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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Online ethnography</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netnographie" title="Netnographie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Netnographie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnograf%C3%ADa_virtual" title="Etnografía virtual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Etnografía virtual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D9%86%DA%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="قوم‌نگاری سایبری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="قوم‌نگاری سایبری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netnographie" title="Netnographie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Netnographie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtualna_etnografija" title="Virtualna etnografija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Virtualna etnografija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etnografi_siber" title="Etnografi siber – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Online ethnography</b> (also known as <b>virtual ethnography</b> or <b>digital ethnography</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Online_research_methods" title="Online research methods">online research method</a> that adapts <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> methods to the study of the communities and cultures created through computer-mediated social interaction. As modifications of the term ethnography, cyber-ethnography, online ethnography and virtual ethnography (as well as many other methodological neologisms) designate particular variations regarding the conduct of online fieldwork that adapts ethnographic methodology. There is no canonical approach to cyber-ethnography that prescribes how ethnography is adapted to the online setting. Instead individual researchers are left to specify their own adaptations. <a href="/wiki/Netnography" title="Netnography">Netnography</a> is another form of online ethnography or cyber-ethnography with more specific sets of guidelines and rules, and a common multidisciplinary base of literature and scholars. This article is not about a particular neologism, but the general application of ethnographic methods to online fieldwork as practiced by anthropologists, sociologists, and other scholars. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Introduction">Introduction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Introduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Traditional ethnography study observes the interactions between individuals who are co-located. Ethnographies of online cultures and communities extend ethnographic study to settings where interactions are technologically mediated, not face-to-face. Cyber-ethnography therefore addresses limitations in the traditional notion of a field site as a localized space. It also understands that <a href="/wiki/Online_community" title="Online community">online communities</a> can create a shared culture through digitally mediated interactions. Although the assertion that ethnographic fieldwork can be meaningfully applied to computer-mediated interactions has been contested,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is increasingly becoming accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Like other early internet researchers, early cyber-ethnographers such as <a href="/wiki/Sandy_Stone_(artist)" title="Sandy Stone (artist)">Sandy Stone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sherry_Turkle" title="Sherry Turkle">Sherry Turkle</a> observed that participants in online <a href="/wiki/Role-playing" title="Role-playing">role-playing</a> communities enact social performances that can diverge dramatically from their offline personas.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the idea that online identities can be segmented from offline ones. Cyber-ethnography was seen as a new kind of methodology that might uncover how the internet would radically change society. However, as the internet reached the mainstream and cyber-ethnographers sought legitimacy, cyber-ethnography was reframed as an adaptation of traditional methods into a new context. Understanding the degree to which divergent performances in online and offline settings reflect a segmentation of identity or a continuous identity performed differently in different contexts remains an important consideration for cyber ethnographers.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many other aspects of online, computer-mediated, or virtual, interaction and community formation are distinct from their in-person, <a href="/wiki/Real_life" title="Real life">real life</a>, or face-to-face counterparts. Of central importance is that many interactions in online communities are textual.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these textual artifacts resemble the traces of interaction, they constitute the interactions of interest to the cyberethnographer. They are a different kind of interaction in which body language and other kinds of social cues are absent or translated into signs and text.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The character and level of access available to researchers of online communities are also particular to cyber-ethnography. Whereas face-to-face interactions are ephemeral as they occur, online social interactions are often automatically saved and archived, creating permanent accurate records. Also, distinctions between private and public spaces are often unclear in online communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyber-ethnography attempts to adapt participant-observation procedures such as making cultural entrée, collecting and analyzing data, and conducting ethical research to these computer-mediated contingencies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Cyber-ethnography has significantly developed with the emergence of new technologies. Almost since their inception, some researchers have acted as <a href="/wiki/Lurker" title="Lurker">lurkers</a> and conducted purely observational studies of online cultures and communities rather than as <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observers</a> in an online community.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach has been criticized by scholars who argue that researchers should fully participate as members of the online community.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These scholars value the traditional ethnographic standards of <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a>, prolonged engagement, and deep immersion. Cyber-ethnography, like traditional ethnography often aims to produce a <a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">thick description</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that can help an outsider understand the meaning of behavior in a culture or community.<sup id="cite_ref-hine3_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hine3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This focus on participation and immersion makes these approaches quite distinct from qualitative internet research methods like <a href="/wiki/Online_interview" title="Online interview">online interviews</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Online_content_analysis" title="Online content analysis">online content analysis</a>. Ethnographic methods are also quite different from quantitative Internet research methods like <a href="/wiki/Web_usage_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Web usage mining">web usage mining</a> or <a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">social network analysis</a>. However some researchers complementary research methods along with cyber-ethnography in order to <a href="/wiki/Triangulation_(social_science)" title="Triangulation (social science)">triangulate</a> their findings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_range_of_methodologies">The range of methodologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The range of methodologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ethnographers have approached the study of the Internet in a range of different ways. A variety of terms refer to various formulations of methodological approaches to cyber-ethnography. Many of these seek to maintain their own dialog with the established tradition of ethnography. Each formulates its relation to the established anthropological tradition in different (and sometimes inconsistent) ways. Some think that ethnographies conducted online involve a distinctive methodological approach. Others think that cyber-ethnography is not a distinctive form of ethnography although researching the Internet ethnographically forces us to reflect on fundamental assumptions and concepts of ethnography.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Methods choices need to be directly adapted to the kind of questions a researcher seeks to answer. The main advantages of cyber-ethnography reside in the scope and scale of the available data.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other advantages include seeking input directly from participants. For example, posting raw fieldnotes on a blog and allowing participants to leave comments can provide transparency. Cyber-ethnography also allows for a variety of data collection types and including audiovisual formats, on various platforms such as websites, social networks and forums. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Offline_participant_observation">Offline participant observation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Offline participant observation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is important for cyber-ethnographers to consider whether online interactions are sufficient for them to develop a deep understanding the community.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not clear whether identity performances in online environments should be thought of as disjoint from offline identities or if they are continuous with offline identities. When researchers feel that understanding the relationship between the online and offline identities of members is necessary, they may seek to meet with informants face-to-face. </p><p>Urban ethnographer Jeffrey Lane suggests that it may increasingly be necessary to weave online and offline identities of informants together in order to create an accurate portrayal of urban street life.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He borrows media scholar <a href="/wiki/Danah_boyd" title="Danah boyd">Danah Boyd</a>’s concept of “networked publics,” which are “simultaneously (1) the space constructed through networked technologies and (2) the imagined collective that emerges as a result of the intersection of people, technology, and practice,” to frame his argument.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interactions that take place offline may appear one way to a participant observer but are further contextualized when examining online forms of communication between the same parties involved in the offline interaction. In the same way, information that is transmitted online can significantly influence activities that take place offline. For instance, one of Lane’s informants encounters a video on Twitter suggesting that there are violent incidents taking place in the area. In response, he sends a text blast to all of his contacts to be cautious that evening. In order to preserve the construction of a networked public, researchers should take into consideration both online and offline identities and activities of individuals. Lane also acknowledges that not all scholars may agree with his argument, but they will eventually have to face the issue as advancements in technology continue to increase.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, other cyber-ethnographers have argued that difference between online and offline selves is similar to the different identity performances that occur in other contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This perspective views identity issues in cyber-ethnography as consistent with those of traditional ethnography. Researchers should thus consider how community members relate their online and offline selves. If it is normal for community members to bring together their online and offline identities and meet face-to-face then it makes sense that the ethnographer should observe or participate in these offline interactions in order to fully understand the community as was done by <a href="/wiki/Sherry_Turkle" title="Sherry Turkle">Sherry Turkle</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This finding has been supported by Sara Ross in her work on legal anthropology in urban settings such as Toronto, Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, many cyber-ethnographers including Hine and Walstrom believe that participant observation in the offline setting can be biased by asymmetry between the researcher and the member.<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-hine3_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hine3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because community members who rely on computer mediated communication may be at a disadvantage to a researcher who understands their online interactions, but also employs face-to-face communication. As it is often the case that researchers are interested in understanding the interactions in the online context and that comparing online and offline identity is not important, credible ethnographic studies can be done in online-only contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-hine3_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hine3-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limitations">Limitations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Limitations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the main disadvantages of online ethnography is the need for the ethnographer to possess certain technology-based skills. Some studies might only require elementary computer skills, but others may require advanced knowledge of technologies and tools such as web-based applications, analytical tools, and computer programming. The development of such technologies tends to grow faster than the methodology literature thus "there is little consensus on how [to] best collect and analyze new media data".<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The temporal nature of online data can also be an issue. Cyber-ethnographers might ask, "What is data of the present?" Robinson (2011) states that in cases such as YouTube videos and subsequent comments, "the present cyber-reality may be interpreted as a continual accumulation of all past input by members or participants".<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyber-ethnographers also need to think of their own identities and how "[it] might become part of a feedback loop with those he/she is studying"<sup id="cite_ref-Robinson3_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robinson3-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and whether or not it eschews the data collected and the integrity of the study. Thus, there is a need for cyber-ethnographers to be particularly flexible and reflexive in their practice of ethnography. </p><p>Another limitation of cyber-ethnography is that it complicates matters of privacy. Although researchers have always had to take people who were not originally part of an ethnographic study into consideration, cyber-ethnography allows researchers to actually see “identifiable records of these connections and interactions.” As a result, researchers may have to take extra precaution in asking informants’ for their permission to participate in their research, as well as in concealing the identities of said informants.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To the extent that cyber-ethnography is similar to <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnography</a> in a localized space, it will raise similar <a href="/wiki/Ethnography#Ethics" title="Ethnography">ethical considerations</a>. However, the nature of the online space does raise new ethical issues, including those related to <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent#Research" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">human subjects</a>, protections of privacy or anonymity of research subjects, and whether cyber-ethnography might be a form of "electronic eavesdropping."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In spite of these differences, the <a href="/wiki/American_Anthropological_Association" title="American Anthropological Association">American Anthropological Association</a> has yet to include any specific recommendations regarding cyber-ethnography in its Code of Ethics.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, there are significant ethical issues around the use of digital tools, data collection from cyberspace, and whether cyberethnographers respect privacy in cyberspace.<sup id="cite_ref-Murthy2_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murthy2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That a website is not password-protected against a researcher does not necessarily imply that it is open space where the right to anonymity and privacy dissolve. Thus, Robinson (2011) insists, "if our identities in cyberspace are extensions of our off-line identities, they must be afforded the same ethical consideration as they would be given in the off-line world".<sup id="cite_ref-Murthy2_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murthy2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional review boards</a> (IRBs) may not be equipped for ethical dilemmas presented by cyber-ethnography. Researchers need to make their intentions clear and define properly what data will be collected. When researchers "lurk" by covertly observing and gathering data, they do not gain participants' knowledge and consent. This conflicts with the traditional ethnographic practice of <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>, in which participants have the right to learn about the study at hand and make an informed decision on whether or not to participate. Cyber-ethnographers face the challenge of informing participants of their presence and research activities without jeopardizing their ability to collect valid data. Scholars recommend including a note in the researcher's posts that identifies their research interest and links to more information.<sup id="cite_ref-Murthy2_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murthy2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this practice is only possible in some online spaces, such as forums, but not in others. </p><p>Another issue is that the technological innovations and possibility for new research outpace the creation of clear and adapted ethical guidelines. Nonetheless, some guidelines do exist and are regularly updated by the <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Internet_Researchers" title="Association of Internet Researchers">Association of Internet Researchers</a> (AoIR). </p><p>Another ethical constraint and a possible disadvantage to cyber-ethnography is the intricate anonymization of the data. Protecting participant anonymity often conflicts with the preservation of the participants' words. Although consent might be obtained from participants to collect, use and publish textual data, the simple use of pseudonyms is in most cases not enough to guarantee the <a href="/wiki/Anonymity" title="Anonymity">anonymity</a> of the data. Indeed, searching for direct quotes in a Google search is often sufficient to identify participants. Anyone can potentially have access to search results revealing the author and their identity. To mitigate this issue, many scholars choose to paraphrase textual data to avoid source identification.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Thus, "ethical concerns must be reexamined in light of new technologies for both subjects and researchers alike".<sup id="cite_ref-Murthy2_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murthy2-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_cyberspace" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropology of cyberspace">Anthropology of cyberspace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networks_of_practice" class="mw-redirect" title="Networks of practice">Networks of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_research_community" title="Online research community">Online research community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Social networks">Social networks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_community" title="Virtual community">Virtual community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_community_of_practice" title="Virtual community of practice">Virtual community of practice</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clifford, J. 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(2011) "Emergent digital ethnographic methods for social research," Ch. 7 In The Handbook of Emergent Technologies in Social Research.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Online_ethnography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Alzola Romero, Aarón <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303214043/http://www.psychnology.org/File/PSYCHNOLOGY_JOURNAL_1_2_ALZOLA-ROMERO.pdf">"/WHOIS? Identity: Collectivity and the Self in IRC,"</a> Psychnology Journal, Vol. 1 No. 2, 87-130.</li> <li>Beaulieu, Anne, and Mette Terp Hoybye, "Studying mailing lists: Text, temporality, interaction, and materiality at the intersection of e-mail and the web," Ch. 11 in The Handbook of Emergent Technologies in Social Research.</li> <li>Brotsky, Sarah R. and David Giles. 2007. "Inside the 'Pro-Ana' Community: A Covert Participation Observation." Eating Disorders: pro The Journal of Treatment & Prevention 15(2): 93-109 (<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10640260701190600">http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10640260701190600</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark,_LillianTing,_I-HsienChris_KimbleWright,_Peter2006" class="citation journal cs1">Clark, Lillian; Ting, I-Hsien; Chris Kimble; Wright, Peter; Kudenko, Daniel (2006). 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pleconference.citilab.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/ple2010_submission_42.pdf">"PLEs from virtual ethnography of Web 2.0"</a>. In The PLE Conference 2010. Barcelona. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://pleconference.citilab.eu">http://pleconference.citilab.eu</a>.</li> <li>Verhaeghe A., Prof. Dr. Schillewaert N., Van den Berge E., 2009, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100925042806/http://insites.eu/02/documents/whitepapers/04_Getting_answers_without_asking_questions.pdf">Getting answers without asking questions</a>, ESOMAR ONLINE RESEARCH '09]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2007" class="citation journal cs1">Williams, Matthew (2007). 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href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_group" title="Ethnographic group">Ethnographic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnonational_group" title="Ethnonational group">Ethnonational group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoreligious_group" title="Ethnoreligious group">Ethnoreligious group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_realism" title="Ethnographic realism">Ethnographic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">Diaspora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphenated_ethnicity" title="Hyphenated ethnicity">Hyphenated ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_and_out-group" title="In-group and out-group">In-group and out-groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethnicity" title="Meta-ethnicity">Meta-ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metroethnicity" title="Metroethnicity">Metroethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">Minority group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minority_influence" title="Minority influence">Influence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoethnicity" title="Monoethnicity">Monoethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panethnicity" title="Panethnicity">Panethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyethnicity" title="Polyethnicity">Polyethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supraethnicity" title="Supraethnicity">Supraethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_ethnicity" title="Symbolic ethnicity">Symbolic ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">Ethnic studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">Ethnoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">Ethnomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">Ethnozoology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocinema" title="Ethnocinema">Ethnocinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnogeology" title="Ethnogeology">Ethnogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_ethnography" title="Clinical ethnography">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_ethnography" title="Critical ethnography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_ethnography" title="Institutional ethnography">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netnography" title="Netnography">Netnography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person-centered_ethnography" title="Person-centered ethnography">Person-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvage_ethnography" title="Salvage ethnography">Salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transidioethnography" title="Transidioethnography">Transidioethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_ethnography" title="Video ethnography">Video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Ethnohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomathematics" title="Ethnomathematics">Ethnomathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnostatistics" title="Ethnostatistics">Ethnostatistics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomedicine" title="Ethnomedicine">Ethnomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Ethnomuseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnophilosophy" title="Ethnophilosophy">Ethnophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopsychopharmacology" title="Ethnopsychopharmacology">Ethnopsychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoscience" title="Ethnoscience">Ethnoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnosemiotics" title="Ethnosemiotics">Ethnosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnotaxonomy" title="Ethnotaxonomy">Ethnotaxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">Groups by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>World</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">Contemporary ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_ethnic_groups" title="List of countries by ethnic groups">Countries by ethnic groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Africa</a></b></li> <li><b>Americas</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada" title="Ethnic origins of people in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Greenland#Ethnic_groups" title="Demographics of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Mexico#Ethnic_groups" title="Demographics of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Central_America" title="Ethnic groups in Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in South America">South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in Asia">Asia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">Northern Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Middle_East" title="Ethnic groups in the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in Australia">Australia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_Aboriginal_group_names" title="List of Australian Aboriginal group names">Aboriginal groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">Europe</a></b></li> <li><b>Oceania</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-race_effect" title="Cross-race effect">Cross-race effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_identity_development" title="Ethnic identity development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">Endonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">Ethnarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_flag" title="Ethnic flag">Ethnic flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_option" title="Ethnic option">Ethnic option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic origin">Ethnic origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_censuses" title="Race and ethnicity in censuses">Ethnicity in censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnofiction" title="Ethnofiction">Ethnofiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">Ethnonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_community" title="Imagined community">Imagined community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_progenitor" title="Legendary progenitor">Legendary progenitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_homeland" title="Linguistic homeland">Linguistic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythomoteur" title="Mythomoteur">Mythomoteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">Nation-building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">Nation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">National language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantribal_sodality" title="Pantribal sodality">Pantribal sodality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistext" title="Statistext">Statistext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_name" title="Tribal name">Tribal name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">Tribalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detribalization" title="Detribalization">Detribalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotribalism" title="Neotribalism">Neotribalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ethnic" title="White ethnic">White ethnic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">Multiethnic society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consociationalism" title="Consociationalism">Consociationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_politics" title="Diaspora politics">Diaspora politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_minority" title="Dominant minority">Dominant minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_democracy" title="Ethnic democracy">Ethnic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_enclave" title="Ethnic enclave">Ethnic enclave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_interest_group" title="Ethnic interest group">Ethnic interest group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_majority" title="Ethnic majority">Ethnic majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_media" title="Ethnic media">Ethnic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_pornography" title="Ethnic pornography">Ethnic pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_theme_park" title="Ethnic theme park">Ethnic theme park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoburb" title="Ethnoburb">Ethnoburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_film" title="Ethnographic film">Ethnographic film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_village" title="Ethnographic village">Ethnographic village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleman_minority" title="Middleman minority">Middleman minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">Minority rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_minority" title="Model minority">Model minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_minority_myth" title="Model minority myth">Model minority myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">Multinational state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Ideology and<br /><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_bioweapon" title="Ethnic bioweapon">Ethnic bioweapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_party" title="Ethnic party">Ethnic party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">Ethnic slurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Ethnic stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_riots" title="List of ethnic riots">Ethnic riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnofuturism" title="Ethnofuturism">Ethnofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnosymbolism" title="Ethnosymbolism">Ethnosymbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenism" title="Indigenism">Indigenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">Indigenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_active_separatist_movements" title="Lists of active separatist movements">Separatist movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocentrism" title="Xenocentrism">Xenocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophilia" title="Xenophilia">Xenophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minzu_(anthropology)" title="Minzu (anthropology)">Minzu (anthropology)</a></li></ul> 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