As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may <a href="/wiki/Evapotranspiration" title="Evapotranspiration">evapotranspire</a>; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it may <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltrate</a> as it flows overland. Any remaining surface water eventually flows into a <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">receiving water</a> body such as a <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">river</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lake</a>, <a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">estuary</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_influence">Human influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Human influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stormwater_Diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Stormwater_Diagram.svg/220px-Stormwater_Diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Stormwater_Diagram.svg/330px-Stormwater_Diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Stormwater_Diagram.svg/440px-Stormwater_Diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Precipitation washing contaminates into local streams</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:View_of_urban_runoff_discharging_to_coastal_waters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/View_of_urban_runoff_discharging_to_coastal_waters.jpg/250px-View_of_urban_runoff_discharging_to_coastal_waters.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/View_of_urban_runoff_discharging_to_coastal_waters.jpg/330px-View_of_urban_runoff_discharging_to_coastal_waters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/View_of_urban_runoff_discharging_to_coastal_waters.jpg/500px-View_of_urban_runoff_discharging_to_coastal_waters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="694" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Urban surface water runoff</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> increases surface runoff by creating more <a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">impervious surfaces</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Pavement_(roads)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pavement (roads)">pavement</a> and buildings that do not allow <a href="/wiki/Percolation" title="Percolation">percolation</a> of the water down through the soil to the <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a>. It is instead forced directly into streams or <a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">storm water runoff drains</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">siltation</a> can be major problems, even when flooding is not. Increased runoff reduces <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> recharge, thus lowering the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> and making <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">droughts</a> worse, especially for agricultural farmers and others who depend on the <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">water wells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Han_Currell_Cao_Hall_2017_pp._545–557_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Han_Currell_Cao_Hall_2017_pp._545–557-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When anthropogenic contaminants are dissolved or suspended in runoff, the human impact is expanded to create <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>. This <a href="/wiki/Measures_of_pollutant_concentration" title="Measures of pollutant concentration">pollutant load</a> can reach various receiving waters such as streams, rivers, lakes, estuaries and oceans with resultant water chemistry changes to these water systems and their related ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Vila-Costa_Cerro-Gálvez_Martínez-Varela_Casas_2020_pp._2646–2648_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vila-Costa_Cerro-Gálvez_Martínez-Varela_Casas_2020_pp._2646–2648-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As humans continue to alter the climate through the addition of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a> to the atmosphere, precipitation patterns are expected to change as the atmospheric capacity for water vapor increases. This will have direct consequences on runoff amounts.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_runoff">Urban runoff</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Urban runoff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urban_runoff&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Storm_Drain.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Storm_Drain.JPG/300px-Storm_Drain.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Storm_Drain.JPG/450px-Storm_Drain.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Storm_Drain.JPG/600px-Storm_Drain.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Urban runoff flowing into a storm drain</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a> is surface runoff of rainwater, landscape irrigation, and car washing<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> created by <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>. <a href="/wiki/Impervious_surfaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Impervious surfaces">Impervious surfaces</a> (<a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">roads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parking_lot" title="Parking lot">parking lots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sidewalk" title="Sidewalk">sidewalks</a>) are constructed during <a href="/wiki/Land_development" title="Land development">land development</a>. During <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a>, storms, and other <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> events, these surfaces (built from materials such as <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>), along with <a href="/wiki/Roof" title="Roof">rooftops</a>, carry polluted <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a> to <a href="/wiki/Storm_drains" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm drains">storm drains</a>, instead of allowing the water to <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">percolate</a> through <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_runoff_USGS-runoff_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_runoff_USGS-runoff-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This causes lowering of the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> (because <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">groundwater recharge</a> is lessened) and <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">flooding</a> since the amount of water that remains on the surface is greater.<sup id="cite_ref-Urban_runoff_ASCE1_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Urban_runoff_ASCE1-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most municipal storm sewer systems discharge untreated stormwater to <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">streams</a>, <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">bays</a>. This excess water can also make its way into people's properties through basement backups and seepage through building wall and floors. </p> Urban runoff can be a major source of <a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">urban flooding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> in urban communities worldwide.</div></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fascine49.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fascine49.jpg/330px-Fascine49.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fascine49.jpg/500px-Fascine49.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Fascine49.jpg 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>Willow hedge strengthened with <a href="/wiki/Fascine" title="Fascine">fascines</a> for the limitation of runoff, north of France</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wassererosion_Acker.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Wassererosion_Acker.jpg/240px-Wassererosion_Acker.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Wassererosion_Acker.jpg/360px-Wassererosion_Acker.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Wassererosion_Acker.jpg/480px-Wassererosion_Acker.jpg 2x" data-file-width="543" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Erosion#Rainfall_and_runoff" title="Erosion">Soil erosion by water</a> on intensively-tilled farmland</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_runoff">Industrial runoff</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Industrial runoff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Industrial_stormwater" title="Industrial stormwater">Industrial stormwater</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Industrial_stormwater&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Industrial_stormwater" title="Industrial stormwater">Industrial stormwater</a> is runoff from precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain, or hail) that lands on industrial sites (e.g. manufacturing facilities, mines, airports). This runoff is often <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">polluted</a> by materials that are handled or stored on the sites, and the facilities are subject to regulations to control the discharges.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To manage industrial stormwater effectively, facilities use best management practices (BMPs) that aim to both prevent pollutants from entering the runoff and treat water before it's released from the site. Common preventive steps include maintaining clean workspaces, conducting routine equipment checks, storing materials properly, preventing spills, and training staff on pollution prevention techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> To treat stormwater, facilities may install structural controls such as detention and retention ponds, constructed wetlands, filter systems, or oil-water separators. These systems help reduce pollution by settling out solids, filtering water, or supporting natural treatment processes before the water is discharged.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_surface_runoff">Effects of surface runoff</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Effects of surface runoff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erosion_and_deposition">Erosion and deposition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Erosion and deposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surface runoff can cause <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> of the Earth's surface; <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">eroded material</a> may be <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">deposited</a> a considerable distance away. There are four main types of <a href="/wiki/Erosion#Rainfall_and_runoff" title="Erosion">soil erosion by water</a>: splash erosion, sheet erosion, <a href="/wiki/Rill" title="Rill">rill</a> erosion and <a href="/wiki/Gully" title="Gully">gully</a> erosion. Splash erosion is the result of mechanical collision of raindrops with the soil surface: soil particles which are dislodged by the impact then move with the surface runoff. Sheet erosion is the overland transport of <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> by runoff without a well defined channel. Soil surface roughness causes may cause runoff to become concentrated into narrower flow paths: as these incise, the small but well-defined channels which are formed are known as rills. These channels can be as small as one centimeter wide or as large as several meters. If runoff continue to incise and enlarge rills, they may eventually grow to become gullies. Gully erosion can transport large amounts of eroded material in a small time period. </p><p>Reduced crop productivity usually results from erosion, and these effects are studied in the field of <a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">soil conservation</a>. The soil particles carried in runoff vary in size from about 0.001 millimeter to 1.0 millimeter in diameter. Larger particles <a href="/wiki/Precipitate" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitate">settle</a> over short transport distances, whereas small particles can be carried over long distances suspended in the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a>. Erosion of silty soils that contain smaller particles generates <a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">turbidity</a> and diminishes light transmission, which disrupts <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic ecosystems</a>. </p><p>Entire sections of countries have been rendered unproductive by erosion. On the high central <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateau</a> of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, approximately ten percent of that country's land area, virtually the entire landscape is devoid of <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a>, with erosive gully furrows typically in excess of 50 meters deep and one kilometer wide. <a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">Shifting cultivation</a> is a farming system which sometimes incorporates the <a href="/wiki/Slash_and_burn" class="mw-redirect" title="Slash and burn">slash and burn</a> method in some regions of the world. Erosion causes loss of the fertile top soil and reduces its fertility and quality of the agricultural produce. </p><p>Modern industrial <a href="/wiki/Farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Farming">farming</a> is another major cause of erosion. Over a third of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Corn_Belt" title="Corn Belt">Corn Belt</a> has completely lost its <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Switching to <a href="/wiki/No-till_farming" title="No-till farming">no-till</a> practices would reduce soil erosion from U.S. agricultural fields by more than 70 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Environmental effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The principal environmental issues associated with runoff are the impacts to surface water, <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> through transport of water pollutants to these systems. Ultimately these consequences translate into human health risk, ecosystem disturbance and aesthetic impact to water resources. Some of the contaminants that create the greatest impact to surface waters arising from runoff are <a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">petroleum</a> substances, <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>. Quantitative uptake by surface runoff of <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a> and other contaminants has been studied since the 1960s, and early on contact of pesticides with water was known to enhance <a href="/wiki/Phytotoxicity" title="Phytotoxicity">phytotoxicity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of surface waters, the impacts translate to <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>, since the streams and rivers have received runoff carrying various chemicals or sediments. When surface waters are used as <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">potable water</a> supplies, they can be compromised regarding <a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">health risks</a> and drinking water aesthetics (that is, odor, color and <a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">turbidity</a> effects). Contaminated surface waters risk altering the metabolic processes of the aquatic <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> that they host; these alterations can lead to death, such as <a href="/wiki/Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">fish kills</a>, or alter the balance of populations present. Other specific impacts are on animal mating, spawning, <a href="/wiki/Egg_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg (biology)">egg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larvae</a> viability, juvenile survival and plant productivity. Some research shows surface runoff of pesticides, such as <a href="/wiki/DDT" title="DDT">DDT</a>, can alter the gender of fish species genetically, which transforms male into female fish.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Surface runoff occurring within forests can supply lakes with high loads of mineral nitrogen and phosphorus leading to <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a>. Runoff waters within <a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">coniferous forests</a> are also enriched with <a href="/wiki/Humic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Humic acid">humic acids</a> and can lead to <a href="/wiki/Humus" title="Humus">humification</a> of water bodies <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, high standing and young islands in the tropics and subtropics can undergo high soil erosion rates and also contribute large material fluxes to the coastal ocean. Such land derived runoff of sediment nutrients, carbon, and contaminants can have large impacts on global <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a> and marine and coastal ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of groundwater, the main issue is contamination of drinking water, if the <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> is abstracted for human use. Regarding <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a>, runoff waters can have two important pathways of concern. Firstly, runoff water can extract soil contaminants and carry them in the form of water pollution to even more sensitive aquatic habitats. Secondly, runoff can deposit contaminants on pristine soils, creating health or ecological consequences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agricultural_issues">Agricultural issues</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Agricultural issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The other context of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">agricultural issues</a> involves the transport of <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_chemicals" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural chemicals">agricultural chemicals</a> (nitrates, phosphates, <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a>, herbicides, etc.) via surface runoff. This result occurs when chemical use is excessive or poorly timed with respect to high precipitation. The resulting contaminated runoff represents not only a waste of agricultural chemicals, but also an environmental threat to downstream ecosystems. Pine straws are often used to protect soil from <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> and weed growth.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, harvesting these crops may result in the increase of soil erosion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_Issues">Economic Issues</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Economic Issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Runoff_of_soil_%26_fertilizer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Runoff_of_soil_%26_fertilizer.jpg/250px-Runoff_of_soil_%26_fertilizer.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Runoff_of_soil_%26_fertilizer.jpg/330px-Runoff_of_soil_%26_fertilizer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Runoff_of_soil_%26_fertilizer.jpg/500px-Runoff_of_soil_%26_fertilizer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Farmland runoff</figcaption></figure> <p>Surface run-off results in a significant amount of economic effects. Pine straws are cost effective ways of dealing with surface run-off. Moreover, Surface run-off can be reused through the growth of elephant mass. In <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elephant_grass" title="Elephant grass">elephant grass</a> is considered to be an economical way in which surface run-off and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> can be reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> has suffered significant impact from surface run-off to most of their economical crops such as vegetables. Therefore, they are known to have implemented a system which reduced loss of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) in soil.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flooding">Flooding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Flooding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flooding</a> occurs when a watercourse is unable to convey the quantity of runoff flowing downstream. The frequency with which this occurs is described by a <a href="/wiki/Return_period" title="Return period">return period</a>. Flooding is a natural process, which maintains ecosystem composition and processes, but it can also be altered by <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> changes such as river engineering. Floods can be both beneficial to societies or cause damage. Agriculture along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> floodplain took advantage of the seasonal flooding that deposited nutrients beneficial for crops. However, as the number and susceptibility of settlements increase, flooding increasingly becomes a natural hazard. In urban areas, surface runoff is the primary cause of <a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">urban flooding</a>, known for its repetitive and costly impact on communities.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adverse impacts span loss of life, property damage, contamination of water supplies, loss of crops, and social dislocation and temporary homelessness. Floods are among the most devastating of natural disasters. The use of <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">supplemental irrigation</a> is also recognized as a significant way in which crops such as maize can retain <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">nitrogen fertilizers</a> in soil, resulting in improvement of crop water availability.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_and_treatment">Mitigation and treatment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mitigation and treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North-Bend-Uplands-Runoff-pond-3942.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/North-Bend-Uplands-Runoff-pond-3942.jpg/220px-North-Bend-Uplands-Runoff-pond-3942.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/North-Bend-Uplands-Runoff-pond-3942.jpg/330px-North-Bend-Uplands-Runoff-pond-3942.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/North-Bend-Uplands-Runoff-pond-3942.jpg/440px-North-Bend-Uplands-Runoff-pond-3942.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Runoff holding ponds (Uplands neighborhood of <a href="/wiki/North_Bend,_Washington" title="North Bend, Washington">North Bend, Washington</a>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Mitigation of adverse impacts of runoff can take several forms: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a> development controls aimed at minimizing <a href="/wiki/Impervious_surface" title="Impervious surface">impervious surfaces</a> in urban areas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion controls</a> for <a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">farms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a> sites</li> <li>Flood control and retrofit programs, such as <a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">green infrastructure</a></li> <li>Chemical use and handling controls in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Landscape_maintenance" title="Landscape maintenance">landscape maintenance</a>, industrial use, etc.</li></ul> <p><b>Land use controls.</b> Many world regulatory agencies have encouraged research on methods of minimizing total surface runoff by avoiding unnecessary <a href="/wiki/Hardscape" title="Hardscape">hardscape</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many municipalities have produced guidelines and codes (<a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">zoning</a> and related <a href="/wiki/Local_ordinance" title="Local ordinance">ordinances</a>) for <a href="/wiki/Land_developer" class="mw-redirect" title="Land developer">land developers</a> that encourage minimum width sidewalks, use of <a href="/wiki/Paving_stone_(flooring)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paving stone (flooring)">pavers</a> set in earth for <a href="/wiki/Driveway" title="Driveway">driveways</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walkway" title="Walkway">walkways</a> and other design techniques to allow maximum water <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltration</a> in urban settings. An example of a local program specifying design requirements, construction practices and maintenance requirements for buildings and properties is in <a href="/wiki/Santa_Monica,_California" title="Santa Monica, California">Santa Monica, California</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /></p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Low-impact_development_(Canada/US)" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-impact development (Canada/US)">Low-impact development (Canada/US)</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">Rainwater harvesting</a></div> <p><b>Erosion controls</b> have appeared since medieval times when farmers realized the importance of contour farming to protect soil resources. Beginning in the 1950s these agricultural methods became increasingly more sophisticated. In the 1960s some <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">state</a> and <a href="/wiki/Local_government" title="Local government">local governments</a> began to focus their efforts on mitigation of construction runoff by requiring builders to implement <a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">erosion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sediment_control" title="Sediment control">sediment controls</a> (ESCs). This included such techniques as: use of <a href="/wiki/Straw_bale" class="mw-redirect" title="Straw bale">straw bales</a> and barriers to slow runoff on slopes, installation of <a href="/wiki/Silt_fence" title="Silt fence">silt fences</a>, programming construction for months that have less rainfall and minimizing extent and duration of exposed graded areas. <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_County,_Maryland" title="Montgomery County, Maryland">Montgomery County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a> implemented the first local government sediment control program in 1965, and this was followed by a statewide program in Maryland in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Flood control programs</b> as early as the first half of the twentieth century became quantitative in predicting peak flows of <a href="/wiki/Riverine" class="mw-redirect" title="Riverine">riverine</a> systems. Progressively strategies have been developed to minimize peak flows and also to reduce channel velocities. Some of the techniques commonly applied are: provision of holding ponds (also called <a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">detention basins</a> or <a href="/wiki/Balancing_lake" title="Balancing lake">balancing lakes</a>) to buffer riverine peak flows, use of energy dissipators in channels to reduce stream velocity and land use controls to minimize runoff.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">Chemical</a> use and handling.</b> Following enactment of the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Resource_Conservation_and_Recovery_Act" title="Resource Conservation and Recovery Act">Resource Conservation and Recovery Act</a> (RCRA) in 1976, and later the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Water Quality Act of 1987</a>, states and cities have become more vigilant in controlling the containment and storage of toxic chemicals, thus preventing releases and leakage. Methods commonly applied are: requirements for double containment of <a href="/wiki/Underground_storage_tank" title="Underground storage tank">underground storage tanks</a>, registration of <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_materials" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazardous materials">hazardous materials</a> usage, reduction in numbers of allowed pesticides and more stringent regulation of fertilizers and herbicides in landscape maintenance. In many industrial cases, pretreatment of wastes is required, to minimize escape of pollutants into <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sanitary</a> or <a href="/wiki/Storm_sewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm sewer">stormwater sewers</a>. </p><p>The U.S. <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a> (CWA) requires that local governments in <a href="/wiki/Urbanized_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanized areas">urbanized areas</a> (as defined by the <a href="/wiki/Census_Bureau" class="mw-redirect" title="Census Bureau">Census Bureau</a>) obtain <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a> discharge permits for their drainage systems.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Essentially this means that the locality must operate a <a href="/wiki/Stormwater#Stormwater_management" title="Stormwater">stormwater management</a> program for all surface runoff that enters the municipal separate <a href="/wiki/Storm_sewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Storm sewer">storm sewer</a> system ("MS4"). EPA and state regulations and related publications outline six basic components that each local program must contain: </p> <ul><li>Public education (informing individuals, households, businesses about ways to avoid stormwater pollution)</li> <li>Public involvement (support public participation in implementation of local programs)</li> <li>Illicit discharge detection & elimination (removing <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sanitary sewer</a> or other non-stormwater connections to the MS4)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a> site runoff controls (i.e. erosion and sediment controls)</li> <li>Post-construction (i.e. permanent) stormwater management controls</li> <li>Pollution prevention (e.g. improved chemical handling, including management of motor fuels and oil, fertilizers, pesticides and <a href="/wiki/De-icing#Roadways" class="mw-redirect" title="De-icing">roadway deicers</a>) and "good housekeeping" measures (e.g. system maintenance).</li></ul> <p>Other property owners which operate storm drain systems similar to municipalities, such as state highway systems, universities, military bases and prisons, are also subject to the MS4 permit requirements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_and_mathematical_modeling">Measurement and mathematical modeling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Measurement and mathematical modeling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Runoff is analyzed by using <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical models</a> in combination with various <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a> sampling methods. Measurements can be made using continuous automated water quality analysis instruments targeted on pollutants such as specific <a href="/wiki/Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">organic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Inorganic_chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Inorganic chemical">inorganic chemicals</a>, <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a>, turbidity, etc., or targeted on secondary indicators such as <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved oxygen">dissolved oxygen</a>. Measurements can also be made in batch form by extracting a single water sample and conducting chemical or physical tests on that sample. </p><p>In the 1950s or earlier, <a href="/wiki/Hydrology_transport_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrology transport model">hydrology transport models</a> appeared to calculate quantities of runoff, primarily for <a href="/wiki/Flood_forecasting" title="Flood forecasting">flood forecasting</a>. Beginning in the early 1970s, computer models were developed to analyze the transport of runoff carrying water pollutants. These models considered <a href="/wiki/Solvation" title="Solvation">dissolution</a> rates of various chemicals, <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">infiltration</a> into soils, and the ultimate pollutant load delivered to <a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">receiving waters</a>. One of the earliest models addressing chemical dissolution in runoff and resulting transport was developed in the early 1970s under contract to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">United States Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA).<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Computer_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer model">computer model</a> formed the basis of much of the mitigation study that led to strategies for <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> and chemical handling controls. </p><p>Increasingly, stormwater practitioners have recognized the need for Monte Carlo models to simulate stormwater processes because of natural variations in multiple variables affecting runoff quality and quantity. The benefit of the Monte Carlo analysis is not to decrease uncertainty in the input statistics but to represent the different combinations of the variables that determine potential risks of water-quality excursions. One example of this type of stormwater model is the <i>stochastic empirical loading and dilution model</i> (SELDM)<sup id="cite_ref-SELDM-Manual_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SELDM-Manual-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a> quality model. SELDM is designed to transform complex scientific data into meaningful information about the risk of adverse effects of runoff on receiving waters, the potential need for mitigation measures, and the effectiveness of such management measures for reducing these risks. SELDM provides a method for rapid assessment of information that is otherwise difficult or impossible to obtain because it models the interactions among hydrologic variables (with different probability distributions), resulting in a population of values representing likely long-term outcomes from runoff processes and the potential effects of various mitigation measures. SELDM also provides the means for rapidly doing sensitivity analyses to determine the possible effects of varying input assumptions on the risks for water-quality excursions. </p><p>Other computer models have been developed (such as the <a href="/wiki/DSSAM_Model" title="DSSAM Model">DSSAM Model</a>) that allow surface runoff to be tracked through a river course as reactive water pollutants. In this case, the surface runoff may be considered to be a <a href="/wiki/Line_source" title="Line source">line source</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a> to the receiving waters.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution#Agricultural_wastewater" title="Water pollution">Agricultural wastewater</a> – Contamination of water bodies</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilizer_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilizer runoff">Agricultural nutrient runoff</a> – Farm management for controlling pollution from confined animal operations and surface runoff<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioswale" title="Bioswale">Bioswale</a> – Landscape elements designed to manage surface runoff water</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catchwater" title="Catchwater">Catchwater</a> – Runoff catching or channeling device</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effluent" title="Effluent">Effluent</a> – Liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HydroCAD" title="HydroCAD">HydroCAD</a> a software tool for H&H modeling</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_model" title="Hydrological model">Hydrological model</a> – Predicting and managing water resources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationwide_Urban_Runoff_Program" title="Nationwide Urban Runoff Program">Nationwide Urban Runoff Program</a> – US pollution research program – U.S. Research program</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a> – Pollution resulting from multiple sources</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">Organic matter</a> – Matter composed of organic compounds</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain_garden" title="Rain garden">Rain garden</a> – Runoff reducing landscaping method</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_curve_number" title="Runoff curve number">Runoff curve number</a> – Parameter used in hydrology</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_model_(reservoir)" title="Runoff model (reservoir)">Runoff model (reservoir)</a> – Type of water motion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Safe water">Safe water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stochastic_empirical_loading_and_dilution_model" title="Stochastic empirical loading and dilution model">Stochastic empirical loading and dilution model</a> – Stormwater quality model</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a> – Measure of the ability of water to sustain biological productivity</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/runoff/">"runoff"</a>. <i>National Geographic Society</i>. 2011-01-21. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210128031258/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/runoff/">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-01-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=runoff&rft.date=2011-01-21&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.org%2Fencyclopedia%2Frunoff%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronnie Wilson, <i>The Horton Papers</i> (1933)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Keith_Beven" title="Keith Beven">Keith Beven</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Horton" title="Robert E. Horton">Robert E. Horton</a>'s perceptual model of infiltration processes</i>, Hydrological Processes, Wiley Intersciences DOI 10:1002 hyp 5740 (2004)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. Davis Mackenzie and Susan J. Masten, <i>Principles of Environmental Engineering and Science</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-235053-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-235053-9">0-07-235053-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJackson1997" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Julia A., ed. (1997). "precipitation". <i>Glossary of geology</i> (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0922152349" title="Special:BookSources/0922152349"><bdi>0922152349</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=precipitation&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+geology.&rft.place=Alexandria%2C+Virginia&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=American+Geological+Institute&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0922152349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"surface_runoff"-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"surface_runoff"_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1997">Jackson 1997</a>, "surface runoff".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"direct_runoff"-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJackson1997"direct_runoff"_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJackson1997">Jackson 1997</a>, "direct runoff".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/snowmelt-runoff-and-water-cycle?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects">"Snowmelt Runoff and the Water Cycle"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Snowmelt+Runoff+and+the+Water+Cycle&rft.pub=United+States+Geological+Survey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usgs.gov%2Fspecial-topic%2Fwater-science-school%2Fscience%2Fsnowmelt-runoff-and-water-cycle%3Fqt-science_center_objects%3D0%23qt-science_center_objects&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKoboltschnigSchönerZappaHolzmann2007" class="citation journal cs1">Koboltschnig, Gernot R.; Schöner, Wolfgang; Zappa, Massimiliano; Holzmann, Hubert (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3189%2F172756407782871260">"Contribution of glacier melt to stream runoff: if the climatically extreme summer of 2003 had happened in 1979…"</a>. <i>Annals of Glaciology</i>. <b>46</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">303–</span>308. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AnGla..46..303K">2007AnGla..46..303K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3189%2F172756407782871260">10.3189/172756407782871260</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129207404">129207404</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Glaciology&rft.atitle=Contribution+of+glacier+melt+to+stream+runoff%3A+if+the+climatically+extreme+summer+of+2003+had+happened+in+1979%E2%80%A6&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E303-%3C%2Fspan%3E308&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A129207404%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3189%2F172756407782871260&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007AnGla..46..303K&rft.aulast=Koboltschnig&rft.aufirst=Gernot+R.&rft.au=Sch%C3%B6ner%2C+Wolfgang&rft.au=Zappa%2C+Massimiliano&rft.au=Holzmann%2C+Hubert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3189%252F172756407782871260&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHuston" class="citation web cs1">Huston, Mike. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.weather.gov/media/wrh/online_publications/TAs/TA1801.pdf">"Snowmelt and Peak Streamflow Relationships for the Big Wood River in Southeast Idaho"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. National Weather Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211106051850/https://www.weather.gov/media/wrh/online_publications/TAs/TA1801.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 6 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Snowmelt+and+Peak+Streamflow+Relationships+for+the+Big+Wood+River+in+Southeast+Idaho&rft.pub=National+Weather+Service&rft.aulast=Huston&rft.aufirst=Mike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.weather.gov%2Fmedia%2Fwrh%2Fonline_publications%2FTAs%2FTA1801.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVan_MullemGaren" class="citation book cs1">Van Mullem, Joseph A.; Garen, David. "Snowmelt". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17753.wba"><i>National Engineering Handbook</i></a>. Vol. 630. U.S. Department of Agriculture. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211106051851/https://directives.sc.egov.usda.gov/OpenNonWebContent.aspx?content=17753.wba">Archived</a> from the original on 6 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Snowmelt&rft.btitle=National+Engineering+Handbook&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Agriculture&rft.aulast=Van+Mullem&rft.aufirst=Joseph+A.&rft.au=Garen%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdirectives.sc.egov.usda.gov%2FOpenNonWebContent.aspx%3Fcontent%3D17753.wba&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McMahon T.A. and Finlayson, B.; <i>Global Runoff: Continental Comparisons of Annual Flows and Peak Discharges</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-923381-27-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-923381-27-1">3-923381-27-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FailacheZuquette2018-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FailacheZuquette2018_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFailacheZuquette2018" class="citation journal cs1">Failache, Moisés Furtado; Zuquette, Lázaro Valentin (November 2018). 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(1987)</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Gebert, W. A., D.J. Graczyk, and W.R. Krug. (1987). <i>Average annual runoff in the United States, 1951-80</i> [Hydrologic Investigations Atlas HA-710]. Reston, Va.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.</li> <li>Shodor Education Foundation (1998).<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shodor.org/Master/environmental/water/runoff/">"Surface Water Runoff Modeling."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190405070454/http://www.shodor.org/Master/environmental/water/runoff/">Archived</a> 2019-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Surface_runoff&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/surface_runoff" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/surface runoff">surface runoff</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li>USDA NRCS National Engineering Handbook, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060924192257/http://www.info.usda.gov/CED/ftp/CED/neh630-ch14.pdf">Stage Discharge Relationships, Ch. 14</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100711020653/http://www.nutrientnet.org/">NutrientNet</a>, an online nutrient trading tool developed by <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wri.org/">the World Resources Institute</a>, designed to address water quality issues related to surface runoff and other pollution. See also the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303235455/http://pa.nutrientnet.org/">PA NutrientNet</a> website designed for Pennsylvania's nutrient trading program.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.filterra.com/index.php/about/">Bioretention</a> as a <a href="/wiki/Low-impact_development_(Canada/US)" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-impact development (Canada/US)">low impact development</a> method of treating surface runoff</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiu2009" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Yang (2009). "Automatic Calibration of a Rainfall-Runoff Model Using a Fast and Elitist Multi-objective Particle Swarm Algorithm". <i>Expert Systems with Applications</i>. <b>36</b> (5): <span class="nowrap">9533–</span>9538. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2008.10.086">10.1016/j.eswa.2008.10.086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expert+Systems+with+Applications&rft.atitle=Automatic+Calibration+of+a+Rainfall-Runoff+Model+Using+a+Fast+and+Elitist+Multi-objective+Particle+Swarm+Algorithm&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9533-%3C%2Fspan%3E9538&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.eswa.2008.10.086&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Yang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiuPender2013" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Yang; Pender, Gareth (2013). "Automatic calibration of a rapid flood spreading model using multiobjective optimisations". <i>Soft Computing</i>. <b>17</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">713–</span>724. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00500-012-0944-z">10.1007/s00500-012-0944-z</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27947972">27947972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soft+Computing&rft.atitle=Automatic+calibration+of+a+rapid+flood+spreading+model+using+multiobjective+optimisations&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E713-%3C%2Fspan%3E724&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00500-012-0944-z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27947972%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Yang&rft.au=Pender%2C+Gareth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLiuSun2010" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Yang; Sun, Fan (2010). "Sensitivity analysis and automatic calibration of a rainfall-runoff model using multi-objectives". <i>Ecological Informatics</i>. <b>5</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">304–</span>310. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010EcInf...5..304L">2010EcInf...5..304L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecoinf.2010.04.006">10.1016/j.ecoinf.2010.04.006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Informatics&rft.atitle=Sensitivity+analysis+and+automatic+calibration+of+a+rainfall-runoff+model+using+multi-objectives&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E304-%3C%2Fspan%3E310&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecoinf.2010.04.006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010EcInf...5..304L&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Yang&rft.au=Sun%2C+Fan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASurface+runoff" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usgs.gov/SELDM/">Stormwater Model</a> USGS <a href="/wiki/Stochastic_Empirical_Loading_and_Dilution_Model" class="mw-redirect" title="Stochastic Empirical Loading and Dilution Model">Stochastic Empirical Loading and Dilution Model</a> (SELDM)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style 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href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_shipping" title="Environmental impact of shipping">Environmental impact of shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_diseases_and_parasites" title="Fish diseases and parasites">Fish diseases and parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_kill" title="Fish kill">Fish kill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendly_Floatees" class="mw-redirect" title="Friendly Floatees">Friendly Floatees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbage_patch" title="Garbage patch">Garbage patch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Pacific_Garbage_Patch" title="Great Pacific Garbage Patch">Great Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_garbage_patch" title="Indian Ocean garbage patch">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Atlantic_garbage_patch" title="North Atlantic garbage patch">North Atlantic</a></li> 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deoxygenation">Ocean deoxygenation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase-out_of_lightweight_plastic_bags" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase-out of lightweight plastic bags">Plastic bags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pellet_pollution" title="Plastic pellet pollution">Plastic pellet pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">Shutdown of thermohaline circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_silver_nanoparticles" title="Environmental impact of silver nanoparticles">Silver nanoparticles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wastewater267" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist 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discharge and the environment">Ballast water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathroom" title="Bathroom">Bathroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_(coal)" title="Blackwater (coal)">Blackwater (coal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_(waste)" title="Blackwater (waste)">Blackwater (waste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler_blowdown" title="Boiler blowdown">Boiler blowdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">Brine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_sewer" title="Combined sewer">Combined sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooling_tower#Wet_cooling_tower_material_balance" title="Cooling tower">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_cooling" title="Water cooling">Cooling water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">Fecal sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greywater" title="Greywater">Greywater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration/Inflow" title="Infiltration/Inflow">Infiltration/Inflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment#Sources_of_industrial_wastewater" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange#Regeneration_wastewater" title="Ion exchange">Ion exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leachate" title="Leachate">Leachate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_animal_feeding_operation" title="Concentrated animal feeding operation">Manure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper#Water_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">Papermaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Produced_water" title="Produced water">Produced water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_flow" title="Return flow">Return flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis#Waste_stream_considerations" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septage" class="mw-redirect" title="Septage">Septage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">Sewage sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">Toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_quality_indicators" title="Wastewater quality indicators">Quality indicators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adsorbable_organic_halides" title="Adsorbable organic halides">Adsorbable organic halides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_oxygen_demand" title="Biochemical oxygen demand">Biochemical oxygen demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_oxygen_demand" title="Chemical oxygen demand">Chemical oxygen demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coliform_index" title="Coliform index">Coliform index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_saturation" title="Oxygen saturation">Oxygen saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">Salinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_dissolved_solids" title="Total dissolved solids">Total dissolved solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_suspended_solids" title="Total suspended solids">Total suspended solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">Treatment options</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_sludge" title="Activated sludge">Activated sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerated_lagoon" title="Aerated lagoon">Aerated lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/API_oil%E2%80%93water_separator" title="API oil–water separator">API oil–water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_filtering" title="Carbon filtering">Carbon filtering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_chlorination" title="Water chlorination">Chlorination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarifier" title="Clarifier">Clarifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralized_wastewater_system" title="Decentralized wastewater system">Decentralized wastewater system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_aeration" title="Extended aeration">Extended aeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon" title="Facultative lagoon">Facultative lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">Fecal sludge management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imhoff_tank" title="Imhoff tank">Imhoff tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">Ion exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_bioreactor" title="Membrane bioreactor">Membrane bioreactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_biological_contactor" title="Rotating biological contactor">Rotating biological contactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_treatment" title="Secondary treatment">Secondary treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation_(water_treatment)" title="Sedimentation (water treatment)">Sedimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settling_basin" title="Settling basin">Settling basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge_treatment" title="Sewage sludge treatment">Sewage sludge treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewer_mining" title="Sewer mining">Sewer mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilization_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Stabilization pond">Stabilization pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trickling_filter" title="Trickling filter">Trickling filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_germicidal_irradiation" title="Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation">Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upflow_anaerobic_sludge_blanket_digestion" title="Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion">UASB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermifilter" title="Vermifilter">Vermifilter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Wastewater treatment plant">Wastewater treatment plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disposal options</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combined_sewer" title="Combined sewer">Combined sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation_pond" title="Evaporation pond">Evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">Groundwater recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injection_well" title="Injection well">Injection well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_dumping" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine dumping">Marine dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_outfall" title="Marine outfall">Marine outfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">Reclaimed water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_drain_field" title="Septic drain field">Septic drain field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_farm" title="Sewage farm">Sewage farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">Storm drain</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_sewer" title="Vacuum sewer">Vacuum sewer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution" title="Template:Pollution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution" title="Template talk:Pollution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pollution1274" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution_measurement" title="Air pollution measurement">Air pollution measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joss_paper" title="Joss paper">Joss paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_burning_of_waste" title="Open burning of waste">Open burning of waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">Construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renovation" title="Renovation">Renovation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demolition" title="Demolition">Demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diesel_exhaust" title="Diesel exhaust">Diesel exhaust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">Smoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine" title="Internal combustion engine">Internal combustion engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">Asbestos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_working" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal working">Metal working</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_refining" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refining">Oil refining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Wood dust">Wood dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welding" title="Welding">Welding</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">Smelting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">Black carbon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Digital</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological light pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Natural</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a> <ul><li>Land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Industrial</li> <li>Military</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Misc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution-related_lists" title="Category:Pollution-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM<sub>2.5</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_air_pollution" title="List of countries by air pollution">Most polluted countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_rivers" title="List of most-polluted rivers">Most polluted rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">Categories</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">by country</a>) <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:pollution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:pollution">Commons</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Environment" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Environment">WikiProject Environment</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ecology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ecology">WikiProject Ecology</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/40px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/60px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/120px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rivers,_streams_and_springs876" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Template:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Template talk:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers,_streams_and_springs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rivers, streams and springs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rivers,_streams_and_springs876" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">Rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">streams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">springs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River" title="River">Rivers</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_rivers" title="Lists of rivers">lists</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_river" title="Alluvial river">Alluvial river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braided_river" title="Braided river">Braided river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_river" title="Blackwater river">Blackwater river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_pattern" title="Channel pattern">Channel pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_types" title="Channel types">Channel types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confluence" title="Confluence">Confluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributary" title="Distributary">Distributary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Drainage basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_river" title="Subterranean river">Subterranean river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_bifurcation" title="River bifurcation">River bifurcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_source" title="River source">River source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tributary" title="Tributary">Tributary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">Streams</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arroyo_(watercourse)" title="Arroyo (watercourse)">Arroyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bourne_(stream)" title="Bourne (stream)">Bourne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burn_(landform)" title="Burn (landform)">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk_stream" title="Chalk stream">Chalk stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coulee" title="Coulee">Coulee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_(hydrology)" title="Current (hydrology)">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Stream channel">Stream channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streamflow" title="Streamflow">Streamflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_gradient" title="Stream gradient">Stream gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perennial_stream" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial stream">Perennial stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winterbourne_(stream)" title="Winterbourne (stream)">Winterbourne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spring_(hydrology)" title="Spring (hydrology)">Springs</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_springs" title="List of springs">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estavelle" title="Estavelle">Estavelle/Inversac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">Geyser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_well" title="Holy well">Holy well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">Hot spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hot_springs" title="List of hot springs">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hot_springs_in_the_United_States" title="List of hot springs in the United States">list in the US</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_spring" title="Karst spring">Karst spring</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_karst_springs" title="List of karst springs">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_spring" title="Mineral spring">Mineral spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ponor" title="Ponor">Ponor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhythmic_spring" title="Rhythmic spring">Rhythmic spring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spring_horizon" title="Spring horizon">Spring horizon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">Sedimentary processes</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasion_(geology)" title="Abrasion (geology)">Abrasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabranch" title="Anabranch">Anabranch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aggradation" title="Aggradation">Aggradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armor_(hydrology)" title="Armor (hydrology)">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed_load" title="Bed load">Bed load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bed_material_load" title="Bed material load">Bed material load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granular_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Granular flow">Granular flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(geology)" title="Deposition (geology)">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolved_load" title="Dissolved load">Dissolved load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downcutting" title="Downcutting">Downcutting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headward_erosion" title="Headward erosion">Headward erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knickpoint" title="Knickpoint">Knickpoint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeochannel" title="Palaeochannel">Palaeochannel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progradation" title="Progradation">Progradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrogradation" title="Retrogradation">Retrogradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(geology)" title="Saltation (geology)">Saltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_flow#River_bends" title="Secondary flow">Secondary flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">Sediment transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suspended_load" title="Suspended load">Suspended load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wash_load" title="Wash load">Wash load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_gap" title="Water gap">Water gap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial#Fluvial_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ait" title="Ait">Ait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">Alluvial fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antecedent_drainage_stream" title="Antecedent drainage stream">Antecedent drainage stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_(geography)" title="Bank (geography)">Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_(river_morphology)" title="Bar (river morphology)">Bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayou" title="Bayou">Bayou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billabong" title="Billabong">Billabong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chine" title="Chine">Chine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cut_bank" title="Cut bank">Cut bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floating_island" title="Floating island">Floating island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluvial_terrace" title="Fluvial terrace">Fluvial terrace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gill_(ravine)" title="Gill (ravine)">Gill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulch" title="Gulch">Gulch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gully" title="Gully">Gully</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glen" title="Glen">Glen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meander_scar" title="Meander scar">Meander scar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxbow_lake" title="Oxbow lake">Oxbow lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riffle-pool_sequence" title="Riffle-pool sequence">Riffle-pool sequence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_bar" title="Point bar">Point bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravine" title="Ravine">Ravine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rill" title="Rill">Rill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_island" title="River island">River island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock-cut_basin" title="Rock-cut basin">Rock-cut basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_basin" title="Sedimentary basin">Sedimentary basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_structures" title="Sedimentary structures">Sedimentary structures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strath" title="Strath">Strath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalweg" title="Thalweg">Thalweg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">River valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi" title="Wadi">Wadi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fluvial#Fluvial_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">Fluvial flow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helicoidal_flow" title="Helicoidal flow">Helicoidal flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_scale_of_river_difficulty" title="International scale of river difficulty">International scale of river difficulty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Log_jam" title="Log jam">Log jam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">Meander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plunge_pool" title="Plunge pool">Plunge pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapids" title="Rapids">Rapids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riffle" title="Riffle">Riffle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_capture" title="Stream capture">Stream capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">Waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater" title="Whitewater">Whitewater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surface runoff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural wastewater">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_flush" title="First flush">First flush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">stormwater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/100-year_flood" title="100-year flood">100-year flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crevasse_splay" title="Crevasse splay">Crevasse splay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_non-water_floods" title="List of non-water floods">Non-water flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_barrier" title="Flood barrier">Flood barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_forecasting" title="Flood forecasting">Flood forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood-meadow" title="Flood-meadow">Flood-meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">Floodplain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_pulse_concept" title="Flood pulse concept">Flood pulse concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flooding_of_the_Nile" title="Flooding of the Nile">Inundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_Water_Management_Model" title="Storm Water Management Model">Storm Water Management Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_period" title="Return period">Return period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution#Pollution_from_point_sources" title="Water pollution">Point source pollution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effluent" title="Effluent">Effluent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial wastewater">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">River measurement<br />and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baer%27s_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Baer's law">Baer's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseflow" title="Baseflow">Baseflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bradshaw_model" title="Bradshaw model">Bradshaw model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)" title="Discharge (hydrology)">Discharge (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_density" title="Drainage density">Drainage density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exner_equation" title="Exner equation">Exner equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">Groundwater model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hack%27s_law" title="Hack's law">Hack's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hjulstr%C3%B6m_curve" title="Hjulström curve">Hjulström curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrograph" title="Hydrograph">Hydrograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_model" title="Hydrological model">Hydrological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_transport_model" title="Hydrological transport model">Hydrological transport model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(hydrology)" title="Infiltration (hydrology)">Infiltration (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_stem" title="Main stem">Main stem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Playfair%27s_law" title="Playfair's law">Playfair's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relief_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Relief ratio">Relief ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Continuum_Concept" title="River Continuum Concept">River Continuum Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouse_number" title="Rouse number">Rouse number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_curve_number" title="Runoff curve number">Runoff curve number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_model_(reservoir)" title="Runoff model (reservoir)">Runoff model (reservoir)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_gauge" title="Stream gauge">Stream gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Soil_Loss_Equation" title="Universal Soil Loss Equation">Universal Soil Loss Equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAFLEX" title="WAFLEX">WAFLEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetted_perimeter" title="Wetted perimeter">Wetted perimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">Volumetric flow rate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River_engineering" title="River engineering">River engineering</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqueduct_(bridge)" title="Aqueduct (bridge)">Aqueduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balancing_lake" title="Balancing lake">Balancing lake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Check_dam" title="Check dam">Check dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drop_structure" title="Drop structure">Drop structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daylighting_(streams)" title="Daylighting (streams)">Daylighting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion_control" title="Erosion control">Erosion control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_ladder" title="Fish ladder">Fish ladder</a></li> <li><a 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navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canyoning" title="Canyoning">Canyoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fly_fishing" title="Fly fishing">Fly fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafting" title="Rafting">Rafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_surfing" title="River surfing">River surfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riverboarding" title="Riverboarding">Riverboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_skipping" title="Stone skipping">Stone skipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triathlon" title="Triathlon">Triathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_canoeing" title="Whitewater canoeing">Whitewater canoeing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_kayaking" title="Whitewater kayaking">Whitewater kayaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitewater_slalom" class="mw-redirect" title="Whitewater slalom">Whitewater slalom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">Body of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydraulic civilization">Hydraulic civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_valley_civilization" title="River valley civilization">River valley civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_cruise" title="River cruise">River cruise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Sacred waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a 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