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class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>British neo-structuralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-British_neo-structuralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Critiques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critiques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Critiques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Critiques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Critiques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Critiques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Postmodernistic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postmodernistic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Postmodernistic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postmodernistic-sublist" 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Structural anthropology</b> is a school of <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_anthropology" title="Sociocultural anthropology">sociocultural anthropology</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>' 1949 idea that immutable deep structures exist in all <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultures</a>, and consequently, that all cultural practices have <a href="/wiki/Homology_(anthropology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Homology (anthropology)">homologous</a> counterparts in other cultures, essentially that all cultures are equatable. </p><p>Lévi-Strauss' approach arose in large part from <a href="/wiki/Dialectics" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectics">dialectics</a> expounded on by <a href="/wiki/Marx" class="mw-redirect" title="Marx">Marx</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegel">Hegel</a>, though dialectics (as a concept) dates back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a>. Hegel explains that every situation presents two opposing things and their resolution; <a href="/wiki/Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="Fichte">Fichte</a> had termed these "<a href="/wiki/Thesis,_antithesis,_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Thesis, antithesis, synthesis">thesis, antithesis, and synthesis</a>." Lévi-Strauss argued that cultures also have this structure. He showed, for example, how opposing ideas would fight and were resolved to establish the rules of <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>. This approach, he felt, made for fresh new ideas. He stated: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>people think about the world in terms of binary opposites—such as high and low, inside and outside, <a href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">person</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a> and <a href="/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a>—and that every <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> can be understood in terms of these opposites. "From the very start," he wrote, "the process of visual perception makes use of binary oppositions.<sup id="cite_ref-LTWeb_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LTWeb-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Only those who practice structural analysis are aware of what they are actually trying to do: that is, to reunite perspectives that the "narrow" scientific outlook of recent centuries believed to be mutually exclusive: sensibility and intellect, quality and quantity, the concrete and the geometrical, or as we say today, the <a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">"etic" and the "emic."</a> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> he showed that there are "dual organizations" throughout <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a> cultures, and that these "dual organizations" represent opposites and their synthesis. As an illustration, <a href="/wiki/G%C3%AA_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Gê peoples">Gê tribes</a> of the Amazon were found to divide their villages into two rival halves; however, members from each half married each other, resolving the opposition.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Culture, he claimed, has to take into account both life and death and needs to have a way of mediating between the two. Mythology (see his several-volume <i>Mythologies</i>) unites opposites in diverse ways. </p><p>Three of the most prominent structural anthropologists are Lévi-Strauss himself and the British neo-structuralists <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Needham" title="Rodney Needham">Rodney Needham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a>. The latter was the author of such essays as "Time and False Noses" (in <i>Rethinking Anthropology</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeach1966_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeach1966-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influences">Influences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></div> <p>Lévi-Strauss took many ideas from <a href="/wiki/Structural_linguistics" title="Structural linguistics">structural linguistics</a>, including those of <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a>. Saussure argued that linguists needed to move beyond the recording of <i>parole</i> (individual <a href="/wiki/Speech_act" title="Speech act">speech acts</a>) and come to an understanding of <a href="/wiki/Langue_and_parole" title="Langue and parole"><i>langue</i></a>, the <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a> of each language.<sup id="cite_ref-Saussure_1959_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saussure_1959-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lévi-Strauss applied this distinction in his search for mental structures that underlie all acts of human behavior: Just as speakers can talk without awareness of grammar, he argued, humans are unaware of the workings of <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a> in daily life. The structures that form the "deep grammar" of society originate in the <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and operate <a href="/wiki/Unconscious_mind" title="Unconscious mind">unconsciously</a> (albeit not in a <a href="/wiki/Freud" class="mw-redirect" title="Freud">Freudian</a> sense). </p><p>Another concept was borrowed from the <a href="/wiki/Prague_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Prague school">Prague school</a> of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, which employed so-called <a href="/wiki/Binary_opposition" title="Binary opposition">binary oppositions</a> in their research. <a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a> and others analysed sounds based on the presence or absence of certain features, such as "voiceless" vs. "voiced." Lévi-Strauss included this in his conceptualization of the mind's universal structures. For him, opposites formed the basis of social structure and culture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kinship">Kinship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Kinship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his early work Lévi-Strauss argued that tribal <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> <a href="/wiki/Group_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Group (sociology)">groups</a> were usually found in pairs, or in paired groups that oppose each other yet need one another. For example, in the Amazon basin, two extended families would build their houses in two facing semicircles that together form a big circle. He showed too that the ways people initially categorized animals, <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>, and other natural features, were based on a series of oppositions. </p><p>In his most popular work, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Raw_and_the_Cooked" title="The Raw and the Cooked">The Raw and the Cooked</a></i>, he described <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folk tales</a> of tribal South America as related to one another through a series of transformations—as one opposite in tales <i>here</i> changed into its opposite in tales <i>there.</i> For example, as the title implies, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/raw" class="extiw" title="wikt:raw">raw</a> becomes its opposite <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooked</a>. These particular opposites (raw/cooked) are symbolic of human culture itself, in which by means of <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a> and <a href="/wiki/Labour_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Labour (economics)">labour (economics)</a>, raw materials become <a href="/wiki/Clothes" class="mw-redirect" title="Clothes">clothes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">weapons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a>. </p><p>While Durkheim thought that <a href="/wiki/Biological_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological classification">taxonomies</a> of the natural world are collective in origin (the "<a href="/wiki/Collective_conscious" class="mw-redirect" title="Collective conscious">collective conscious</a>"), meaning that social structures influence individual cognitive structures, Lévi-Strauss proposed the opposite, arguing that it is the latter that gives rise to the former. Social structures mirror <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> structures, meaning that patterns in social interaction can be treated as their manifestations. While structural-functionalists looked for structures within social organisation, structuralism seeks to identify links between structures of thought and social structures. Possibly the most significant influence on structuralism came from Mauss' <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gift_(Mauss_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Gift (Mauss book)">The Gift</a></i>. Mauss argued that gifts are not free, but rather oblige the recipient to reciprocate. Through the gift, the givers give part of themselves, imbuing the gift a certain <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> that compels a response. Gift exchanges, therefore play a crucial role in creating and maintaining social relationships by establishing bonds of obligations. Gifts are not merely physical, incidental objects; they possess cultural and <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> properties. It is a "total prestation" as Mauss called it, as it carries the power to create a system of reciprocity in which the <a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">honour</a> of both giver and recipient are engaged. Social <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">relationships</a> are therefore based on exchange; Durkheimian solidarity, according to Mauss, is best achieved through structures of reciprocity and related systems of exchange. </p><p>Lévi-Strauss took this idea and postulated three fundamental properties of the human mind: a) people follow rules; b) reciprocity is the simplest way to create social relationships; c) a gift binds both giver and recipient in a continuing social relationship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELayton199776_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELayton199776-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Structures are universal; their realization is culturally specific. Lévi-Strauss argued that exchange is the universal basis of <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> systems, the structures of which depend on the type of marriage rules that apply. Because of its strong focus on vertical social relations, Lévi-Strauss' model of kinship systems came to be called <a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">alliance theory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marriage">Marriage</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Marriage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lévi-Strauss' model attempted to offer a single explanation for cross-<a href="/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">cousin marriage</a>, sister-exchange, dual organization and rules of <a href="/wiki/Exogamy" title="Exogamy">exogamy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969119-124_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969119-124-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, marriage rules create social structures because marriages are primarily forged between groups and not just between spouses. When groups exchange women on a regular basis, they marry together; consequently, each marriage creates a debtor/creditor relationship that must be balanced through the "repayment" of wives, either immediately or in the next generation. </p><p>Lévi-Strauss proposed that the initial motivation for the exchange of women was the <a href="/wiki/Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">incest taboo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196912-13_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196912-13-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He deemed this the beginning and essence of culture, as it was the first <a href="/wiki/Prohibition" title="Prohibition">prohibition</a> to check natural impulses; secondarily, it divides labor by gender. Prescribing exogamy creates a distinction between marriageable and tabooed women that necessitates a search for women outside one's own kin group ("marry out or die out") and fosters exchange relationships with other groups. Exogamy promotes inter-group alliances and forms structures of social networks. </p><p>Lévi-Strauss also discovered that a wide range of historically unrelated cultures had the rule that individuals should marry their cross-cousin, meaning children of siblings of the opposite sex—from a male perspective that is either the FZD (father's sister's daughter) or the MBD (mother's brother's daughter). Accordingly, he grouped all possible kinship systems into a scheme containing three basic kinship structures constructed out of two types of exchange. He called the three kinship structures elementary, semi-complex and complex. </p><p>Elementary structures are based on positive marriage rules that specify whom a person must marry, while complex systems specify negative marriage rules (whom one must not marry), thus leaving room for choice based on preference. Elementary structures can operate based on two forms of exchange:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967117-119_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967117-119-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> restricted (or direct) exchange, a symmetric form of exchange between two groups<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969146_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969146-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (also called moieties) of wife-givers and wife-takers; in an initial restricted exchange FZ marries MB, with all children then being bilateral cross-cousins (the daughter is both MBD and FZD). Continued restricted exchange means that the two lineages marry together. Restricted exchange structures are generally uncommon. </p><p>The second form of exchange within elementary structures is called generalised exchange, meaning that a man can only marry either his MBD (<a href="/wiki/Matrilateral" title="Matrilateral">matrilateral</a> cross-cousin marriage) or his FZD (patrilateral cross-cousin marriage).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969178_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969178-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This involves an asymmetric exchange between at least three groups. Matrilateral cross-cousin marriage arrangements where the marriage of the parents is repeated by successive generations are very common in parts of Asia (e.g. amongst the <a href="/wiki/Jingpo_people" title="Jingpo people">Kachin</a>). Lévi-Strauss considered generalised exchange to be superior to restricted exchange because it allows the integration of indefinite numbers of groups.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnardGood198496_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnardGood198496-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of restricted exchange are found, for instance, in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon basin</a>. These tribal societies are made up of multiple moieties that often split up, rendering them comparatively unstable. Generalised exchange is more integrative but contains an implicit hierarchy, as e.g. amongst the Kachin where wife-givers are superior to wife-takers. Consequently, the last wife-taking group in the chain is significantly inferior to the first wife-giving group to which it is supposed to give its wives. These status inequalities can destabilise the entire system or can at least lead to an accumulation of wives (and in the case of the Kachin, also of <a href="/wiki/Bridewealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridewealth">bridewealth</a>) at one end of the chain. </p><p>From a structural perspective matrilateral cross-cousin marriage is superior to its patrilateral counterpart; the latter has less potential to produce social cohesion since its exchange cycles are shorter (the direction of wife exchange is reversed in each successive generation).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967118_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967118-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lévi-Strauss' theory is supported by fact that patrilateral cross-cousin marriage is in fact the rarest of three types. However, matrilateral generalised exchange poses a risk as group A depends on receiving a woman from a group that it has not itself given a woman to, producing a less immediate obligation to reciprocate compared to a restricted exchange system. The risk created by such a delayed return is obviously lowest in restricted exchange systems. </p><p>Lévi-Strauss proposed a third structure between elementary and complex structures, called semi-complex structure or Crow-Omaha system. Semi-complex structures contain so many negative marriage rules that they effectively prescribe marriage to specific parties, thus somewhat resembling elementary structures. These structures are found, for example, among the <a href="/wiki/Crow_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Crow Nation">Crow Nation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omaha_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Omaha (tribe)">Omaha</a> <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a>. </p><p>In Lévi-Strauss' view, the basic building block of kinship is not just the nuclear family, as in structural-functionalism, but the so-called kinship atom: the nuclear family together with the wife's brother.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196746_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196746-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This "mother's brother" (from the perspective of the wife-seeking son) plays a crucial role in alliance theory, as he is the one who ultimately decides whom his daughter will marry. Moreover, it is not just the nuclear family as such, but alliances between families that matter in regard to the creation of social structures, reflecting the typical structuralist argument that the position of an element in the structure is more significant than the element itself. Descent theory and alliance theory therefore look at two sides of one coin: the former emphasising bonds of <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a> (kinship by blood), the latter stressing bonds of affinity (kinship by law or choice). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Leiden_school">The Leiden school</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Leiden school"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/The_Leiden_school" class="mw-redirect" title="The Leiden school">The Leiden school</a></div> <p>Much earlier, and some 450 miles north of Paris, a specific type of applied anthropology emerged at <a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> that focused frequently on the relationship between apparent cultural phenomena found in the Indonesian <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a>: <a href="/wiki/Batak_(Indonesia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Batak (Indonesia)">Batak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minangkabau_people" title="Minangkabau people">Minangkabau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moluccas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moluccas">Moluccas</a>, etc., though it was primarily aimed at training governors for colonial <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>. This type of anthropology, developed by late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century scholars, was eventually called "de Leidse Richting," or "de Leidse School,". </p><p>Multiple researchers were educated in this school. This theory attracted students and researchers interested in a holistic approach, that was broad and deep, that related economic circumstances with mythological and spatial classifications and that explored the relationship between the natural world and religious, <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> systems. This was long before structuralism. The "Leiden" perspective drove research for many decades, influencing successive generations of anthropologists. </p><p>The most recent chairs were held by <a href="/wiki/J._P._B._de_Josselin_de_Jong" title="J. P. B. de Josselin de Jong">J. P. B. de Josselin de Jong</a> (chair: 1922–1956, 1964), who coined the concept of the Field of Ethnological Study in 1935, and later his nephew <a href="/wiki/P._E._de_Josselin_de_Jong" title="P. E. de Josselin de Jong">P. E. de Josselin de Jong</a> (chair: 1956–1987, 1999). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="British_neo-structuralism">British neo-structuralism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: British neo-structuralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British brand of structuralism was mainly espoused by Rodney Needham and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a>, who were both critical towards the structural-functionalist perspective and who drew on Lévi-Strauss as well as <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Maurice_Hocart" title="Arthur Maurice Hocart">Arthur Maurice Hocart</a>. They also found grounds for critiquing Lévi-Strauss. Leach was more concerned with researching people's actual lives than with the discovery of universal mental structures. </p><p>He found that the latter's analysis of the Kachin contained serious flaws. According to Leach, Lévi-Strauss' project had been overly ambitious, meaning that his analyses were too superficial and the available data treated with too little care. While part of his analysis of the Kachin was simply based on incorrect ethnographic information, the rest reflected Kachin ideology but not actual practice. </p><p>In theory, Kachin groups were supposed to marry in a circle ideally consisting of five groups. In reality, the system was strongly unbalanced with built-in status differences between wife-givers and wife-takers. Lévi-Strauss had incorrectly assumed that wife-takers would be of higher rank than wife-givers; in reality, it was the other way round, and the former usually had to make substantial bridewealth payments to obtain wives. Overall, some lineages would accumulate more wives and material wealth than others, meaning that the system was not driven primarily by reciprocity. The marriage system was quite messy and the chance of it breaking down increased with the number of groups involved. </p><p>In generalised exchange systems, more groups imply greater complexity to ensure that all wife-givers will eventually be on the receiving end, an issue that Lévi-Strauss had already foreseen. He thought that in practice there would be competition for women, leading to accumulation and therefore asymmetries in the system. According to Leach, in Kachin reality instabilities arose primarily from competition for bridewealth. Men sought to get the maximum profit in forms of either bridewealth or political advantage from their daughters' marriage. Lévi-Strauss had only accorded a symbolic role to marriage prestations, effectively overlooking their significance within the system. Leach argued that they are also (or even primarily) economic and political transactions and are frequently connected to transfers of rights over land, too. </p><p>Marriage exchanges need to be analysed within their wider economic and political context rather than in isolation, as Lévi-Strauss attempted. Leach charged the latter with neglecting the effects of material conditions on social relations. He also challenged the claims to universality made by Lévi-Strauss about the model, doubting whether structures generated by marriage rules would be the same in different social contexts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Critiques">Critiques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Critiques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postmodernistic">Postmodernistic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Postmodernistic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the late 1970s/early 1980s, alliance theory had lost influence. With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Postmodern" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodern">postmodern</a> interpretive-<a href="/wiki/Hermeneutic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermeneutic">hermeneutic</a> thought, structuralist and <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalist</a> theories receded. Internal incoherence and a range of intrinsic limitations further reduced its appeal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Excessive_emphasis_of_affinal_ties">Excessive emphasis of affinal ties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Excessive emphasis of affinal ties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By overstressing the structural significance of affinal ties, alliance theory effectively neglected the importance of descent and genealogical ties. Some societies (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Africa">African</a> tribal societies) employ descent as their primary organizational principle. In others, alliances are of primary significance, as in e.g. many <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a> societies and amongst Amazon tribes; and still others emphasise both. The <a href="/wiki/Yanomami" title="Yanomami">Yanomami</a> fit very well into the alliance theory mold, while the <a href="/wiki/Tallensi" title="Tallensi">Tallensi</a> or <a href="/wiki/Azande" class="mw-redirect" title="Azande">Azande</a> do not. <a href="/wiki/Ladislav_Hol%C3%BD" title="Ladislav Holý">Holý</a> (1996) pointed out that some <a href="/wiki/Middle-East" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle-East">Middle-Eastern</a> societies cannot be conclusively explained by either descent or alliance theory. </p><p>Critics also saw weaknesses in Lévi-Strauss' methods, in the fact that he looked for ideal structures, thereby neglecting the reality and complexity of actual practices. His model explained practices that were not observed. Kuper<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuper1988223_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuper1988223-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pointed out that if the structures of the mind really are universal and Lévi-Strauss' model is correct, then why do not all human societies act accordingly and structure their kinship systems around alliances and exchanges? Kuper allowed that exchange was the universal form of marriage, but there could be other significant factors. And even if reciprocity was the primary principle that underlies marriages, the return would not have to be in kind but could take other forms (such as money, livestock, services or favours of various kinds). Also, social cohesion through reciprocity does not have to rest primarily on the bride exchange. Mauss showed that different cultures use all kinds of gifts to create and maintain alliances. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">Feminists</a> critique Lévi-Strauss' claim that the underlying principle according to which all societies work is the exchange of women by men, who dispose of them as if they were objects. Others, for example Godelier, critiqued structuralism's synchronic approach that led it to be essentially ahistorical. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Materialistic_perspectives">Materialistic perspectives</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Materialistic perspectives"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxists</a> shifted the attention within anthropology from an almost exclusive preoccupation with kinship to an emphasis on economic issues. For them, social structures were primarily shaped by material conditions, property relations and class struggles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Falsification">Falsification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Falsification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Structuralism's main propositions were not formulated in a way so that they could be subject to verification or <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsification</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTED'Andrade1995249_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTED'Andrade1995249-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes1971165-171_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes1971165-171-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lévi-Strauss did not develop a framework that could prove the existence of his concept of the fundamental structures of human thought, but simply assumed their existence. Boyer pointed out that experimental research on concepts in psychology have not supported a structuralistic view of concepts, but rather a theory-oriented or prototype-based view.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyer2013_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyer2013-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralist_theory_of_mythology" title="Structuralist theory of mythology">Structuralist theory of mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Jakobson" title="Roman Jakobson">Roman Jakobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Anthropologie_structurale_deux" title="Anthropologie structurale deux">Anthropologie structurale deux</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-LTWeb-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LTWeb_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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.cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology/Cultural_Anthropology_(Evans)/03%3A_Anthropological_Theory/3.06%3A_Structural_Anthropology">"3.6 Structural Anthropology"</a>. <i>LibreTexts</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LibreTexts&rft.atitle=3.6+Structural+Anthropology&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsocialsci.libretexts.org%2FBookshelves%2FAnthropology%2FCultural_Anthropology%2FCultural_Anthropology_%28Evans%29%2F03%253A_Anthropological_Theory%2F3.06%253A_Structural_Anthropology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeach1966-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeach1966_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeach1966">Leach 1966</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saussure_1959-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saussure_1959_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Saussure1959" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">de Saussure, Ferdinand</a> (1959) [1916]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://monoskop.org/images/0/0b/Saussure_Ferdinand_de_Course_in_General_Linguistics_1959.pdf"><i>Course in general linguistics</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. New York: Philosophy Library. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231157278" title="Special:BookSources/9780231157278"><bdi>9780231157278</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Course+in+general+linguistics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Philosophy+Library&rft.date=1959&rft.isbn=9780231157278&rft.aulast=de+Saussure&rft.aufirst=Ferdinand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmonoskop.org%2Fimages%2F0%2F0b%2FSaussure_Ferdinand_de_Course_in_General_Linguistics_1959.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELayton199776-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELayton199776_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLayton1997">Layton 1997</a>, p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969119-124-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969119-124_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLévi-Strauss1969">Lévi-Strauss 1969</a>, p. 119-124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196912-13-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196912-13_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLévi-Strauss1969">Lévi-Strauss 1969</a>, p. 12-13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967117-119-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967117-119_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967">Lévi-Strauss 1967</a>, p. 117-119.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969146-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969146_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLévi-Strauss1969">Lévi-Strauss 1969</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969178-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1969178_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLévi-Strauss1969">Lévi-Strauss 1969</a>, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnardGood198496-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnardGood198496_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnardGood1984">Barnard & Good 1984</a>, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967118-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss1967118_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967">Lévi-Strauss 1967</a>, p. 118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196746-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELévi-Strauss196746_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967">Lévi-Strauss 1967</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKuper1988223-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKuper1988223_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuper1988">Kuper 1988</a>, p. 223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTED'Andrade1995249-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTED'Andrade1995249_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFD'Andrade1995">D'Andrade 1995</a>, p. 249.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnes1971165-171-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBarnes1971165-171_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnes1971">Barnes 1971</a>, p. 165-171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoyer2013-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoyer2013_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoyer2013">Boyer 2013</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnard2000" class="citation book cs1">Barnard, Alan (2000). <i>History and Theory in Anthropology</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+and+Theory+in+Anthropology&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Barnard&rft.aufirst=Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnardGood1984" class="citation book cs1">Barnard, Alan; Good, Anthony (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x_2AAAAAMAAJ"><i>Research practices in the study of kinship</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+practices+in+the+study+of+kinship&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Barnard&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Good%2C+Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx_2AAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes1971" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, J.A. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vSr-AQAAQBAJ"><i>Three Styles in the Study of Kinship</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-53500-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-53500-0"><bdi>978-1-136-53500-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Three+Styles+in+the+Study+of+Kinship&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-1-136-53500-0&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=J.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvSr-AQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyer2013" class="citation book cs1">Boyer, P. (31 May 2013). Mccorkle, William W.; Xygalatas, D (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLfnMgEACAAJ"><i>Explaining religious concepts. Lévi- Strauss the brilliant and problematic ancestor</i></a>. Durham, UK: Acumen. pp. 164–75. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84465-664-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84465-664-6"><bdi>978-1-84465-664-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Explaining+religious+concepts.+L%C3%A9vi-+Strauss+the+brilliant+and+problematic+ancestor&rft.place=Durham%2C+UK&rft.pages=164-75&rft.pub=Acumen&rft.date=2013-05-31&rft.isbn=978-1-84465-664-6&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLfnMgEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'Andrade1995" class="citation book cs1">D'Andrade, Roy G. (27 January 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2QCWe2r-pvwC"><i>The Development of Cognitive Anthropology</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45976-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45976-1"><bdi>978-0-521-45976-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Cognitive+Anthropology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995-01-27&rft.isbn=978-0-521-45976-1&rft.aulast=D%27Andrade&rft.aufirst=Roy+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2QCWe2r-pvwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDevlin2006" class="citation book cs1">Devlin, D. (2006). <i>Late Modern</i>. Susak Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Modern&rft.pub=Susak+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Devlin&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoly1996" class="citation book cs1">Holy, L. (1996). <i>Anthropological Perspectives on Kinship</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Pluto_Press" title="Pluto Press">Pluto Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthropological+Perspectives+on+Kinship&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pluto+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Holy&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuper1988" class="citation book cs1">Kuper, Adam (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yg4okTJNE24C"><i>The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-00903-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-00903-4"><bdi>978-0-415-00903-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+Primitive+Society%3A+Transformations+of+an+Illusion&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-415-00903-4&rft.aulast=Kuper&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dyg4okTJNE24C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuper1996" class="citation book cs1">Kuper, Adam (1996). <i>Anthropology and Anthropologists</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthropology+and+Anthropologists&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Kuper&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLayton1997" class="citation book cs1">Layton, Robert (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ylqF1a-38RMC"><i>An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62982-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-62982-9"><bdi>978-0-521-62982-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Theory+in+Anthropology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-62982-9&rft.aulast=Layton&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DylqF1a-38RMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Leach, E. 1954. <i>Political Systems of Highland Burma.</i> London: Bell.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeach1966" class="citation book cs1">Leach, E. R. (1966). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LKkXKAAACAAJ"><i>Rethinking Anthropology</i></a>. Berg Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84520-004-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84520-004-6"><bdi>978-1-84520-004-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Anthropology&rft.pub=Berg+Publishers&rft.date=1966&rft.isbn=978-1-84520-004-6&rft.aulast=Leach&rft.aufirst=E.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLKkXKAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévi-Strauss1969" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss, Claude</a> (1969). <i>The Elementary Structures of Kinship</i>. Boston: Beacon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elementary+Structures+of+Kinship&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vi-Strauss&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévi-Strauss1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss, Claude</a> (1967) [1963]. <i>Structural Anthropology</i>. Translated by Jacobson, Claire; Schoepf, Brooke Grundfest. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structural+Anthropology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday+Anchor+Books&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vi-Strauss&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLévi-Strauss1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss, Claude</a> (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQkGMgAACAAJ"><i>Structuralism and Ecology</i></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Structuralism+and+Ecology&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=L%C3%A9vi-Strauss&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxQkGMgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+anthropology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_anthropology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/ancestors/Leach.html">Interview with Sir Edmund Leach, website of Prof. Alan MacFarlane</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/tutor/">Kinship diagrams that exemplify cross-cousin marriage structures</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anthropologiestr00levi"><i>Anthropologie structurale</i> (1958). 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