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id="toc-Artificial_intelligence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_intelligence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Artificial intelligence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_intelligence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_effects_of_Infringing_copying" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_effects_of_Infringing_copying"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The effects of Infringing copying</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_effects_of_Infringing_copying-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_standards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_standards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computerethik" title="Computerethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Computerethik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BB%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B7%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Πληροφορική ηθική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πληροφορική ηθική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_computacional" title="Ética computacional – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ética computacional" data-language-autonym="Español" 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</div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a>.</div><p><b>Computer ethics</b> is a part of <a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">practical philosophy</a> concerned with how computing professionals should make decisions regarding professional and social conduct.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Margaret Anne Pierce, a professor in the Department of Mathematics and Computers at Georgia Southern University has categorized the ethical decisions related to computer technology and usage into three primary influences:<sup id="cite_ref-Pierce_1996_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pierce_1996-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The individual's own personal <a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">[ethical] code</a>.</li> <li>Any informal code of ethical conduct that exists in the work place.</li> <li>Exposure to formal codes of ethics.</li></ol> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foundation">Foundation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Foundation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Computer ethics was first coined by Walter Maner,<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a professor at <a href="/wiki/Bowling_Green_State_University" title="Bowling Green State University">Bowling Green State University</a>. Maner noticed ethical concerns that were brought up during his Medical Ethics course at <a href="/wiki/Old_Dominion_University" title="Old Dominion University">Old Dominion University</a> became more complex and difficult when the use of technology and computers became involved.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The conceptual foundations of computer ethics are investigated by <a href="/wiki/Information_ethics" title="Information ethics">information ethics</a>, a branch of philosophical <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> promoted, among others, by <a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Luciano Floridi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-InformationEthics_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InformationEthics-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of computer ethics originated in the 1940s with MIT professor <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a>, the American mathematician and philosopher. While working on anti-aircraft artillery during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Wiener and his fellow engineers developed a system of communication between the part of a cannon that tracked a warplane, the part that performed calculations to estimate a trajectory, and the part responsible for firing.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wiener termed the science of such information feedback systems, "<a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>," and he discussed this new field with its related ethical concerns in his 1948 book, <i>Cybernetics</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BynumSEP_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumSEP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1950, Wiener's second book, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Human_Use_of_Human_Beings" title="The Human Use of Human Beings">The Human Use of Human Beings</a></i>, delved deeper into the ethical issues surrounding information technology and laid out the basic foundations of computer ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumSEP_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumSEP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A bit later during the same year, the world's first <a href="/wiki/Computer_crime" class="mw-redirect" title="Computer crime">computer crime</a> was committed. A programmer was able to use a bit of computer code to stop his banking account from being flagged as overdrawn. However, there were no laws in place at that time to stop him, and as a result he was not charged.<sup id="cite_ref-BriefHistory_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BriefHistory-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. Many grammatical errors. No references. (April 2015)">unreliable source?</span></a></i>]</sup> To make sure another person did not follow suit, an ethics code for computers was needed. </p><p>In 1973, the <a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a> (ACM) adopted its first code of ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/SRI_International" title="SRI International">SRI International</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Donn_B._Parker" title="Donn B. Parker">Donn Parker</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an author on computer crimes, led the committee that developed the code.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1976, medical teacher and researcher Walter Maner noticed that ethical decisions are much harder to make when computers are added. He noticed a need for a different branch of ethics for when it came to dealing with computers. The term "computer ethics" was thus invented.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BynumSEP_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumSEP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1976 <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Weizenbaum" title="Joseph Weizenbaum">Joseph Weizenbaum</a> made his second significant addition to the field of computer ethics. He published a book titled <i><a href="/wiki/Computer_Power_and_Human_Reason" title="Computer Power and Human Reason">Computer Power and Human Reason</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-ObituaryWeizenbaum_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ObituaryWeizenbaum-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which talked about how <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> is good for the world; however it should never be allowed to make the most important decisions as it does not have human qualities such as wisdom. By far the most important point he makes in the book is the distinction between choosing and deciding. He argued that deciding is a computational activity while making choices is not and thus the ability to make choices is what makes us humans. </p><p>At a later time during the same year <a href="/wiki/Abbe_Mowshowitz" title="Abbe Mowshowitz">Abbe Mowshowitz</a>, a professor of Computer Science at the City College of New York, published an article titled "On approaches to the study of social issues in computing." This article identified and analyzed technical and non-technical biases in research on social issues present in computing. </p><p>During 1978, the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_Financial_Privacy_Act" title="Right to Financial Privacy Act">Right to Financial Privacy Act</a> was adopted by the United States Congress, drastically limiting the government's ability to search bank records.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the next year <a href="/wiki/Terrell_Ward_Bynum" title="Terrell Ward Bynum">Terrell Ward Bynum</a>, the professor of philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University as well as Director of the Research Center on Computing and Society there, developed curriculum for a university course on computer ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bynum was also editor of the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy_(journal)" title="Metaphilosophy (journal)">Metaphilosophy</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1983 the journal held an essay contest on the topic of computer ethics and published the winning essays in its best-selling 1985 special issue, “Computers and Ethics.”<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1984, the United States Congress passed the Small Business Computer Security and Education Act, which created a <a href="/wiki/Small_Business_Administration" title="Small Business Administration">Small Business Administration</a> advisory council to focus on computer security related to small businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1985, <a href="/wiki/James_Moor" class="mw-redirect" title="James Moor">James Moor</a>, professor of philosophy at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, published an essay called "What is Computer Ethics?"<sup id="cite_ref-BynumSEP_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumSEP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this essay Moor states the computer ethics includes the following: "(1) identification of computer-generated policy vacuums, (2) clarification of conceptual muddles, (3) formulation of policies for the use of computer technology, and (4) ethical justification of such policies."<sup id="cite_ref-BynumVeryShort_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumVeryShort-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the same year, Deborah Johnson, professor of Applied Ethics and chair of the Department of Science, Technology, and Society in the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences of the University of Virginia, got the first major computer ethics textbook published.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumSEP_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumSEP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Johnson's textbook identified major issues for research in computer ethics for more than 10 years after publication of the first edition.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumSEP_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumSEP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1988, Robert Hauptman, a librarian at St. Cloud University, came up with "<a href="/wiki/Information_ethics" title="Information ethics">information ethics</a>", a term that was used to describe the storage, production, access and dissemination of information.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Near the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Privacy_Act_of_1974#Computer_Matching_and_Privacy_Protection_Act" title="Privacy Act of 1974">Computer Matching and Privacy Act</a> was adopted and this act restricted United States government programs identifying debtors.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the year 1992, ACM adopted a new set of ethical rules called "ACM code of Ethics and Professional Conduct"<sup id="cite_ref-ACMethics_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACMethics-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which consisted of 24 statements of personal responsibility. </p><p>Three years later, in 1995, Krystyna Górniak-Kocikowska, a professor of philosophy at Southern Connecticut State University, Coordinator of the Religious Studies Program, as well as a senior research associate in the Research Center on Computing and Society, came up with the idea that computer ethics will eventually become a global ethical system and soon after, computer ethics would replace ethics altogether as it would become the standard ethics of the information age.<sup id="cite_ref-BynumSEP_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BynumSEP-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1999, Deborah Johnson revealed her view, which was quite contrary to Górniak-Kocikowska's belief, and stated that computer ethics will not evolve but rather be our old ethics with a slight twist.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Post 20th century, as a result to much debate of ethical guidelines, many organizations such as ABET<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> offer ethical accreditation to University or College applications such as "Applied and Natural Science, Computing, Engineering and Engineering Technology at the associate, bachelor, and master levels" to try and promote quality works that follow sound ethical and moral guidelines. </p><p>In 2018 <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a> reported that <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> took data from 87 million Facebook users to sell to <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Analytica" title="Cambridge Analytica">Cambridge Analytica</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2019 <a href="/wiki/Facebook" title="Facebook">Facebook</a> started a fund to build an ethics center at the <a href="/wiki/Technical_University_of_Munich" title="Technical University of Munich">Technical University of Munich</a>, located in Germany. This was the first time that Facebook funded an academic institute for matters regarding computer ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concerns">Concerns</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Concerns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cybercrime" title="Cybercrime">Computer crime</a>, <a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">anonymity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> fall under topics that will be present in the future of computer ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ethical considerations have been linked to the <a href="/wiki/Internet_of_things" title="Internet of things">Internet of Things (IoT)</a> with many physical devices being connected to the internet.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cryptocurrency" title="Cryptocurrency">Virtual Crypto-currencies</a> in regards to the balance of the current purchasing relationship between the buyer and seller.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Autonomous technology such as self-driving cars forced to make human decisions. There is also concern over how autonomous vehicles would behave in different countries with different culture values.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Security risks have been identified with <a href="/wiki/Cloud_computing" title="Cloud computing">cloud-based technology</a> with every user interaction being sent and analyzed to central computing hubs.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artificial intelligence devices like the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_Alexa" title="Amazon Alexa">Amazon Alexa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Google_Home" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Home">Google Home</a> are collecting personal data from users while at home and uploading it to the cloud. Apple's <a href="/wiki/Siri" title="Siri">Siri</a> and Microsoft's <a href="/wiki/Cortana_(virtual_assistant)" title="Cortana (virtual assistant)">Cortana</a> smartphone assistants are collecting user information, analyzing the information, and then sending the information back to the user. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internet_privacy">Internet privacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Internet privacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Internet privacy</a></div> <p>Computers and information technology have caused privacy concerns surrounding collection and use of personal data.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Google was sued in 2018 for tracking user location without permission.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also In July 2019, Facebook reached a $5 billion settlement with the U.S. Federal Trade Commission for violating an agreement with the agency to protect user privacy.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A whole industry of privacy and ethical tools has grown over time, giving people the choice to not share their data online. These are often open source software, which allows the users to ensure that their data is not saved to be used without their consent.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_intelligence">Artificial intelligence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Artificial intelligence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Ethics of artificial intelligence</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> of <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> covers a broad range of topics within the field that are considered to have particular ethical stakes.<sup id="cite_ref-Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence_Müller-2020_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence_Müller-2020-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This includes <a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">algorithmic biases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fairness_(machine_learning)" title="Fairness (machine learning)">fairness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Automated_decision-making" title="Automated decision-making">automated decision-making</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accountability" title="Accountability">accountability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Regulation of artificial intelligence">regulation</a>. It also covers various emerging or potential future challenges such as <a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">machine ethics</a> (how to make machines that behave ethically), <a href="/wiki/Lethal_autonomous_weapon" title="Lethal autonomous weapon">lethal autonomous weapon systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_arms_race" title="Artificial intelligence arms race">arms race</a> dynamics, <a href="/wiki/AI_safety" title="AI safety">AI safety</a> and <a href="/wiki/AI_alignment" title="AI alignment">alignment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">technological unemployment</a>, AI-enabled <a href="/wiki/Misinformation" title="Misinformation">misinformation</a>, how to treat certain AI systems if they have a <a href="/wiki/Moral_status" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral status">moral status</a> (AI welfare and rights), <a href="/wiki/Artificial_superintelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial superintelligence">artificial superintelligence</a> and <a href="/wiki/Existential_risk_from_artificial_general_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Existential risk from artificial general intelligence">existential risks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence_Müller-2020_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence_Müller-2020-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> Some application areas may also have particularly important ethical implications, like <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">healthcare</a>, education, criminal justice, or the military.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_effects_of_Infringing_copying">The effects of Infringing copying</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The effects of Infringing copying"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effects of infringing copying in the digital realm, particularly studied in computer software and recorded music industries, have raised significant concerns among empirically-oriented economists. While the software industry manages to thrive despite digital copying, the recorded music sector witnesses a sharp decline in revenues, especially with the rise of file-sharing of MP3 files. Establishing the impact of unpaid consumption on paid consumption is challenging due to difficulties in obtaining data on unpaid consumption and drawing causal inferences. <i>As simple as the question seems—the extent to which unpaid consumption of recorded music cannibalizes paid consumption—the answer is rather difficult to establish empirically, for two reasons.</i><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Empirical studies consistently suggest a depressing impact on paid music consumption, indicating a likely contribution to the downturn in recorded music sales. The emergence of cyberlockers and rapid technological changes further complicate the analysis of revenue impacts on content industries, highlighting the need for ongoing research and a nuanced approach to copyright policy that considers user welfare effects and rewards distribution to artists and creators. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethical_standards">Ethical standards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ethical standards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various national and international professional societies and organizations have produced code of ethics documents to give basic behavioral guidelines to computing professionals and users. They include: </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery" title="Association for Computing Machinery">Association for Computing Machinery</a></dt> <dd>ACM Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct<sup id="cite_ref-ACMethics_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACMethics-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Australian_Computer_Society" title="Australian Computer Society">Australian Computer Society</a></dt> <dd>ACS Code of Ethics<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>ACS Code of Professional Conduct<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/British_Computer_Society" title="British Computer Society">British Computer Society</a></dt> <dd>BCS Code of Conduct<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>Code of Good Practice (retired May 2011)<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/German_Informatics_Society" title="German Informatics Society">German Informatics Society</a></dt> <dd>Ethical Guidelines of the German Informatics Society (revised June 29, 2018)<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_Ethics_Institute&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Computer Ethics Institute (page does not exist)">Computer Ethics Institute</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments_of_Computer_Ethics" title="Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics">Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/IEEE" class="mw-redirect" title="IEEE">IEEE</a></dt> <dd>IEEE Code of Ethics<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dd>IEEE Code of Conduct<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/League_of_Professional_System_Administrators" title="League of Professional System Administrators">League of Professional System Administrators</a></dt> <dd>The System Administrators' Code of Ethics<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Ethics of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_infringement" title="Copyright infringement">Copyright infringement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_informatics" title="Social informatics">Social informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments_of_Computer_Ethics" title="Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics">Ten Commandments of Computer Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_Controls_the_Internet%3F" title="Who Controls the Internet?">Who Controls the Internet?</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-11-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=League+of+Professional+System+Administrators&rft.atitle=The+System+Administrators%27+Code+of+Ethics&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flopsa.org%2FCodeofEthics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBynum2000" class="citation journal cs1">Bynum, Terrell Ward (June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F572230.572231">"The foundation of computer ethics"</a>. <i>ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society</i>. <b>30</b> (2): 6–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F572230.572231">10.1145/572230.572231</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGCAS+Computers+and+Society&rft.atitle=The+foundation+of+computer+ethics&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=6-13&rft.date=2000-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F572230.572231&rft.aulast=Bynum&rft.aufirst=Terrell+Ward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%252F572230.572231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFloridi1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Floridi, Luciano</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051109054139/http://www.wolfson.ox.ac.uk/~floridi/pdf/ieotfce.pdf">"Information Ethics: On the Theoretical Foundations of Computer Ethics"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ethics and Information Technology</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 37–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1023%2FA%3A1010018611096">10.1023/A:1010018611096</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wolfson.ox.ac.uk/~floridi/pdf/ieotfce.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 9 November 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethics+and+Information+Technology&rft.atitle=Information+Ethics%3A+On+the+Theoretical+Foundations+of+Computer+Ethics&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=37-56&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1010018611096&rft.aulast=Floridi&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wolfson.ox.ac.uk%2F~floridi%2Fpdf%2Fieotfce.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFloridiSanders2002" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Luciano_Floridi" title="Luciano Floridi">Floridi, Luciano</a>; Sanders, J.W. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-04-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ethics+and+Information+Technology&rft.atitle=Computer+Ethics%3A+Mapping+the+Foundationalist+Debate&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1023%2FA%3A1015209807065&rft.aulast=Floridi&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rft.au=Sanders%2C+J.W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.philosophyofinformation.net%2Fpublications%2Fpdf%2Fcemfd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaagCummingsMcCubbrey2003" class="citation book cs1">Haag, Stephen; Cummings, Maeve; McCubbrey, Donald J. (2003). <i>Management Information Systems: For the Information Age</i> (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-281947-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-281947-2"><bdi>978-0-07-281947-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Management+Information+Systems%3A+For+the+Information+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-07-281947-2&rft.aulast=Haag&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Cummings%2C+Maeve&rft.au=McCubbrey%2C+Donald+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2001" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Deborah G. (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/computerethics3r00debo"><i>Computer Ethics</i></a></span> (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-083699-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-083699-1"><bdi>978-0-13-083699-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Ethics&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-13-083699-1&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Deborah+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomputerethics3r00debo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinWeltz1999" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._Dianne_Martin" title="C. Dianne Martin">Martin, C. Dianne</a>; Weltz, Elaine Yale (June 1999). "From awareness to action: integrating ethics and social responsibility into the computer science curriculum". <i>ACM SIGCAS Computers and Society</i>. <b>29</b> (2): 6–14. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F382018.382028">10.1145/382018.382028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGCAS+Computers+and+Society&rft.atitle=From+awareness+to+action%3A+integrating+ethics+and+social+responsibility+into+the+computer+science+curriculum&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=6-14&rft.date=1999-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F382018.382028&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=C.+Dianne&rft.au=Weltz%2C+Elaine+Yale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKinnon2011" class="citation book cs1">MacKinnon, Barbara (2011). <i>Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues</i> (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-538-45283-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-538-45283-0"><bdi>978-0-538-45283-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics%3A+Theory+and+Contemporary+Issues&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-538-45283-0&rft.aulast=MacKinnon&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuinn2011" class="citation book cs1">Quinn, Michael J. (2011). <i>Ethics for the Information Age</i> (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-213387-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-213387-6"><bdi>978-0-13-213387-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+for+the+Information+Age&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Addison-Wesley&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-13-213387-6&rft.aulast=Quinn&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoor1985" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_H._Moor" title="James H. Moor">Moor, James H.</a> (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170404044307/http://rccs.southernct.edu/what-is-computer-ethics/">"What is Computer Ethics?"</a>. In Bynum, Terrell Ward (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rccs.southernct.edu/what-is-computer-ethics/#what-is-computer-ethics"><i>Computers & Ethics</i></a>. Vol. 16. Blackwell. pp. 266–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-9973.1985.tb00173.x">10.1111/j.1467-9973.1985.tb00173.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-1068">0026-1068</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rccs.southernct.edu/what-is-computer-ethics/">the original</a> on 2017-04-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+is+Computer+Ethics%3F&rft.btitle=Computers+%26+Ethics&rft.pages=266-75&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-9973.1985.tb00173.x&rft.issn=0026-1068&rft.aulast=Moor&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frccs.southernct.edu%2Fwhat-is-computer-ethics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMowshowitz1981" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abbe_Mowshowitz" title="Abbe Mowshowitz">Mowshowitz, Abbe</a> (March 1981). "On approaches to the study of social issues in computing". <i>Communications of the ACM</i>. <b>24</b> (3): 146–155. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F358568.358592">10.1145/358568.358592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Communications+of+the+ACM&rft.atitle=On+approaches+to+the+study+of+social+issues+in+computing&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=146-155&rft.date=1981-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F358568.358592&rft.aulast=Mowshowitz&rft.aufirst=Abbe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStamatellos2007" class="citation book cs1">Stamatellos, Giannis (2007). <i>Computer Ethics: A Global Perspective</i>. Jones and Bartlett. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-4084-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-4084-9"><bdi>978-0-7637-4084-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+Ethics%3A+A+Global+Perspective&rft.pub=Jones+and+Bartlett&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-4084-9&rft.aulast=Stamatellos&rft.aufirst=Giannis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTavani2004" class="citation book cs1">Tavani, Herman T. (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethicstechnology0000tava"><i>Ethics & Technology: Ethical Issues in an Age of Information and Communication Technology</i></a></span>. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-24966-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-24966-5"><bdi>978-0-471-24966-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+%26+Technology%3A+Ethical+Issues+in+an+Age+of+Information+and+Communication+Technology&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-471-24966-5&rft.aulast=Tavani&rft.aufirst=Herman+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fethicstechnology0000tava&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_ethics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Computer_ethics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Computer ethics">Computer ethics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Association" title="American Philosophical Association">American Philosophical Association</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apaonline.org/?computers_newsletter"><i>Newsletter on Philosophy and Computers</i></a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ethics.csc.ncsu.edu/">Ethics in Computing</a> - a list of links to ethical discussions in Computer Science courtesy of <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_State_University" title="North Carolina State University">North Carolina State University</a> Undergraduates with guidance from Dr. Edward F. Gehringer</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.comlab.ox.ac.uk/oucl/research/areas/ieg/">IEG, the Information Ethics research Group</a> at <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford University">Oxford University</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBynum" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Bynum, Terrell. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-computer/">"Computer Ethics: Basic Concepts and Historical Overview"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Computer+Ethics%3A+Basic+Concepts+and+Historical+Overview&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Bynum&rft.aufirst=Terrell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-computer%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColeman" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Coleman, Kari Gwen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/computing-responsibility/">"Computing and Moral Responsibility"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Computing+and+Moral+Responsibility&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=Kari+Gwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fcomputing-responsibility%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AComputer+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130119010506/http://southernct.edu/organizations/rccs/">The Research Center on Computing & Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.igi-global.com/ijcee"><i>The International Journal of Cyber Ethics in Education (IJCEE)</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" 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