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> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Kinship" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Kinship" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Basic_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Basic concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Basic_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Basic concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Basic_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Family_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Family types</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tri-relational_kin-terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tri-relational_kin-terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Tri-relational kin-terms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tri-relational_kin-terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kin-based_group_terms_and_pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kin-based_group_terms_and_pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Kin-based group terms and pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kin-based_group_terms_and_pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Descent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Descent_rules" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descent_rules"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Descent rules</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descent_rules-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descent_groups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descent_groups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Descent groups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descent_groups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lineages,_clans,_phratries,_moieties,_and_matrimonial_sides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lineages,_clans,_phratries,_moieties,_and_matrimonial_sides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Lineages, clans, phratries, moieties, and matrimonial sides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lineages,_clans,_phratries,_moieties,_and_matrimonial_sides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-House_societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#House_societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.4</span> <span>House societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-House_societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marriage_(affinity)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marriage_(affinity)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Marriage (affinity)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marriage_(affinity)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alliance_(marital_exchange_systems)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alliance_(marital_exchange_systems)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Alliance (marital exchange systems)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alliance_(marital_exchange_systems)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Morgan's_early_influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morgan's_early_influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Morgan's early influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morgan's_early_influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinship_networks_and_social_process" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinship_networks_and_social_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Kinship networks and social process</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinship_networks_and_social_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Kinship_system"_as_systemic_pattern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Kinship_system"_as_systemic_pattern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>"Kinship system" as systemic pattern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Kinship_system"_as_systemic_pattern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflicting_theories_of_the_mid_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflicting_theories_of_the_mid_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Conflicting theories of the mid 20th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflicting_theories_of_the_mid_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recognition_of_fluidity_in_kinship_meanings_and_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_of_fluidity_in_kinship_meanings_and_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Recognition of fluidity in kinship meanings and relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_of_fluidity_in_kinship_meanings_and_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schneider's_critique_of_genealogical_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schneider's_critique_of_genealogical_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Schneider's critique of genealogical concepts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schneider's_critique_of_genealogical_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Schneider" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Schneider"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Post-Schneider</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Schneider-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology,_psychology_and_kinship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology,_psychology_and_kinship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Biology, psychology and kinship</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biology,_psychology_and_kinship-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biology, psychology and kinship subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biology,_psychology_and_kinship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nonreductive_biology_and_nurture_kinship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nonreductive_biology_and_nurture_kinship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Nonreductive biology and nurture kinship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nonreductive_biology_and_nurture_kinship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Evolutionary psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extensions_of_the_kinship_metaphor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extensions_of_the_kinship_metaphor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Extensions of the kinship metaphor</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Extensions_of_the_kinship_metaphor-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Extensions of the kinship metaphor subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Extensions_of_the_kinship_metaphor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fictive_kinship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fictive_kinship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Fictive kinship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fictive_kinship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Detailed_terms_for_parentage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Detailed_terms_for_parentage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Detailed terms for parentage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Detailed_terms_for_parentage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composition_of_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composition_of_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Composition of relations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composition_of_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kinship</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 87 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-87" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">87 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9" title="قرابة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قرابة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentescu" title="Parentescu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Parentescu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qohumluq_m%C3%BCnasib%C9%99tl%C9%99ri" title="Qohumluq münasibətləri – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qohumluq münasibətləri" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhin-chi%C3%A2%E2%81%BF" title="Chhin-chiâⁿ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chhin-chiâⁿ" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D2%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D1%82%D3%A9%D1%88%D3%A9%D0%BD%D1%81%D3%99%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Туғанлыҡ төшөнсәләре – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Туғанлыҡ төшөнсәләре" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Сваяцтва – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сваяцтва" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D1%86%D1%8C" title="Роднасьць – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Роднасьць" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Роднинство – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Роднинство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tud-kaer" title="Tud-kaer – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Tud-kaer" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentiu" title="Parentiu – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Parentiu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%C4%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Тăванлăх – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Тăванлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADbuzenstv%C3%AD" title="Příbuzenství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Příbuzenství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hama" title="Hama – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Hama" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carennydd" title="Carennydd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Carennydd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sl%C3%A6gtskab" title="Slægtskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Slægtskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuolki" title="Fuolki – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Fuolki" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc mw-list-item"><a href="https://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freindschaft" title="Freindschaft – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc" data-title="Freindschaft" data-language-autonym="Deitsch" data-language-local-name="Pennsylvania German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deitsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugulussuhted" title="Sugulussuhted – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sugulussuhted" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%B3%CE%B3%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Συγγένεια – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Συγγένεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9A%C3%A8nder" title="Śènder – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Śènder" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentesco" title="Parentesco – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Parentesco" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenceco" title="Parenceco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Parenceco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahaidetasun" title="Ahaidetasun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ahaidetasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="خویشاوندی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خویشاوندی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parent%C3%A9" title="Parenté – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Parenté" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besibskip" title="Besibskip – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Besibskip" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parint%C3%A2t" title="Parintât – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Parintât" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaol" title="Gaol – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gaol" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentesco" title="Parentesco – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Parentesco" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B9%9C%EC%A1%B1" title="친족 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="친족" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%AF%D6%81%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ազգակցություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ազգակցություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srodstvo" title="Srodstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srodstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenteso" title="Parenteso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Parenteso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubungan_kekerabatan" title="Hubungan kekerabatan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hubungan kekerabatan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86ttingi" title="Ættingi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ættingi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentela" title="Parentela – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Parentela" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שארות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שארות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%AC%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%A7" title="ರಕ್ತ ಸಂಬಂಧ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ರಕ್ತ ಸಂಬಂಧ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Туыстық – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Туыстық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitukuu" title="Kitukuu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kitukuu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%BB%D3%93" title="Туанвлӓ – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Туанвлӓ" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кырык мары</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognatio" title="Cognatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cognatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radniec%C4%ABba" title="Radniecība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Radniecība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giminyst%C4%97" title="Giminystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Giminystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugulaine" title="Sugulaine – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Sugulaine" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentela" title="Parentela – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Parentela" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rokons%C3%A1g" title="Rokonság – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rokonság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8" title="Роднински односи – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Роднински односи" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persanakan" title="Persanakan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Persanakan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chi%C3%B3-di%C4%93-n%C3%A8%CC%A4ng" title="Chió-diē-nè̤ng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Chió-diē-nè̤ng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verwantschap" title="Verwantschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verwantschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="नाता – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नाता" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%AA%E6%97%8F" title="親族 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="親族" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%BE" title="Гергарло – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Гергарло" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slekt_(jus)" title="Slekt (jus) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Slekt (jus)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slekt" title="Slekt – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Slekt" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokrewie%C5%84stwo_(antropologia)" title="Pokrewieństwo (antropologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pokrewieństwo (antropologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parentesco" title="Parentesco – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Parentesco" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudenie" title="Rudenie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rudenie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Родство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Родство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%80%D1%83%D1%83-%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85" title="Уруу-аймах – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Уруу-аймах" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farefisi" title="Farefisi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Farefisi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parenti_(famigghia)" title="Parenti (famigghia) – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Parenti (famigghia)" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A4%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA" title="ඤාතිත්වය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ඤාතිත්වය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kinship" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%BD%D9%8A" title="مائٽي – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مائٽي" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorodstvo" title="Sorodstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sorodstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cu mw-list-item"><a href="https://cu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%94%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8C" title="Свєкровь – Church Slavic" lang="cu" hreflang="cu" data-title="Свєкровь" data-language-autonym="Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ" data-language-local-name="Church Slavic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Словѣньскъ / ⰔⰎⰑⰂⰡⰐⰠⰔⰍⰟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B2%D9%85%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="خزمایەتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خزمایەتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сродство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сродство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srodstvo" title="Srodstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srodstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukulaisuus" title="Sukulaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sukulaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sl%C3%A4kt" title="Släkt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Släkt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D" title="உறவினர் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உறவினர்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Туганлык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Туганлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tay mw-list-item"><a href="https://tay.wikipedia.org/wiki/cinsali%E2%80%99" title="cinsali’ – Tayal" lang="tay" hreflang="tay" data-title="cinsali’" data-language-autonym="Tayal" data-language-local-name="Tayal" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tayal</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%A7%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%81" title="బంధువు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="బంధువు" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4" title="ความเป็นญาติ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความเป็นญาติ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D2%B3%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D3%A3" title="Нисбатҳои хонаводагӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Нисбатҳои хонаводагӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akrabal%C4%B1k" title="Akrabalık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Akrabalık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C" title="Спорідненість – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Спорідненість" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimolai%C5%BEuz" title="Heimolaižuz – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Heimolaižuz" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A2n_t%E1%BB%99c" title="Thân tộc – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thân tộc" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugulus" title="Sugulus – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Sugulus" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BA%B2%E5%B1%9E" title="亲属 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="亲属" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%AA%E4%BA%BA" title="親人 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="親人" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%AA%E5%B1%AC" title="親屬 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="親屬" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q171318#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Kinship_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kinship (disambiguation)">Kinship (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Family ties" redirects here. For the American television series, see <a href="/wiki/Family_Ties" title="Family Ties"><i>Family Ties</i></a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Family_Ties_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Family Ties (disambiguation)">Family Ties (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Extended_Family_(4197770551).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Extended_Family_%284197770551%29.jpg/300px-Extended_Family_%284197770551%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Extended_Family_%284197770551%29.jpg/450px-Extended_Family_%284197770551%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Extended_Family_%284197770551%29.jpg/600px-Extended_Family_%284197770551%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>A multi-generational <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended family</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chaghcharan" title="Chaghcharan">Chaghcharan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghor_Province" title="Ghor Province">Ghor Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist template-anthropology-of-kinship"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Kinship_and_descent" title="Category:Kinship and descent">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle">Anthropology of <a class="mw-selflink selflink">kinship</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Eg-filiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/100px-Eg-filiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/150px-Eg-filiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Eg-filiation.svg/200px-Eg-filiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="283" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">Consanguinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">Incest taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">Endogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exogamy" title="Exogamy">Exogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moiety_(kinship)" title="Moiety (kinship)">Moiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">Polygyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">Concubinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry" title="Polyandry">Polyandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">Bride price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_service" title="Bride service">Bride service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">Dowry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_and_cross_cousins" title="Parallel and cross cousins">Parallel / cross cousins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">Cousin marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levirate_marriage" title="Levirate marriage">Levirate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sororate_marriage" title="Sororate marriage">Sororate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumous_marriage" title="Posthumous marriage">Posthumous marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joking_relationship" title="Joking relationship">Joking relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation" title="Cohabitation">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">Fictive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Milk_kinship" title="Milk kinship">Milk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">Nurture kinship</a></span></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Descent</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup hlist"> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognatic_kinship" title="Cognatic kinship">Cognatic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_descent" title="Bilateral descent">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilateral" title="Matrilateral">Matrilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineal_descendant" title="Lineal descendant">Lineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_(kinship)" title="Collateral (kinship)">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avunculate" title="Avunculate">Avunculate</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Linealities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambilineality" title="Ambilineality">Ambilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineality" title="Unilineality">Unilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">Matrilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">Patrilineality</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Household forms and residence</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">Extended</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrifocal_family" title="Matrifocal family">Matrifocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilocal_residence" title="Matrilocal residence">Matrilocal</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Neolocal_residence" title="Neolocal residence">Neolocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrilocal_residence" title="Patrilocal residence">Patrilocal</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Terminology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classificatory_kinship" title="Classificatory kinship">Classificatory terminologies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> By group</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_kinship" title="Iroquois kinship">Iroquois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_kinship" title="Crow kinship">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_kinship" title="Omaha kinship">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo_kinship" title="Eskimo kinship">Eskimo (Inuit)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_kinship" title="Hawaiian kinship">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_kinship" title="Sudanese kinship">Sudanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology#Dravidian" title="Kinship terminology">Dravidian <i>(debated)</i></a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Case studies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_kinship" title="Burmese kinship">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_kinship" title="Chinese kinship">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippine_kinship" title="Philippine kinship">Philippine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_Tibet" title="Polyandry in Tibet">Polyandry in Tibet</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polyandry_in_India" title="Polyandry in India">in India</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Feminist</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chambri_people#Marriage_within_the_Chambri" title="Chambri people">Chambri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosuo_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosuo women">Mosuo</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexuality</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coming_of_Age_in_Samoa" title="Coming of Age in Samoa">Coming of Age in Samoa</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Bell_(anthropologist)" title="Diane Bell (anthropologist)">Diane Bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Boellstorff" title="Tom Boellstorff">Tom Boellstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Goody" title="Jack Goody">Jack Goody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._D._Hamilton" title="W. D. Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Herdt" title="Gilbert Herdt">Gilbert Herdt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Kulick" title="Don Kulick">Don Kulick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Lancaster" title="Roger Lancaster">Roger Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louise_Lamphere" title="Louise Lamphere">Louise Lamphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Leacock" title="Eleanor Leacock">Eleanor Leacock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Moore" title="Henrietta Moore">Henrietta Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lewis_H._Morgan" title="Lewis H. Morgan">Lewis H. Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_O._Murray" title="Stephen O. Murray">Stephen O. Murray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Rosaldo" title="Michelle Rosaldo">Michelle Rosaldo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gayle_Rubin" title="Gayle Rubin">Gayle Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_M._Schneider" title="David M. Schneider">David M. Schneider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Strathern" title="Marilyn Strathern">Marilyn Strathern</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_matrilineal_or_matrilocal_societies" title="List of matrilineal or matrilocal societies">Matrilineal / matrilocal societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist anthropology</a></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><i><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_Repression_in_Savage_Society" title="Sex and Repression in Savage Society">Sex and Repression in Savage Society</a></i></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><i><a href="/wiki/Social_Bonding_and_Nurture_Kinship" title="Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship">Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship</a></i></div></li> <li><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/The_Traffic_in_Women:_Notes_on_the_Political_Economy_of_Sex" title="The Traffic in Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex">"The Traffic in Women"</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social anthropology</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:People_together.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/People_together.svg/50px-People_together.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/People_together.svg/75px-People_together.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/People_together.svg/100px-People_together.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="182" data-file-height="119" /></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Relationships</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_relationships" title="Outline of relationships">Outline</a>)</small></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#d5d5ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;;display:block;margin-top:0.25em;"> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoptive</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stepfamily" title="Stepfamily">Stepfamily</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">Parent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">Mother</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son" title="Son">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daughter" title="Daughter">Daughter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandparent" title="Grandparent">Grandparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">Sibling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brother" title="Brother">Brother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister" title="Sister">Sister</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cousin" title="Cousin">Cousin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aunt" title="Aunt">Aunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle" title="Uncle">Uncle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niece_and_nephew" title="Niece and nephew">Niece and nephew</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> By <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spouse" title="Spouse">Spouse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husband" title="Husband">Husband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife" title="Wife">Wife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_marriage" title="Open marriage">Open marriage</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polyandry" title="Polyandry">Polyandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygyny" title="Polygyny">Polygyny</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_marriage" title="Group marriage">Group marriage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-orientation_marriage" title="Mixed-orientation marriage">Mixed-orientation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#e6e6ff;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;"> Partner(s)</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none;margin-bottom:0;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Significant_other" title="Significant other">Significant other</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boyfriend" title="Boyfriend">Boyfriend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girlfriend" title="Girlfriend">Girlfriend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation" title="Cohabitation">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-distance_relationship" title="Long-distance relationship">Long-distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_relationship" title="Internet relationship">Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_relationship" title="Same-sex relationship">Same-sex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queerplatonic_relationship" title="Queerplatonic relationship">Queerplatonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship" title="Friendship">Friendship</a> (<a href="/wiki/Romantic_friendship" title="Romantic friendship">romantic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cross-sex_friendship" title="Cross-sex friendship">cross-sex</a> / <a href="/wiki/Friend_zone" title="Friend zone">zone</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:none;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;;display:block;margin-left:1.0em;margin-right:1.0em;border-bottom:1px solid #bbb;"> <a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_partner" title="Sexual partner">sexual</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.15em; padding-bottom:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casual_sex" title="Casual sex">Casual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-monogamy" title="Non-monogamy">Non-monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutual_monogamy" title="Mutual monogamy">Mutual monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyamory" title="Polyamory">Polyamory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyfidelity" title="Polyfidelity">Polyfidelity</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affair" title="Affair">Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicisbeo" title="Cicisbeo">Cicisbeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">Concubinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesan" title="Courtesan">Courtesan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistress_(lover)" title="Mistress (lover)">Mistress</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#d5d5ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Activities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtship" title="Courtship">Courtship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating" title="Dating">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagement" title="Engagement">Engagement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_Day_(tradition)" title="Bachelor's Day (tradition)">Bachelor's Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meet_market" title="Meet market">Meet market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_(love)" title="Romance (love)">Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singles_event" title="Singles event">Singles event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding" title="Wedding">Wedding</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#d5d5ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Endings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breakup" title="Breakup">Breakup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_separation" title="Legal separation">Legal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Marital_separation" title="Marital separation">marital separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annulment" title="Annulment">Annulment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widow" title="Widow">Widowhood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#d5d5ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions and feelings</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(sociology)" title="Affinity (sociology)">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jealousy" title="Jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limerence" title="Limerence">Limerence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_love" title="Platonic love">Platonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconditional_love" title="Unconditional love">Unconditional</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passion_(emotion)" title="Passion (emotion)">Passion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#d5d5ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">Bride price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dower" title="Dower">dower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">dowry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_service" title="Bride service">service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infidelity" title="Infidelity">Infidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Sexual activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_transgression" title="Relational transgression">Transgression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_repression" title="Sexual repression">Repression</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#d5d5ff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abuse" title="Abuse">Abuse</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_violence" title="Dating violence">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_abuse" title="Elder abuse">Elderly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narcissistic_parent" title="Narcissistic parent">Narcissistic parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlling_behavior_in_relationships" title="Controlling behavior in relationships">Controlling behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stalking" title="Stalking">Stalking</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Close_relationships" title="Template:Close relationships"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Close_relationships" title="Template talk:Close relationships"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Close_relationships" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Close relationships"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <b>kinship</b> is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Robin_Fox" title="Robin Fox">Robin Fox</a> says that the study of kinship is the study of what humans do with these basic facts of life – <a href="/wiki/Mating" title="Mating">mating</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gestation" title="Gestation">gestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">parenthood</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">siblingship</a> etc. Human society is unique, he argues, in that we are "working with the same raw material as exists in the animal world, but [we] can conceptualize and categorize it to serve social ends."<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These social ends include the socialization of children and the formation of basic economic, political and religious groups. </p><p>Kinship can refer both to the patterns of social relationships themselves, or it can refer to the study of the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures (i.e. kinship studies). Over its history, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> has developed a number of related concepts and terms in the study of kinship, such as <a href="/wiki/Descent_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Descent (disambiguation)">descent</a>, descent group, <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">lineage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">affinity/affine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity/cognate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">fictive kinship</a>. Further, even within these two broad usages of the term, there are different theoretical approaches. </p><p>Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related by both <a href="/wiki/Lineal_descendant" title="Lineal descendant">descent</a> – i.e. social relations during development – and by <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a>. Human kinship relations through <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a> are commonly called "affinity" in contrast to the relationships that arise in one's group of origin, which may be called one's descent group. In some cultures, kinship relationships may be considered to extend out to people an individual has economic or political relationships with, or other forms of social connections. Within a culture, some descent groups may be considered to lead back to <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or animal ancestors (<a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totems</a>). This may be conceived of on a more or less literal basis. </p><p>Kinship can also refer to a principle by which individuals or groups of individuals are organized into <a href="/wiki/Social_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Social groups">social groups</a>, roles, categories and <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a> by means of <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">kinship terminologies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a> relations can be represented concretely (mother, brother, grandfather) or abstractly by degrees of relationship (kinship distance). A relationship may be relative (e.g. a father in relation to a child) or reflect an absolute (e.g. the difference between a mother and a childless woman). Degrees of relationship are not identical to <a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">heirship</a> or legal succession. Many codes of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> consider the bond of kinship as creating obligations between the related persons stronger than those between strangers, as in <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>. </p><p>In a more general sense, kinship may refer to a similarity or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/affinity" class="extiw" title="wikt:affinity">affinity</a> between entities on the basis of some or all of their characteristics that are under focus. This may be due to a shared <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> origin, a shared historical or cultural connection, or some other perceived shared features that connect the two entities. For example, a person studying the ontological roots of human languages (<a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a>) might ask whether there is kinship between the English word <i>seven</i> and the German word <i>sieben</i>. It can be used in a more diffuse sense as in, for example, the news headline "<a href="/wiki/Madonna_(entertainer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Madonna (entertainer)">Madonna</a> feels kinship with vilified <a href="/wiki/Wallis_Simpson" title="Wallis Simpson">Wallis Simpson</a>", to imply a felt similarity or <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> between two or more entities. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, "kinship" typically refers to the degree of genetic relatedness or the <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_relationship" title="Coefficient of relationship">coefficient of relationship</a> between individual members of a species (e.g. as in <a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">kin selection</a> theory). It may also be used in this specific sense when applied to human relationships, in which case its meaning is closer to <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basic_concepts">Basic concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basic concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_types">Family types</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Family types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Orthodox_priest_family.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Orthodox_priest_family.jpg/220px-Orthodox_priest_family.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Orthodox_priest_family.jpg/330px-Orthodox_priest_family.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Orthodox_priest_family.jpg/440px-Orthodox_priest_family.jpg 2x" data-file-width="913" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>A multi-generational <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended family</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox">Eastern Orthodox</a> priest in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1893</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Family is a <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">group</a> of <a href="/wiki/People" title="People">people</a> affiliated by <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a> (by recognized birth), <a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">affinity</a> (by marriage), or co-residence/shared consumption (see <a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">Nurture kinship</a>). In most societies, it is the principal institution for the socialization of children. As the basic unit for raising children, Anthropologists most generally classify family organization as <a href="/wiki/Matrifocal_family" title="Matrifocal family">matrifocal</a> (a mother and her children); conjugal (a husband, his wife, and children; also called <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a>); <a href="/wiki/Avuncular" class="mw-redirect" title="Avuncular">avuncular</a> (a brother, his sister, and her children); or <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended family</a> in which parents and children co-reside with other members of one parent's family. </p><p>However, producing children is not the only function of the family; in societies with a <a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">sexual division of labor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a>, and the resulting relationship between two people, it is necessary for the formation of an economically productive <a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">household</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terminology">Terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beowulf_-_cynne.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Beowulf_-_cynne.jpg" decoding="async" width="158" height="66" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="158" data-file-height="66" /></a><figcaption>A mention of "cȳnne" (kinsmen) in the <i><a href="/wiki/Beowulf" title="Beowulf">Beowulf</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Different societies classify kinship relations differently and therefore use different systems of <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">kinship terminology</a> – for example some languages distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Affinal_kin" class="mw-redirect" title="Affinal kin">affinal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Consanguine" class="mw-redirect" title="Consanguine">consanguine</a> uncles, whereas others have only one word to refer to both a father and his brothers. Kinship terminologies include the terms of address used in different languages or communities for different relatives and the terms of reference used to identify the relationship of these relatives to ego or to each other. </p><p>Kin terminologies can be either <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">descriptive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Classificatory_kinship" title="Classificatory kinship">classificatory</a>. When a descriptive terminology is used, a term refers to only one specific type of relationship, while a classificatory terminology groups many different types of relationships under one term. For example, the word <i><a href="/wiki/Brother" title="Brother">brother</a></i> in English-speaking societies indicates a son of one's same parent; thus, English-speaking societies use the word <i>brother</i> as a descriptive term referring to this relationship only. In many other classificatory kinship terminologies, in contrast, a person's male first cousin (whether mother's brother's son, mother's sister's son, father's brother's son, father's sister's son) may also be referred to as brothers. </p><p>The major patterns of kinship systems that are known which <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a> identified through kinship terminology in his 1871 work <i>Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family</i> are: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_kinship" title="Iroquois kinship">Iroquois kinship</a> (also known as "bifurcate merging")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_kinship" title="Crow kinship">Crow kinship</a> (an expansion of bifurcate merging)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_kinship" title="Omaha kinship">Omaha kinship</a> (also an expansion of bifurcate merging)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo_kinship" title="Eskimo kinship">Eskimo kinship</a> (also referred to as "lineal kinship")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_kinship" title="Hawaiian kinship">Hawaiian kinship</a> (also referred to as the "generational system")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_kinship" title="Sudanese kinship">Sudanese kinship</a> (also referred to as the "descriptive system")<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>There is a seventh type of system only identified as distinct later: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_kinship" class="mw-redirect" title="Dravidian kinship">Dravidian kinship</a> (the classical type of <a href="/wiki/Classificatory_kinship" title="Classificatory kinship">classificatory kinship</a>, with bifurcate merging but totally distinct from Iroquois). Most <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal kinship</a> is also classificatory.</li></ul> <p>The six types (Crow, Eskimo, Hawaiian, Iroquois, Omaha, Sudanese) that are not fully classificatory (Dravidian, Australian) are those identified by Murdock (1949) prior to Lounsbury's (1964) rediscovery of the linguistic principles of classificatory kin terms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tri-relational_kin-terms">Tri-relational kin-terms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Tri-relational kin-terms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trirelational.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Trirelational.jpg/220px-Trirelational.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="353" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Trirelational.jpg/330px-Trirelational.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Trirelational.jpg/440px-Trirelational.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="2860" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of the bi-relational and tri-relational senses of <i>nakurrng</i> in <a href="/wiki/Bininj_Kunwok" title="Bininj Kunwok">Bininj Kunwok</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While normal kin-terms discussed above denote a relationship between two entities (e.g. the word 'sister' denotes the relationship between the speaker or some other entity and another feminine entity who shares the parents of the former), trirelational kin-terms—also known as triangular, triadic, ternary, and shared kin-terms—denote a relationship between three distinct entities. These occur commonly in <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_languages" title="Australian Aboriginal languages">Australian Aboriginal languages</a> with the context of <a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal kinship</a>. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Bininj_Kunwok" title="Bininj Kunwok">Bininj Kunwok</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for example, the bi-relational kin-term <i>nakurrng</i> is differentiated from its tri-relational counterpart by the position of the possessive pronoun <i>ke</i>. When <i>nakurrng</i> is anchored to the addressee with <i>ke</i> in the second position, it simply means 'brother' (which includes a broader set of relations than in English). When the <i>ke</i> is fronted, however, the term <i>nakurrng</i> now incorporates the male speaker as a propositus (<b>P</b> i.e. point of reference for a kin-relation) and encapsulates the entire relationship as follows: </p> <ul><li>The person (<b>R</b><small>eferent</small>) who is your (<b>A</b><small>ddressee</small>) maternal uncle and who is my (<b>S</b><small>peaker</small>) nephew by virtue of you being my grandchild.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kin-based_group_terms_and_pronouns">Kin-based group terms and pronouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Kin-based group terms and pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many Australian languages also have elaborate systems of referential terms for denoting groups of people based on their relationship to one another (not just their relationship to the speaker or an external propositus like 'grandparents'). For example, in <a href="/wiki/Kuuk_Thaayorre_language" title="Kuuk Thaayorre language">Kuuk Thaayorre<i>,</i></a> a maternal grandfather and his sister are referred to as <i>paanth ngan-ngethe</i> and addressed with the vocative <i>ngethin.</i><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Bardi_language" title="Bardi language">Bardi</a>, a father and his sister are <i>irrmoorrgooloo</i>; a man's wife and his children are <i>aalamalarr.</i> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Murrinh-patha_language" title="Murrinh-patha language">Murrinh-patha</a>, nonsingular pronouns are differentiated not only by the gender makeup of the group, but also by the members' interrelation. If the members are in a sibling-like relation, a third pronoun (SIB) will be chosen distinct from the Masculine (MASC) and Feminine/Neuter (FEM).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descent">Descent</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Descent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Descent_rules">Descent rules</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Descent rules"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many societies where kinship connections are important, there are rules, though they may be expressed or be taken for granted. There are four main headings that anthropologists use to categorize rules of descent. They are <a href="/wiki/Bilateral_descent" title="Bilateral descent">bilateral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unilineality" title="Unilineality">unilineal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ambilineality" title="Ambilineality">ambilineal</a> and double descent.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Bilateral descent or two-sided descent affiliates an individual more or less equally with relatives on his father's and mother's sides. A good example is the <a href="/wiki/Yakurr_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yakurr people">Yakurr</a> of the Crossriver state of Nigeria.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Unilineal">Unilineal</a> rules affiliates an individual through the descent of one sex only, that is, either through males or through females. They are subdivided into two: <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal">patrilineal</a> (male) and <a href="/wiki/Matrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrilineal">matrilineal</a> (female). Most societies are patrilineal. Examples of a matrilineal system of descent are the <a href="/wiki/Nyakyusa_people" title="Nyakyusa people">Nyakyusa</a> of Tanzania and the <a href="/wiki/Nair" title="Nair">Nair</a> of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Many societies that practise a matrilineal system often have a <a href="/wiki/Matrilocal_residence" title="Matrilocal residence">matrilocal residence</a> but men still exercise significant authority.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambilineal">Ambilineal</a> (or Cognatic) rule affiliates an individual with kinsmen through the father's or mother's line. Some people in societies that practise this system affiliate with a group of relatives through their fathers and others through their mothers. The individual can choose which side he wants to affiliate to. The <a href="/wiki/Samoans" title="Samoans">Samoans</a> of the South Pacific are an excellent example of an ambilineal society. The core members of the Samoan descent group can live together in the same compound.</li> <li>Double descent (or double unilineal descent) refers to societies in which both the patrilineal and matrilineal descent group are recognized. In these societies an individual affiliates for some purposes with a group of patrilineal kinsmen and for other purposes with a group of matrilineal kinsmen. Individuals in societies that practice this are recognized as a part of multiple descent groups, usually at least two. The most widely known case of double descent is the <a href="/wiki/Afikpo" title="Afikpo">Afikpo</a> of Imo state in Nigeria. Although patrilineage is considered an important method of organization, the Afikpo considers matrilineal ties to be more important.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Descent_groups">Descent groups</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Descent groups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A descent group is a <a href="/wiki/Group_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Group (sociology)">social group</a> whose members talk about common ancestry. A <a href="/wiki/Unilineal_descent" class="mw-redirect" title="Unilineal descent">unilineal</a> society is one in which the descent of an individual is reckoned either from the mother's or the father's line of descent. <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">Matrilineal descent</a> is based on relationship to females of the family line. A child would not be recognized with their father's family in these societies, but would be seen as a member of their mother's family's line.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simply put, individuals belong to their mother's descent group. Matrilineal descent includes the mother's brother, who in some societies may pass along inheritance to the sister's children or succession to a sister's son. Conversely, with <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineal descent</a>, individuals belong to their father's descent group. Children are recognized as members of their father's family, and descent is based on relationship to males of the family line.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Societies with the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois_kinship" title="Iroquois kinship">Iroquois kinship</a> system, are typically unilineal, while the Iroquois proper are specifically matrilineal. </p><p>In a society which reckons descent bilaterally (bilineal), descent is reckoned through both father and mother, without unilineal descent groups. Societies with the <a href="/wiki/Eskimo_kinship" title="Eskimo kinship">Eskimo kinship</a> system, like the <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yupik_peoples" title="Yupik peoples">Yupik</a>, and most Western societies, are typically bilateral. The egocentric kindred group is also typical of bilateral societies. Additionally, the Batek people of Malaysia recognize kinship ties through both parents' family lines, and kinship terms indicate that neither parent nor their families are of more or less importance than the other.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some societies reckon descent patrilineally for some purposes, and matrilineally for others. This arrangement is sometimes called double descent. For instance, certain property and titles may be inherited through the male line, and others through the female line. </p><p>Societies can also consider descent to be <a href="/wiki/Ambilineal_descent" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambilineal descent">ambilineal</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_kinship" title="Hawaiian kinship">Hawaiian kinship</a>) where offspring determine their lineage through the <a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">matrilineal line</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">patrilineal line</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lineages,_clans,_phratries,_moieties,_and_matrimonial_sides"><span id="Lineages.2C_clans.2C_phratries.2C_moieties.2C_and_matrimonial_sides"></span>Lineages, clans, phratries, moieties, and matrimonial sides</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Lineages, clans, phratries, moieties, and matrimonial sides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A lineage is a <a href="/wiki/Unilineal_descent" class="mw-redirect" title="Unilineal descent">unilineal descent</a> group that can demonstrate their common descent from a known <a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">apical ancestor</a>. Unilineal lineages can be matrilineal or patrilineal, depending on whether they are traced through mothers or fathers, respectively. Whether matrilineal or patrilineal descent is considered most significant differs from culture to culture. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a> is generally a descent group claiming common descent from an apical ancestor. Often, the details of parentage are not important elements of the clan tradition. Non-human apical ancestors are called <a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totems</a>. Examples of clans are found in <a href="/wiki/Teip" title="Teip">Chechen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consort_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Consort clan">Chinese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irish_clans" title="Irish clans">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_clans" title="Japanese clans">Japanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_clans" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish clans">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Scottish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlingit people">Tlingit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Somali_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali clan">Somali</a> societies. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Phratry" title="Phratry">phratry</a> is a descent group composed of three or more clans each of whose apical ancestors are descended from a further common ancestor. </p><p>If a society is divided into exactly two descent groups, each is called a <a href="/wiki/Moiety_(kinship)" title="Moiety (kinship)">moiety</a>, after the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> word for <i>half</i>. If the two halves are each obliged to marry out, and into the other, these are called matrimonial <a href="/wiki/Moiety_(kinship)" title="Moiety (kinship)">moieties</a>. Houseman and White (1998b, bibliography) have discovered numerous societies where kinship network analysis shows that two halves marry one another, similar to matrimonial moieties, except that the two halves—which they call matrimonial <i>sides</i><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—are neither named nor descent groups, although the egocentric kinship terms may be consistent with the pattern of sidedness, whereas the sidedness is culturally evident but imperfect.<sup id="cite_ref-Houseman1998a_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Houseman1998a-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>deme</i> refers to an endogamous local population that does not have unilineal descent.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, a deme is a local endogamous community without internal segmentation into clans. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="House_societies">House societies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: House societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></div> <p>In some societies kinship and political relations are organized around membership in corporately organized dwellings rather than around <a href="/wiki/Descent_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Descent group">descent groups</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">lineages</a>, as in the "<a href="/wiki/House_of_Windsor" title="House of Windsor">House of Windsor</a>". The concept of a house society was originally proposed by <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> who called them "<i>sociétés à maison</i>".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept has been applied to understand the organization of societies from <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moluccas" class="mw-redirect" title="Moluccas">Moluccas</a> to <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and medieval Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lévi-Strauss introduced the concept as an alternative to 'corporate kinship group' among the cognatic kinship groups of the Pacific region. The socially significant groupings within these societies have variable membership because kinship is reckoned bilaterally (through both father's and mother's kin) and comes together for only short periods. Property, genealogy and residence are not the basis for the group's existence.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marriage_(affinity)"><span id="Marriage_.28affinity.29"></span>Marriage (affinity)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Marriage (affinity)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></div> <p>Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between <a href="/wiki/Spouse" title="Spouse">spouses</a> that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The definition of marriage varies according to different cultures, but it is principally an <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institution</a> in which interpersonal relationships, usually <a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">intimate</a> and sexual, are acknowledged. When defined broadly, marriage is considered a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">cultural universal</a>. A broad definition of marriage includes those that are <a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">monogamous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">polygamous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">same-sex</a> and temporary. </p><p>The act of marriage usually creates <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> or legal obligations between the individuals involved, and any offspring they may produce. Marriage may result, for example, in "a union between a man and a woman such that children born to the woman are the recognized legitimate offspring of both partners."<sup id="cite_ref-Notes_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Notes-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Edmund Leach argued that no one definition of marriage applied to all cultures, but offered a list of ten rights frequently associated with marriage, including sexual monopoly and rights with respect to children (with specific rights differing across cultures).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is wide cross-cultural variation in the social rules governing the selection of a partner for marriage. In many societies, the choice of partner is limited to suitable persons from specific social groups. In some societies the rule is that a partner is selected from an individual's own social group – <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a>, this is the case in many class and caste based societies. But in other societies a partner must be chosen from a different group than one's own – <a href="/wiki/Exogamy" title="Exogamy">exogamy</a>, this is the case in many societies practicing <a href="/wiki/Totem" title="Totem">totemic</a> religion where society is divided into several exogamous totemic clans, such as most <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="Aboriginal Australian">Aboriginal Australian</a> societies. Marriages between parents and children, or between full siblings, with few exceptions,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have been considered <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a> and forbidden. However, <a href="/wiki/Cousin_marriage" title="Cousin marriage">marriages between more distant relatives</a> have been much more common, with one estimate being that 80% of all marriages in history have been between second cousins or closer.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alliance_(marital_exchange_systems)"><span id="Alliance_.28marital_exchange_systems.29"></span>Alliance (marital exchange systems)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alliance (marital exchange systems)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></div> <p>Systemic forms of preferential marriage may have wider social implications in terms of economic and political organization. In a wide array of lineage-based societies with a <a href="/wiki/Kinship_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinship system">classificatory kinship system</a>, potential spouses are sought from a specific class of relatives as determined by a prescriptive marriage rule. Insofar as regular marriages following prescriptive rules occur, lineages are linked together in fixed relationships; these ties between lineages may form political alliances in kinship dominated societies.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Structuralism (sociology)">structural</a> anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">alliance theory</a> to account for the "elementary" kinship structures created by the limited number of prescriptive marriage rules possible.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Claude Lévi-Strauss argued in <i>The Elementary Structures of Kinship</i> (1949), that the <a href="/wiki/Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">incest taboo</a> necessitated the exchange of women between kinship groups. Levi-Strauss thus shifted the emphasis from descent groups to the stable <i>structures</i> or relations between groups that preferential and prescriptive marriage rules created.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the foundational works in the anthropological study of kinship was <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Morgan's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Systems_of_Consanguinity_and_Affinity_of_the_Human_Family" title="Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family">Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family</a></i> (1871). As is the case with other social sciences, Anthropology and kinship studies emerged at a time when the understanding of the Human species' comparative place in the world was somewhat different from today's. Evidence that life in stable social groups is not just a feature of humans, but also of many other <a href="/wiki/Primate#Behavior" title="Primate">primates</a>, was yet to emerge and <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> was considered to be a uniquely human affair. As a result, early kinship theorists saw an apparent need to explain not only the details of <i>how</i> human social groups are constructed, their patterns, meanings and obligations, but also <i>why</i> they are constructed at all. The <i>why</i> explanations thus typically presented the fact of life in social groups (<i>which appeared to be unique to humans</i>) as being largely a result of human ideas and values. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Morgan's_early_influence"><span id="Morgan.27s_early_influence"></span>Morgan's early influence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Morgan's early influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kinship_Systems.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Kinship_Systems.svg/220px-Kinship_Systems.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Kinship_Systems.svg/330px-Kinship_Systems.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Kinship_Systems.svg/440px-Kinship_Systems.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1330" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>A broad comparison of (left, top-to-bottom) <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_kinship" title="Hawaiian kinship">Hawaiian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sudanese_kinship" title="Sudanese kinship">Sudanese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eskimo_kinship" title="Eskimo kinship">Eskimo</a>, (right, top-to-bottom) <a href="/wiki/Iroquois_kinship" title="Iroquois kinship">Iroquois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crow_kinship" title="Crow kinship">Crow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Omaha_kinship" title="Omaha kinship">Omaha kinship</a> systems</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></div> <p>Morgan's explanation for why humans live in groups was largely based on the notion that all humans have an inherent <i>natural valuation</i> of genealogical ties (an unexamined assumption that would remain at the heart of kinship studies for another century, see below), and therefore also an inherent desire to construct social groups around these ties. Even so, Morgan found that members of a society who are <i>not</i> close genealogical relatives may nevertheless use what he called <i>kinship terms</i> (which he considered to be originally based on genealogical ties). This fact was already evident in his use of the term <i>affinity</i> within his concept of the <i>system of kinship</i>. The most lasting of Morgan's contributions was his discovery of the difference between descriptive and <a href="/wiki/Classificatory_kinship" title="Classificatory kinship">classificatory kinship</a> terms, which situated broad kinship classes on the basis of imputing abstract social patterns of relationships having little or no overall relation to genetic closeness but instead cognition about kinship, social distinctions as they affect linguistic usages in <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">kinship terminology</a>, and strongly relate, if only by approximation, to patterns of marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-Houseman1998a_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Houseman1998a-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinship_networks_and_social_process">Kinship networks and social process</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Kinship networks and social process"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more flexible view of kinship was formulated in British <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social anthropology</a>. Among the attempts to break out of universalizing assumptions and theories about kinship, <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe-Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Radcliffe-Brown">Radcliffe-Brown</a> (1922, The <a href="/wiki/Andaman_Islands" title="Andaman Islands">Andaman Islands</a>; 1930, The social organization of Australian tribes) was the first to assert that kinship relations are best thought of as concrete networks of relationships among individuals. He then described these relationships, however, as typified by interlocking interpersonal roles. <a href="/wiki/Malinowski" title="Malinowski">Malinowski</a> (1922, Argonauts of the Western Pacific) described patterns of events with concrete individuals as participants stressing the relative stability of institutions and communities, but without insisting on abstract systems or models of kinship. <a href="/wiki/Max_Gluckman" title="Max Gluckman">Gluckman</a> (1955, The judicial process among the Barotse of Northern Rhodesia) balanced the emphasis on stability of institutions against processes of change and conflict, inferred through detailed analysis of instances of social interaction to infer rules and assumptions. <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Barnes_(anthropologist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Barnes (anthropologist) (page does not exist)">John Barnes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_Turner" title="Victor Turner">Victor Turner</a>, and others, affiliated with Gluckman's Manchester school of anthropology, described patterns of actual network relations in communities and fluid situations in urban or migratory context, as with the work of <a href="/wiki/J._Clyde_Mitchell" title="J. Clyde Mitchell">J. Clyde Mitchell</a> (1965, Social Networks in Urban Situations). Yet, all these approaches clung to a view of stable <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">functionalism</a>, with kinship as one of the central stable institutions. More recently, under the influence of "new kinship studies", there has been a shift of emphasis from the being to the doing of kinship. A new generation of anthropologist study the processes of doing kinship in new contexts such as in migrant communities<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in queer families.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Kinship_system"_as_systemic_pattern"><span id=".22Kinship_system.22_as_systemic_pattern"></span>"Kinship system" as systemic pattern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: "Kinship system" as systemic pattern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of "system of kinship" tended to dominate anthropological studies of kinship in the early 20th century. Kinship systems as defined in anthropological texts and ethnographies were seen as constituted by patterns of behavior and attitudes in relation to the differences in terminology, listed above, for referring to relationships as well as for addressing others. Many anthropologists went so far as to see, in these patterns of kinship, strong relations between <a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">kinship categories</a> and patterns of marriage, including forms of marriage, restrictions on marriage, and cultural concepts of the boundaries of <a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">incest</a>. A great deal of inference was necessarily involved in such constructions as to "systems" of kinship, and attempts to construct systemic patterns and reconstruct kinship evolutionary histories on these bases were largely invalidated in later work. However, anthropologist Dwight Read later argued that the way in which kinship categories are defined by individual researchers are substantially inconsistent.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This not only occurs when working within a systemic cultural model that can be elicited in fieldwork, but also when allowing considerable individual variability in details, such as when they are recorded through relative products.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflicting_theories_of_the_mid_20th_century">Conflicting theories of the mid 20th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Conflicting theories of the mid 20th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In trying to resolve the problems of dubious inferences about kinship "systems", <a href="/wiki/George_P._Murdock" class="mw-redirect" title="George P. Murdock">George P. Murdock</a> (1949, Social Structure) compiled kinship data to test a theory about universals in human kinship in the way that terminologies were influenced by the behavioral similarities or social differences among pairs of kin, proceeding on the view that the psychological ordering of kinship systems radiates out from ego and the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a> to different forms of <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended family</a>. <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9vi-Strauss" class="mw-redirect" title="Lévi-Strauss">Lévi-Strauss</a> (1949, Les Structures Elementaires), on the other hand, also looked for global patterns to kinship, but viewed the <a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">"elementary" forms</a> of kinship as lying in the ways that families were connected by marriage in different fundamental forms resembling those of <a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">modes of exchange</a>: symmetric and direct, reciprocal delay, or <a href="/wiki/Generalized_exchange" title="Generalized exchange">generalized exchange</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition_of_fluidity_in_kinship_meanings_and_relations">Recognition of fluidity in kinship meanings and relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Recognition of fluidity in kinship meanings and relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Building on Lévi-Strauss's (1949) notions of kinship as caught up with the fluid languages of exchange, <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Leach" title="Edmund Leach">Edmund Leach</a> (1961, Pul Eliya) argued that kinship was a flexible idiom that had something of the grammar of a language, both in the uses of terms for kin but also in the fluidities of language, meaning, and networks. His field studies criticized the ideas of structural-functional stability of kinship groups as corporations with charters that lasted long beyond the lifetimes of individuals, which had been the orthodoxy of <a href="/wiki/British_Social_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="British Social Anthropology">British Social Anthropology</a>. This sparked debates over whether kinship could be resolved into specific organized sets of rules and components of meaning, or whether kinship meanings were more fluid, symbolic, and independent of grounding in supposedly determinate relations among individuals or groups, such as those of descent or prescriptions for marriage. </p><p>From the 1950s onwards, reports on kinship patterns in the New Guinea Highlands added some momentum to what had until then been only occasional fleeting suggestions that living together (co-residence) might underlie social bonding, and eventually contributed to the general shift away from a genealogical approach (see below section). For example, on the basis of his observations, Barnes suggested: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[C]learly, genealogical connexion of some sort is one criterion for membership of many social groups. But it may not be the only criterion; birth, or residence, or a parent's former residence, or utilization of garden land, or participation in exchange and feasting activities or in house-building or raiding, may be other relevant criteria for group membership."(Barnes 1962,6)<sup id="cite_ref-B1962_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-B1962-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Similarly, Langness' ethnography of the <i>Bena Bena</i> also emphasized the primacy of residence patterns in 'creating' kinship ties: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i>The sheer fact of residence in a Bena Bena group can and does determine kinship.</i> People do not necessarily reside where they do because they are kinsmen: rather they become kinsmen because they reside there." (Langness 1964, 172 emphasis in original)<sup id="cite_ref-L1964_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-L1964-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1972 <a href="/wiki/David_M._Schneider" title="David M. Schneider">David M. Schneider</a> raised<sup id="cite_ref-S1972_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1972-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> deep problems with the notion that human social bonds and 'kinship' was a natural category built upon genealogical ties and made a fuller argument in his 1984 book <i>A Critique of the Study of Kinship</i><sup id="cite_ref-S1984_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1984-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had a major influence on the subsequent study of kinship. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schneider's_critique_of_genealogical_concepts"><span id="Schneider.27s_critique_of_genealogical_concepts"></span>Schneider's critique of genealogical concepts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Schneider's critique of genealogical concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the questions raised within anthropology about the study of 'kinship' by <a href="/wiki/David_M._Schneider" title="David M. Schneider">David M. Schneider</a><sup id="cite_ref-S1984_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1984-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and others from the 1960s onwards, anthropology itself had paid very little attention to the notion that kinship bonds were anything other than connected to consanguineal (or genealogical) relatedness (or its local cultural conceptions). Schneider's 1968 study<sup id="cite_ref-S1968_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-S1968-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the symbolic meanings surrounding ideas of kinship in American Culture found that Americans ascribe a special significance to 'blood ties' as well as related symbols like the naturalness of marriage and raising children within this culture. In later work (1972 and 1984) Schneider argued that unexamined genealogical notions of kinship had been embedded in anthropology since Morgan's early work<sup id="cite_ref-M1870_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-M1870-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because American anthropologists (and anthropologists in western Europe) had made the mistake of assuming these <i>particular cultural values</i> of 'blood is thicker than water', common in their own societies, were 'natural' and universal for all human cultures (i.e. a form of ethnocentrism). He concluded that, due to these unexamined assumptions, the whole enterprise of 'kinship' in anthropology may have been built on faulty foundations. His 1984 book <i>A Critique of The Study of Kinship</i> gave his fullest account of this critique. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Certainly for Morgan (1870:10) the actual bonds of blood relationship had a force and vitality of their own quite apart from any social overlay which they may also have acquired, and it is this biological relationship itself which accounts for what Radcliffe-Brown called "the source of social cohesion". (Schneider 1984, 49)</p></blockquote> <p>Schneider himself emphasised a distinction between the notion of a social relationship as intrinsically <i>given</i> and inalienable (<i>from birth</i>), and a social relationship as created, constituted and maintained by a process of interaction, or <i>doing</i> (Schneider 1984, 165). Schneider used the example of the citamangen / fak relationship in Yap society, that his own early research had previously glossed over as a <i>father / son</i> relationship, to illustrate the problem; </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The crucial point is this: in the relationship between <i>citamangen</i> and <i>fak</i> the stress in the definition of the relationship is more on doing than on being. That is, it is more what the <i>citamangen</i> does for <i>fak</i> and what <i>fak</i> does for <i>citamangen</i> that makes or constitutes the relationship. This is demonstrated, first, in the ability to terminate absolutely the relationship where there is a failure in the doing, when the <i>fak</i> fails to do what he is supposed to do; and second, in the reversal of terms so that the old, dependent man becomes <i>fak</i>, to the young man, <i>tam</i>. The European and the anthropological notion of consanguinity, of blood relationship and descent, rest on precisely the opposite kind of value. It rests more on the state of being... on the biogenetic relationship which is represented by one or another variant of the symbol of 'blood' (consanguinity), or on 'birth', on qualities rather than on performance. We have tried to impose this definition of a kind of relation on all peoples, insisting that kinship consists in relations of consanguinity and that kinship as consanguinity is a universal condition.(Schneider 1984, 72)</p></blockquote> <p>Schneider preferred to focus on these often ignored processes of "performance, forms of doing, various codes for conduct, different roles" (p. 72) as the most important constituents of kinship. His critique quickly prompted a new generation of anthropologists to reconsider how they conceptualized, observed and described social relationships ('kinship') in the cultures they studied. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Schneider">Post-Schneider</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Post-Schneider"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">nurture kinship</a></div> <p>Schneider's critique is widely acknowledged<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to have marked a turning point in anthropology's study of social relationships and interactions. Some anthropologists moved forward with kinship studies by teasing apart biological and social aspects, prompted by Schneider's question; </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The question of whether kinship is a privileged system and if so, why, remains without a satisfactory answer. If it is privileged because of its relationship to the functional prerequisites imposed by the nature of physical kinship, this remains to be spelled out in even the most elementary detail. (Schneider 1984, 163)</p></blockquote> <p>Schneider also dismissed the sociobiological account of biological influences, maintaining that these did not fit the ethnographic evidence (see more below). <a href="/wiki/Janet_Carsten" title="Janet Carsten">Janet Carsten</a> employed her studies with the Malays<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to reassess kinship. She uses the idea of <i>relatedness</i> to move away from a pre-constructed analytic opposition between the biological and the social. Carsten argued that relatedness should be described in terms of indigenous statements and practices, some of which fall outside what anthropologists have conventionally understood as kinship; </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Ideas about relatedness in Langkawi show how culturally specific is the separation of the 'social' from the 'biological' and the latter to sexual reproduction. In Langkawi relatedness is derived both from acts of procreation and from living and eating together. It makes little sense in indigenous terms to label some of these activities as social and others as biological. (Carsten 1995, 236)</p></blockquote> <p>Philip Thomas' work with the Temanambondro of <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> highlights that nurturing processes are considered to be the 'basis' for kinship ties in this culture, notwithstanding genealogical connections; </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Yet just as fathers are not simply made by birth, neither are mothers, and although mothers are not made by "custom" they, like fathers, can make themselves through another type of performatively constituted relation, the giving of "nurture". Relations of ancestry are particularly important in contexts of ritual, inheritance and the defining of marriageability and incest; they are in effect the "structuring structures" (Bourdieu 1977) of social reproduction and intergenerational continuity. Father, mother and children are, however, also performatively related through the giving and receiving of "nurture" (fitezana). Like ancestry, relations of "nurture" do not always coincide with relations by birth; but unlike ancestry, "nurture" is a largely ungendered relation, constituted in contexts of everyday practical existence, in the intimate, familial and familiar world of the household, and in ongoing relations of work and consumption, of feeding and farming. (Thomas 1999, 37)<sup id="cite_ref-T1999_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T1999-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Similar ethnographic accounts have emerged from a variety of cultures since Schneider's intervention. The concept of <a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">nurture kinship</a> highlights the extent to which kinship relationships may be brought into being through the performance of various acts of nurture between individuals. Additionally the concept highlights ethnographic findings that, in a wide swath of human societies, people understand, conceptualize and symbolize their relationships predominantly in terms of giving, receiving and sharing nurture. These approaches were somewhat forerun by <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Malinowski</a>, in his <a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">ethnographic</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sexual behavior">sexual behaviour</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Trobriand_Islands" title="Trobriand Islands">Trobriand Islands</a> which noted that the Trobrianders did not believe pregnancy to be the result of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">sexual intercourse</a> between the man and the woman, and they denied that there was any physiological relationship between father and child.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, while paternity was unknown in the "full biological sense", for a woman to have a child without having a husband was considered socially undesirable. Fatherhood was therefore recognised as a social and nurturing role; the woman's husband is the "man whose role and duty it is to take the child in his arms and to help her in nursing and bringing it up";<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Thus, though the natives are ignorant of any physiological need for a male in the constitution of the family, they regard him as indispensable socially".<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology,_psychology_and_kinship"><span id="Biology.2C_psychology_and_kinship"></span>Biology, psychology and kinship</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Biology, psychology and kinship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Human_inclusive_fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Human inclusive fitness">Human inclusive fitness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment theory</a></div> <p>Like Schneider, other anthropologists of kinship have largely rejected sociobiological accounts of human social patterns as being both reductionistic and also empirically incompatible with ethnographic data on human kinship. Notably, <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Sahlins" title="Marshall Sahlins">Marshall Sahlins</a> strongly critiqued the sociobiological approach through reviews of ethnographies in his 1976 <i>The Use and Abuse of Biology</i><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> noting that for humans "the categories of 'near' and 'distant' [kin] vary independently of consanguinal distance and that these categories organize actual social practice" (p. 112). </p><p>Independently from anthropology, biologists studying organisms' social behaviours and relationships have been interested to understand under what conditions significant social behaviors can evolve to become a typical feature of a species (see <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">inclusive fitness</a> theory). Because complex social relationships and cohesive social groups are common not only to humans, but also to most primates, biologists maintain that these biological theories of sociality should in principle be generally applicable. The more challenging question arises as to how such ideas can be applied to the human species whilst fully taking account of the extensive ethnographic evidence that has emerged from anthropological research on kinship patterns. </p><p>Early developments of biological <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">inclusive fitness</a> theory and the derivative field of <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a>, encouraged some <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychologists</a> to approach human kinship with the assumption that <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">inclusive fitness</a> theory predicts that kinship relations in humans <i>are indeed</i> expected to depend on genetic relatedness, which they readily connected with the <i>genealogy</i> approach of early anthropologists such as Morgan (see above sections). However, this is the position that Schneider, Sahlins and other anthropologists explicitly reject. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nonreductive_biology_and_nurture_kinship">Nonreductive biology and nurture kinship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nonreductive biology and nurture kinship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_Bonding_and_Nurture_Kinship" title="Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship">Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship</a></div> <p>In agreement with Schneider, <a href="/wiki/Social_Bonding_and_Nurture_Kinship" title="Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship">Holland</a> argued<sup id="cite_ref-SBNK_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SBNK-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that an accurate account of biological theory and evidence supports the view that social bonds (and kinship) are indeed mediated by a shared social environment and processes of frequent interaction, care and nurture, rather than by genealogical relationships <i>per se</i> (even if genealogical relationships frequently correlate with such processes). In his 2012 book <i>Social bonding and nurture kinship</i> Holland argues that sociobiologists and later evolutionary psychologists misrepresent biological theory, mistakenly believing that <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">inclusive fitness</a> theory predicts that genetic relatedness <i>per se</i> is the condition that <i>mediates</i> social bonding and social cooperation in organisms. Holland points out that the biological theory (see <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">inclusive fitness</a>) only specifies that a statistical relationship between social behaviors and genealogical relatedness is a criterion for the <i>evolution</i> of social behaviors. The theory's originator, <a href="/wiki/W._D._Hamilton" title="W. D. Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a> considered that organisms' social behaviours were likely to be mediated by general conditions that typically <i>correlate</i> with genetic relatedness, but are not likely to be mediated by genetic relatedness <i>per se</i><sup id="cite_ref-H1987_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H1987-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Human_inclusive_fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Human inclusive fitness">Human inclusive fitness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kin_recognition" title="Kin recognition">Kin recognition</a>). Holland reviews fieldwork from social mammals and primates to show that social bonding and cooperation in these species is indeed mediated through processes of shared living context, familiarity and <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">attachments</a>, not by genetic relatedness <i>per se</i>. Holland thus argues that both the biological <i>theory</i> and the biological <i>evidence</i> is nondeterministic and nonreductive, and that biology as a theoretical and empirical endeavor (as opposed to 'biology' as a cultural-symbolic nexus as outlined in Schneider's 1968 book) actually supports the <i><a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">nurture kinship</a></i> perspective of cultural anthropologists working post-Schneider (see above sections). Holland argues that, whilst there is nonreductive compatibility around human kinship between anthropology, biology and psychology, for a full account of kinship in any <i>particular</i> human culture, ethnographic methods, including accounts of the people themselves, the analysis of historical contingencies, symbolic systems, economic and other cultural influences, remain centrally important. </p><p>Holland's position is widely supported by both cultural anthropologists and biologists as an approach which, according to Robin Fox, <i>"gets to the heart of the matter concerning the contentious relationship between kinship categories, genetic relatedness and the prediction of behavior"</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-RF2012_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RF2012-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_psychology">Evolutionary psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Evolutionary psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div> <p>The other approach, that of Evolutionary psychology, continues to take the view that genetic relatedness (or <a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">genealogy</a>) is key to understanding human kinship patterns. In contrast to Sahlin's position (above), Daly and Wilson argue that "the categories of 'near' and 'distant' do not 'vary independently of consanguinal distance', not in any society on earth." (Daly et al. 1997,<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> p282). A current view is that humans have an inborn but culturally affected system for detecting certain forms of genetic relatedness. One important factor for <a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">sibling</a> detection, especially relevant for older siblings, is that if an infant and one's mother are seen to care for the infant, then the infant and oneself are assumed to be related. Another factor, especially important for younger siblings who cannot use the first method, is that persons who grew up together see one another as related. Yet another may be genetic detection based on the <a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">major histocompatibility complex</a> (See <a href="/wiki/Major_Histocompatibility_Complex_and_Sexual_Selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection">Major Histocompatibility Complex and Sexual Selection</a>). This kinship detection system in turn affects other genetic predispositions such as the <a href="/wiki/Incest_taboo" title="Incest taboo">incest taboo</a> and a tendency for <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a> towards relatives.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One issue within this approach is why many societies organize according to descent (see below) and not exclusively according to kinship. An explanation is that kinship does not form clear boundaries and is centered differently for each individual. In contrast, descent groups usually do form clear boundaries and provide an easy way to create cooperative groups of various sizes.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford2007_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford2007-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to an evolutionary psychology hypothesis that assumes that descent systems are optimized to assure high genetic probability of relatedness between lineage members, males should prefer a patrilineal system if paternal certainty is high; males should prefer a matrilineal system if paternal certainty is low. Some research supports this association with one study finding no patrilineal society with low paternity confidence and no matrilineal society with high paternal certainty. Another association is that <a href="/wiki/Pastoral" title="Pastoral">pastoral</a> societies are relatively more often patrilineal compared to <a href="/wiki/Horticultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Horticultural">horticultural</a> societies. This may be because wealth in pastoral societies in the form of mobile cattle can easily be used to pay <a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">bride price</a> which favor concentrating resources on sons so they can marry.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford2007_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford2007-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The evolutionary psychology account of biology continues to be rejected by most cultural anthropologists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extensions_of_the_kinship_metaphor">Extensions of the kinship metaphor</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Extensions of the kinship metaphor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fictive_kinship">Fictive kinship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Fictive kinship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">Fictive kinship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">Nurture kinship</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Milk_kinship" title="Milk kinship">Milk kinship</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Detailed_terms_for_parentage">Detailed terms for parentage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Detailed terms for parentage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As social and biological concepts of parenthood are not necessarily coterminous, the terms "pater" and "genitor" have been used in anthropology to distinguish between the man who is socially recognised as father (pater) and the man who is believed to be the physiological parent (genitor); similarly the terms "mater" and "genitrix" have been used to distinguish between the woman socially recognised as mother (mater) and the woman believed to be the physiological parent (genitrix).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a distinction is useful when the individual who is considered the legal parent of the child is not the individual who is believed to be the child's biological parent. For example, in his ethnography of the <a href="/wiki/Nuer_people" title="Nuer people">Nuer</a>, <a href="/wiki/E._E._Evans-Pritchard" title="E. E. Evans-Pritchard">Evans-Pritchard</a> notes that if a <a href="/wiki/Widow" title="Widow">widow</a>, following the death of her husband, chooses to live with a lover outside of her deceased husband's kin group, that lover is only considered genitor of any subsequent children the widow has, and her deceased husband continues to be considered the pater. As a result, the lover has no legal control over the children, who may be taken away from him by the kin of the pater when they choose.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms "pater" and "genitor" have also been used to help describe the relationship between children and their parents in the context of divorce in Britain. Following the divorce and remarriage of their parents, children find themselves using the term "mother" or "father" in relation to more than one individual, and the pater or mater who is legally responsible for the child's care, and whose <a href="/wiki/Family_name" class="mw-redirect" title="Family name">family name</a> the child uses, may not be the genitor or genitrix of the child, with whom a separate parent-child relationship may be maintained through arrangements such as <a href="/wiki/Contact_(law)" title="Contact (law)">visitation rights</a> or <a href="/wiki/Joint_custody" title="Joint custody">joint custody</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is important to note that the terms "genitor" or "genetrix" do not necessarily imply actual biological relationships based on <a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">consanguinity</a>, but rather refer to the socially held belief that the individual is physically related to the child, derived from culturally held ideas about how biology works. So, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Ifugao_people" title="Ifugao people">Ifugao</a> may believe that an illegitimate child might have more than one physical father, and so nominate more than one genitor.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> J.A. Barnes therefore argued that it was necessary to make a further distinction between genitor and genitrix (the supposed biological mother and father of the child), and the actual <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> father and mother of the child making them share their genes or genetics . </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Composition_of_relations">Composition of relations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Composition of relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Composition_of_relations" title="Composition of relations">Composition of relations</a></div> <p>The study of kinship may be abstracted to <a href="/wiki/Binary_relation" title="Binary relation">binary relations</a> between people. For example, if <i>x</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">parent</a> of <i>y</i>, the relation may be symbolized as <i>xPy</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Converse_relation" title="Converse relation">converse relation</a>, that <i>y</i> is the child of <i>x</i>, is written <i>yP</i><sup>T</sup><i>x</i>. Suppose that <i>z</i> is another child of <i>x</i>: <i>zP</i><sup>T</sup><i>x</i>. Then <i>y</i> is a <a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">sibling</a> of <i>z</i> as they share the parent <i>x</i>: <span class="nowrap"><i>zP</i><sup>T</sup><i>xPy</i> → <i>zP</i><sup>T</sup><i>Py</i></span>. Here the relation of siblings is expressed as the composition <i>P</i><sup>T</sup><i>P</i> of the parent relation with its inverse. </p><p>The relation of <a href="/wiki/Grandparent" title="Grandparent">grandparent</a> is the composition of the parent relation with itself: <span class="nowrap"><i>G</i> = <i>PP</i></span>. An <a href="/wiki/Uncle" title="Uncle">uncle</a> or <a href="/wiki/Aunt" title="Aunt">aunt</a> is the sibling of a parent, <i>(P</i><sup>T</sup><i>P)P</i>, which can also be interpreted as the child of a grandparent, <i>P</i><sup>T</sup><i>(PP)</i>. Suppose <i>x</i> is the grandparent of <i>y</i>: <i>xGy</i>. Then <i>y</i> and <i>z</i> are <a href="/wiki/Cousin" title="Cousin">cousins</a> if <i>yG</i><sup>T</sup><i>xGz</i>. </p><p>The symbols applied here to express kinship are used more generally in <a href="/wiki/Algebraic_logic" title="Algebraic logic">algebraic logic</a> to develop a calculus of relations with sets other than human beings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestry">Ancestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinist" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinist">Kinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_analysis_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kinship analysis (disambiguation)">Kinship analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">Bride price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bride_service" title="Bride service">Bride service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_kinship" title="Chinese kinship">Chinese kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">Consanguinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_anthropology" title="Darwinian anthropology">Darwinian anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">Dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Family history">Family history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">Fictive kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godparent" title="Godparent">Godparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpersonal relationships">Interpersonal relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Kinship" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Kinship">Irish Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(anthropology)" title="Lineage (anthropology)">Lineage (anthropology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">Nurture kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian_kinship" title="Serbo-Croatian kinship">Serbo-Croatian kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_society" title="House society">House society</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFox1983" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Robin (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zr509w02h08C&q=%22working%20with%20the%20same%20raw%20material%20as%20exists%22"><i>Kinship and Marriage: An Anthropological Perspective</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27823-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-27823-2"><bdi>978-0-521-27823-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kinship+and+Marriage%3A+An+Anthropological+Perspective&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-521-27823-2&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dzr509w02h08C%26q%3D%2522working%2520with%2520the%2520same%2520raw%2520material%2520as%2520exists%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum2_eng07.pdf">On Kinship and Gods in Ancient Egypt: An Interview with Marcelo Campagno</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090318175049/http://www.uca.edu.ar/esp/sec-ffilosofia/esp/docs-institutos/s-cehao/boletin/damqatum2_eng07.pdf">Archived</a> 2009-03-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Damqatum" title="Damqatum">Damqatum</a> 2 (2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolf, Eric. 1982 Europe and the People Without History. Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. 92</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harner, Michael 1975 "Scarcity, the Factors of Production, and Social Evolution," in Population. Ecology, and Social Evolution, Steven Polgar, ed. Mouton Publishers: <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">the Hague</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rivière, Peter 1987 "Of Women, Men, and Manioc", Etnologiska Studien (38).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Skin, kin and clan : the dynamics of social categories in Indigenous Australia</i>. McConvell, Patrick,, Kelly, Piers,, Lacrampe, Sébastien,, Australian National University Press. Acton, A.C.T. April 2018. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-76046-164-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-76046-164-5"><bdi>978-1-76046-164-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1031832109">1031832109</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Skin%2C+kin+and+clan+%3A+the+dynamics+of+social+categories+in+Indigenous+Australia&rft.place=Acton%2C+A.C.T.&rft.date=2018-04&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1031832109&rft.isbn=978-1-76046-164-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gaby, Alice Rose. 2006. <i>A Grammar of Kuuk Thaayorre</i>. The University of Melbourne Ph.D.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walsh, Michael James. 1976. <i>The Muɹinypata Language of Northern Australia</i>. The Australian National University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oke Wale, An Introduction to Social Anthropology Second Edition, Part 2, Kinship.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonaghanJust2000" class="citation book cs1">Monaghan, John; Just, Peter (2000). <i>Social & Cultural Anthropology: A Very Short Introduction</i>. 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(2012) <a href="/wiki/Social_Bonding_and_Nurture_Kinship" title="Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship"><i>Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship: Compatibility between Cultural and Biological Approaches</i></a>. North Charleston: Createspace Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-H1987-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-H1987_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hamilton, W.D. 1987. Discriminating nepotism: expectable, common and overlooked. In <i>Kin recognition in animals</i>, edited by D. J. C. Fletcher and C. D. Michener. New York: Wiley.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RF2012-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RF2012_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2012" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Maximilian (26 October 2012). <i>Robin Fox comment (book cover)</i>. Maximilian Holland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1480182004" title="Special:BookSources/978-1480182004"><bdi>978-1480182004</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Robin+Fox+comment+%28book+cover%29&rft.pub=Maximilian+Holland&rft.date=2012-10-26&rft.isbn=978-1480182004&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Maximilian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalySalmonWilson1997" class="citation book cs1">Daly, Martin; Salmon, Catherine; Wilson, Margo (1997). <i>Kinship: the conceptual hole in psychological studies of social cognition and close relationships</i>. Erlbaum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kinship%3A+the+conceptual+hole+in+psychological+studies+of+social+cognition+and+close+relationships&rft.pub=Erlbaum&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Daly&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft.au=Salmon%2C+Catherine&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Margo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiebermanToobyCosmides2007" class="citation journal cs1">Lieberman, D.; Tooby, J.; Cosmides, L. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3581061">"The architecture of human kin detection"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>445</b> (7129): 727–731. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.445..727L">2007Natur.445..727L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature05510">10.1038/nature05510</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3581061">3581061</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17301784">17301784</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=The+architecture+of+human+kin+detection&rft.volume=445&rft.issue=7129&rft.pages=727-731&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3581061%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17301784&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature05510&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Natur.445..727L&rft.aulast=Lieberman&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Tooby%2C+J.&rft.au=Cosmides%2C+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3581061&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford2007-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford2007_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford2007_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology, Edited by Robin Dunbar and Louise Barret, Oxford University Press, 2007, Chapter 31 Kinship and descent by Lee Conk and Drew Gerkey</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFox1977">Fox 1977</a>, p. 34</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEvans-Pritchard1951">Evans-Pritchard 1951</a>, p. 116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSimpson1994">Simpson 1994</a>, pp. 831–851</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBarnes1961">Barnes 1961</a>, pp. 296–299</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes1961" class="citation journal cs1">Barnes, J. A. (1961). "Physical and Social Kinship". <i>Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>28</b> (3): 296–299. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F287811">10.1086/287811</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122178099">122178099</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophy+of+Science&rft.atitle=Physical+and+Social+Kinship&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=296-299&rft.date=1961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F287811&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A122178099%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=J.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoonSchneider1974" class="citation journal cs1">Boon, James A.; Schneider, David M. (October 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1974.76.4.02a00050">"Kinship vis-a-vis Myth Contrasts in Levi-Strauss' Approaches to Cross-Cultural Comparison"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>76</b> (4): 799–817. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1974.76.4.02a00050">10.1525/aa.1974.76.4.02a00050</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Kinship+vis-a-vis+Myth+Contrasts+in+Levi-Strauss%27+Approaches+to+Cross-Cultural+Comparison&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=799-817&rft.date=1974-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1974.76.4.02a00050&rft.aulast=Boon&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Schneider%2C+David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1974.76.4.02a00050&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowlby1982" class="citation book cs1">Bowlby, John (1982). <i>Attachment</i>. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). London: Hogarth.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Attachment&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Hogarth&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Bowlby&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans-Pritchard1951" class="citation book cs1">Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1951). <i>Kinship and Marriage among the Nuer</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kinship+and+Marriage+among+the+Nuer&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1951&rft.aulast=Evans-Pritchard&rft.aufirst=E.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFox1977" class="citation book cs1">Fox, Robin (1977). <i>Kinship and Marriage: An Anthropological Perspective</i>. Harmondsworth: Penguin.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kinship+and+Marriage%3A+An+Anthropological+Perspective&rft.place=Harmondsworth&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Fox&rft.aufirst=Robin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolland2012" class="citation book cs1">Holland, Maximilian (2012). <a href="/wiki/Social_Bonding_and_Nurture_Kinship" title="Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship"><i>Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship: Compatibility Between Cultural and Biological Approaches</i></a>. Createspace Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Bonding+and+Nurture+Kinship%3A+Compatibility+Between+Cultural+and+Biological+Approaches&rft.pub=Createspace+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Holland&rft.aufirst=Maximilian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHousemanWhite1998a" class="citation book cs1">Houseman, Michael; White, Douglas R. (1998a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190610093957/http://eclectic.ss.uci.edu/~drwhite/pub/PUL-CAMB1a.pdf">"Network mediation of exchange structures: Ambilateral sidedness and property flows in Pul Eliya"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In Schweizer, Thomas; White, Douglas R. (eds.). <i>Kinship, Networks and Exchange</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. 59–89. 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"Bringing the 'Unclear' Family Into Focus: Divorce and Re-Marriage in Contemporary Britain". <i>Man</i>. <b>29</b> (4): 831–851. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3033971">10.2307/3033971</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3033971">3033971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Man&rft.atitle=Bringing+the+%27Unclear%27+Family+Into+Focus%3A+Divorce+and+Re-Marriage+in+Contemporary+Britain&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=831-851&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3033971&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3033971%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Bob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrautmann2008" class="citation book cs1">Trautmann, Thomas R. (2008). <i>Lewis Henry Morgan and the Invention of Kinship, New Edition</i>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06457-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06457-7"><bdi>978-0-520-06457-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lewis+Henry+Morgan+and+the+Invention+of+Kinship%2C+New+Edition&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06457-7&rft.aulast=Trautmann&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrautmannWhiteley2012" class="citation book cs1">Trautmann, Thomas R.; Whiteley, Peter M. (2012). <i>Crow-Omaha : new light on a classic problem of kinship analysis</i>. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-0790-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-0790-0"><bdi>978-0-8165-0790-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crow-Omaha+%3A+new+light+on+a+classic+problem+of+kinship+analysis&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-0790-0&rft.aulast=Trautmann&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R.&rft.au=Whiteley%2C+Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallaceAtkins1960" class="citation journal cs1">Wallace, Anthony F.; Atkins, John (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1960.62.1.02a00040">"The Meaning of Kinship Terms"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 58–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1960.62.1.02a00040">10.1525/aa.1960.62.1.02a00040</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=The+Meaning+of+Kinship+Terms&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=58-80&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1960.62.1.02a00040&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Anthony+F.&rft.au=Atkins%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1960.62.1.02a00040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteJohansen2005" class="citation book cs1">White, Douglas R.; Johansen, Ulla C. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005050650/http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Network_Analysis_and_Ethnographic_Problems"><i>Network Analysis and Ethnographic Problems: Process Models of a Turkish Nomad Clan</i></a>. New York: Rowman and Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1892-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-1892-4"><bdi>978-0-7391-1892-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Network_Analysis_and_Ethnographic_Problems">the original</a> on 2013-10-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-02-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Network+Analysis+and+Ethnographic+Problems%3A+Process+Models+of+a+Turkish+Nomad+Clan&rft.pub=New+York%3A+Rowman+and+Littlefield&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-1892-4&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rft.au=Johansen%2C+Ulla+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fintersci.ss.uci.edu%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FNetwork_Analysis_and_Ethnographic_Problems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKinship" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kinship&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/kinship" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/kinship">kinship</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kinship" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kinship">Kinship</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060716082552/http://www.ausanthrop.net/research/kinship/">Introduction into the study of kinship</a> AusAnthrop: research, resources and documentation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040627101247/http://anthro.palomar.edu/kinship/">The Nature of Kinship: An Introduction to Descent Systems and Family Organization</a> Dennis O'Neil, Palomar College, San Marcos, CA.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/anthropology/kintitle.html">Kinship and Social Organization: An Interactive Tutorial</a> Brian Schwimmer, University of Manitoba.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heirbase.com/degrees_of_kinship_chart/">Degrees of Kinship According to Anglo-Saxon Civil Law – Useful Chart (Kurt R. Nilson, Esq. : heirbase.com)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12731c.htm"><i>Catholic Encyclopedia</i> "Duties of Relatives"</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Family" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Family" title="Template:Family"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Family" title="Template talk:Family"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Family" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Family"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Family" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_family" title="History of the family">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household" title="Household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">Nuclear family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">Extended family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjugal_family" title="Conjugal family">Conjugal family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immediate_family" title="Immediate family">Immediate family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrifocal_family" title="Matrifocal family">Matrifocal family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_relationship#Human_relationships" title="Coefficient of relationship">First-degree relatives</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent" title="Parent">Parent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother" title="Mother">mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father" title="Father">father</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child" title="Child">Child</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Son" title="Son">son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daughter" title="Daughter">daughter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">Sibling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brother" title="Brother">brother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sister" title="Sister">sister</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Second-degree relatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grandparent" title="Grandparent">Grandparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandchild" class="mw-redirect" title="Grandchild">Grandchild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle" title="Uncle">Uncle</a>/<a href="/wiki/Aunt" title="Aunt">Aunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niece_and_nephew" title="Niece and nephew">Niece/Nephew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Third-degree relatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great-grandparent" class="mw-redirect" title="Great-grandparent">Great-grandparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great-grandchild" class="mw-redirect" title="Great-grandchild">Great-grandchild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great-uncle" class="mw-redirect" title="Great-uncle">Great-uncle</a>/<a href="/wiki/Great-aunt" class="mw-redirect" title="Great-aunt">Great-aunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cousin" title="Cousin">Cousin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">Family-in-law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spouse" title="Spouse">Spouse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wife" title="Wife">wife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husband" title="Husband">husband</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent-in-law" title="Parent-in-law">Parent-in-law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling-in-law" title="Sibling-in-law">Sibling-in-law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child-in-law" class="mw-redirect" title="Child-in-law">Child-in-law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daughter-in-law" class="mw-redirect" title="Daughter-in-law">daughter-in-law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son-in-law" class="mw-redirect" title="Son-in-law">son-in-law</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stepfamily" title="Stepfamily">Stepfamily</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stepparent" class="mw-redirect" title="Stepparent">Stepparent</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stepfather" title="Stepfather">stepfather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepmother" title="Stepmother">stepmother</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepchild" title="Stepchild">Stepchild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepsibling" title="Stepsibling">Stepsibling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kinship_terminology" title="Kinship terminology">Kinship terminology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_kinship" title="Australian Aboriginal kinship">Australian Aboriginal kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(law)" title="Affinity (law)">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consanguinity" title="Consanguinity">Consanguinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disownment" title="Disownment">Disownment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_estrangement" title="Family estrangement">Estrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_choice" title="Family of choice">Family of choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictive_kinship" title="Fictive kinship">Fictive kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurture_kinship" title="Nurture kinship">Nurture kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_kinship" title="Chinese kinship">Chinese kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_kinship" title="Hawaiian kinship">Hawaiian kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_kinship" title="Sudanese kinship">Sudanese kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo_kinship" title="Eskimo kinship">Eskimo kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_kinship" title="Iroquois kinship">Iroquois kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_kinship" title="Crow kinship">Crow kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha_kinship" title="Omaha kinship">Omaha kinship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Genealogy" title="Genealogy">Genealogy</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">lineage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_descent" title="Bilateral descent">Bilateral descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surname" title="Surname">Family name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heirloom" title="Heirloom">Heirloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inheritance" title="Inheritance">Inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineal_descendant" title="Lineal descendant">Lineal descendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_(kinship)" title="Collateral (kinship)">collateral descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matrilineality" title="Matrilineality">Matrilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrilineality" title="Patrilineality">Patrilineality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progenitor" title="Progenitor">Progenitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_descent" title="Royal descent">Royal descent</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Family_trees" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_tree" title="Family tree">Family trees</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedigree_chart" title="Pedigree chart">Pedigree chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genogram" title="Genogram">Genogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahnentafel" title="Ahnentafel">Ahnentafel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genealogical_numbering_systems" title="Genealogical numbering systems">Genealogical numbering systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seize_quartiers" title="Seize quartiers">Seize quartiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarters_of_nobility" title="Quarters of nobility">Quarters of nobility</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Relationships</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">Agape (parental love)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eros_(concept)" title="Eros (concept)">Eros (marital love)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philia" title="Philia">Philia (brotherly love)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storge" title="Storge">Storge (familial love)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyfidelity" title="Polyfidelity">Polyfidelity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Holidays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother%27s_Day" title="Mother's Day">Mother's Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mother%27s_Day_(United_States)" title="Mother's Day (United States)">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father%27s_Day" title="Father's Day">Father's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father%E2%80%93Daughter_Day" title="Father–Daughter Day">Father–Daughter Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siblings_Day" title="Siblings Day">Siblings Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandparents%27_Day" title="Grandparents' Day">National Grandparents Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parents%27_Day" title="Parents' Day">Parents' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Day" title="Children's Day">Children's Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Day_(Japan)" title="Children's Day (Japan)">Japan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_Day" title="Family Day">Family Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_Day_(Canada)" title="Family Day (Canada)">Canada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Family_Day" title="American Family Day">American Family Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Families" title="International Day of Families">International Day of Families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Family_Week" title="National Family Week">National Family Week</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Family_Week_(UK)" title="National Family Week (UK)">UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Adoption_Day" title="National Adoption Day">National Adoption Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Single_parent" title="Single parent">Single parent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_anniversary" title="Wedding anniversary">Wedding anniversary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Godparent" title="Godparent">Godparent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_order" title="Birth order">Birth order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Only_child" title="Only child">Only child</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_child_syndrome" title="Middle child syndrome">Middle child syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Sociology of the family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Motherhood" title="Museum of Motherhood">Museum of Motherhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut_family" title="Astronaut family">Astronaut family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysfunctional_family" title="Dysfunctional family">Dysfunctional family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incest" title="Incest">Incest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling_abuse" title="Sibling abuse">Sibling abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling_estrangement" title="Sibling estrangement">Sibling estrangement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling_rivalry" title="Sibling rivalry">Sibling rivalry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Interpersonal_relationships" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Interpersonal_relationships" title="Template:Interpersonal relationships"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Interpersonal_relationships" title="Template talk:Interpersonal relationships"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Interpersonal_relationships" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Interpersonal relationships"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Interpersonal_relationships" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">Interpersonal relationships</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romance_(love)" title="Romance (love)">Romantic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boyfriend" title="Boyfriend">Boyfriend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girlfriend" title="Girlfriend">Girlfriend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohabitation" title="Cohabitation">Cohabitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Significant_other" title="Significant other">Significant other</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_partnership" title="Domestic partnership">Domestic partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_relationship" title="Same-sex relationship">Same-sex relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy" title="Monogamy">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husband" title="Husband">Husband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife" title="Wife">Wife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soulmate" title="Soulmate">Soulmate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Widow" title="Widow">Widowhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-monogamy" title="Non-monogamy">Non-monogamy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Open_relationship" title="Open relationship">Open relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_marriage" title="Open marriage">Open marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyamory" title="Polyamory">Polyamory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyfidelity" title="Polyfidelity">Polyfidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polygamy" title="Polygamy">Polygamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage" title="Concubinage">Concubinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mistress_(lover)" title="Mistress (lover)">Mistress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Casual_sex" title="Casual sex">Casual sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casual_dating" title="Casual dating">Casual dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_with_benefits_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Friends with benefits relationships">Friends with benefits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enjo_k%C5%8Dsai" title="Enjo kōsai">Enjo kōsai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_partner" title="Sexual partner">Sexual partner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-night_stand" title="One-night stand">One-night stand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courtesan" title="Courtesan">Courtesan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gigolo" title="Gigolo">Gigolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_dating" title="Sugar dating">Sugar dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-romantic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquaintance" class="mw-redirect" title="Acquaintance">Acquaintance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy" title="Enemy">Enemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship" title="Friendship">Friendship</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kinship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibling" title="Sibling">Siblings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_love" title="Platonic love">Platonic love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queerplatonic_relationship" title="Queerplatonic relationship">Queerplatonic relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stranger" title="Stranger">Stranger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Familiar_stranger" title="Familiar stranger">Familiar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequential_stranger" class="mw-redirect" title="Consequential stranger">Consequential</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sycophancy" title="Sycophancy">Sycophancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cicisbeo" title="Cicisbeo">Cicisbeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seraglio_(harem)" class="mw-redirect" title="Seraglio (harem)">Seraglio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_%C3%A0_la_fa%C3%A7on_du_pays" title="Marriage à la façon du pays">Marriage <i>à la façon du pays</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_mistress" title="Royal mistress">Royal mistress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Favourite" title="Favourite">Royal favorite</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ma%C3%AEtresse-en-titre" title="Maîtresse-en-titre">Maîtresse-en-titre</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_friendship" title="Romantic friendship">Romantic friendship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Courtship" title="Courtship">Courtship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating" title="Dating">Dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_(love)" title="Romance (love)">Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakup" title="Breakup">Breakup</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annulment" title="Annulment">Annulment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">Divorce</a></li> <li>Separation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_separation" title="Legal separation">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marital_separation" title="Marital separation">Marital</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meet_market" title="Meet market">Meet market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singles_event" title="Singles event">Singles event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding" title="Wedding">Wedding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Emotions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_(sociology)" title="Affinity (sociology)">Affinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Compersion">Compersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intimate_relationship" title="Intimate relationship">Intimacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jealousy" title="Jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limerence" title="Limerence">Limerence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passion_(emotion)" title="Passion (emotion)">Passion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconditional_love" title="Unconditional love">Unconditional love</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_price" title="Bride price">Bride price</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dower" title="Dower">Dower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dowry" title="Dowry">Dowry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_digger" title="Gold digger">Gold digging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infidelity" title="Infidelity">Infidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_anarchy" title="Relationship anarchy">Relationship anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_repression" title="Sexual repression">Repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Sexual activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_transgression" title="Relational transgression">Transgression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Abuse" title="Abuse">Abuse</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_abuse" title="Child abuse">Child abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dating_violence" title="Dating violence">Dating violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_violence" title="Domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_abuse" title="Elder abuse">Elder abuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnicity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnicity" title="Template:Ethnicity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnicity" title="Template talk:Ethnicity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnicity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnicity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">Clan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">Ethnic group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_group" title="Ethnographic group">Ethnographic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistic_group" title="Ethnolinguistic group">Ethnolinguistic group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnonational_group" title="Ethnonational group">Ethnonational group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoreligious_group" title="Ethnoreligious group">Ethnoreligious group</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_realism" title="Ethnographic realism">Ethnographic realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora" title="Diaspora">Diaspora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">Immigration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphenated_ethnicity" title="Hyphenated ethnicity">Hyphenated ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_and_out-group" title="In-group and out-group">In-group and out-groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethnicity" title="Meta-ethnicity">Meta-ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metroethnicity" title="Metroethnicity">Metroethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">Minority group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minority_influence" title="Minority influence">Influence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoethnicity" title="Monoethnicity">Monoethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panethnicity" title="Panethnicity">Panethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyethnicity" title="Polyethnicity">Polyethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supraethnicity" title="Supraethnicity">Supraethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_ethnicity" title="Symbolic ethnicity">Symbolic ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribe" title="Tribe">Tribe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">Ethnic studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">Ethnoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">Ethnomycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">Ethnozoology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocinema" title="Ethnocinema">Ethnocinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnogeology" title="Ethnogeology">Ethnogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_ethnography" title="Clinical ethnography">Clinical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_ethnography" title="Critical ethnography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_ethnography" title="Institutional ethnography">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netnography" title="Netnography">Netnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_ethnography" title="Online ethnography">Online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Person-centered_ethnography" title="Person-centered ethnography">Person-centered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvage_ethnography" title="Salvage ethnography">Salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transidioethnography" title="Transidioethnography">Transidioethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_ethnography" title="Video ethnography">Video</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Ethnohistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomathematics" title="Ethnomathematics">Ethnomathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnostatistics" title="Ethnostatistics">Ethnostatistics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomedicine" title="Ethnomedicine">Ethnomedicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">Ethnomethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Ethnomuseology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Ethnomusicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnophilosophy" title="Ethnophilosophy">Ethnophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopsychopharmacology" title="Ethnopsychopharmacology">Ethnopsychopharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoscience" title="Ethnoscience">Ethnoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnosemiotics" title="Ethnosemiotics">Ethnosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnotaxonomy" title="Ethnotaxonomy">Ethnotaxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">Groups by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>World</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_contemporary_ethnic_groups" title="List of contemporary ethnic groups">Contemporary ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_ethnic_groups" title="List of countries by ethnic groups">Countries by ethnic groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Africa</a></b></li> <li><b>Americas</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origins_of_people_in_Canada" title="Ethnic origins of people in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Greenland#Ethnic_groups" title="Demographics of Greenland">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Mexico#Ethnic_groups" title="Demographics of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Caribbean" title="Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Central_America" title="Ethnic groups in Central America">Central America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in South America">South America</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in Asia">Asia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of Central Asia">Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_of_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups of East Asia">East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Siberia" title="Indigenous peoples of Siberia">Northern Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_South_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in South Asia">South Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Ethnic groups in Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Middle_East" title="Ethnic groups in the Middle East">West Asia</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic groups in Australia">Australia</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_Aboriginal_group_names" title="List of Australian Aboriginal group names">Aboriginal groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torres_Strait_Islanders" title="Torres Strait Islanders">Torres Strait Islanders</a></li></ul></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_Europe" title="Ethnic groups in Europe">Europe</a></b></li> <li><b>Oceania</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Oceania" title="Indigenous peoples of Oceania">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europeans_in_Oceania" title="Europeans in Oceania">European</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> and<br /> <a href="/wiki/Ethnogenesis" title="Ethnogenesis">ethnogenesis</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-race_effect" title="Cross-race effect">Cross-race effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_identity_development" title="Ethnic identity development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endonym_and_exonym" title="Endonym and exonym">Endonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnarch" title="Ethnarch">Ethnarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_flag" title="Ethnic flag">Ethnic flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_option" title="Ethnic option">Ethnic option</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_origin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic origin">Ethnic origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_censuses" title="Race and ethnicity in censuses">Ethnicity in censuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnofiction" title="Ethnofiction">Ethnofiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnonym" title="Ethnonym">Ethnonym</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_community" title="Imagined community">Imagined community</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legendary_progenitor" title="Legendary progenitor">Legendary progenitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_homeland" title="Linguistic homeland">Linguistic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythomoteur" title="Mythomoteur">Mythomoteur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">Nation-building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">Nation state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_language" title="National language">National language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantribal_sodality" title="Pantribal sodality">Pantribal sodality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistext" title="Statistext">Statistext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_name" title="Tribal name">Tribal name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribalism" title="Tribalism">Tribalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Detribalization" title="Detribalization">Detribalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotribalism" title="Neotribalism">Neotribalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ethnic" title="White ethnic">White ethnic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">Multiethnic society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consociationalism" title="Consociationalism">Consociationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_politics" title="Diaspora politics">Diaspora politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_minority" title="Dominant minority">Dominant minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_democracy" title="Ethnic democracy">Ethnic democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_enclave" title="Ethnic enclave">Ethnic enclave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_interest_group" title="Ethnic interest group">Ethnic interest group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_majority" title="Ethnic majority">Ethnic majority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_media" title="Ethnic media">Ethnic media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_pornography" title="Ethnic pornography">Ethnic pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_theme_park" title="Ethnic theme park">Ethnic theme park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoburb" title="Ethnoburb">Ethnoburb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocracy" title="Ethnocracy">Ethnocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_film" title="Ethnographic film">Ethnographic film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnographic_village" title="Ethnographic village">Ethnographic village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopluralism" title="Ethnopluralism">Ethnopluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">Indigenous rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middleman_minority" title="Middleman minority">Middleman minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">Minority rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_minority" title="Model minority">Model minority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_minority_myth" title="Model minority myth">Model minority myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multinational_state" title="Multinational state">Multinational state</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Ideology and<br /><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">ethnic conflict</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_bioweapon" title="Ethnic bioweapon">Ethnic bioweapon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_party" title="Ethnic party">Ethnic party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">Ethnic slurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Ethnic stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_riots" title="List of ethnic riots">Ethnic riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnofuturism" title="Ethnofuturism">Ethnofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnosymbolism" title="Ethnosymbolism">Ethnosymbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenism" title="Indigenism">Indigenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">Indigenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">Nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_active_separatist_movements" title="Lists of active separatist movements">Separatist movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocentrism" title="Xenocentrism">Xenocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophilia" title="Xenophilia">Xenophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minzu_(anthropology)" title="Minzu (anthropology)">Minzu (anthropology)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171318#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171318#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q171318#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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