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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Fragmentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Vocabulary</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Vocabulary subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lexical_turnover" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_turnover"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Lexical turnover</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_turnover-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Semantic_drift" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Semantic_drift"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Semantic drift</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Semantic_drift-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Phonological development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonological_development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonological development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonological_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonantism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonantism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Consonantism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonantism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Loss_of_nasals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_nasals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Loss of nasals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_nasals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palatalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palatalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Palatalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palatalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fricativization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fricativization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Fricativization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fricativization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Simplification_of_consonant_clusters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simplification_of_consonant_clusters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.4</span> <span>Simplification of consonant clusters</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Simplification_of_consonant_clusters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Vocalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monophthongization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monophthongization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Monophthongization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monophthongization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_vowel_quantity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_vowel_quantity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Loss of vowel quantity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_vowel_quantity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_near-close_front_vowel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_near-close_front_vowel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>Loss of near-close front vowel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_near-close_front_vowel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Grammar subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Romance_articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Romance_articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Romance articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Romance_articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_neuter_gender" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_neuter_gender"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Loss of neuter gender</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_neuter_gender-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_oblique_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_oblique_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Loss of oblique cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_oblique_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wider_use_of_prepositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wider_use_of_prepositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Wider use of prepositions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wider_use_of_prepositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Pronouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Adverbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Copula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.1</span> <span>Copula</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Word_order_typology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Word_order_typology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Word order typology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Word_order_typology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_specific_Romance_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_specific_Romance_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>History of specific Romance languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_specific_Romance_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Works_consulted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Works_consulted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Works consulted</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Works_consulted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transitions_to_Romance_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitions_to_Romance_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Transitions to Romance languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitions_to_Romance_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Vulgar Latin</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 64 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-64" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">64 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%AArlatyn" title="Vulgêrlatyn – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Vulgêrlatyn" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A4rlatein" title="Vulgärlatein – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Vulgärlatein" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لاتينية عامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لاتينية عامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_vulgar" title="Latín vulgar – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Latín vulgar" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llat%C3%ADn_vulgar" title="Llatín vulgar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llatín vulgar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulqar_lat%C4%B1n_dili" title="Vulqar latın dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vulqar latın dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A8" title="প্রাকৃত লাতিন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাকৃত লাতিন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thong-sio%CC%8Dk_La-teng-g%C3%AD" title="Thong-sio̍k La-teng-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thong-sio̍k La-teng-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Народная латынь – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Народная латынь" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Простонароден латински език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Простонароден латински език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgarni_latinski_jezik" title="Vulgarni latinski jezik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vulgarni latinski jezik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llat%C3%AD_vulgar" title="Llatí vulgar – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Llatí vulgar" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_latina" title="Vulgární latina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vulgární latina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lladin_Llafar" title="Lladin Llafar – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Lladin Llafar" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A6rlatin" title="Vulgærlatin – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vulgærlatin" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A4rlatein" title="Vulgärlatein – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vulgärlatein" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgaarladina_keel" title="Vulgaarladina keel – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Vulgaarladina keel" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%9B%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Λαϊκή Λατινική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λαϊκή Λατινική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_vulgar" title="Latín vulgar – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Latín vulgar" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgara_latino" title="Vulgara latino – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Vulgara latino" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_arrunt" title="Latin arrunt – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Latin arrunt" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%87" title="لاتین عامیانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لاتین عامیانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_vulgaire" title="Latin vulgaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Latin vulgaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lat%C3%ADn_vulgar" title="Latín vulgar – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Latín vulgar" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%8D%EB%9D%BC%ED%8B%B4%EC%96%B4" title="속라틴어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="속라틴어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgarni_latinski_jezik" title="Vulgarni latinski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vulgarni latinski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Latin_Umum" title="Bahasa Latin Umum – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Latin Umum" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_vulgar" title="Latino vulgar – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Latino vulgar" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino_volgare" title="Latino volgare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Latino volgare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="לטינית וולגרית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לטינית וולגרית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sermo_vulgaris_Latinus" title="Sermo vulgaris Latinus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Sermo vulgaris Latinus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautas_lat%C4%AB%C5%86u_valoda" title="Tautas latīņu valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tautas latīņu valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liaudies_lotyn%C5%B3_kalba" title="Liaudies lotynų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Liaudies lotynų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgair_Latien" title="Vulgair Latien – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Vulgair Latien" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latina_demotica" title="Latina demotica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Latina demotica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_volgar" title="Latin volgar – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Latin volgar" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A1ris_latin" title="Vulgáris latin – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Vulgáris latin" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgair_Latijn" title="Vulgair Latijn – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vulgair Latijn" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%97%E3%83%A9%E3%83%86%E3%83%B3%E8%AA%9E" title="俗ラテン語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="俗ラテン語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A6rlatin" title="Vulgærlatin – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vulgærlatin" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A6rlatin" title="Vulgærlatin – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vulgærlatin" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_vulgar" title="Latin vulgar – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Latin vulgar" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Vulgar" title="Latin Vulgar – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Latin Vulgar" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_volgar" title="Latin volgar – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Latin volgar" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%81acina_ludowa" title="Łacina ludowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Łacina ludowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latim_vulgar" title="Latim vulgar – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Latim vulgar" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latina_vulgar%C4%83" title="Latina vulgară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Latina vulgară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8C" title="Народная латынь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Народная латынь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Vulgar Latin" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%BDudov%C3%A1_latin%C4%8Dina" title="Ľudová latinčina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ľudová latinčina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ljudska_latin%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Ljudska latinščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ljudska latinščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Вулгарни латински језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вулгарни латински језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgarni_latinski_jezik" title="Vulgarni latinski jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vulgarni latinski jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgaarilatina" title="Vulgaarilatina – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vulgaarilatina" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulg%C3%A4rlatin" title="Vulgärlatin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vulgärlatin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halk_Latincesi" title="Halk Latincesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Halk Latincesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%CC%B1bun_Lati%CC%B1n" title="A̱bun Lati̱n – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="A̱bun Lati̱n" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Народна латина – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Народна латина" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%81_%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="عامیانہ لاطینی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عامیانہ لاطینی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Latinh_th%C3%B4ng_t%E1%BB%A5c" title="Tiếng Latinh thông tục – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Latinh thông tục" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patw%C3%A8s_lat%C3%A9n" title="Patwès latén – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Patwès latén" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%97%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="通俗拉丁语 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="通俗拉丁语" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%97%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%A9%B1" title="通俗拉丁話 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="通俗拉丁話" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E4%BF%97%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AF%AD" title="通俗拉丁语 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="通俗拉丁语" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q37560#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Non-standard Latin variety spoken by the people of ancient Rome</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For obscene or "vulgar" Latin words, see <a href="/wiki/Latin_obscenity" title="Latin obscenity">Latin obscenity</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Vulgar Latin</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">sermo vulgaris</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Developed into various <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a> by the 9th century</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Latino-Faliscan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Vulgar Latin</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languages#Phonology" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Proto-Latino-Faliscan</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/lat-vul">lat-vul</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vulg1234">vulg1234</a></code></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Empire_330_CE.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Roman_Empire_330_CE.png/320px-Roman_Empire_330_CE.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Roman_Empire_330_CE.png/480px-Roman_Empire_330_CE.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Roman_Empire_330_CE.png/640px-Roman_Empire_330_CE.png 2x" data-file-width="2602" data-file-height="1393" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;">Latin-speaking or otherwise heavily Latin-influenced areas in the Later Roman Empire, highlighted in red.</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p><b>Vulgar Latin</b>, also known as <b>Popular</b> or <b>Colloquial Latin</b>, is the range of non-formal <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> spoken from the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Crisis of the Roman Republic">Late Roman Republic</a> onward.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Vulgar Latin</i> as a term is both controversial and imprecise. Spoken Latin existed for a long time and in many places. Scholars have differed in opinion as to the extent of the differences, and whether Vulgar Latin was in some sense a different language. This was developed as a theory in the nineteenth century by <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Just_Marie_Raynouard" title="François Just Marie Raynouard">Raynouard</a>. At its extreme, the theory suggested that the written register formed an elite language distinct from common speech, but this is now rejected.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current consensus is that the written and spoken languages formed a continuity much as they do in modern languages, with speech tending to evolve faster than the written language, and the written, formalised language exerting pressure back on speech.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Vulgar Latin</i> is itself often viewed as vague and unhelpful, and it is used in very different ways by different scholars, applying it to mean spoken Latin of differing types, or from different social classes and time periods.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, interest in the shifts in the spoken forms remains very important to understand the transition from Latin or Late Latin through to <a href="/wiki/Proto-Romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Romance">Proto-Romance</a> and Romance languages. To make matters more complicated, evidence for spoken forms can be found only through examination of written <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a>, or early <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a>, depending on the time period. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_Vulgar_Latin_controversy">History of the Vulgar Latin controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of the Vulgar Latin controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical period</a>, Roman authors referred to the informal, everyday variety of their own language as <i>sermo plebeius</i> or <i>sermo vulgaris</i>, meaning "common speech".<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could simply refer to unadorned speech without the use of rhetoric, or even plain speaking. The modern usage of the term Vulgar Latin dates to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, when <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italian</a> thinkers began to theorize that <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">their own language</a> originated in a sort of "corrupted" Latin that they assumed formed an entity distinct from the literary <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a> variety, though opinions differed greatly on the nature of this "vulgar" dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early 19th-century French linguist <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Just_Marie_Raynouard" title="François Just Marie Raynouard">François-Just-Marie Raynouard</a> is often regarded as the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Romance_philology" class="mw-redirect" title="Romance philology">Romance philology</a>. Observing that the Romance languages have many features in common that are not found in Latin, at least not in "proper" or Classical Latin, he concluded that the former must have all had some common ancestor (which he believed most closely resembled <a href="/wiki/Old_Occitan" title="Old Occitan">Old Occitan</a>) that replaced Latin some time before the year 1000. This he dubbed <i>la langue romane</i> or "the Romance language".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first truly modern treatise on Romance linguistics and the first to apply the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a> was <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Christian_Diez" title="Friedrich Christian Diez">Friedrich Christian Diez</a>'s seminal <i>Grammar of the Romance Languages</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Meyer-L%C3%BCbke" title="Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke">Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke</a> characterised Vulgar Latin as to a great extent a separate language, that was more or less distinct from the written form. To Meyer-Lübke, the spoken Vulgar form was the genuine and continuous form, while Classical Latin was a kind of artificial idealised language imposed upon it; thus Romance languages were derived from the "real" Vulgar form, which had to be reconstructed from remaining evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others that followed this approach divided Vulgar from Classical Latin by education or class. Other views of "Vulgar Latin" include defining it as uneducated speech, slang, or in effect, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Romance" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Romance">Proto-Romance</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The result is that the term "Vulgar Latin" is regarded by some modern philologists as an essentially meaningless, but unfortunately very persistent term: </p> <blockquote><p>the continued use of "Vulgar Latin" is not only no aid to thought, but is, on the contrary, a positive barrier to a clear understanding of Latin and Romance.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>...<br /><br />I wish it were possible to hope the term might fall out of use. Many scholars have stated that "Vulgar Latin" is a useless and dangerously misleading term ... To abandon it once and for all can only benefit scholarship.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Lloyd called to replace the use of "Vulgar Latin" with a series of more precise definitions, such as the spoken Latin of a particular time and place. </p><p> Research in the twentieth century has in any case shifted the view to consider the differences between written and spoken Latin in more moderate terms. Just as in modern languages, speech patterns are different from written forms, and vary with education, the same can be said of Latin. For instance, philologist József Herman agrees that the term is problematic, and therefore limits it in his work to mean the innovations and changes that turn up in spoken or written Latin that were relatively uninfluenced by educated forms of Latin. Herman states: </p><blockquote><p>it is completely clear from the texts during the time that Latin was a living language, there was never an unbridgeable gap between the written and spoken, nor between the language of the social elites and that of the middle, lower, or disadvantaged groups of the same society.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Herman also makes it clear that Vulgar Latin, in this view, is a varied and unstable phenomenon, crossing many centuries of usage where any generalisations are bound to cover up variations and differences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Evidence for the features of non-literary Latin comes from the following sources:<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Explicit mention of certain constructions or pronunciation habits by Roman <a href="/wiki/Grammarian_(Greco-Roman_world)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)">grammarians</a>.</li> <li>Recurrent grammatical, syntactic, or orthographic mistakes in Latin <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a>. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curse_tablets" class="mw-redirect" title="Curse tablets">Curse tablets</a>, as a special kind of inscription.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>The insertion, whether intentional or not, of colloquial terms or constructions into contemporary texts. Special interest is given to: <ul><li>Private letters and documents from an ordinary context such as business records, lists and school exercises; these are rare but <a href="/wiki/Papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Papyri">papyri</a> from Egypt and tablets from <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a> have been found.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Technical works on medicine, agriculture and similar, where the demand for grammatical accuracy was lower, such as the <i><a href="/wiki/Mulomedicina_Chironis" title="Mulomedicina Chironis">Mulomedicina Chironis</a></i>, a veterinary treatise.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Christian texts, as many originated from marginalised communities; including early Bible translations and funeral inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> texts from the sixth century onwards, which show changes, or the absence thereof, in local Latin under the influence of new educational practices and social structures.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>The pronunciation of Roman-era <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">lexical borrowings</a> into neighboring languages such as <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Modern Romance languages, the comparative analysis of which can be used to validate or disprove hypotheses about earlier changes in spoken Latin.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fragmentation">Fragmentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An oft-posed question is why (or when, or how) Latin “fragmented” into several different languages. Current hypotheses contrast the centralizing and homogenizing socio-economic, cultural, and political forces that characterized the Roman Empire with the centrifugal forces that prevailed afterwards. </p><p>By the end of the first century CE the Romans had seized the entire <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Mediterranean Basin</a> and established hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Roman_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman colonies">colonies</a> in the conquered provinces. Over time this—along with other factors that encouraged <a href="/wiki/Language_assimilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Language assimilation">linguistic</a> and cultural <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilation</a>, such as political unity, frequent travel and commerce, military service, etc.—led to Latin becoming the predominant language throughout the western Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Latin itself was subject to the same assimilatory tendencies, such that its varieties had probably become more uniform by the time the Empire fell than they had been before it. That is not to say that the language had been static for all those years, but rather that ongoing changes tended to spread to all regions.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rise of the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">first Arab caliphate</a> in the seventh century marked the definitive end of Roman dominance over the Mediterranean.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is from approximately that century onward that regional differences proliferate in Latin documents, indicating the fragmentation of Latin into the incipient Romance languages.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until then Latin appears to have been remarkably homogeneous, as far as can be judged from its written records,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although careful statistical analysis reveals regional differences in the treatment of the vowel /ĭ/, and in the frequency of the merger of (original) intervocalic /b/ and /w/, by about the fifth century CE.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lexical_changes_from_Classical_Latin_to_Proto-Romance" title="Lexical changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance">Lexical changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical_turnover">Lexical turnover</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lexical turnover"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Over the centuries, spoken Latin lost certain words in favour of <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">coinages</a>; in favour of borrowings from neighbouring languages such as <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Germanic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>; or in favour of other Latin words that had undergone <a href="/wiki/Semantic_shift" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic shift">semantic shift</a>. The “lost” words often continued to enjoy some currency in <a href="/wiki/Literary_language" title="Literary language">literary</a> Latin, however. </p><p>A commonly-cited example is the replacement of the highly irregular (<a href="/wiki/Suppletion" title="Suppletion">suppletive</a>) verb <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fero#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:fero"><i>ferre</i></a>, meaning 'to carry', with the entirely regular <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/porto#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:porto"><i>portare</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the verb <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loquor#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:loquor">loqui</a></i>, meaning 'to speak', was replaced by a variety of alternatives such as the native <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fabulor#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:fabulor">fabulari</a></i> and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/narro#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:narro">narrare</a></i> or the Greek borrowing <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/parabolo#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:parabolo">parabolare</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Classical Latin <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> fared poorly, with all of the following vanishing in the course of its development to Romance: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/an#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:an">an</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/at#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:at">at</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/autem#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:autem">autem</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/donec#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:donec">donec</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/enim#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:enim">enim</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/etiam#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:etiam">etiam</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/haud#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:haud">haud</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/igitur#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:igitur">igitur</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ita#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ita">ita</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nam#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:nam">nam</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/postquam#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:postquam">postquam</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quidem#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:quidem">quidem</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quin#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:quin">quin</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quoad#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:quoad">quoad</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quoque#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:quoque">quoque</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sed#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:sed">sed</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sive#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:sive">sive</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/utrum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:utrum">utrum</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vel#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:vel">vel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Semantic_drift">Semantic drift</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Semantic drift"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many words experienced a shift in meaning. Some notable cases are <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/civitas#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:civitas">civitas</a></i> ('citizenry' <i>→</i> 'city', replacing <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/urbs#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:urbs">urbs</a></i>); <i>focus</i> ('hearth' <i>→</i> 'fire', replacing <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ignis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ignis">ignis</a></i>); <i>manducare</i> ('chew' <i>→</i> 'eat', replacing <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/edere#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:edere">edere</a></i>); <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/causa#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:causa">causa</a></i> ('subject matter' <i>→</i> 'thing', competing with <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/res#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:res">res</a></i>); <i>mittere</i> ('send' → 'put', competing with <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ponere#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:ponere">ponere</a></i>); <i>necare</i> ('murder' <i>→</i> 'drown', competing with <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/submergere#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:submergere">submergere</a></i>); <i>pacare</i> ('placate' <i>→</i> 'pay', competing with <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/solvere#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:solvere">solvere</a></i>), and <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/totus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:totus">totus</a></i> ('whole' <i>→</i> 'all, every', competing with <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/omnis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:omnis">omnis</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonological_development">Phonological development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Phonological development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phonological_changes_from_Classical_Latin_to_Proto-Romance" title="Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance">Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Appendix_Probi" title="Appendix Probi">Appendix Probi</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonantism">Consonantism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Consonantism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages#Consonants" title="Romance languages">Romance languages § Consonants</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_in_the_Romance_languages" title="Palatalization in the Romance languages">Palatalization in the Romance languages</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loss_of_nasals">Loss of nasals</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Loss of nasals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Word-final /m/ was lost in polysyllabic words.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In monosyllables it tended to survive as /n/.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>/n/ was usually lost before <a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">fricatives</a>, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a> of the preceding vowel (e.g. <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sponsa#Latin" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:sponsa">sponsa</a></i> 'fiancée' > <i>spōsa</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Palatalization">Palatalization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Palatalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front vowels</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hiatus_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hiatus (linguistics)">hiatus</a> (after a consonant and before another vowel) became [j], which palatalized preceding consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fricativization">Fricativization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fricativization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>/w/ (except after /k/) and <a href="/wiki/Intervocalic_consonant" title="Intervocalic consonant">intervocalic</a> /b/ merge as the bilabial fricative /β/.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Simplification_of_consonant_clusters">Simplification of consonant clusters</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Simplification of consonant clusters"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The cluster /nkt/ reduced to [ŋt].<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>/kw/ delabialized to /k/ before <a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back vowels</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>/ks/ before or after a consonant, or at the end of a word, reduced to /s/.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vocalism">Vocalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Vocalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages#Vowels" title="Romance languages">Romance languages § Vowels</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monophthongization">Monophthongization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Monophthongization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>/ae̯/ and /oe̯/ monophthongized to [ɛː] and [eː] respectively by around the second century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loss_of_vowel_quantity">Loss of vowel quantity</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Loss of vowel quantity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The system of <a href="/wiki/Vowel_length#Phonemic_vowel_length" title="Vowel length">phonemic vowel length</a> collapsed by the fifth century AD, leaving <a href="/wiki/Vowel_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel quality">quality</a> differences as the <a href="/wiki/Contrast_(linguistics)" title="Contrast (linguistics)">distinguishing factor</a> between vowels; the paradigm thus changed from /ī ĭ ē ĕ ā ă ŏ ō ŭ ū/ to /i ɪ e ɛ a ɔ o ʊ u/. Concurrently, stressed vowels in open syllables <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable_lengthening" title="Open syllable lengthening">lengthened</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Loss_of_near-close_front_vowel">Loss of near-close front vowel</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Loss of near-close front vowel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Towards the end of the Roman Empire /ɪ/ merged with /e/ in most regions,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although not in Africa or a few peripheral areas in Italy.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Vulgar_Latin" title="Special:EditPage/Vulgar Latin">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Romance_articles">Romance articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Romance articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is difficult to place the point in which the <a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">definite article</a>, absent in Latin but present in all Romance languages, arose, largely because the highly colloquial speech in which it arose was seldom written down until the daughter languages had strongly diverged; most surviving texts in early Romance show the articles fully developed. </p><p>Definite articles evolved from demonstrative <a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">pronouns</a> or <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a> (an analogous development is found in many Indo-European languages, including <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a>); compare the fate of the Latin <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative_adjective" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative adjective">demonstrative adjective</a> <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ille#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ille">ille</a></i>, <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/illa#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:illa">illa</a></i>, <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/illud#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:illud">illud</a></i> "that", in the <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a>, becoming French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/le#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:le">le</a></i> and <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/la#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:la">la</a></i> (Old French <i>li</i>, <i>lo</i>, <i>la</i>), Catalan and Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/el#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:el">el</a></i>, <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/la#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:la">la</a></i> and <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lo#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:lo">lo</a></i>, Occitan <i lang="oc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lo#Occitan" class="extiw" title="wikt:lo">lo</a></i> and <i lang="oc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/la#Occitan" class="extiw" title="wikt:la">la</a></i>, Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/o#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:o">o</a></i> and <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/a#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:a">a</a></i> (elision of -l- is a common feature of Portuguese) and Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/il#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:il">il</a></i>, <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lo#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:lo">lo</a></i> and <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/la#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:la">la</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a> went its own way here also, forming its article from <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ipse#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ipse">ipse</a></i>, <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ipsa#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ipsa">ipsa</a></i> an intensive adjective (<i>su, sa</i>); some Catalan and Occitan dialects have articles from the same source. While most of the Romance languages put the article before the noun, Romanian has its own way, by putting the article after the noun, e.g. <i>lupul</i> ("the wolf" – from *<i>lupum illum</i>) and <i>omul</i> ("the man" – <i>*homo illum</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> possibly a result of being within the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_sprachbund" title="Balkan sprachbund">Balkan sprachbund</a>. </p><p>This demonstrative is used in a number of contexts in some early texts in ways that suggest that the Latin demonstrative was losing its force. The <a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a> Bible contains a passage <i>Est tamen ille daemon sodalis peccati</i> ("The devil is a companion of sin"), in a context that suggests that the word meant little more than an article. The need to translate <a href="/wiki/Sacred_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred text">sacred texts</a> that were originally in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, which had a definite article, may have given Christian Latin an incentive to choose a substitute. <a href="/wiki/Egeria_(pilgrim)" title="Egeria (pilgrim)">Aetheria</a> uses <i>ipse</i> similarly: <i>per mediam vallem ipsam</i> ("through the middle of the valley"), suggesting that it too was weakening in force.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrington_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrington-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another indication of the weakening of the demonstratives can be inferred from the fact that at this time, legal and similar texts begin to swarm with <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/praedictus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:praedictus">praedictus</a></i>, <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/supradictus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:supradictus">supradictus</a></i>, and so forth (all meaning, essentially, "aforesaid"), which seem to mean little more than "this" or "that". <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> writes, <i>Erat autem... beatissimus Anianus in supradicta civitate episcopus</i> ("Blessed Anianus was bishop in that city.") The original Latin demonstrative adjectives were no longer felt to be strong or specific enough.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrington_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrington-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the less formal speech, reconstructed forms suggest that the inherited Latin demonstratives were made more forceful by being compounded with <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ecce#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ecce">ecce</a></i> (originally an <a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">interjection</a>: "behold!"), which also spawned Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ecco#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ecco">ecco</a></i> through <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eccum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:eccum">eccum</a></i>, a contracted form of <i>ecce eum</i>. This is the origin of Old French <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cil#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:cil">cil</a></i> (*<i>ecce ille</i>), <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cist#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:cist">cist</a></i> (*<i>ecce iste</i>) and <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ici#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:ici">ici</a></i> (*<i>ecce hic</i>); Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/questo#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:questo">questo</a></i> (*<i>eccum istum</i>), <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quello#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:quello">quello</a></i> (*<i>eccum illum</i>) and (now mainly Tuscan) <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/codesto#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:codesto">codesto</a></i> (*<i>eccum tibi istum</i>), as well as <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/qui#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:qui">qui</a></i> (*<i>eccu hic</i>), <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/qua#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:qua">qua</a></i> (*<i>eccum hac</i>); Spanish and Occitan <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aquel#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:aquel">aquel</a></i> and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aquele#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:aquele">aquele</a></i> (*<i>eccum ille</i>); Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ac%C3%A1#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:acá">acá</a></i> and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/c%C3%A1#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:cá">cá</a></i> (*<i>eccum hac</i>); Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aqu%C3%AD#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:aquí">aquí</a></i> and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aqui#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:aqui">aqui</a></i> (*<i>eccum hic</i>); Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acol%C3%A1#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:acolá">acolá</a></i> (*<i>eccum illac</i>) and <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aqu%C3%A9m#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:aquém">aquém</a></i> (*<i>eccum inde</i>); Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acest#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:acest">acest</a></i> (*<i>ecce iste</i>) and <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acela#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:acela">acela</a></i> (*<i>ecce ille</i>), and many other forms. </p><p>On the other hand, even in the <a href="/wiki/Oaths_of_Strasbourg" title="Oaths of Strasbourg">Oaths of Strasbourg</a>, dictated in Old French in AD 842, no demonstrative appears even in places where one would clearly be called for in all the later languages (<i>pro christian poblo</i> – "for the Christian people"). Using the demonstratives as articles may have still been considered overly informal for a royal oath in the 9th century. Considerable variation exists in all of the Romance vernaculars as to their actual use:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in Romanian, the articles are suffixed to the noun (or an adjective preceding it), as in other languages of the <a href="/wiki/Balkan_sprachbund" title="Balkan sprachbund">Balkan sprachbund</a> and the <a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic languages</a>. </p><p>The numeral <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:unus">unus</a></i>, <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/una#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:una">una</a></i> (one) supplies the <a href="/wiki/Indefinite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Indefinite article">indefinite article</a> in all cases (again, this is a common semantic development across Europe). This is anticipated in Classical Latin; <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> writes <i>cum uno gladiatore nequissimo</i><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ("with a most immoral gladiator"). This suggests that <i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">unus</i></span></i> was beginning to supplant <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quidam#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:quidam">quidam</a></i> in the meaning of "a certain" or "some" by the 1st century BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="Still dubious in 2024. (May 2009)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Vulgar_Latin#Dubious" title="Talk:Vulgar Latin">discuss</a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_neuter_gender">Loss of neuter gender</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Loss of neuter gender"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" align="right"> <caption>1st and 2nd adjectival declension paradigm in Classical Latin:<br />e.g. <i>altus</i> ("tall")<br />Excludes vocative. </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"></th> <th colspan="3">singular</th> <th colspan="3">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>masculine</th> <th>neuter</th> <th>feminine</th> <th>masculine</th> <th>neuter</th> <th>feminine </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>nominative </th> <td><span lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/altus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:altus">altus</a></span></td> <td>altum</td> <td>alta</td> <td>altī</td> <td rowspan="2">alta</td> <td>altae </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>accusative </th> <td colspan="2">altum</td> <td>altam</td> <td>altōs</td> <td>altās </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>dative </th> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">altō</td> <td>altae</td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2">altīs </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ablative </th> <td>altā </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>genitive </th> <td colspan="2">altī</td> <td>altae</td> <td colspan="2">altōrum</td> <td>altārum </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_genders" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical genders">grammatical genders</a> of Classical Latin were replaced by a two-gender system in most Romance languages. </p><p>The neuter gender of classical Latin was in most cases identical with the masculine both syntactically and morphologically. The confusion had already started in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeian</a> graffiti, e.g. <i>cadaver mortuus</i> for <i>cadaver mortuum</i> ("dead body"), and <i>hoc locum</i> for <i>hunc locum</i> ("this place"). The morphological confusion shows primarily in the adoption of the nominative ending <i>-us</i> (<i>-Ø</i> after <i>-r</i>) in the <i>o</i>-declension. </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a>'s work, one can find <i>balneus</i> for <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/balneum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:balneum">balneum</a></i> ("bath"), <i>fatus</i> for <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fatum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:fatum">fatum</a></i> ("fate"), <i>caelus</i> for <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caelum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:caelum">caelum</a></i> ("heaven"), <i>amphitheater</i> for <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amphitheatrum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:amphitheatrum">amphitheatrum</a></i> ("amphitheatre"), <i>vinus</i> for <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vinum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:vinum">vinum</a></i> ("wine"), and conversely, <i>thesaurum</i> for <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/thesaurus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:thesaurus">thesaurus</a></i> ("treasure"). Most of these forms occur in the speech of one man: Trimalchion, an uneducated Greek (i.e. foreign) <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">freedman</a>. </p><p>In modern Romance languages, the nominative <i>s</i>-ending has been largely abandoned, and all substantives of the <i>o</i>-declension have an ending derived from <i>-um</i>: <i>-u</i>, <i>-o</i>, or <i>-Ø</i>. E.g., masculine <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/murus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:murus">murus</a></i> ("wall"), and neuter <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caelum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:caelum">caelum</a></i> ("sky") have evolved to: Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muro#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:muro">muro</a></i>, <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cielo#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:cielo">cielo</a></i>; Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muro#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:muro">muro</a></i>, <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/c%C3%A9u#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:céu">céu</a></i>; Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/muro#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:muro">muro</a></i>, <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cielo#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:cielo">cielo</a></i>, Catalan <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mur#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:mur">mur</a></i>, <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cel#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:cel">cel</a></i>; Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mur#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:mur">mur</a></i>, <i>cieru></i><i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cer#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:cer">cer</a></i>; French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mur#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:mur">mur</a></i>, <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ciel#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:ciel">ciel</a></i>. However, Old French still had <i>-s</i> in the nominative and <i>-Ø</i> in the accusative in both words: <i>murs</i>, <i>ciels</i> [nominative] – <i>mur</i>, <i>ciel</i> [oblique].<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For some neuter nouns of the third declension, the oblique stem was productive; for others, the nominative/accusative form, (the two were identical in Classical Latin). Evidence suggests that the neuter gender was under pressure well back into the imperial period. French <i>(le)</i> <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lait#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:lait">lait</a></i>, Catalan <i>(la)</i> <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/llet#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:llet">llet</a></i>, Occitan <i>(lo)</i> <i lang="oc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lach#Occitan" class="extiw" title="wikt:lach">lach</a></i>, Spanish <i>(la)</i> <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/leche#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:leche">leche</a></i>, Portuguese <i>(o)</i> <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/leite#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:leite">leite</a></i>, Italian language <i>(il)</i> <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/latte#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:latte">latte</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Leonese_language" title="Leonese language">Leonese</a> <i>(el) lleche</i> and Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lapte#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:lapte">lapte</a></i><i>(le)</i> ("milk"), all derive from the non-standard but attested Latin nominative/accusative neuter <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lacte#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:lacte">lacte</a></i> or accusative masculine <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lactem#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:lactem">lactem</a></i>. In Spanish the word became feminine, while in French, Portuguese and Italian it became masculine (in Romanian it remained neuter, <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lapte#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:lapte">lapte</a></i>/<i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C4%83pturi#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:lăpturi">lăpturi</a></i>). Other neuter forms, however, were preserved in Romance; Catalan and French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nom#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:nom">nom</a></i>, Leonese, Portuguese and Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nome#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nome">nome</a></i>, Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nume#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:nume">nume</a></i> ("name") all preserve the Latin nominative/accusative <i>nomen</i>, rather than the oblique stem form *<i>nomin-</i> (which nevertheless produced Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/nombre#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:nombre">nombre</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:right;" class=""></div> <table class="wikitable" align="right" style="margin: 10px;"> <caption>Typical Italian endings </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th colspan="2">Nouns </th> <th colspan="2">Adjectives and determiners </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th></th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>masculine </th> <td><i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/giardino#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:giardino">giardin<u>o</u></a></i></td> <td><i>giardin<u>i</u></i></td> <td><i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/buono#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:buono">buon<u>o</u></a></i></td> <td><i>buon<u>i</u></i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>feminine </th> <td><i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/donna#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:donna">donn<u>a</u></a></i></td> <td><i>donn<u>e</u></i></td> <td><i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/buona#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:buona">buon<u>a</u></a></i></td> <td><i>buon<u>e</u></i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>neuter </th> <td><i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/uovo#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:uovo">uov<u>o</u></a></i></td> <td><i>uov<u>a</u></i></td> <td><i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/buono#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:buono">buon<u>o</u></a></i></td> <td><i>buon<u>e</u></i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Most neuter nouns had plural forms ending in <small>-A</small> or <small>-IA</small>; some of these were reanalysed as feminine singulars, such as <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gaudium#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:gaudium">gaudium</a></i> ("joy"), plural <i>gaudia</i>; the plural form lies at the root of the French feminine singular <i>(la)</i> <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/joie#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:joie">joie</a></i>, as well as of Catalan and Occitan <i>(la)</i> <i lang="oc"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/joia#Occitan" class="extiw" title="wikt:joia">joia</a></i> (Italian <i>la</i> <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gioia#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:gioia">gioia</a></i> is a borrowing from French); the same for <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lignum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:lignum">lignum</a></i> ("wood stick"), plural <i>ligna</i>, that originated the Catalan feminine singular noun <i>(la)</i> <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/llenya#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:llenya">llenya</a></i>, Portuguese <i>(a)</i> <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lenha#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:lenha">lenha</a></i>, Spanish <i>(la)</i> <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/le%C3%B1a#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:leña">leña</a></i> and Italian <i>(la)</i> <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/legna#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:legna">legna</a></i>. Some Romance languages still have a special form derived from the ancient neuter plural which is treated grammatically as feminine: e.g., <small><span lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bracchium#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:bracchium">BRACCHIUM</a></span> : BRACCHIA</small> "arm(s)" → Italian <i>(il)</i> <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/braccio#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:braccio">braccio</a></i> : <i>(le) braccia</i>, Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bra%C8%9B#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:braț">braț(ul)</a></i> : <i>brațe(le)</i>. Cf. also <a href="/wiki/Merovingian" class="mw-redirect" title="Merovingian">Merovingian</a> Latin <i>ipsa animalia aliquas mortas fuerant</i>. </p><p>Alternations in Italian <a href="/wiki/Heteroclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteroclitic">heteroclitic</a> nouns such as <i>l'uovo fresco</i> ("the fresh egg") / <i>le uova fresche</i> ("the fresh eggs") are usually analysed as masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural, with an irregular plural in <i>-a</i>. However, it is also consistent with their historical development to say that <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/uovo#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:uovo">uovo</a></i> is simply a regular neuter noun (<i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ovum#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ovum">ovum</a></i>, plural <i>ova</i>) and that the characteristic ending for words agreeing with these nouns is <i>-o</i> in the singular and <i>-e</i> in the plural. The same alternation in gender exists in certain Romanian nouns, but is considered regular as it is more common than in Italian. Thus, a relict neuter gender can arguably be said to persist in Italian and Romanian. </p><p>In Portuguese, traces of the neuter plural can be found in collective formations and words meant to inform a bigger size or sturdiness. Thus, one can use <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ovo#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:ovo">ovo</a></i><i>(s)</i> ("egg(s)") and <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ova#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:ova">ova</a></i><i>(s)</i> ("roe", "collection(s) of eggs"), <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bordo#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:bordo">bordo</a></i><i>(s)</i> ("section(s) of an edge") and <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/borda#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:borda">borda</a></i><i>(s</i>) ("edge(s)"), <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/saco#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:saco">saco</a></i><i>(s)</i> ("bag(s)") and <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/saca#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:saca">saca</a></i><i>(s</i>) ("sack(s)"), <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/manto#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:manto">manto</a></i><i>(s)</i> ("cloak(s)") and <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/manta#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:manta">manta</a></i><i>(s)</i> ("blanket(s)"). Other times, it resulted in words whose gender may be changed more or less arbitrarily, like <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fruto#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:fruto">fruto</a></i> / <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fruta#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:fruta">fruta</a></i> ("fruit"), <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caldo#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:caldo">caldo</a></i> / <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calda#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:calda">calda</a></i> ("broth"), etc. </p><p>These formations were especially common when they could be used to avoid irregular forms. In Latin, the names of trees were usually feminine, but many were declined in the second declension paradigm, which was dominated by masculine or neuter nouns. Latin <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pirus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:pirus">pirus</a></i> ("<a href="/wiki/Pear" title="Pear">pear</a> tree"), a feminine noun with a masculine-looking ending, became masculine in Italian <i>(il)</i> <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pero#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:pero">pero</a></i> and Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/p%C4%83r#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:păr">păr(ul)</a></i>; in French and Spanish it was replaced by the masculine derivations <i>(le)</i> <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/poirier#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:poirier">poirier</a></i>, <i>(el)</i> <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peral#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:peral">peral</a></i>; and in Portuguese and Catalan by the feminine derivations <i>(a)</i> <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pereira#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:pereira">pereira</a></i>, <i>(la)</i> <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/perera#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:perera">perera</a></i>. </p><p>As usual, irregularities persisted longest in frequently used forms. From the fourth declension noun <i>manus</i> ("hand"), another feminine noun with the ending <i>-us</i>, Italian and Spanish derived <i>(la)</i> <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mano#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:mano">mano</a></i>, Romanian <i>mânu></i><i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A2n%C4%83#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:mână">mână</a></i>, pl. <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A2ini#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:mâini">mâini</a></i> / (reg.) <i>mâni</i>, Catalan <i>(la)</i> <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A0#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:mà">mà</a></i>, and Portuguese <i>(a)</i> <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/m%C3%A3o#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:mão">mão</a></i>, which preserve the feminine gender along with the masculine appearance. </p><p>Except for the Italian and Romanian heteroclitic nouns, other major Romance languages have no trace of neuter nouns, but still have neuter pronouns. French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/celui-ci#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:celui-ci">celui-ci</a></i> / <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/celle-ci#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:celle-ci">celle-ci</a></i> / <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ceci#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:ceci">ceci</a></i> ("this"), Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%A9ste#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:éste">éste</a></i> / <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%A9sta#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:ésta">ésta</a></i> / <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/esto#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:esto">esto</a></i> ("this"), Italian: <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gli#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:gli">gli</a></i> / <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/le#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:le">le</a></i> / <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ci#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ci">ci</a></i> ("to him" /"to her" / "to it"), Catalan: <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ho#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:ho">ho</a></i>, <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/a%C3%A7%C3%B2#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:açò">açò</a></i>, <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aix%C3%B2#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:això">això</a></i>, <i lang="ca"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/all%C3%B2#Catalan" class="extiw" title="wikt:allò">allò</a></i> ("it" / <i>this</i> / <i>this-that</i> / <i>that over there</i>); Portuguese: <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/todo#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:todo">todo</a></i> / <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/toda#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:toda">toda</a></i> / <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tudo#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:tudo">tudo</a></i> ("all of him" / "all of her" / "all of it"). </p><p>In Spanish, a three-way contrast is also made with the definite articles <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/el#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:el">el</a></i>, <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/la#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:la">la</a></i>, and <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lo#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:lo">lo</a></i>. The last is used with nouns denoting abstract categories: <i>lo bueno</i>, literally "that which is good", from <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bueno#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:bueno">bueno</a></i>: good. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In a few isolated masculine nouns, the <i>s</i> has been either preserved or reinstated in the modern languages, for example FILIUS ("son") > French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fils#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:fils">fils</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">DEUS</a> ("god") > Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dios#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:dios">dios</a></i> and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/deus#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:deus">deus</a></i>, and particularly in proper names: Spanish <i>Carlos</i>, <i>Marcos</i>, in the conservative orthography of French <i>Jacques</i>, <i>Charles</i>, <i>Jules</i>, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_oblique_cases">Loss of oblique cases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Loss of oblique cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Vulgar Latin vowel shifts caused the merger of several case endings in the nominal and adjectival declensions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200052-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the causes include: the loss of final <i>m</i>, the merger of <i>ă</i> with <i>ā</i>, and the merger of <i>ŭ</i> with <i>ō</i> (see tables).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200052-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, by the 5th century, the number of case contrasts had been drastically reduced.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200052-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" align="center" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>Evolution of a 1st declension noun:<br /><i>caepa/cēpa</i> ("onion") (feminine singular) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Classical <br />(c. 1st century) </th> <th>Vulgar<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200052-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(c. 5th cent.) </th> <th>Modern<br />Romanian </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>nominative </th> <td><i>caepa, cēpa</i> </td> <td rowspan="3"><i>*cépa</i> </td> <td rowspan="3"><i>ceapă</i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>caepam, cēpam</i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ablative </th> <td><i>caepā, cēpā</i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>dative </th> <td rowspan="2"><i>caepae, cēpae</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><i>*cépe</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><i>cepe</i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>genitive </th></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable" align="center" style="display: inline-table;"> <caption>Evolution of a 2nd declension noun:<br /><i>mūrus</i> ("wall") (masculine singular) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>Classical <br />(c. 1st cent.) </th> <th>Vulgar<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200052-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br />(c. 5th cent.) </th> <th>Old French <br />(c. 11th cent.) </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>nominative </th> <td><i>mūrus</i> </td> <td><i>*múros</i> </td> <td><i>murs</i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>accusative </th> <td><i>mūrum</i> </td> <td><i>*múru</i> </td> <td rowspan="4"><i>mur</i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ablative </th> <td rowspan="2"><i>mūrō</i> </td> <td rowspan="2"><i>*múro</i> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>dative </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>genitive </th> <td><i>mūrī</i> </td> <td><i>*múri</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>There also seems to be a marked tendency to confuse different forms even when they had not become homophonous (like the generally more distinct plurals), which indicates that nominal declension was shaped not only by phonetic mergers, but also by structural factors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200052-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of the untenability of the noun case system after these phonetic changes, Vulgar Latin shifted from a markedly <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic language</a> to a more <a href="/wiki/Analytic_language" title="Analytic language">analytic one</a>. </p><p>The <b><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive case</a></b> died out around the 3rd century AD, according to <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Meyer-L%C3%BCbke" title="Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke">Meyer-Lübke</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AGE_MATTERS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AGE MATTERS"><span title="This claim needs references to more current sources. (January 2024)">obsolete source</span></a></i>]</sup>, and began to be replaced by "de" + noun (which originally meant "about/concerning", weakened to "of") as early as the 2nd century BC.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Exceptions of remaining genitive forms are some pronouns, certain fossilized expressions and some proper names. For example, French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/jeudi#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:jeudi">jeudi</a></i> ("Thursday") < Old French <i>juesdi</i> < Vulgar Latin "<span lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dies_Iovis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:dies Iovis">jovis diēs</a></span>"; Spanish <i>es</i> <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/menester#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:menester">menester</a></i> ("it is necessary") < "est <span lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ministeri#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ministeri">ministeri</a></span>"; and Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/terremoto#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:terremoto">terremoto</a></i> ("earthquake") < "<span lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/terraemotus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:terraemotus">terrae motu</a></span>" as well as names like <i>Paoli</i>, <i>Pieri</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative case</a></b> lasted longer than the genitive, even though <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, in the 2nd century BC, already shows some instances of substitution by the construction "ad" + accusative. For example, "ad carnuficem dabo".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b><a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative case</a></b> developed as a prepositional case, displacing many instances of the <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Towards the end of the imperial period, the accusative came to be used more and more as a general oblique case.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200053_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200053-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite increasing case mergers, nominative and accusative forms seem to have remained distinct for much longer, since they are rarely confused in inscriptions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200053_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200053-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though Gaulish texts from the 7th century rarely confuse both forms, it is believed that both cases began to merge in Africa by the end of the empire, and a bit later in parts of Italy and Iberia.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200053_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200053-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nowadays, <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a> maintains a two-case system, while <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Occitan" title="Old Occitan">Old Occitan</a> had a two-case subject-oblique system. </p><p>This Old French system was based largely on whether or not the Latin case ending contained an "s" or not, with the "s" being retained but all vowels in the ending being lost (as with <i>veisin</i> below). But since this meant that it was easy to confuse the singular nominative with the plural oblique, and the plural nominative with the singular oblique, this case system ultimately collapsed as well, and Middle French adopted one case (usually the oblique) for all purposes. </p><p>Today, Romanian is generally considered the only Romance language with a surviving case system. However, some dialects of <a href="/wiki/Romansh_language" title="Romansh language">Romansh</a> retain a special predicative form of the masculine singular identical to the plural: <i>il bien vin</i> ("the good wine") vs. <i>il vin ei buns</i> ("the wine is good"). This "predicative case" (as it is sometimes called) is a remnant of the Latin nominative in <i>-us</i>. </p> <table class="wikitable" align="center"> <caption>Evolution of a masculine noun<br />in Old French: <i>veisin</i> ("neighbor").<br /> (definite article in parentheses). </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"></th> <th>Classical Latin<br />(1st cent.)</th> <th>Old French<br />(11th cent.) </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="5">singular </th> <th>nominative </th> <td>"<u>vīcīnus</u>"</td> <td>(li) <u>veisins</u> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>accusative </th> <td>"<u>vīcīnum</u>"</td> <td rowspan="4">(le) <u>veisin</u> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>genitive </th> <td>"vīcīnī" </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>dative </th> <td rowspan="2">"vīcīnō" </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ablative </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="5">plural </th> <th>nominative </th> <td>"<u>vīcīnī</u>"</td> <td>(li) <u>veisin</u> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>accusative </th> <td>"<u>vīcīnōs</u>"</td> <td rowspan="4">(les) <u>veisins</u> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>genitive </th> <td>"vīcīnōrum" </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>dative </th> <td rowspan="2">"vīcīnīs" </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ablative </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wider_use_of_prepositions">Wider use of prepositions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Wider use of prepositions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The loss of a productive noun case system meant that the <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntactic</a> purposes it formerly served now had to be performed by <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">prepositions</a> and other paraphrases. These particles increased in number, and many new ones were formed by compounding old ones. The descendant Romance languages are full of grammatical particles such as Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/donde#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:donde">donde</a></i>, "where", from Latin <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/de#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:de">de</a></i> + <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unde#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:unde">unde</a></i> (which in Romanian literally means "from where"/"where from"), or French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/d%C3%A8s#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:dès">dès</a></i>, "since", from <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/de#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:de">de</a></i> + <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ex#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ex">ex</a></i>, while the equivalent Spanish and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/desde#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:desde">desde</a></i> is <i>de</i> + <i>ex</i> + <i>de</i>. Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/despu%C3%A9s#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:después">después</a></i> and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/depois#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:depois">depois</a></i>, "after", represent <i>de</i> + <i>ex</i> + <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/post#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:post">post</a></i>. </p><p>Some of these new compounds appear in literary texts during the late empire; French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dehors#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:dehors">dehors</a></i>, Spanish <i>de</i> <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fuera#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:fuera">fuera</a></i> and Portuguese <i>de</i> <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fora#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:fora">fora</a></i> ("outside") all represent <i>de</i> + <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/foris#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:foris">foris</a></i> (Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/afar%C4%83#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:afară">afară</a></i> – <i>ad</i> + <i>foris</i>), and we find <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> writing <i>stulti, nonne qui fecit, quod de foris est, etiam id, quod de intus est fecit?</i> (Luke 11.40: "ye fools, did not he, that made which is without, make that which is within also?"). In some cases, compounds were created by combining a large number of particles, such as the Romanian <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/adineauri#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:adineauri">adineauri</a></i> ("just recently") from <i>ad</i> + <i>de</i> + <i>in</i> + <i>illa</i> + <i>hora</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Classical Latin:</b> </p> <dl><dd><i>Marcus patrī librum dat.</i> "Marcus is giving [his] father [a/the] book."</dd></dl> <p><b>Vulgar Latin:</b> </p> <dl><dd><i>*Marcos da libru a patre.</i> "Marcus is giving [a/the] book to [his] father."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd></dl> <p>Just as in the disappearing dative case, colloquial Latin sometimes replaced the disappearing genitive case with the preposition <i>de</i> followed by the ablative, then eventually the accusative (oblique). </p><p><b>Classical Latin:</b> </p> <dl><dd><i>Marcus mihi librum patris dat.</i> "Marcus is giving me [his] father's book.</dd></dl> <p><b>Vulgar Latin:</b> </p> <dl><dd><i>*Marcos mi da libru de patre.</i> "Marcus is giving me [the] book of [his] father."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pronouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Unlike in the nominal and adjectival inflections, pronouns kept a great part of the case distinctions. However, many changes happened. For example, the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɡ/</span> of <i>ego</i> was lost by the end of the empire, and <i>eo</i> appears in manuscripts from the 6th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2017)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent1991238_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandgent1991238-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Reconstructed pronominal system of Vulgar Latin<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent1991238_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandgent1991238-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr align="center"> <th></th> <th colspan="2">1st person</th> <th colspan="2">2nd person</th> <th rowspan="2">3rd person </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th></th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural</th> <th>singular</th> <th>plural </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*éo</td> <td>*nọs</td> <td>*tu</td> <td>*vọs</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Dative </th> <td>*mi</td> <td>*nọ́be(s)</td> <td>*ti, *tẹ́be</td> <td>*vọ́be(s)</td> <td>*si, *sẹ́be </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*mẹ</td> <td>*nọs</td> <td>*tẹ</td> <td>*vọs</td> <td>*sẹ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Adverbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classical Latin had a number of different suffixes that made <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverbs</a> from <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a>: <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/carus#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:carus">cārus</a></i>, "dear", formed <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/care#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:care">cārē</a></i>, "dearly"; <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acriter#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:acriter">ācriter</a></i>, "fiercely", from <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/acer#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:acer">ācer</a></i>; <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/crebro#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:crebro">crēbrō</a></i>, "often", from <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/creber#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:creber">crēber</a></i>. All of these derivational suffixes were lost in Vulgar Latin. </p><p>An alternative formation with a feminine <a href="/wiki/Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a> form modifying <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mente#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:mente">mente</a></i> (originally the ablative of <i>mēns</i>, and so meaning "with a ... mind") gave rise to a widespread rule for forming adverbs in many Romance languages: adding the suffix -<i>ment(e)</i> to the feminine form of the adjective. So <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/velox#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:velox">vēlōx</a></i> ("quick") instead of <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/velociter#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:velociter">vēlōciter</a></i> ("quickly") gave <i>veloci mente</i> (originally "with a quick mind", "quick-mindedly"), and <i>-mente</i> became a productive suffix for forming adverbs in Romance such as Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chiaramente#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:chiaramente">chiaramente</a></i>, Spanish <i lang="es"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/claramente#Spanish" class="extiw" title="wikt:claramente">claramente</a></i> 'clearly'. The development of an originally autonomous form (the noun <i>mente</i>, meaning 'mind') into a suffix (although remaining in free lexical use in other contexts e.g. Italian <i>venire in mente</i> 'come to mind') is a textbook case of <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">grammaticalization</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg/200px-Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg/300px-Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Page_of_Lay_of_the_Cid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/Cantar_de_Mio_Cid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantar de Mio Cid">Cantar de Mio Cid</a></i> (<i>Song of my <a href="/wiki/El_Cid" title="El Cid">Cid</a></i>) is the earliest Spanish text</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romance_verbs" title="Romance verbs">Romance verbs</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages#Verbal_morphology" title="Romance languages">Romance languages § Verbal morphology</a></div> <p>In general, the verbal system in the Romance languages changed less from Classical Latin than did the nominal system. </p><p>The four conjugational classes generally survived. The second and third conjugations already had identical imperfect tense forms in Latin, and also shared a common present participle. Because of the merging of short <i>i</i> with long <i>ē</i> in most of Vulgar Latin, these two conjugations grew even closer together. Several of the most frequently-used forms became indistinguishable, while others became distinguished only by stress placement: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2">Infinitive </th> <th>1st </th> <th>2nd </th> <th>3rd </th> <th>1st </th> <th>2nd </th> <th>3rd </th> <th rowspan="2">Imperative<br />singular </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="3">singular </th> <th colspan="3">plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Second conjugation (Classical) </th> <td>-ēre </td> <td>-eō </td> <td>-ēs </td> <td>-et </td> <td>-ēmus </td> <td>-ētis </td> <td>-ent </td> <td>-ē </td></tr> <tr> <th>Second conjugation (Vulgar) </th> <td>*-ẹ́re </td> <td>*-(j)o </td> <td>*-es </td> <td>*-e(t) </td> <td>*-ẹ́mos </td> <td>*-ẹ́tes </td> <td>*-en(t) </td> <td>*-e </td></tr> <tr> <th>Third conjugation (Classical) </th> <td>-ere </td> <td>-ō </td> <td>-is </td> <td>-it </td> <td>-imus </td> <td>-itis </td> <td>-unt </td> <td>-e </td></tr> <tr> <th>Third conjugation (Vulgar) </th> <td>*-ere </td> <td>*-o </td> <td>*-es </td> <td>*-e(t) </td> <td>*-emos </td> <td>*-etes </td> <td>*-on(t) </td> <td>*-e </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These two conjugations came to be conflated in many of the Romance languages, often by merging them into a single class while taking endings from each of the original two conjugations. Which endings survived was different for each language, although most tended to favour second conjugation endings over the third conjugation. Spanish, for example, mostly eliminated the third conjugation forms in favour of the second conjugation forms. </p><p>French and Catalan did the same, but tended to generalise the third conjugation infinitive instead. Catalan in particular almost eliminated the second conjugation ending over time, reducing it to a small relic class. In Italian, the two infinitive endings remained separate (but spelled identically), while the conjugations merged in most other respects much as in the other languages. However, the third-conjugation third-person plural present ending survived in favour of the second conjugation version, and was even extended to the fourth conjugation. Romanian also maintained the distinction between the second and third conjugation endings. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a>, many languages generalized the <i>-aui</i> ending most frequently found in the first conjugation. This led to an unusual development; phonetically, the ending was treated as the diphthong <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/au/</span> rather than containing a semivowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/awi/</span>, and in other cases the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> sound was simply dropped. We know this because it did not participate in the sound shift from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/β̞/</span>. Thus Latin <i>amaui</i>, <i>amauit</i> ("I loved; he/she loved") in many areas became proto-Romance *<i>amai</i> and *<i>amaut</i>, yielding for example Portuguese <i>amei</i>, <i>amou</i>. This suggests that in the spoken language, these changes in conjugation preceded the loss of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vincent_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vincent-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another major systemic change was to the <a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future tense</a>, remodelled in Vulgar Latin with <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxiliary verbs">auxiliary verbs</a>. A new future was originally formed with the auxiliary verb <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/habere#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:habere">habere</a></i>, *<i>amare habeo</i>, literally "to love I have" (cf. English "I have to love", which has shades of a future meaning). This was contracted into a new future suffix in Western Romance forms, which can be seen in the following modern examples of "I will love": </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">j'aimerai</i> (<i>je</i> + <i>aimer</i> + <i>ai</i>) ← <i>aimer</i> ["to love"] + <i>ai</i> ["I have"].</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galician_language" title="Galician language">Galician</a>: <i lang="gl">amarei</i> (<i>amar</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>ei</i>) ← <i>amar</i> ["to love"] + <i>hei</i> ["I have"]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a>: <i lang="ca">amaré</i> (<i>amar</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>e</i>) ← <i>amar</i> ["to love"] + <i>he</i> ["I have"].</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">amerò</i> (<i>amar</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>o</i>) ← <i>amare</i> ["to love"] + <i>ho</i> ["I have"].</li></ul> <p>The first historical attestation of this new future can be found in a 7th-century Latin lext, the <i><a href="/wiki/Chronicle_of_Fredegar" title="Chronicle of Fredegar">Chronicle of Fredegar</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Periphrasis" title="Periphrasis">periphrastic construction</a> of the form 'to have to' (late Latin <i>habere ad</i>) used as future is characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Sardinian_language" title="Sardinian language">Sardinian</a>: </p> <ul><li><i>Ap'a istàre</i> < <i>apo a istàre</i> 'I will stay'</li> <li><i>Ap'a nàrrere</i> < <i>apo a nàrrer</i> 'I will say'</li></ul> <p>An innovative <a href="/wiki/Conditional_mood" title="Conditional mood">conditional</a> (distinct from the <a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a>) also developed in the same way (infinitive + conjugated form of <i>habere</i>). The fact that the future and conditional endings were originally independent words is still evident in literary Portuguese, which in these tenses allows <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a> object pronouns to be incorporated between the root of the verb and its ending: "I will love" (<i>eu</i>) <i>amarei</i>, but "I will love you" <i>amar-te-ei</i>, from <i>amar</i> + <i>te</i> ["you"] + (<i>eu</i>) <i>hei</i> = <i>amar</i> + <i>te</i> + [<i>h</i>]<i>ei</i> = <i>amar-te-ei</i>. </p><p>In Spanish, Italian, Romanian and Portuguese, personal pronouns can still be omitted from verb phrases as in Latin, as the endings are still distinct enough to convey that information: <i>venio</i> > Sp <i>vengo</i> ("I come"). In French, however, all the endings are typically homophonous except the first and second person (and occasionally also third person) plural, so the pronouns are always used (<i>je viens</i>) except in the <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>. </p><p>Contrary to the millennia-long continuity of much of the active verb system, which has now survived 6000 years of known evolution,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="? (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the synthetic <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a> was utterly lost in Romance, being replaced with <a href="/wiki/Periphrastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Periphrastic">periphrastic</a> verb forms—composed of the verb "to be" plus a passive participle—or impersonal <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">reflexive</a> forms—composed of a verb and a passivizing pronoun. </p><p>Apart from the grammatical and phonetic developments there were many cases of verbs merging as complex subtleties<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in Latin were reduced to simplified verbs in Romance. A classic example of this are the verbs expressing the concept "to go". Consider three particular verbs in Classical Latin expressing concepts of "going": <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ire#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:ire">ire</a></i>, <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vadere#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:vadere">vadere</a></i>, and *<i>ambitare</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="A verb that isn't even attested in Classical Latin is not the most convincing evidence of the latter's supposed sublime mystique. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In Spanish and Portuguese <i>ire</i> and <i>vadere</i> merged into the verb <i>ir</i>, which derives some conjugated forms from <i>ire</i> and some from <i>vadere</i>. <i>andar</i> was maintained as a separate verb derived from <i>ambitare</i>. </p><p>Italian instead merged <i>vadere</i> and <i>ambitare</i> into the verb <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/andare#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:andare">andare</a></i>. At the extreme French merged three Latin verbs with, for example, the present tense deriving from <i>vadere</i> and another verb <i>ambulare</i> (or something like it) and the future tense deriving from <i>ire</i>. Similarly the Romance distinction between the Romance verbs for "to be", <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/essere#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:essere">essere</a></i> and <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stare#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:stare">stare</a></i>, was lost in French as these merged into the verb <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%AAtre#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:être">être</a></i>. In Italian, the verb <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/essere#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:essere">essere</a></i> inherited both Romance meanings of "being essentially" and "being temporarily of the quality of", while <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stare#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:stare">stare</a></i> specialized into a verb denoting location or dwelling, or state of health. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copula">Copula</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Copula"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Romance_copula" title="Romance copula">Romance copula</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> (that is, the verb signifying "to be") of Classical Latin was <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/esse#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:esse">esse</a></i>. This evolved to *<i>essere</i> in Vulgar Latin by attaching the common infinitive suffix <i>-re</i> to the classical infinitive; this produced Italian <i lang="it"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/essere#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:essere">essere</a></i> and French <i lang="fr"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%AAtre#French" class="extiw" title="wikt:être">être</a></i> through Proto-Gallo-Romance *<i>essre</i> and Old French <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/estre#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:estre">estre</a></i> as well as Spanish and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ser#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:ser">ser</a></i> (Romanian <i>a</i> <i lang="ro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fi#Romanian" class="extiw" title="wikt:fi">fi</a></i> derives from <i>fieri</i>, which means "to become"). </p><p>In Vulgar Latin a second copula developed utilizing the verb <i lang="la"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/stare#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:stare">stare</a></i>, which originally meant (and is cognate with) "to stand", to denote a more temporary meaning. That is, *<i>essere</i> signified the <i>esse</i>nce, while <i>stare</i> signified the <i>state.</i> <i>Stare</i> evolved to Spanish and Portuguese <i lang="pt"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/estar#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:estar">estar</a></i> and Old French <i lang="fro"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ester#Old_French" class="extiw" title="wikt:ester">ester</a></i> (both through *<i>estare</i>), Romanian "a sta" ("to stand"), using the original form for the noun ("stare"="state"/"starea"="the state"), while Italian retained the original form. </p><p>The semantic shift that underlies this evolution is more or less as follows: A speaker of Classical Latin might have said: <i>vir est in foro</i>, meaning "the man is in/at the marketplace". The same sentence in Vulgar Latin could have been *<i>(h)omo stat in foro</i>,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> "the man stands in/at the marketplace", replacing the <i>est</i> (from <i>esse</i>) with <i>stat</i> (from <i>stare</i>), because "standing" was what was perceived as what the man was actually doing. </p><p>The use of <i>stare</i> in this case was still semantically transparent assuming that it meant "to stand", but soon the shift from <i>esse</i> to <i>stare</i> became more widespread. In the Iberian peninsula <i>esse</i> ended up only denoting natural qualities that would not change, while <i>stare</i> was applied to transient qualities and location. In Italian, <i>stare</i> is used mainly for location, transitory state of health (<i>sta male</i> 's/he is ill' but <i>è gracile</i> 's/he is puny') and, as in Spanish, for the eminently transient quality implied in a verb's progressive form, such as <i>sto scrivendo</i> to express 'I am writing'. </p><p>The historical development of the <i>stare</i> + ablative gerund progressive tense in those Romance languages that have it seems to have been a passage from a usage such as <i>sto pensando</i> 'I stand/stay (here) in thinking',<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> in which the <i>stare</i> form carries the full semantic load of 'stand, stay' to <a href="/wiki/Grammaticalization" title="Grammaticalization">grammaticalization</a> of the construction as expression of progressive <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> (Similar in concept to the Early Modern English construction of "I am a-thinking"). The process of reanalysis that took place over time <a href="/wiki/Semantic_bleaching" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantic bleaching">bleached</a> the semantics of <i>stare</i> so that when used in combination with the gerund the form became solely a grammatical marker of subject and tense (e.g. <i>sto</i> = subject first person singular, present; <i>stavo</i> = subject first person singular, past), no longer a <a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">lexical verb</a> with the semantics of 'stand' (not unlike the auxiliary in compound tenses that once meant 'have, possess', but is now semantically empty: <i>j'<b>ai</b> écrit</i>, <i><b>ho</b> scritto</i>, <i><b>he</b> escrito</i>, etc.). Whereas <i>sto scappando</i> would once have been semantically strange at best (?'I stay escaping'), once grammaticalization was achieved, collocation with a verb of inherent mobility was no longer contradictory, and <i>sto scappando</i> could and did become the normal way to express 'I am escaping'. (Although it might be objected that in sentences like Spanish <i>la catedral está en la ciudad</i>, "the cathedral is in the city" this is also unlikely to change, but all locations are expressed through <i>estar</i> in Spanish, as this usage originally conveyed the sense of "the cathedral <i>stands</i> in the city"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Word_order_typology">Word order typology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Word order typology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Classical Latin in most cases adopted an <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">SOV</a> word order in ordinary prose, although other word orders were employed, such as in poetry, euphony, focus, or emphasis, enabled by <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> marking of the grammatical function of words. However, word order in most of the modern Romance languages generally adopted a standard SVO word order. This had to develop as a result of stylistic changes in the language over time as well as the decline of the declension system. </p><p>In Late Latin works, such as in <a href="/wiki/Egeria_(pilgrim)" title="Egeria (pilgrim)">Egeria</a>'s <i>Itinerary</i>, a VSO word order gained more ground as SOV tended to be more restricted to subordinate clauses or higher registers in the language; this is seen in Old Sardinian.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Eventually with the disappearance of the nominative case and the entire declension system, the order became V2 to solve ambiguity issues, eventually resulting in general SVO for most by the Middle Ages. </p><p>Relics of SOV word order still survive in the placement of <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitic</a> object pronouns (e.g. Spanish <i>yo te amo</i> "I love you"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Globe_of_letters.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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title="History of Portuguese">History of Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Spanish_language" title="History of the Spanish language">History of the Spanish language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Romanian_language" title="History of the Romanian language">History of the Romanian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 5 "Comparative scholars, especially in the nineteenth century … tended to see Vulgar Latin and literary Latin as two very different kinds of language, or even two different languages altogether … but [this] is now out of date"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, pp. 5–7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1979">Lloyd 1979</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElcock1960">Elcock 1960</a>, p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEskhult2018">Eskhult 2018</a>, §6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPosner1996">Posner 1996</a>, p. 3 He [Raynouard] discerned in the Romance languages common features that could not all be ascribed to Latin heritage, and therefore postulated a common ancestor, <i>la langue romane</i>, that he believed replaced Latin before AD 1000, and which most nearly resembled the language of the troubadors (now called Old Occitan, or Old Provençal).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1979">Lloyd 1979</a>, pp. 110–122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1979">Lloyd 1979</a>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1979">Lloyd 1979</a>, p. 122</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElcock1960">Elcock 1960</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, pp. 20–21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, pp. 20–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, pp. 22–23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, pp. 23–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, pp. 23–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFElcock1960">Elcock 1960</a>, p. 21</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grandgent 1907: 2–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wright 2002: 27–28; Pei 1941: 16, 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1997: 371–372</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carlton 1973: 237. According to Pei & Gaeng (1976: 76–81), the decisive moment came with the Islamic conquest of North Africa and Iberia, which was followed by numerous raids on land and by sea. All this had the effect of disrupting connections between the western Romance-speaking regions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAdams2007">Adams 2007</a>, pp. 660–670</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alkire & Rosen 2010: 287</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herman 2000: 2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrington et al. 1997: 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrington et al. 1997: 7–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pope 1934: §156.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall 1976: 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen 1965: 27–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gouvert 2015: 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pope 1934: §155; Gouvert 2016: 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grandgent 1907: §267; Pope 1934: §156.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grandgent 1907: §226; Pope 1934: §187.b</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Grandgent 1907: §255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer 1988: 157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leppänen & Alho 2018: 21–22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adams 2013: 60–1, 67</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adams 2007: 626–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vincent-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vincent_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vincent_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vincent_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Vincent (1990).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harrington-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harrington_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harrington_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Harrington et al. (1997).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMarcus_Tullius_Cicero" class="citation book cs1">Marcus Tullius Cicero. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0011%3Atext%3DPhil.%3Aspeech%3D2%3Achapter%3D3"><i>Philippics</i></a>. Speech 2, chapter 3. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221121150242/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0011:text%3DPhil.:speech%3D2:chapter%3D3">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philippics&rft.pages=Speech+2%2C+chapter+3&rft.au=Marcus+Tullius+Cicero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.02.0011%253Atext%253DPhil.%253Aspeech%253D2%253Achapter%253D3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Menéndez Pidal 1968, p. 208; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://monsu.desiderio.free.fr/curiosites/cassujet.html">Survivances du cas sujet</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200052-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200052_49-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent199182_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrandgent1991">Grandgent 1991</a>, p. 82.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrandgent1991 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Captivi" title="Captivi">Captivi</a>, 1019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerman200053-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200053_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200053_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHerman200053_52-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHerman2000">Herman 2000</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Romanian Explanatory Dictionary (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dexonline.ro/definitie/adineauri">DEXOnline.ro</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandgent1991238-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent1991238_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrandgent1991238_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrandgent1991">Grandgent 1991</a>, p. 238.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrandgent1991 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Nahon (2017).<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36225613/Peter_Nahon_Pal%C3%A9oroman_Daras_Pseudo_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9gaire_VIIe_si%C3%A8cle_de_la_bonne_interpr%C3%A9tation_d_un_jalon_de_la_romanistique_Bulletin_de_la_Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_de_Linguistique_de_Paris_112_1_2017_p_123_130">Paléoroman <i>Daras</i> (Pseudo-Frédégaire, VIIe siècle) : de la bonne interprétation d’un jalon de la romanistique</a>. <i>Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris</i>, 112/1, p. 123-130.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_consulted">Works consulted</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Works consulted"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>General</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2007" class="citation book cs1">Adams, J. N. (2007). <i>The Regional Diversification of Latin</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Regional+Diversification+of+Latin&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2013" class="citation book cs1">Adams, James Noel (2013). <i>Social variation and the Latin language</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+variation+and+the+Latin+language&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=James+Noel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlkire2010" class="citation book cs1">Alkire, Ti (2010). <i>Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Romance+Languages%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Alkire&rft.aufirst=Ti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1965" class="citation book cs1">Allen, W. Sidney (1965). <i>Vox Latina – a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-37936-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-37936-9"><bdi>0-521-37936-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vox+Latina+%E2%80%93+a+Guide+to+the+Pronunciation+of+Classical+Latin&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1965&rft.isbn=0-521-37936-9&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=W.+Sidney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoyd-Bowman1980" class="citation book cs1">Boyd-Bowman, Peter (1980). <i>From Latin to Romance in Sound Charts</i>. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Latin+to+Romance+in+Sound+Charts&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Boyd-Bowman&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Carlton, Charles Merritt. 1973. <i>A linguistic analysis of a collection of Late Latin documents composed in Ravenna between A.D. 445–700</i>. The Hague: Mouton.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiez1882" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Diez, Friedrich (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammatikderrom08diezgoog"><i>Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen</i></a> (in German) (5th ed.). Bonn: E. Weber.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatik+der+romanischen+Sprachen&rft.place=Bonn&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=E.+Weber&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Diez&rft.aufirst=Friedrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammatikderrom08diezgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElcock1960" class="citation book cs1">Elcock, W. D. (1960). <i>The Romance Languages</i>. London: Faber & Faber.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romance+Languages&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Faber+%26+Faber&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Elcock&rft.aufirst=W.+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEskhult2018" class="citation journal cs1">Eskhult, Josef (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjoll-2018-0006">"Vulgar Latin as an emergent concept in the Italian Renaissance (1435–1601): its ancient and medieval prehistory and its emergence and development in Renaissance linguistic thought"</a>. <i>Journal of Latin Linguistics</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 191–230. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fjoll-2018-0006">10.1515/joll-2018-0006</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Latin+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Vulgar+Latin+as+an+emergent+concept+in+the+Italian+Renaissance+%281435%E2%80%931601%29%3A+its+ancient+and+medieval+prehistory+and+its+emergence+and+development+in+Renaissance+linguistic+thought&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=191-230&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fjoll-2018-0006&rft.aulast=Eskhult&rft.aufirst=Josef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1515%252Fjoll-2018-0006&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrandgent1907" class="citation book cs1">Grandgent, C. H. (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924021623800"><i>An Introduction to Vulgar Latin</i></a>. Boston: D.C. Heath.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Vulgar+Latin&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=D.C.+Heath&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Grandgent&rft.aufirst=C.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924021623800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Gouvert, Xavier. 2016. Du protoitalique au protoroman: Deux problèmes de reconstruction phonologique. In: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89va_Buchi" title="Éva Buchi">Buchi, Éva</a> & Schweickard, Wolfgang (eds.), <i>Dictionnaire étymologique roman</i> 2, 27–51. Berlin: De Gruyter.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1950" class="citation journal cs1">Hall, Robert A. Jr. (1950). "The Reconstruction of Proto-Romance". <i>Language</i>. <b>26</b> (1): 6–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F410406">10.2307/410406</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/410406">410406</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+Reconstruction+of+Proto-Romance&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=6-27&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F410406&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F410406%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1976" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Robert Anderson (1976). <i>Proto-Romance Phonology</i>. New York: Elsevier.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proto-Romance+Phonology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Robert+Anderson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarringtonPucciElliott1997" class="citation book cs1">Harrington, K. P.; Pucci, J.; Elliott, A. G. (1997). <i>Medieval Latin</i> (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-31712-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-31712-9"><bdi>0-226-31712-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Latin&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-226-31712-9&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=K.+P.&rft.au=Pucci%2C+J.&rft.au=Elliott%2C+A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerman2000" class="citation book cs1">Herman, József (2000). <i>Vulgar Latin</i>. Translated by Wright, Roger. University Park: <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_State_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvania State University Press">Pennsylvania State University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-02001-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-02001-6"><bdi>0-271-02001-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL42565M">42565M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vulgar+Latin&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL42565M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.isbn=0-271-02001-6&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=J%C3%B3zsef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson1988" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, Mark J. (1988). 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On the mergers of Latin close-mid vowels. Transactions of the Philological Society 116. 460–483.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1979" class="citation journal cs1">Lloyd, Paul M. (1979). "On the Definition of 'Vulgar Latin': The Eternal Return". <i>Neuphilologische Mitteilungen</i>. <b>80</b> (2): 110–122. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/43343254">43343254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neuphilologische+Mitteilungen&rft.atitle=On+the+Definition+of+%27Vulgar+Latin%27%3A+The+Eternal+Return&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=110-122&rft.date=1979&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F43343254%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1906" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Paul (1906). "Beginnings and Progress of Romance Philology". In Rogers, Howard J. (ed.). <i>Congress of Arts and Sciences: Universal Exposition, St. Louis, 1904</i>. Vol. III. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. pp. 237–255.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Beginnings+and+Progress+of+Romance+Philology&rft.btitle=Congress+of+Arts+and+Sciences%3A+Universal+Exposition%2C+St.+Louis%2C+1904&rft.place=Boston+and+New+York&rft.pages=237-255&rft.pub=Houghton%2C+Mifflin+and+Company&rft.date=1906&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Nandris, Grigore. 1951. The development and structure of Rumanian. <i>The Slavonic and East European Review</i>, 30. 7–39.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmer1988" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, L. R. (1988) [1954]. <i>The Latin Language</i>. University of Oklahoma. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8061-2136-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-8061-2136-X"><bdi>0-8061-2136-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Latin+Language&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-8061-2136-X&rft.aulast=Palmer&rft.aufirst=L.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pei, Mario. 1941. <i>The Italian language</i>. New York: Columbia University Press.</li> <li>Pei, Mario & Gaeng, Paul A. 1976. <i>The story of Latin and the Romance languages</i>. New York: Harker & Row.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPulgram1950" class="citation journal cs1">Pulgram, Ernst (1950). "Spoken and Written Latin". <i>Language</i>. <b>26</b> (4): 458–466. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F410397">10.2307/410397</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/410397">410397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Spoken+and+Written+Latin&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=458-466&rft.date=1950&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F410397&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F410397%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pulgram&rft.aufirst=Ernst&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosner1996" class="citation book cs1">Posner, Rebecca (1996). <i>The Romance Languages</i>. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Romance+Languages&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Posner&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSihler1995" class="citation book cs1">Sihler, A. L. (1995). <i>New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin</i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-508345-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-508345-8"><bdi>0-19-508345-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Comparative+Grammar+of+Greek+and+Latin&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-19-508345-8&rft.aulast=Sihler&rft.aufirst=A.+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Treadgold, Warren. 1997. <i>A history of the Byzantine state and society</i>. Stanford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker1985" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, T. G. (1985) [1931]. <i>Etymological Dictionary of Latin</i>. Ares Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89005-172-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-89005-172-0"><bdi>0-89005-172-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+Latin&rft.pub=Ares+Publishers&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-89005-172-0&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=T.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVäänänen1981" class="citation book cs1">Väänänen, Veikko (1981). <i>Introduction au latin vulgaire</i> (3rd ed.). Paris: Klincksieck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-252-02360-0" title="Special:BookSources/2-252-02360-0"><bdi>2-252-02360-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+au+latin+vulgaire&rft.place=Paris&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Klincksieck&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=2-252-02360-0&rft.aulast=V%C3%A4%C3%A4n%C3%A4nen&rft.aufirst=Veikko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent1990" class="citation book cs1">Vincent, Nigel (1990). "Latin". In Harris, M.; Vincent, N. (eds.). <i>The Romance Languages</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-520829-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-520829-3"><bdi>0-19-520829-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Latin&rft.btitle=The+Romance+Languages&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-19-520829-3&rft.aulast=Vincent&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_WartburgChambon1922–1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">von Wartburg, Walther; Chambon, Jean-Pierre (1922–1967). <i>Französisches etymologisches Wörterbuch: eine Darstellung des galloromanischen Sprachschatzes</i> (in German and French). Bonn: F. Klopp.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Franz%C3%B6sisches+etymologisches+W%C3%B6rterbuch%3A+eine+Darstellung+des+galloromanischen+Sprachschatzes&rft.place=Bonn&rft.pub=F.+Klopp&rft.date=1922%2F1967&rft.aulast=von+Wartburg&rft.aufirst=Walther&rft.au=Chambon%2C+Jean-Pierre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1982" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Roger (1982). <i>Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France</i>. Liverpool: Francis Cairns.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Latin+and+Early+Romance+in+Spain+and+Carolingian+France&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.pub=Francis+Cairns&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2002" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Roger (2002). <i>A Sociophilological Study of Late Latin</i>. Utrecht: Brepols.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sociophilological+Study+of+Late+Latin&rft.place=Utrecht&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Transitions_to_Romance_languages">Transitions to Romance languages</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Transitions to Romance languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <dl><dt>To Romance in general</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBanniard1997" class="citation book cs1">Banniard, Michel (1997). <i>Du latin aux langues romanes</i>. Paris: Nathan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Du+latin+aux+langues+romanes&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Nathan&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Banniard&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonfante1999" class="citation book cs1">Bonfante, Giuliano (1999). <i>The origin of the Romance languages: Stages in the development of Latin</i>. Heidelberg: Carl Winter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+origin+of+the+Romance+languages%3A+Stages+in+the+development+of+Latin&rft.place=Heidelberg&rft.pub=Carl+Winter&rft.date=1999&rft.aulast=Bonfante&rft.aufirst=Giuliano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ledgeway, Adam (2012). <i>From Latin to Romance: Morphosyntactic Typology and Change</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLedgewayMaiden2016" class="citation book cs1">Ledgeway, Adam; Maiden, Martin, eds. (2016). <i>The Oxford Guide to the Romance Languages. Part 1: The Making of the Romance Languages</i>. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Guide+to+the+Romance+Languages.+Part+1%3A+The+Making+of+the+Romance+Languages&rft.place=Oxford%2C+England&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaidenSmithLedgeway2013" class="citation book cs1">Maiden, Martin; Smith, John Charles; Ledgeway, Adam, eds. (2013). <i>The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages. Volume II: Contexts</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+the+Romance+Languages.+Volume+II%3A+Contexts&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span> (esp. parts 1 & 2, <i>Latin and the Making of the Romance Languages</i>; <i>The Transition from Latin to the Romance Languages</i>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1982" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Roger (1982). <i>Late Latin and Early Romance in Spain and Carolingian France</i>. Liverpool: Francis Cairns.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Late+Latin+and+Early+Romance+in+Spain+and+Carolingian+France&rft.place=Liverpool&rft.pub=Francis+Cairns&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright1991" class="citation book cs1">Wright, Roger, ed. (1991). <i>Latin and the Romance Languages in the Early Middle ages</i>. London/New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+and+the+Romance+Languages+in+the+Early+Middle+ages&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1991&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>To French</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyres-Bennett1995" class="citation book cs1">Ayres-Bennett, Wendy (1995). <i>A History of the French Language through Texts</i>. London/New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+French+Language+through+Texts&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Ayres-Bennett&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKibler1984" class="citation book cs1">Kibler, William W. (1984). <i>An Introduction to Old French</i>. New York: Modern Language Association of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+French&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Modern+Language+Association+of+America&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Kibler&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLodge1993" class="citation book cs1">Lodge, R. Anthony (1993). <i>French: From Dialect to Standard</i>. London/New York: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=French%3A+From+Dialect+to+Standard&rft.place=London%2FNew+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Lodge&rft.aufirst=R.+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPope1934" class="citation book cs1">Pope, Mildred K. (1934). <i>From Latin to Modern French with Especial Consideration of Anglo-Norman Phonology and Morphology</i>. Manchester: <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Latin+to+Modern+French+with+Especial+Consideration+of+Anglo-Norman+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Pope&rft.aufirst=Mildred+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice1998" class="citation book cs1">Price, Glanville (1998). <i>The French language: present and past</i> (Revised ed.). London, England: Grant and Cutler.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+French+language%3A+present+and+past&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Grant+and+Cutler&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Glanville&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>To Italian</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaiden1996" class="citation book cs1">Maiden, Martin (1996). <i>A Linguistic History of Italian</i>. New York: Longman.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Linguistic+History+of+Italian&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Maiden&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVincent2006" class="citation book cs1">Vincent, Nigel (2006). "Languages in contact in Medieval Italy". In Lepschy, Anna Laura (ed.). <i>Rethinking Languages in Contact: The Case of Italian</i>. Oxford and New York: <small>LEGENDA</small> (Routledge). pp. 12–27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Languages+in+contact+in+Medieval+Italy&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Languages+in+Contact%3A+The+Case+of+Italian&rft.place=Oxford+and+New+York&rft.pages=12-27&rft.pub=%3Csmall%3ELEGENDA%3C%2Fsmall%3E+%28Routledge%29&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Vincent&rft.aufirst=Nigel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>To Spanish</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1987" class="citation book cs1">Lloyd, Paul M. (1987). <i>From Latin to Spanish</i>. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Latin+to+Spanish&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=Paul+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPenny2002" class="citation book cs1">Penny, Ralph (2002). <i>A History of the Spanish Language</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Spanish+Language&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Penny&rft.aufirst=Ralph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPharies2007" class="citation book cs1">Pharies, David A. (2007). <i>A Brief History of the Spanish Language</i>. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Spanish+Language&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Pharies&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPountain2000" class="citation book cs1">Pountain, Christopher J. (2000). <i>A History of the Spanish Language Through Texts</i>. London, England: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Spanish+Language+Through+Texts&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Pountain&rft.aufirst=Christopher+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>To Portuguese</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCastro2004" class="citation book cs1">Castro, Ivo (2004). <i>Introdução à História do Português</i>. Lisbon: Edições Colibri.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introdu%C3%A7%C3%A3o+%C3%A0+Hist%C3%B3ria+do+Portugu%C3%AAs&rft.place=Lisbon&rft.pub=Edi%C3%A7%C3%B5es+Colibri&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Castro&rft.aufirst=Ivo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmiliano2003" class="citation book cs1">Emiliano, António (2003). <i>Latim e Romance na segunda metade do século XI</i>. Lisbon: Fundação Gulbenkian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latim+e+Romance+na+segunda+metade+do+s%C3%A9culo+XI&rft.place=Lisbon&rft.pub=Funda%C3%A7%C3%A3o+Gulbenkian&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Emiliano&rft.aufirst=Ant%C3%B3nio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1968" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Edwin B. (1968). <i>From Latin to Portuguese: Historical Phonology and Morphology of the Portuguese Language</i>. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Latin+to+Portuguese%3A+Historical+Phonology+and+Morphology+of+the+Portuguese+Language&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Edwin+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>To Occitan</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaden1998" class="citation book cs1">Paden, William D. (1998). <i>An Introduction to Old Occitan</i>. New York: Modern Language Association of America.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Old+Occitan&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Modern+Language+Association+of+America&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Paden&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <dl><dt>To Sardinian</dt></dl> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlasco_Ferrer1984" class="citation book cs1">Blasco Ferrer, Eduardo (1984). <i>Storia linguistica della Sardegna</i>. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Storia+linguistica+della+Sardegna&rft.place=T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pub=Max+Niemeyer+Verlag&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Blasco+Ferrer&rft.aufirst=Eduardo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adams, James Noel. 1976. <i>The Text and Language of a Vulgar Latin Chronicle (Anonymus Valesianus II).</i> London: University of London, Institute of Classical Studies.</li> <li>Adams, James Noel. 1977. <i>The Vulgar Latin of the letters of Claudius Terentianus.</i> Manchester, UK: Manchester Univ. Press.</li> <li>Adams, James Noel. 2013. <i>Social Variation and the Latin Language.</i> Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Burghini, Julia, and Javier Uría. 2015. "Some neglected evidence on Vulgar Latin 'glide suppression': Consentius, 27.17.20 N." <i>Glotta; Zeitschrift Für Griechische Und Lateinische Sprache</i> 91: 15–26. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24368205">24368205</a>.</li> <li>Jensen, Frede. 1972. <i>From Vulgar Latin to Old Provençal.</i> Chapel Hill: <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>.</li> <li>Lakoff, Robin Tolmach. 2006. Vulgar Latin: Comparative Castration (and Comparative Theories of Syntax). <i>Style</i> 40, nos. 1–2: 56–61. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/style.40.1-2.56">10.5325/style.40.1-2.56</a>.</li> <li>Rohlfs, Gerhard. 1970. <i>From Vulgar Latin to Old French: An Introduction to the Study of the Old French Language.</i> Detroit: <a href="/wiki/Wayne_State_University_Press" title="Wayne State University Press">Wayne State University Press</a>.</li> <li>Scarpanti, Edoardo. 2012. <i>Saggi linguistici sul latino volgare.</i> Mantova: Universitas Studiorum. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788833690087" title="Special:BookSources/9788833690087">9788833690087</a>.</li> <li>Weiss, Michael. 2009. <i>Outline of the historical and comparative grammar of Latin.</i> Ann Arbor, MI: Beechstave.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZair2023" class="citation book cs1">Zair, Nicholas (2023). <i>Orthographic traditions and the sub-elite in the Roman Empire</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781009327664" title="Special:BookSources/9781009327664"><bdi>9781009327664</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orthographic+traditions+and+the+sub-elite+in+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9781009327664&rft.aulast=Zair&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZovic2015" class="citation journal cs1">Zovic, V (2015). "Vulgar Latin in Inscriptions from the Roman Province of Dalmatia". <i>Vjesnik Za Arheologiju I Povijest Dalmatinsku</i>. <b>108</b>: 157–222.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vjesnik+Za+Arheologiju+I+Povijest+Dalmatinsku&rft.atitle=Vulgar+Latin+in+Inscriptions+from+the+Roman+Province+of+Dalmatia&rft.volume=108&rft.pages=157-222&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Zovic&rft.aufirst=V&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Vulgar_Latin&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Vulgar Latin</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Vulgar+Latin&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Vulgar+Latin">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Vulgar+Latin&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBatzarov2000" class="citation web cs1">Batzarov, Zdravko (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181225213018/http://www.orbilat.com/index.html">"Orbis Latinus"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orbilat.com/index.html">the original</a> on 25 December 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Orbis+Latinus&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Batzarov&rft.aufirst=Zdravko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orbilat.com%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorberg2009" class="citation book cs1">Norberg, Dag (2009) [1980]. "Latin at the End of the Imperial Age". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Latin_Medieval/Dag_Norberg/01.html"><i>Manuel pratique de latin médiéval</i></a>. Translated by Johnson, R.H. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, Orbis Latinus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Latin+at+the+End+of+the+Imperial+Age&rft.btitle=Manuel+pratique+de+latin+m%C3%A9di%C3%A9val&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press%2C+Orbis+Latinus&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Norberg&rft.aufirst=Dag&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.orbilat.com%2FLanguages%2FLatin_Medieval%2FDag_Norberg%2F01.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130107052718/http://kaali.linguist.jussieu.fr/CGL/text.jsp">"Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum"</a>. Paris: Laboratoire d'Histoire des théories linguistiques. 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kaali.linguist.jussieu.fr/CGL/text.jsp">the original</a> on 7 January 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Corpus+Grammaticorum+Latinorum&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Laboratoire+d%27Histoire+des+th%C3%A9ories+linguistiques&rft.date=2008&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkaali.linguist.jussieu.fr%2FCGL%2Ftext.jsp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVulgar+Latin" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Latin_periods" title="Template:Latin periods"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Latin_periods" title="Template talk:Latin periods"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Latin_periods" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Latin periods"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ages_of_Latin" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Ages of <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>until 75 BC</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><span class="nowrap"><i>75 BC – 200 AD</i></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>200–700</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>700–1500</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–1500</i><br /><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1300–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a> </p> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align:center;width:10em;"><div> <p><i>1900–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></i><br /><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary Latin</a> </p> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background:#eee;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History of Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vulgar Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin_studies" title="Neo-Latin studies">Neo-Latin studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latino_sine_flexione" title="Latino sine flexione">Latino sine flexione</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Latin" title="Hiberno-Latin">Hiberno-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Legacy of the Roman Empire">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Magistri equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_nomina" title="List of Roman nomina">Nomina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">Pontifices maximi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_praetors" title="List of Roman praetors">Praetors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_quaestors" title="List of Roman quaestors">Quaestors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_tribunes" title="List of Roman tribunes">Tribunes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Iranian_relations" title="Roman–Iranian relations">Roman–Iranian relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_external_wars_and_battles" title="List of Roman external wars and battles">External wars and battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_civil_wars_and_revolts" title="List of Roman civil wars and revolts">Civil wars and revolts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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