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mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Emotivism" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Emotivism" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. 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[o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proponents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proponents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Proponents</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proponents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proponents subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proponents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A._J._Ayer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A._J._Ayer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>A. J. Ayer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A._J._Ayer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-C._L._Stevenson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#C._L._Stevenson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>C. L. Stevenson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-C._L._Stevenson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_pattern_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_pattern_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>First pattern analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_pattern_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_pattern_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_pattern_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Second pattern analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_pattern_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_argumentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_argumentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Methods of argumentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_argumentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Criticism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Magnetic_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magnetic_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Magnetic influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magnetic_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philippa_Foot's_moral_realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philippa_Foot's_moral_realism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Philippa Foot's moral realism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philippa_Foot's_moral_realism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standard_using_and_standard_setting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standard_using_and_standard_setting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Standard using and standard setting</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standard_using_and_standard_setting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="انفعالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="انفعالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="আবেগবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আবেগবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivisme_moral" title="Emotivisme moral – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Emotivisme moral" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaethik#Emotivismus" title="Metaethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Metaethik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivismo" title="Emotivismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Emotivismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotibismo" title="Emotibismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Emotibismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%81%D9%87%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="عاطفه‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عاطفه‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89motivisme" title="Émotivisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Émotivisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivismo" title="Emotivismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Emotivismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%84%9C%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="정서주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정서주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Էմոտիվիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էմոտիվիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivisme" title="Emotivisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Emotivisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivismo" title="Emotivismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Emotivismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эмотивизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Эмотивизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivisme" title="Emotivisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Emotivisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivisme" title="Emotivisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Emotivisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%85%E7%B7%92%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="情緒主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="情緒主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivizm" title="Emotivizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Emotivizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotywizm" title="Emotywizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Emotywizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivismo" title="Emotivismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Emotivismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Эмотивизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Эмотивизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivizmus" title="Emotivizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Emotivizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivismi" title="Emotivismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Emotivismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Emotivism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duygusalc%C4%B1l%C4%B1k" title="Duygusalcılık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Duygusalcılık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Емотивізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Емотивізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%83%85%E7%B7%92%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="情緒主義 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="情緒主義" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1058270#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Meta-ethical view</div> <p><b>Emotivism</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethical</a> view that claims that ethical <a href="/wiki/Sentence_(linguistics)" title="Sentence (linguistics)">sentences</a> do not express <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a> but emotional attitudes.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hence, it is colloquially known as the <b>hurrah/boo theory</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by the growth of <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> in the 20th century, the theory was stated vividly by <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a> in his 1936 book <i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth_and_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Language, Truth and Logic">Language, Truth and Logic</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but its development owes more to <a href="/wiki/C._L._Stevenson" class="mw-redirect" title="C. L. Stevenson">C. L. Stevenson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emotivism can be considered a form of <a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">non-cognitivism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">expressivism</a>. It stands in opposition to other forms of non-cognitivism (such as <a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">quasi-realism</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">universal prescriptivism</a>), as well as to all forms of <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">cognitivism</a> (including both <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">ethical subjectivism</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 1950s, emotivism appeared in a modified form in the <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">universal prescriptivism</a> of <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:David_Hume.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/200px-David_Hume.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/300px-David_Hume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/David_Hume.jpg/400px-David_Hume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>'s statements on ethics foreshadowed those of 20th century emotivists.</figcaption></figure> <p>Emotivism reached prominence in the early 20th century, but it was born centuries earlier. In 1710, <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> wrote that language in general often serves to inspire feelings as well as communicate ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decades later, <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> espoused ideas similar to Stevenson's later ones.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his 1751 book <i><a href="/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Morals" title="An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals">An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals</a></i>, Hume considered morality not to be related to fact but "determined by sentiment": </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In moral deliberations we must be acquainted beforehand with all the objects, and all their relations to each other; and from a comparison of the whole, fix our choice or approbation. … While we are ignorant whether a man were aggressor or not, how can we determine whether the person who killed him be criminal or innocent? But after every circumstance, every relation is known, the understanding has no further room to operate, nor any object on which it could employ itself. The approbation or blame which then ensues, cannot be the work of the judgement, but of the heart; and is not a speculative proposition or affirmation, but an active feeling or sentiment.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> published his <i><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a></i> in 1903 and argued that the attempts of <a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">ethical naturalists</a> to translate ethical terms (like <i>good</i> and <i>bad</i>) into non-ethical ones (like <i>pleasing</i> and <i>displeasing</i>) committed the "<a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">naturalistic fallacy</a>". Moore was a <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">cognitivist</a>, but his case against ethical naturalism steered other philosophers toward noncognitivism, particularly emotivism.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The emergence of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> and its <a href="/wiki/Verificationist" class="mw-redirect" title="Verificationist">verifiability criterion of meaning</a> early in the 20th century led some philosophers to conclude that ethical statements, being incapable of empirical verification, were cognitively meaningless. This criterion was fundamental to <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>'s defense of positivism in <i>Language, Truth and Logic</i>, which contains his statement of emotivism. However, positivism is not essential to emotivism itself, perhaps not even in Ayer's form,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some positivists in the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a>, which had great influence on Ayer, held non-emotivist views.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a> unfolded his ethical theory of <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">universal prescriptivism</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1952's <i>The Language of Morals</i>, intending to defend the importance of rational moral argumentation against the "propaganda" he saw encouraged by Stevenson, who thought moral argumentation was sometimes psychological and not rational.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Hare's disagreement was not universal, and the similarities between his noncognitive theory and the emotive one — especially his claim, and Stevenson's, that moral judgments contain commands and are thus not purely descriptive — caused some to regard him as an emotivist, a classification he denied: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I did, and do, follow the emotivists in their rejection of descriptivism. But I was never an emotivist, though I have often been called one. But unlike most of their opponents I saw that it was their irrationalism, not their non-descriptivism, which was mistaken. So my main task was to find a rationalist kind of non-descriptivism, and this led me to establish that imperatives, the simplest kinds of prescriptions, could be subject to logical constraints while not [being] descriptive.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proponents">Proponents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Proponents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Influential statements of emotivism were made by <a href="/wiki/C._K._Ogden" class="mw-redirect" title="C. K. Ogden">C. K. Ogden</a> and <a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a> in their 1923 book on language, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Meaning_of_Meaning" title="The Meaning of Meaning">The Meaning of Meaning</a></i>, and by <a href="/w/index.php?title=W._H._F._Barnes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W. H. F. Barnes (page does not exist)">W. H. F. Barnes</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=A._Duncan-Jones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A. Duncan-Jones (page does not exist)">A. Duncan-Jones</a> in independent works on ethics in 1934.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is the later works of Ayer and especially Stevenson that are the most developed and discussed defenses of the theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A._J._Ayer">A. J. Ayer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: A. J. Ayer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a>'s version of emotivism is given in chapter six, "Critique of Ethics and Theology", of <i>Language, Truth and Logic</i>. In that chapter, Ayer divides "the ordinary system of ethics" into four classes: </p> <ol><li>"Propositions that express definitions of ethical terms, or judgements about the legitimacy or possibility of certain definitions"</li> <li>"Propositions describing the phenomena of moral experience, and their causes"</li> <li>"Exhortations to moral virtue"</li> <li>"Actual ethical judgments"<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>He focuses on propositions of the first class—moral judgments—saying that those of the second class belong to science, those of the third are mere commands, and those of the fourth (which are considered in <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a> as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a>) are too concrete for ethical philosophy. While class three statements were irrelevant to Ayer's brand of emotivism, they would later play a significant role in Stevenson's. </p><p>Ayer argues that moral judgments cannot be translated into non-ethical, empirical terms and thus cannot be verified; in this he agrees with <a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">ethical intuitionists</a>. But he differs from intuitionists by discarding appeals to intuition as "worthless" for determining moral truths,<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since the intuition of one person often contradicts that of another. Instead, Ayer concludes that ethical concepts are "mere pseudo-concepts": </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The presence of an ethical symbol in a proposition adds nothing to its factual content. Thus if I say to someone, "You acted wrongly in stealing that money," I am not stating anything more than if I had simply said, "You stole that money." In adding that this action is wrong I am not making any further statement about it. I am simply evincing my moral disapproval of it. It is as if I had said, "You stole that money," in a peculiar tone of horror, or written it with the addition of some special exclamation marks. … If now I generalise my previous statement and say, "Stealing money is wrong," I produce a sentence that has no factual meaning—that is, expresses no proposition that can be either true or false. … I am merely expressing certain moral sentiments.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Ayer agrees with <a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">subjectivists</a> in saying that ethical statements are necessarily <i>related</i> to individual attitudes, but he says they lack <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth value</a> because they cannot be properly understood as <i>propositions</i> about those attitudes; Ayer thinks ethical sentences are <i>expressions</i>, not <i>assertions</i>, of approval. While an assertion of approval may always be accompanied by an expression of approval, expressions can be made without making assertions; Ayer's example is boredom, which can be expressed through the stated assertion "I am bored" or through non-assertions including <a href="/wiki/Nonverbal_communication" title="Nonverbal communication">tone of voice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Body_language" title="Body language">body language</a>, and various other verbal statements. He sees ethical statements as expressions of the latter sort, so the phrase "Theft is wrong" is a non-propositional sentence that is an expression of disapproval but is not equivalent to the proposition "I disapprove of theft". </p><p>Having argued that his theory of ethics is noncognitive and not subjective, he accepts that his position and subjectivism are equally confronted by <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>'s argument that ethical disputes are clearly genuine disputes and not just expressions of contrary feelings. Ayer's defense is that all ethical disputes are about <i>facts</i> regarding the proper application of a <a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">value system</a> to a specific case, not about the value systems themselves, because any dispute about values can only be resolved by judging that one value system is superior to another, and this judgment itself presupposes a shared value system. If Moore is wrong in saying that there are actual disagreements of <i>value</i>, we are left with the claim that there are actual disagreements of <i>fact</i>, and Ayer accepts this without hesitation: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If our opponent concurs with us in expressing moral disapproval of a given type <i>t</i>, then we may get him to condemn a particular action A, by bringing forward arguments to show that A is of type <i>t</i>. For the question whether A does or does not belong to that type is a plain question of fact.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="C._L._Stevenson">C. L. Stevenson</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: C. L. Stevenson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Stevenson_(philosopher)" title="Charles Stevenson (philosopher)">Stevenson's</a> work has been seen both as an elaboration upon Ayer's views and as a representation of one of "two broad types of ethical emotivism."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic philosopher">analytic philosopher</a>, Stevenson suggested in his 1937 essay "The Emotive Meaning of Ethical Terms" that any ethical theory should explain three things: that intelligent disagreement can occur over moral questions, that moral terms like <i>good</i> are "magnetic" in encouraging action, and that <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">the scientific method</a> is insufficient for verifying moral claims.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stevenson's own theory was fully developed in his 1944 book <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_and_Language" title="Ethics and Language">Ethics and Language</a></i>. In it, he agrees with Ayer that ethical sentences express the speaker's feelings, but he adds that they also have an <i>imperative</i> component intended to change the listener's feelings and that this component is of greater importance.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where Ayer spoke of <i>values</i>, or fundamental psychological inclinations, Stevenson speaks of <i>attitudes</i>, and where Ayer spoke of disagreement of <i>fact</i>, or rational disputes over the application of certain values to a particular case, Stevenson speaks of differences in <i>belief</i>; the concepts are the same.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terminology aside, Stevenson interprets ethical statements according to two patterns of analysis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_pattern_analysis">First pattern analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: First pattern analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under his first pattern of analysis an ethical statement has two parts: a declaration of the speaker's attitude and an imperative to mirror it, so "'This is good' means <i>I approve of this; do so as well.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first half of the sentence is a proposition, but the imperative half is not, so Stevenson's translation of an ethical sentence remains a noncognitive one. </p><p>Imperatives cannot be <i>proved</i>, but they can still be <i>supported</i> so that the listener understands that they are not wholly arbitrary: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If told to close the door, one may ask "Why?" and receive some such reason as "It is too drafty," or "The noise is distracting." … These reasons cannot be called "proofs" in any but a dangerously extended sense, nor are they demonstratively or inductively related to an imperative; but they manifestly do <i>support</i> an imperative. They "back it up," or "establish it," or "base it on concrete references to fact."<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The purpose of these supports is to make the listener understand the consequences of the action they are being commanded to do. Once they understand the command's consequences, they can determine whether or not obedience to the command will have desirable results. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The imperative is used to alter the hearer's attitudes or actions. … The supporting reason then describes the situation the imperative seeks to alter, or the new situation the imperative seeks to bring about; and if these facts disclose that the new situation will satisfy a preponderance of the hearer's desires, he will hesitate to obey no longer. More generally, reasons support imperatives by altering such beliefs as may in turn alter an unwillingness to obey.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_pattern_analysis">Second pattern analysis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Second pattern analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stevenson's second pattern of analysis is used for statements about <i>types</i> of actions, not specific actions. Under this pattern, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>'This is good' has the meaning of 'This has qualities or relations X, Y, Z … ,' except that 'good' has as well a laudatory meaning, which permits it to express the speaker's approval, and tends to evoke the approval of the hearer.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In second-pattern analysis, rather than judge an action directly, the speaker is evaluating it according to a general principle. For instance, someone who says "Murder is wrong" might mean "Murder decreases happiness overall"; this is a second-pattern statement that leads to a first-pattern one: "I disapprove of anything that decreases happiness overall. Do so as well."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Methods_of_argumentation">Methods of argumentation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Methods of argumentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For Stevenson, moral disagreements may arise from different fundamental attitudes, different moral beliefs about specific cases, or both. The methods of moral argumentation he proposed have been divided into three groups, known as <i>logical</i>, <i>rational psychological</i> and <i>nonrational psychological</i> forms of argumentation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Logical methods involve efforts to show inconsistencies between a person's fundamental attitudes and their particular moral beliefs. For example, someone who says "Edward is a good person" who has previously said "Edward is a thief" and "No thieves are good people" is guilty of inconsistency until he retracts one of his statements. Similarly, a person who says "Lying is always wrong" might consider lies in some situations to be morally permissible, and if examples of these situations can be given, his view can be shown to be logically inconsistent.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Rational psychological methods examine facts that relate fundamental attitudes to particular moral beliefs;<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the goal is not to show that someone has been inconsistent, as with logical methods, but only that they are wrong about the facts that connect their attitudes to their beliefs. To modify the former example, consider the person who holds that all thieves are bad people. If she sees Edward pocket a wallet found in a <a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">public place</a>, she may conclude that he is a thief, and there would be no inconsistency between her attitude (that thieves are bad people) and her belief (that Edward is a bad person because he is a thief). However, it may be that Edward recognized the wallet as belonging to a friend, to whom he promptly returned it. Such a revelation would likely change the observer's belief about Edward, and even if it did not, the attempt to reveal such facts would count as a rational psychological form of moral argumentation.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Non-rational psychological methods revolve around language with psychological influence but no necessarily logical connection to the listener's attitudes. Stevenson called the primary such method "'persuasive,' in a somewhat broadened sense", and wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[Persuasion] depends on the sheer, direct emotional impact of words—on emotive meaning, rhetorical cadence, apt metaphor, stentorian, stimulating, or pleading tones of voice, dramatic gestures, care in establishing <i>rapport</i> with the hearer or audience, and so on. … A redirection of the hearer's attitudes is sought not by the mediating step of altering his beliefs, but by <i>exhortation</i>, whether obvious or subtle, crude or refined.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Persuasion may involve the use of particular emotion-laden words, like "democracy" or "dictator",<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or hypothetical questions like "What if everyone thought the way you do?" or "How would you feel if you were in their shoes?"<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">Utilitarian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Richard_Brandt" title="Richard Brandt">Richard Brandt</a> offered several criticisms of emotivism in his 1959 book <i>Ethical Theory</i>. His first is that "ethical utterances are not obviously the kind of thing the emotive theory says they are, and <a href="/wiki/Prima_facie" title="Prima facie">prima facie</a>, at least, should be viewed as statements."<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He thinks that emotivism cannot explain why most people, historically speaking, have considered ethical sentences to be "fact-stating" and not just emotive. Furthermore, he argues that people who change their moral views see their prior views as mistaken, not just different, and that this does not make sense if their attitudes were all that changed: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Suppose, for instance, as a child a person disliked eating peas. When he recalls this as an adult he is amused and notes how preferences change with age. He does not say, however, that his former attitude was <i>mistaken</i>. If, on the other hand, he remembers regarding irreligion or divorce as wicked, and now does not, he regards his former view as erroneous and unfounded. … Ethical statements do not look like the kind of thing the emotive theory says they are.<sup id="cite_ref-Brandt,_Ethical_Theory,_226_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandt,_Ethical_Theory,_226-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Urmson" class="mw-redirect" title="James Urmson">James Urmson</a>'s 1968 book <i>The Emotive Theory of Ethics</i> also disagreed with many of Stevenson's points in <i>Ethics and Language</i>, "a work of great value" with "a few serious mistakes [that] led Stevenson consistently to distort his otherwise valuable insights".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magnetic_influence">Magnetic influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Magnetic influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Brandt criticized what he termed "the 'magnetic influence' thesis",<sup id="cite_ref-Brandt,_Ethical_Theory,_226_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandt,_Ethical_Theory,_226-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the idea of Stevenson that ethical statements are meant to influence the listener's attitudes. Brandt contends that most ethical statements, including judgments of people who are not within listening range, are <i>not</i> made with the intention to alter the attitudes of others. Twenty years earlier, Sir <a href="/wiki/William_David_Ross" class="mw-redirect" title="William David Ross">William David Ross</a> offered much the same criticism in his book <i>Foundations of Ethics</i>. Ross suggests that the emotivist theory seems to be coherent only when dealing with simple linguistic acts, such as recommending, commanding, or passing judgement on something happening at the same point of time as the utterance. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>… There is no doubt that such words as 'you ought to do so-and-so' may be used as one's means of so inducing a person to behave a certain way. But if we are to do justice to the meaning of 'right' or 'ought', we must take account also of such modes of speech as 'he ought to do so-and-so', 'you ought to have done so-and-so', 'if this and that were the case, you ought to have done so-and-so', 'if this and that were the case, you ought to do so-and-so', 'I ought to do so-and-so.' Where the judgement of obligation has referenced either a third person, not the person addressed, or to the past, or to an unfulfilled past condition, or to a future treated as merely possible, or to the speaker himself, there is no plausibility in describing the judgement as command.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>According to this view, it would make little sense to translate a statement such as "<a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> should not have been forced to recant on <a href="/wiki/Heliocentricism" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentricism">heliocentricism</a>" into a command, imperative, or recommendation - to do so might require a radical change in the meaning of these ethical statements. Under this criticism, it would appear as if emotivist and prescriptivist theories are only capable of converting a relatively small subset of all ethical claims into imperatives. </p><p>Like Ross and Brandt, <a href="/wiki/James_Urmson" class="mw-redirect" title="James Urmson">Urmson</a> disagrees with Stevenson's "causal theory" of emotive meaning—the theory that moral statements only have <i>emotive</i> meaning when they are made to change in a listener's attitude—saying that is incorrect in explaining "evaluative force in purely causal terms". This is Urmson's fundamental criticism, and he suggests that Stevenson would have made a stronger case by explaining emotive meaning in terms of "commending and recommending attitudes", not in terms of "the power to evoke attitudes".<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stevenson's <i>Ethics and Language</i>, written after Ross's book but before Brandt's and Urmson's, states that emotive terms are "not always used for purposes of exhortation."<sup id="cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_83_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson,_Ethics,_83-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the sentence "Slavery was good in Ancient Rome", Stevenson thinks one is speaking of past attitudes in an "almost purely descriptive" sense.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_83_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson,_Ethics,_83-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> And in some discussions of <i>current</i> attitudes, "agreement in attitude can be taken for granted," so a judgment like "He was wrong to kill them" might describe one's attitudes yet be "emotively inactive", with no real emotive (or imperative) meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_84_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson,_Ethics,_84-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stevenson is doubtful that sentences in such contexts qualify as <i>normative</i> ethical sentences, maintaining that "for the contexts that are most typical of normative ethics, the ethical terms have a function that is <i>both</i> emotive and descriptive."<sup id="cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_84_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stevenson,_Ethics,_84-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philippa_Foot's_moral_realism"><span id="Philippa_Foot.27s_moral_realism"></span>Philippa Foot's moral realism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Philippa Foot's moral realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> adopts a <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realist</a> position, criticizing the idea that when evaluation is superposed on fact there has been a "committal in a new dimension."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She introduces, by analogy, the practical implications of using the word <i>injury</i>. Not just anything counts as an injury. There must be some impairment. When we suppose a man wants the things the injury prevents him from obtaining, have not we fallen into the old naturalist fallacy? </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It may seem that the only way to make a necessary connexion between 'injury' and the things that are to be avoided, is to say that it is only used in an 'action-guiding sense' when applied to something the speaker intends to avoid. But we should look carefully at the crucial move in that argument, and query the suggestion that someone might happen not to want anything for which he would need the use of hands or eyes. Hands and eyes, like ears and legs, play a part in so many operations that a man could only be said not to need them if he had no wants at all.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Foot argues that the virtues, like hands and eyes in the analogy, play so large a part in so many operations that it is implausible to suppose that a committal in a non-naturalist dimension is necessary to demonstrate their goodness. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Philosophers who have supposed that actual action was required if 'good' were to be used in a sincere evaluation have got into difficulties over weakness of will, and they should surely agree that enough has been done if we can show that any man has reason to aim at virtue and avoid vice. But is this impossibly difficult if we consider the kinds of things that count as virtue and vice? Consider, for instance, the cardinal virtues, prudence, temperance, courage and justice. Obviously any man needs prudence, but does he not also need to resist the temptation of pleasure when there is harm involved? And how could it be argued that he would never need to face what was fearful for the sake of some good? It is not obvious what someone would mean if he said that temperance or courage were not good qualities, and this not because of the 'praising' sense of these words, but because of the things that courage and temperance are.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standard_using_and_standard_setting">Standard using and standard setting</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Standard using and standard setting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an offshoot of his fundamental criticism of Stevenson's magnetic influence thesis, Urmson wrote that ethical statements had two functions—"standard using", the application of accepted values to a particular case, and "standard setting", the act of proposing certain values as those that <i>should</i> be accepted—and that Stevenson confused them. According to Urmson, Stevenson's "I approve of this; do so as well" is a standard-setting statement, yet most moral statements are actually standard-<i>using</i> ones, so Stevenson's explanation of ethical sentences is unsatisfactory.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colin Wilks has responded that Stevenson's distinction between first-order and second-order statements resolves this problem: a person who says "Sharing is good" may be making a second-order statement like "Sharing is approved of by the community", the sort of standard-using statement Urmson says is most typical of moral discourse. At the same time, their statement can be reduced to a first-order, standard-setting sentence: "I approve of whatever is approved of by the community; do so as well."<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescriptivism_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescriptivism (philosophy)">Prescriptivism (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verification_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Verification principle">Verification principle</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garner and Rosen, <i>Moral Philosophy</i>, chapter 13 ("Noncognitivist Theories") and Brandt, <i>Ethical Theory</i>, chapter 9 ("Noncognitivism") regard the ethical theories of Ayer, Stevenson and Hare as noncognitivist ones.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ogden and Richards, <i>Meaning</i>, 125: "'Good' is alleged to stand for a unique, unanalyzable concept … [which] is the subject matter of ethics. This peculiar ethical use of 'good' is, we suggest, a purely emotive use. … Thus, when we so use it in the sentence, '<i>This</i> is good,' we merely refer to <i>this</i>, and the addition of "is good" makes no difference whatever to our reference … it serves only as an emotive sign expressing our attitude to <i>this</i>, and perhaps evoking similar attitudes in other persons, or inciting them to actions of one kind or another." This quote appears in an extended form just before the preface of Stevenson's <i>Ethics and Language</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/emotivism">"Emotivism | philosophy"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Emotivism+%7C+philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Femotivism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Philosophy of Meaning, Knowledge and Value in the Twentieth Century: Routledge History of Philosophy</i>. Routledge. 2012. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134935727" title="Special:BookSources/9781134935727"><bdi>9781134935727</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophy+of+Meaning%2C+Knowledge+and+Value+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+Routledge+History+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781134935727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pepper, <i>Ethics</i>, 277: "[Emotivism] was stated in its simplest and most striking form by A. J. Ayer."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brandt, <i>Ethical Theory</i>, 239, calls Stevenson's <i>Ethics and Language</i> "the most important statement of the emotive theory", and Pepper, <i>Ethics</i>, 288, says it "was the first really systematic development of the <a href="/wiki/Value_judgment" title="Value judgment">value judgment</a> theory and will probably go down in the history of ethics as the most representative for this school."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100358144">"quasi-realism"</a>. <i>Oxford Reference</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=quasi-realism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100358144&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZangwill1993" class="citation journal cs1">Zangwill, Nick (1993). "Quasi-Realist Explanation". <i>Synthese</i>. <b>97</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">287–</span>296. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01064071">10.1007/BF01064071</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0039-7857">0039-7857</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20117846">20117846</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46955963">46955963</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Synthese&rft.atitle=Quasi-Realist+Explanation&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E287-%3C%2Fspan%3E296&rft.date=1993&rft.issn=0039-7857&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46955963%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20117846%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF01064071&rft.aulast=Zangwill&rft.aufirst=Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brandt, <i>Ethical Theory</i>, 221: "A recent book [<i>The Language of Morals</i>] by R. M. Hare has proposed a view, otherwise very similar to the emotive theory, with modifications …"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 79: "… while Hare was, no doubt, a critic of the [emotive theory], he was, in the eyes of his own critics, a kind of emotivist himself. His theory, as a consequence, has sometimes been depicted as a reaction against emotivism and at other times as an extension of it."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Berkeley, <i>Treatise</i>, paragraph 20: "The communicating of Ideas marked by Words is not the chief and only end of Language, as is commonly supposed. There are other Ends, as the raising of some Passion, the exciting to, or deterring from an Action, the putting the Mind in some particular Disposition …"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 273: "Of all traditional philosophers, Hume has most clearly asked the questions that here concern us, and has most nearly reached a conclusion that the present writer can accept."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hume, <i>Enquiry</i>, "Appendix I. Concerning moral sentiment"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, <i>Ethics</i>, x: "Although this critique [of ethical naturalism] had a powerful impact, the appeal of Moore's nonnaturalistic cognitivism was, by contrast, relatively weak. In the decades following <i>Principia</i>, many philosophers who were persuaded by the former ended up abandoning cognitivism altogether in favor of the position that distinctively ethical discourse is not cognitive at all, but rather an expression of attitude or emotion."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 1: "… I do not take Ayer's ethical theory to hinge in any necessarily dependent sense upon his verificationist thesis … I take his ethical theory to hinge upon his verificationist thesis only to the extent that it assumes logic and empirical verification (and combinations thereof) to be the only means of firmly establishing the truth or falsity of any claim to knowledge."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Satris, <i>Ethical Emotivism</i>, 23: "Utilitarian, rationalist and cognitivist positions are in fact maintained by the members of the Vienna Circle who wrote in the fields of ethics, <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">social theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">value theory</a>, namely, <a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a>, Viktor Kraft and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Menger" title="Karl Menger">Karl Menger</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ethics-philosophy">"Ethics - Existentialism"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-05-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Ethics+-+Existentialism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fethics-philosophy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hare, <i>Language</i>, 14–15: "The suggestion, that the function of moral judgments was to persuade, led to a difficulty in distinguishing their functions from that of propaganda. … It does not matter whether the means used to persuade are fair or foul, so long as they do persuade. And therefore the natural reaction to the realization that someone is trying to persuade us is 'He's trying to get at me; I must be on my guard …' Such a reaction to moral judgments should not be encouraged by philosophers." After Pepper, <i>Ethics</i>, 297.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Seanor et al., <i>Hare and Critics</i>, 210. After Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Urmson, <i>Emotive Theory</i>, 15: "The earliest statement of the emotive <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">theory of value</a> terms in the modern <i>British-American</i> tradition (as opposed to statements in such continental writers as Haegerstroem, which became known to <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English-speaking</a> philosophers only comparatively late and had no early influence) was, so far as I know, that given by I. A. Richards in a general linguistic and <a href="/wiki/Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemological</a> work, <i>The Meaning of Meaning</i> …"; Urmson, <i>Emotive Theory</i>, 16–17; Brandt, <i>Ethical Theory</i>, 206: "The earliest suggestions of the theory in the [20th] century have been made by W. H. F. Barnes and A. Duncan-Jones."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer, <i>Language</i>, 103</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer, <i>Language</i>, 106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer, <i>Language</i>, 107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ayer, <i>Language</i>, 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 1: "Stevenson's version, which was intended to qualify the earlier views of Ayer (and others) … will then be treated as an elaboration of Ayer's."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Satris, <i>Ethical Emotivism</i>, 25: "It might be suggested that there are two broad types of ethical emotivism. The first, represented by Stevenson, is well grounded in philosophical and psychological theory relating to ethics … The second, represented by Ayer, is an unorthodox spin-off of logical positivism."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Facts</i>, 15; Hudson, <i>Modern Moral Philosophy</i>, 114–15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Facts</i>, 21: "Both imperative and ethical sentences are used more for encouraging, altering, or redirecting people's aims and conduct than for simply describing them."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 27–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 15, gives a similar example</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hudson, <i>Modern Moral Philosophy</i>, 130–31; Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 25–26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 115–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 25: "These are methods in which we scrutinise the factual beliefs that mediate between our fundamental and our derivative moral attitudes; where we argue about the truth of the morally relevant facts that are called upon in support of our or other people's derivative moral attitudes, eg. as when we argue about whether or not there is a causal connection between pornography and sexual violence." The moral "beliefs" Stevenson spoke of are referred to as "derivative moral attitudes" by Wilks in an attempt to avoid confusion between moral beliefs and "factual beliefs".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 118–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 139–40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 141</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brandt, <i>Ethical Theory</i>, 225</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brandt,_Ethical_Theory,_226-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brandt,_Ethical_Theory,_226_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brandt,_Ethical_Theory,_226_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brandt, <i>Ethical Theory</i>, 226</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Urmson, <i>Emotive Theory</i>, 38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ross, <i>Foundations</i>, 33–34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Urmson, <i>Emotive Theory</i>, 38–40, 64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevenson,_Ethics,_83-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_83_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_83_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stevenson,_Ethics,_84-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_84_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stevenson,_Ethics,_84_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stevenson, <i>Ethics</i>, 84</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippa Foot, "Moral Beliefs," <i>Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society</i>, vol. 59 (1958), pp. 83-104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>ibid</i>., p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>ibid</i>., p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Urmson, <i>Emotive Theory</i>, 64–71</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilks, <i>Emotion</i>, 45–46</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyer1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">Ayer, A. J.</a> (1952) [1936]. "Critique of Ethics and Theology". <i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth_and_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Language, Truth and Logic">Language, Truth and Logic</a></i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-20010-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-20010-8"><bdi>0-486-20010-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/52000860">52000860</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Critique+of+Ethics+and+Theology&rft.btitle=Language%2C+Truth+and+Logic&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F52000860&rft.isbn=0-486-20010-8&rft.aulast=Ayer&rft.aufirst=A.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkeley1710" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley, George</a> (1710). <i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treatise+Concerning+the+Principles+of+Human+Knowledge&rft.date=1710&rft.aulast=Berkeley&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandt1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Brandt" title="Richard Brandt">Brandt, Richard</a> (1959). "Noncognitivism: The Job of Ethical Sentences Is Not to State Facts". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethicaltheorypro0000bran"><i>Ethical Theory</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Englewood_Cliffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Englewood Cliffs">Englewood Cliffs</a>: <a href="/wiki/Prentice_Hall" title="Prentice Hall">Prentice Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/59010075">59010075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Noncognitivism%3A+The+Job+of+Ethical+Sentences+Is+Not+to+State+Facts&rft.btitle=Ethical+Theory&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F59010075&rft.aulast=Brandt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fethicaltheorypro0000bran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarnerBernard_Rosen1967" class="citation book cs1">Garner, Richard T.; Bernard Rosen (1967). <i>Moral Philosophy: A Systematic Introduction to Normative Ethics and Meta-ethics</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/67018887">67018887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Philosophy%3A+A+Systematic+Introduction+to+Normative+Ethics+and+Meta-ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F67018887&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=Richard+T.&rft.au=Bernard+Rosen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHare1952" class="citation book cs1">Hare, R. M. (1952). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/languageofmorals0000hare_w6a6"><i>The Language of Morals</i></a></span>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Language+of+Morals&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Hare&rft.aufirst=R.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flanguageofmorals0000hare_w6a6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHudson1970" class="citation book cs1">Hudson, W. D. (1970). <i>Modern Moral Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers" title="Macmillan Publishers">Macmillan and Co. Ltd</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Moral+Philosophy&rft.pub=Macmillan+and+Co.+Ltd&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Hudson&rft.aufirst=W.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHume1751" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume, David</a> (1751). <i><a href="/wiki/An_Enquiry_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Morals" title="An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals">An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Enquiry+Concerning+the+Principles+of+Morals&rft.date=1751&rft.aulast=Hume&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2005" class="citation book cs1">Moore, G. E. (2005) [1912]. "Editor's Introduction". In <a href="/wiki/William_Shaw_(philosopher)" title="William Shaw (philosopher)">William Shaw</a> (ed.). <i>Ethics</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-927201-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-927201-8"><bdi>0-19-927201-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Editor%27s+Introduction&rft.btitle=Ethics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-927201-8&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOgdenI._A._Richards1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._K._Ogden" class="mw-redirect" title="C. K. Ogden">Ogden, C. K.</a>; <a href="/wiki/I._A._Richards" title="I. A. Richards">I. A. Richards</a> (1946) [1923]. <i>The Meaning of Meaning</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harcourt_Trade_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harcourt Trade Publishers">Harcourt, Brace & World</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Meaning&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt%2C+Brace+%26+World&rft.date=1946&rft.aulast=Ogden&rft.aufirst=C.+K.&rft.au=I.+A.+Richards&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPepper1960" class="citation book cs1">Pepper, Stephen C. (1960). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ethics0000pepp"><i>Ethics</i></a></span>. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/60006796">60006796</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F60006796&rft.aulast=Pepper&rft.aufirst=Stephen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fethics0000pepp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1939" class="citation book cs1">Ross, David (1939). <i>Foundations of Ethics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a>: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Ethics&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1939&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSatris1987" class="citation book cs1">Satris, Stephen (1987). <i>Ethical Emotivism</i>. <a href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</a>: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-247-3413-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-247-3413-4"><bdi>90-247-3413-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethical+Emotivism&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=90-247-3413-4&rft.aulast=Satris&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeanorFotionHare1988" class="citation book cs1">Seanor, Douglas; Fotion, D.; Hare, R. M. (1988). <i>Hare and Critics</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824780-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824780-X"><bdi>0-19-824780-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hare+and+Critics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-19-824780-X&rft.aulast=Seanor&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft.au=Fotion%2C+D.&rft.au=Hare%2C+R.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson1937" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._L._Stevenson" class="mw-redirect" title="C. L. Stevenson">Stevenson, C. L.</a> (1937). "The Emotive Meaning of Ethical Terms". In Stevenson, C. L. (ed.). <i>Facts and Values</i>. <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a> (published 1963). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8371-8212-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8371-8212-3"><bdi>0-8371-8212-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Emotive+Meaning+of+Ethical+Terms&rft.btitle=Facts+and+Values&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1937&rft.isbn=0-8371-8212-3&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=C.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevenson1944" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/C._L._Stevenson" class="mw-redirect" title="C. L. Stevenson">Stevenson, C. L.</a> (1944). <i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_and_Language" title="Ethics and Language">Ethics and Language</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/New_Haven" class="mw-redirect" title="New Haven">New Haven</a>: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/5184534">5184534</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+and+Language&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1944&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F5184534&rft.aulast=Stevenson&rft.aufirst=C.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrmson1968" class="citation book cs1">Urmson, J. O. (1968). <i>The Emotive Theory of Ethics</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Hutchinson_(publisher)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hutchinson (publisher)">Hutchinson University Library</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-087430-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-087430-7"><bdi>0-09-087430-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Emotive+Theory+of+Ethics&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Hutchinson+University+Library&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=0-09-087430-7&rft.aulast=Urmson&rft.aufirst=J.+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilks2002" class="citation book cs1">Wilks, Colin (2002). <i>Emotion, Truth and Meaning</i>. <a href="/wiki/Dordrecht" title="Dordrecht">Dordrecht</a>: Kluwer Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-0916-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-0916-X"><bdi>1-4020-0916-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emotion%2C+Truth+and+Meaning&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-4020-0916-X&rft.aulast=Wilks&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Emotivism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-cognitivism/">"Moral Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Moral+Cognitivism+vs.+Non-Cognitivism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmoral-cognitivism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEmotivism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/metaethics/index.htm#1">Emotivism, Intuitionism and Prescriptivism</a> A clear explanation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090830040316/http://www.philosophyprofessor.com/philosophies/emotivism.php">Emotivism definition in philosophyprofessor.com</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greed" title="Greed">Greed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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