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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oceans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Oceans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Lakes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Organisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrient_flux" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrient_flux"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Nutrient flux</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrient_flux-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Habitats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Habitats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Habitats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Habitats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecological_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecological_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Ecological research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecological_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Benthic zone</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 31 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-31" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">31 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="نطاق قاعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نطاق قاعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Бенталь – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Бенталь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Бэнталь – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Бэнталь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zona_bent%C3%B2nica" title="Zona bentònica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Zona bentònica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentiske_zone" title="Bentiske zone – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Bentiske zone" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthal" title="Benthal – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Benthal" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentaal" title="Bentaal – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Bentaal" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zona_b%C3%A9ntica" title="Zona béntica – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Zona béntica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benta_zono" title="Benta zono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Benta zono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zona_bentiko" title="Zona bentiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zona bentiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%86" title="ناحیه دریابن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ناحیه دریابن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comhshaolta_beantacha" title="Comhshaolta beantacha – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Comhshaolta beantacha" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bental" title="Bental – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Bental" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubuk" title="Lubuk – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Lubuk" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zona_bentonica" title="Zona bentonica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Zona bentonica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bental%C4%97" title="Bentalė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Bentalė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Бентал – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Бентал" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%BD_%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="കടൽ അടിവാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കടൽ അടിവാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentische_zone" title="Bentische zone – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bentische zone" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentisk_sone" title="Bentisk sone – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bentisk sone" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bental" title="Bental – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Bental" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bental" title="Bental – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Bental" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zona_bent%C3%B4nica" title="Zona bentônica – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Zona bentônica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Бенталь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Бенталь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leuwi" title="Leuwi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Leuwi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB" title="Бентал – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Бентал" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentik_b%C3%B6lge" title="Bentik bölge – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bentik bölge" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Бенталь – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Бенталь" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B9ng_%C4%91%C3%A1y_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc" title="Vùng đáy nước – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vùng đáy nước" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B5%B7%E5%BA%95%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E7%95%8C" title="海底生物界 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="海底生物界" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedung" title="Kedung – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Kedung" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q686881#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">Benthic</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Benthic_GLERL_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Benthic_GLERL_1.jpg/220px-Benthic_GLERL_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Benthic_GLERL_1.jpg/330px-Benthic_GLERL_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Benthic_GLERL_1.jpg/440px-Benthic_GLERL_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="628" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Photomicrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Photomicrograph">Photomicrograph</a> of typical benthic animals, including (from top to bottom) <a href="/wiki/Amphipods" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphipods">amphipods</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">polychaete</a> worm, a <a href="/wiki/Sea_snail" title="Sea snail">snail</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Chironomidae" title="Chironomidae">chironomous</a> midge larva</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>benthic zone</b> is the ecological region at the lowest level of a <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">body of water</a> such as an <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lake</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">stream</a>, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. The name comes from the Ancient Greek word <span lang="grc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B2%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82#Ancient_Greek" class="extiw" title="wikt:βένθος">βένθος</a></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek transliteration" lang="grc-Latn"><i>bénthos</i></span>), meaning "the depths".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisms living in this zone are called <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">benthos</a> and include <a href="/wiki/Microorganisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Microorganisms">microorganisms</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as larger <a href="/wiki/Invertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Invertebrates">invertebrates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">polychaetes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisms here generally live in close relationship with the substrate and many are permanently attached to the bottom. The <a href="/wiki/Benthic_boundary_layer" title="Benthic boundary layer">benthic boundary layer</a>, which includes the bottom layer of water and the uppermost layer of sediment directly influenced by the overlying water, is an integral part of the benthic zone, as it greatly influences the biological activity that takes place there. Examples of contact soil layers include <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a> bottoms, rocky outcrops, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">bay mud</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series related to</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthic life</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Benthos_diagram.jpg/180px-Benthos_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Benthos_diagram.jpg/270px-Benthos_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Benthos_diagram.jpg/360px-Benthos_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="624" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a> <span class="nowrap">            </span> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benthic zone</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Benthopelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthopelagic">Benthopelagic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Benthic-pelagic_coupling" title="Benthic-pelagic coupling">coupling</a>) <span class="nowrap">      </span> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By size</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbenthos">microbenthos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By type</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoobenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoobenthos">zoobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytobenthos" title="Phytobenthos">phytobenthos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By location</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endobenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Endobenthos">endobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epibenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epibenthos">epibenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbenthos">hyperbenthos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By habitat</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">   </span> Shallow: <a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">bay mud</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bivalve_reef" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve reef">bivalve reef</a></div> <div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">                  </span> <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forest</a> • <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reef</a></div> <div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">                  </span> <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadow</a></div> </div> <div class="hlist"><div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">       </span> Deep: <a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">seamount</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seep</a></div> <div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">                  </span> <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic fish">Benthic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthopelagic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthopelagic fish">Benthopelagic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent_microbial_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent microbial communities">Hydrothermal vent microbial communities</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epibenthic_sled" title="Epibenthic sled">Epibenthic sled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Veen_grab_sampler" title="Van Veen grab sampler">Van Veen grab sampler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioirrigation" title="Bioirrigation">Bioirrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioturbation" title="Bioturbation">Bioturbation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/16px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/24px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/32px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1315" data-file-height="1039" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Marine_life" title="Portal:Marine life">Marine life portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Benthos_sidebar" title="Template:Benthos sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Benthos_sidebar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Benthos sidebar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Benthos_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Benthos sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceans">Oceans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Oceans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The benthic region of the ocean begins at the shore line (<a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal</a> or <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">littoral zone</a>) and extends downward along the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a> out to sea. Thus, the region incorporates a great variety of physical conditions differing in: depth, light penetration and pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depending on the water-body, the benthic zone may include areas that are only a few inches below the surface. </p><p>The continental shelf is a gently sloping benthic region that extends away from the land mass. At the continental shelf edge, usually about 200 metres (660 ft) deep, the gradient greatly increases and is known as the continental slope. The continental slope drops down to the deep sea floor. The deep-sea floor is called the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">abyssal plain</a> and is usually about 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) deep. The ocean floor is not all flat but has <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">submarine ridges</a> and deep <a href="/wiki/Ocean_trench" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean trench">ocean trenches</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Hadal_zone" title="Hadal zone">hadal zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For comparison, the <a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">pelagic zone</a> is the descriptive term for the ecological region above the benthos, including the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a> up to the surface. At the other end of the spectrum, benthos of the deep ocean includes the bottom levels of the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Abyssal_zone" title="Abyssal zone">abyssal zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For information on animals that live in the deeper areas of the oceans see <a href="/wiki/Aphotic_zone" title="Aphotic zone">aphotic zone</a>. Generally, these include life forms that tolerate cool <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperatures</a> and low <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> levels, but this depends on the depth of the water.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lakes">Lakes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Lakes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As with oceans, the <i>benthic zone</i> is the floor of the lake, composed of accumulated sunken <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>. The <i>littoral zone</i> is the zone bordering the shore; light penetrates easily and aquatic plants thrive. The <i>pelagic zone</i> represents the broad mass of water, down as far as the depth to which no light penetrates.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organisms">Organisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></div> <p>Benthos are the organisms that live in the benthic zone, and are different from those elsewhere in the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a>; even within the benthic zone variations in such factors as light penetration, temperature and salinity give rise to distinct differences, delineated vertically, in the groups of organisms supported.<sup id="cite_ref-aw2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aw2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many organisms adapted to deep-water pressure cannot survive in the upper parts of the water column: the pressure difference can be very significant (approximately one <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmosphere (unit)">atmosphere</a> for each 10 meters of water depth). Many have adapted to live on the substrate (bottom). In their habitats they can be considered as dominant creatures, but they are often a source of prey for <a href="/wiki/Carcharhinidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Carcharhinidae">Carcharhinidae</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Lemon_shark" title="Lemon shark">lemon shark</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because light does not penetrate very deep into ocean-water, the energy source for the benthic ecosystem is often <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a>. Marine snow is organic matter from higher up in the water column that drifts down to the depths.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This <a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">dead and decaying matter</a> sustains the benthic <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>; most organisms in the benthic zone are <a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">scavengers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a>. Some <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> use <a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">chemosynthesis</a> to produce <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>. </p><p>Benthic organisms can be divided into two categories based on whether they make their home on the ocean floor or a few centimeters into the ocean floor. Those living on the surface of the ocean floor are known as <a href="/wiki/Epifauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Epifauna">epifauna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Those who live burrowed into the ocean floor are known as <a href="/wiki/Infauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Infauna">infauna</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-aw2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aw2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Extremophiles, including <a href="/wiki/Piezophile" title="Piezophile">piezophiles</a>, which thrive in high pressures, may also live there. An example of benthos organism is <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chorismus_antarcticus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chorismus antarcticus (page does not exist)">Chorismus antarcticus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nutrient_flux">Nutrient flux</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nutrient flux"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sources of food for benthic communities can derive from the water column above these habitats in the form of aggregations of <a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">detritus</a>, inorganic matter, and living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These aggregations are commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">marine snow</a>, and are important for the deposition of organic matter, and bacterial communities.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of material sinking to the ocean floor can average 307,000 aggregates per m<sup>2</sup> per day.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This amount will vary on the depth of the benthos, and the degree of benthic-pelagic coupling. The benthos in a shallow region will have more available food than the benthos in the deep sea. Because of their reliance on it, microbes may become spatially dependent on detritus in the benthic zone. The <a href="/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a> found in the benthic zone, specifically <a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellates" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinoflagellates">dinoflagellates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a>, colonize quite rapidly on detritus matter while forming a symbiotic relationship with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the deep sea, which covers 90–95% of the ocean floor, 90% of the total biomass is made up of prokaryotes. To release all the nutrients locked inside these microbes to the environment, viruses are important in making it available to other organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habitats">Habitats</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Habitats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Seafloor mapping">seafloor mapping</a> technologies have revealed linkages between seafloor geomorphology and benthic habitats, in which suites of benthic communities are associated with specific geomorphic settings.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples include cold-water coral communities associated with seamounts and submarine canyons, kelp forests associated with inner shelf rocky reefs and rockfish associated with rocky escarpments on continental slopes.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceanic</a> environments, benthic <a href="/wiki/Habitats" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitats">habitats</a> can also be zoned by depth. From the shallowest to the deepest are: the <a href="/wiki/Epipelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic">epipelagic</a> (less than 200 meters), the <a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopelagic">mesopelagic</a> (200–1,000 meters), the <a href="/wiki/Bathyal" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyal">bathyal</a> (1,000–4,000 meters), the <a href="/wiki/Abyssal" class="mw-redirect" title="Abyssal">abyssal</a> (4,000–6,000 meters) and the deepest, the <a href="/wiki/Hadal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadal">hadal</a> (below 6,000 meters).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lower zones are in deep, pressurized areas of the ocean. Human impacts have occurred at all ocean depths, but are most significant on shallow continental shelf and slope habitats.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many benthic organisms have retained their historic evolutionary characteristics. Some organisms are <a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_gigantism" title="Deep-sea gigantism">significantly larger</a> than their relatives living in shallower zones, largely because of higher oxygen concentration in deep water.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is not easy to map or observe these organisms and their habitats, and most modern observations are made using <a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">remotely operated underwater vehicles</a> (ROVs), and rarely <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecological_research">Ecological research</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ecological research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Benthic <a href="/wiki/Macroinvertebrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroinvertebrate">macroinvertebrates</a> have many important ecological functions, such as regulating the flow of materials and energy in <a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">river ecosystems</a> through their <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a> linkages. Because of this correlation between flow of energy and nutrients, benthic <a href="/wiki/Macroinvertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroinvertebrates">macroinvertebrates</a> have the ability to influence food resources on fish and other organisms in <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystems" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic ecosystems">aquatic ecosystems</a>. For example, the addition of a moderate amount of <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> to a river over the course of several years resulted in increases in invertebrate richness, abundance, and <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>. These in turn resulted in increased food resources for native species of fish with insignificant alteration of the macroinvertebrate community structure and <a href="/wiki/Trophic_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Trophic network">trophic</a> pathways.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The presence of macroinvertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Amphipoda#Ecology" title="Amphipoda">Amphipoda</a> also affect the dominance of certain types of algae in Benthic ecosystems as well.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, because benthic zones are influenced by the flow of dead <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic material</a>, there have been studies conducted on the relationship between stream and river water flows and the resulting effects on the benthic zone. Low flow events show a restriction in nutrient transport from benthic <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">substrates</a> to food webs, and caused a decrease in benthic macroinvertebrate biomass, which lead to the disappearance of food sources into the substrate.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because the benthic system regulates energy in aquatic ecosystems, studies have been made of the mechanisms of the benthic zone in order to better understand the ecosystem. Benthic <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a> have been used by the European Union's <a href="/wiki/Water_Framework_Directive" title="Water Framework Directive">Water Framework Directive</a> (WFD) to establish ecological quality ratios that determined the ecological status of lakes in the UK.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beginning research is being made on benthic assemblages to see if they can be used as indicators of healthy aquatic ecosystems. Benthic assemblages in urbanized coastal regions are not functionally equivalent to benthic assemblages in untouched regions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ecologists are attempting to understand the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Heterogeneity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogeneity">heterogeneity</a> and maintaining <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> in aquatic ecosystems. Benthic <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> has been used as an inherently good subject for studying short term changes and community responses to heterogeneous conditions in streams. Understanding the potential mechanisms involving benthic <a href="/wiki/Periphyton" title="Periphyton">periphyton</a> and the effects on heterogeneity within a stream may provide a better understanding of the structure and function of stream ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Periphyton populations suffer from high natural <a href="/wiki/Spatial_variability" title="Spatial variability">spatial variability</a> while difficult accessibility simultaneously limits the practicable number of samples that can be taken. Targeting periphyton locations which are known to provide reliable samples – especially hard surfaces – is recommended in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> benthic monitoring program (by Kelly 1998 for the United Kingdom then in the EU and for the EU as a whole by CEN 2003 and CEN 2004) and in some United States programs (by Moulton et al. 2002).<sup id="cite_ref-Smol-2010_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smol-2010-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 60">: 60 </span></sup> Benthic <a href="/wiki/Gross_primary_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Gross primary production">gross primary production</a> (GPP) may be important in maintaining biodiversity hotspots in <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">littoral zones</a> in large <a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">lake ecosystems</a>. However, the relative contributions of benthic habitats within specific ecosystems are poorly explored and more research is planned.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armor_(hydrology)" title="Armor (hydrology)">Armor (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic fish">Benthic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthopelagic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthopelagic fish">Benthopelagic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_trawling" title="Bottom trawling">Bottom trawling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profundal_zone" title="Profundal zone">Profundal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_Profile_Imagery" title="Sediment Profile Imagery">Sediment Profile Imagery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 32em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/benthos" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:benthos"><i>benthos</i></a> at Wiktionary</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWetzel2001" class="citation book cs1">Wetzel, Robert G. (2001). <i>Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems, 3rd edn</i>. Academic Press, San Diego. pp. 635–637.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Limnology%3A+Lake+and+River+Ecosystems%2C+3rd+edn.&rft.pages=635-637&rft.pub=Academic+Press%2C+San+Diego&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Wetzel&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFenchelKingBlackburn2012" class="citation book cs1">Fenchel, T.; King, G.; Blackburn, T. H. (2012). <i>Bacterial Biogeochemistry: The Ecophysiology of Mineral Cycling, 3rd edn</i>. Academic Press, London. pp. 121–122.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bacterial+Biogeochemistry%3A+The+Ecophysiology+of+Mineral+Cycling%2C+3rd+edn.&rft.pages=121-122&rft.pub=Academic+Press%2C+London&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Fenchel&rft.aufirst=T.&rft.au=King%2C+G.&rft.au=Blackburn%2C+T.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.baybenthos.versar.com/benthos.htm">"What Are Benthos?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Versar" title="Versar">Baybenthos.versar.com</a>. 2006-01-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Are+Benthos%3F&rft.pub=Baybenthos.versar.com&rft.date=2006-01-23&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.baybenthos.versar.com%2Fbenthos.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalag2022" class="citation book cs1">Walag, Angelo (2022). "Understanding the world of Benthos: an introduction to Benthology". In Godson, Prince; et al. (eds.). <i>Ecology and Biodiversity of Benthos</i>. Amsterdam, Netherlands: <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780128211618" title="Special:BookSources/9780128211618"><bdi>9780128211618</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Understanding+the+world+of+Benthos%3A+an+introduction+to+Benthology&rft.btitle=Ecology+and+Biodiversity+of+Benthos&rft.place=Amsterdam%2C+Netherlands&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780128211618&rft.aulast=Walag&rft.aufirst=Angelo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholsWilliams2009" class="citation book cs1">Nichols, C. Reid; Williams, Robert G. (2009). "hadal zone". <i>Encyclopedia of marine science</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Infobase_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Infobase Publishing">Infobase</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781438118819" title="Special:BookSources/9781438118819"><bdi>9781438118819</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=hadal+zone&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+marine+science&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Infobase&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781438118819&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=C.+Reid&rft.au=Williams%2C+Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichols, Williams (2009): "abyssal zone"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nichols, Williams (2009): "aphotic zone"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilkCiruna2005" class="citation book cs1">Silk, Nicole; Ciruna, Kristine (2005). <i>A practitioner's guide to freshwater biodiversity conservation</i>. Washington, DC: <a href="/wiki/Island_Press" title="Island Press">Island Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781597260435" title="Special:BookSources/9781597260435"><bdi>9781597260435</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+practitioner%27s+guide+to+freshwater+biodiversity+conservation&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Island+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781597260435&rft.aulast=Silk&rft.aufirst=Nicole&rft.au=Ciruna%2C+Kristine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aw2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-aw2_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-aw2_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walag (2022) p.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBright2000" class="citation book cs1">Bright, Michael (2000). <i>The private life of sharks: the truth behind the myth</i>. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8117-2875-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8117-2875-7"><bdi>0-8117-2875-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+private+life+of+sharks%3A+the+truth+behind+the+myth&rft.place=Mechanicsburg%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Stackpole+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-8117-2875-7&rft.aulast=Bright&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthiessen2018" class="citation book cs1">Matthiessen, Berte (2018). "Ecological Organization of the Ocean". 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Berlin: <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-60154-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-60154-0"><bdi>978-3-319-60154-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ecological+Organization+of+the+Ocean&rft.btitle=Handbook+on+Marine+Environment+Protection&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-60154-0&rft.aulast=Matthiessen&rft.aufirst=Berte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABenthic+zone" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/epifaunal">"Epifaunal - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary"</a>. 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aria-labelledby="Physical_oceanography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Physical_oceanography" title="Template talk:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Physical_oceanography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Physical oceanography"><abbr title="Edit this 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title="Clapotis">Clapotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnoidal_wave" title="Cnoidal wave">Cnoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_sea" title="Cross sea">Cross sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(water_waves)" title="Dispersion (water waves)">Dispersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_wave" title="Edge wave">Edge wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_wave" title="Equatorial wave">Equatorial waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_wave" title="Gravity wave">Gravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green%27s_law" title="Green's law">Green's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infragravity_wave" title="Infragravity wave">Infragravity wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_wave" title="Internal wave">Internal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iribarren_number" title="Iribarren number">Iribarren number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelvin_wave" title="Kelvin wave">Kelvin wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_wave" title="Kinematic wave">Kinematic wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luke%27s_variational_principle" title="Luke's variational principle">Luke's variational principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mild-slope_equation" title="Mild-slope equation">Mild-slope equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_stress" title="Radiation stress">Radiation stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_wave" title="Rogue wave">Rogue wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby_wave" title="Rossby wave">Rossby wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rossby-gravity_waves" title="Rossby-gravity waves">Rossby-gravity waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_state" title="Sea state">Sea state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seiche" title="Seiche">Seiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_wave_height" title="Significant wave height">Significant wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soliton" title="Soliton">Soliton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_drift" title="Stokes drift">Stokes drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_problem" title="Stokes problem">Stokes problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_wave" title="Stokes wave">Stokes wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swell_(ocean)" title="Swell (ocean)">Swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trochoidal_wave" title="Trochoidal wave">Trochoidal wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursell_number" title="Ursell number">Ursell number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action_(continuum_mechanics)" title="Wave action (continuum mechanics)">Wave action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_base" title="Wave base">Wave base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_height" title="Wave height">Wave height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_nonlinearity" title="Wave nonlinearity">Wave nonlinearity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_radar" title="Wave radar">Wave radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_setup" title="Wave setup">Wave setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_turbulence" title="Wave turbulence">Wave turbulence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93current_interaction" title="Wave–current interaction">Wave–current interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waves_and_shallow_water" title="Waves and shallow water">Waves and shallow water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-dimensional_Saint-Venant_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="One-dimensional Saint-Venant equations">one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_equations" title="Shallow water equations">shallow water equations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_setup" title="Wind setup">Wind setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave_model" title="Wind wave model">model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Upwelling"><img alt="Upwelling" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/120px-Upwelling.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/180px-Upwelling.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Upwelling.svg/240px-Upwelling.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="365" data-file-height="242" /></a></span><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Antarctic_bottom_water.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Antarctic bottom water"><img alt="Antarctic bottom water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/120px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/180px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Antarctic_bottom_water.svg/240px-Antarctic_bottom_water.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Circulation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary_current" title="Boundary current">Boundary current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis_force" title="Coriolis force">Coriolis force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coriolis%E2%80%93Stokes_force" title="Coriolis–Stokes force">Coriolis–Stokes force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craik%E2%80%93Leibovich_vortex_force" title="Craik–Leibovich vortex force">Craik–Leibovich vortex force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downwelling" title="Downwelling">Downwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_(fluid_dynamics)" title="Eddy (fluid dynamics)">Eddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_layer" title="Ekman layer">Ekman layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_spiral" title="Ekman spiral">Ekman spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekman_transport" title="Ekman transport">Ekman transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o%E2%80%93Southern_Oscillation" title="El Niño–Southern Oscillation">El Niño–Southern Oscillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_circulation_model" title="General circulation model">General circulation model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemical_Ocean_Sections_Study" title="Geochemical Ocean Sections Study">Geochemical Ocean Sections Study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostrophic_current" title="Geostrophic current">Geostrophic current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Ocean_Data_Analysis_Project" title="Global Ocean Data Analysis Project">Global Ocean Data Analysis Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_circulation" title="Hydrothermal circulation">Hydrothermal circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langmuir_circulation" title="Langmuir circulation">Langmuir circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loop_Current" title="Loop Current">Loop Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modular_Ocean_Model" title="Modular Ocean Model">Modular Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamical_thermostat" title="Ocean dynamical thermostat">Ocean dynamical thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_dynamics" title="Ocean dynamics">Ocean dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_gyre" title="Ocean gyre">Ocean gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overflow_(oceanography)" title="Overflow (oceanography)">Overflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_Ocean_Model" title="Princeton Ocean Model">Princeton Ocean Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subsurface_ocean_current" title="Subsurface ocean current">Subsurface ocean current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sverdrup_balance" title="Sverdrup balance">Sverdrup balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermohaline_circulation" title="Thermohaline circulation">Thermohaline circulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shutdown_of_thermohaline_circulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutdown of thermohaline circulation">shutdown</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool" title="Whirlpool">Whirlpool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_generated_current" title="Wind generated current">Wind generated current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Circulation_Experiment" title="World Ocean Circulation Experiment">World Ocean Circulation Experiment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphidromic_point" title="Amphidromic point">Amphidromic point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_tide" title="Earth tide">Earth tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Head_of_tide" title="Head of tide">Head of tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_tide" title="Internal tide">Internal tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunitidal_interval" title="Lunitidal interval">Lunitidal interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perigean_spring_tide" title="Perigean spring tide">Perigean spring tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_tide" title="Rip tide">Rip tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_twelfths" title="Rule of twelfths">Rule of twelfths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slack_tide" title="Slack tide">Slack tide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_tides" title="Theory of tides">Theory of tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_bore" title="Tidal bore">Tidal bore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_force" title="Tidal force">Tidal force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_race" title="Tidal race">Tidal race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_range" title="Tidal range">Tidal range</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_resonance" title="Tidal resonance">Tidal resonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_gauge" title="Tide gauge">Tide gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tideline" title="Tideline">Tideline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_fan" title="Abyssal fan">Abyssal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abyssal_plain" title="Abyssal plain">Abyssal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathymetric_chart" title="Bathymetric chart">Bathymetric chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">Carbonate platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_rise" title="Continental rise">Continental rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contourite" title="Contourite">Contourite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoll_(oceanography)" title="Knoll (oceanography)">Knoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_bank" title="Ocean bank">Ocean bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_basin" title="Oceanic basin">Oceanic basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_plateau" title="Oceanic plateau">Oceanic plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">Oceanic trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_margin" title="Passive margin">Passive margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_volcano" title="Submarine volcano">Submarine volcano</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate<br />tectonics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_boundary" title="Convergent boundary">Convergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_boundary" title="Divergent boundary">Divergent boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fracture_zone" title="Fracture zone">Fracture zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outer_trench_swell" title="Outer trench swell">Outer trench swell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ridge_push" title="Ridge push">Ridge push</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">Seafloor spreading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_pull" title="Slab pull">Slab pull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_suction" title="Slab suction">Slab suction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slab_window" title="Slab window">Slab window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">Subduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">Transform fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine%E2%80%93Matthews%E2%80%93Morley_hypothesis" title="Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis">Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ocean zones</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benthic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ocean_water" title="Deep ocean water">Deep ocean water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopelagic_zone" title="Mesopelagic zone">Mesopelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">Sea level</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-ocean_Assessment_and_Reporting_of_Tsunamis" title="Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis">Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Sea_Level_Observing_System" title="Global Sea Level Observing System">Global Sea Level Observing System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_West_Shelf_Operational_Oceanographic_System" title="North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System">North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea-level_curve" title="Sea-level curve">Sea-level curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_drop" title="Sea level drop">Sea level drop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Geodetic_System" title="World Geodetic System">World Geodetic System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Acoustical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Acoustical oceanography">Acoustics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acoustic_tomography" title="Ocean acoustic tomography">Ocean acoustic tomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sofar_bomb" title="Sofar bomb">Sofar bomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SOFAR_channel" title="SOFAR channel">SOFAR channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jason-1" title="Jason-1">Jason-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OSTM/Jason-2" title="OSTM/Jason-2">OSTM/Jason-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason-3" title="Jason-3">Jason-3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_(oceanography)" title="Argo (oceanography)">Argo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_lander" title="Benthic lander">Benthic lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Color of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal sea">Marginal sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mooring_(oceanography)" title="Mooring (oceanography)">Mooring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanographic_Data_Center" title="National Oceanographic Data Center">National Oceanographic Data Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_exploration" title="Ocean exploration">Explorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_observations" title="Ocean observations">Observations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_reanalysis" title="Ocean reanalysis">Reanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_topography" title="Ocean surface topography">Ocean surface topography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_oceanography" title="Outline of oceanography">Outline of oceanography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_sediment" title="Pelagic sediment">Pelagic sediment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Sea surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">Seawater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_On_a_Sphere" title="Science On a Sphere">Science On a Sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">Thermocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_glider" title="Underwater glider">Underwater glider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Ocean_Atlas" title="World Ocean Atlas">World Ocean Atlas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biomes" title="Template:Biomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biomes" title="Template talk:Biomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography#Biogeographic_regionalisations" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and<br /> subtropical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic <br /> realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&oldid=1258143213">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benthic_zone&oldid=1258143213</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_biomes" title="Category:Aquatic biomes">Aquatic biomes</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Aquatic ecology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fisheries_science" 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