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<li id="toc-Present_day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present_day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Present day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present_day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Characteristics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Orthography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_Text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_Text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Sample Text</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_Text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Endnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Endnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Endnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Endnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Arabisch" title="Judeo-Arabisch – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Judeo-Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لهجات عربية يهودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لهجات عربية يهودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A0%DC%AB%DC%A2%DC%90_%DC%A5%DC%AA%DC%92%DC%9D%DC%90_%DC%9D%DC%97%DC%98%DC%95%DC%9D%DC%90" title="ܠܫܢܐ ܥܪܒܝܐ ܝܗܘܕܝܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܠܫܢܐ ܥܪܒܝܐ ܝܗܘܕܝܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xudeo%C3%A1rabe" title="Xudeoárabe – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xudeoárabe" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C3%BB-th%C3%A0i_A-la-pek-g%C3%AD" title="Iû-thài A-la-pek-gí – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Iû-thài A-la-pek-gí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BE-%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Юдео-арабски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Юдео-арабски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_yuzev-arabek" title="Yezhoù yuzev-arabek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù yuzev-arabek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo%C3%A0rab" title="Judeoàrab – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Judeoàrab" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-arab%C5%A1tina" title="Judeo-arabština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Judeo-arabština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jud%C3%A6o-arabisk" title="Judæo-arabisk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Judæo-arabisk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jud%C3%A4o-Arabisch" title="Judäo-Arabisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Judäo-Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo%C3%A1rabe" title="Judeoárabe – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Judeoárabe" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="زبان یهودی-عربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان یهودی-عربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jud%C3%A9o-arabe" title="Judéo-arabe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Judéo-arabe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judal-Araba_lingui" title="Judal-Araba lingui – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Judal-Araba lingui" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialek-dialek_Arab_Yahudi" title="Dialek-dialek Arab Yahudi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dialek-dialek Arab Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_giudeo-arabe" title="Lingue giudeo-arabe – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue giudeo-arabe" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ערבית יהודית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ערבית יהודית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djudeo-Arabo" title="Djudeo-Arabo – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Djudeo-Arabo" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialet_sgiudee-arab" title="Dialet sgiudee-arab – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Dialet sgiudee-arab" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%87%D8%AC%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%87" title="لهجه عربيه يهوديه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لهجه عربيه يهوديه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Arabisch" title="Judeo-Arabisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Judeo-Arabisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%80%E3%83%A4%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%93%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A4" title="ユダヤ・アラビア語群 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユダヤ・アラビア語群" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8dearabiske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Jødearabiske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jødearabiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%DA%BA" title="یہود-عربی بولیاں – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="یہود-عربی بولیاں" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_judeoarabski" title="Język judeoarabski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język judeoarabski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_judaico-%C3%A1rabes" title="Línguas judaico-árabes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas judaico-árabes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Еврейско-арабские диалекты – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Еврейско-арабские диалекты" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Judeo-Arabic dialects" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutalaisarabia" title="Juutalaisarabia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juutalaisarabia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi_Arap%C3%A7as%C4%B1" title="Yahudi Arapçası – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudi Arapçası" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Єврейсько-арабські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Єврейсько-арабські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="یہود-عربی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہود-عربی زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%B3m_ng%C3%B4n_ng%E1%BB%AF_%E1%BA%A2_R%E1%BA%ADp_Do_Th%C3%A1i" title="Nhóm ngôn ngữ Ả Rập Do Thái – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhóm ngôn ngữ Ả Rập Do Thái" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9" title="יודישע אראביש – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="יודישע אראביש" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA-%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E8%AA%9E" title="猶太-阿拉伯語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="猶太-阿拉伯語" data-language-autonym="中文" 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important translation instructions.</small></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li>Machine translation, like <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://deepl.com">DeepL</a> or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/">Google Translate</a>, is a useful starting point for translations, but translators must revise errors as necessary and confirm that the translation is accurate, rather than simply copy-pasting machine-translated text into the English Wikipedia.</li> <li>Do not translate text that appears unreliable or low-quality. If possible, verify the text with references provided in the foreign-language article.</li> <li>You <b>must</b> provide <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Copying_within_Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia:Copying within Wikipedia">copyright attribution</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Help:Edit_summary" title="Help:Edit summary">edit summary</a> accompanying your translation by providing an <a href="/wiki/Help:Interlanguage_links" title="Help:Interlanguage links">interlanguage link</a> to the source of your translation. A model attribution edit summary is <code>Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Judéo-arabe]]; see its history for attribution.</code></li> <li>You may also add the template <code>{{Translated|fr|Judéo-arabe}}</code> to the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Judeo-Arabic" title="Talk:Judeo-Arabic">talk page</a>.</li> <li>For more guidance, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Translation" title="Wikipedia:Translation">Wikipedia:Translation</a>.</li></ul></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Judeo-Arabic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #faecc8;"><span title="Judeo-Arabic-language text"><span lang="jrb"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ערבית יהודית</span>‎</span></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Cairo_Genizah_Fragment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Cairo_Genizah_Fragment.jpg/200px-Cairo_Genizah_Fragment.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Cairo_Genizah_Fragment.jpg/300px-Cairo_Genizah_Fragment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Cairo_Genizah_Fragment.jpg/400px-Cairo_Genizah_Fragment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="667" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">A page from the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a>, part of which is written in the Judeo-Arabic language</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Jews from <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">240,000 (2022)<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afro-Asiatic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/West_Semitic_languages" title="West Semitic languages">West Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Semitic_languages" title="Central Semitic languages">Central Semitic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic languages">Arabic</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Judeo-Arabic</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #faecc8;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=218">jrb</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/jrb" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:jrb">jrb</a></code> – inclusive code<br />Individual codes:<br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/yhd" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:yhd">yhd</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian Arabic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/aju" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:aju">aju</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan Arabic</a><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/yud" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:yud">yud</a></code> – <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic</a></span><br /><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/jye" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:jye">jye</a></code> – <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni Arabic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><i>None</i></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Shalom" title="Shalom"><img alt="שָׁלוֹם" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/40px-Shalom2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/60px-Shalom2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Shalom2.svg/80px-Shalom2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="741" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew text</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Hebrew" title="Help:Hebrew">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of Hebrew letters.</div></div> </div> <p><b>Judeo-Arabic</b> (<a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic language">Judeo-Arabic</a>: <span lang="jrb" dir="rtl">ערביה יהודיה</span>, <span style="font-size:85%;">romanized:</span> <span title="Judeo-Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="jrb-Latn">‘Arabiya Yahūdiya</i></span>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">عربية يهودية</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿArabiya Yahūdiya</i></span> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/c\/c0\/Arabiyyayahudiyya.ogg\/Arabiyyayahudiyya.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"(listen)"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Arabiyyayahudiyya.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/c0/Arabiyyayahudiyya.ogg/Arabiyyayahudiyya.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">(listen)</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabiyyayahudiyya.ogg" title="File:Arabiyyayahudiyya.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: <span lang="he" dir="rtl">ערבית יהודית</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Hebrew" title="Romanization of Hebrew">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn">‘Aravít Yehudít</i></span> <span style="font-size:85%;"><span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-labelElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/53\/Aravityehudit.ogg\/Aravityehudit.ogg.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","label":{"html":"(listen)"},"data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Aravityehudit.ogg"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/53/Aravityehudit.ogg/Aravityehudit.ogg.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label">(listen)</span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Aravityehudit.ogg" title="File:Aravityehudit.ogg">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span></span>) is <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, in its <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">formal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">vernacular</a> varieties, as it has been used by <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, and refers to both written forms and spoken dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Jewish use of Arabic, which predates <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, has been in some ways distinct from its use by other religious communities, it is not a uniform linguistic entity.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties of Arabic</a> formerly spoken by Jews throughout the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> have been, in modern times, classified as distinct <a href="/wiki/Ethnolects" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnolects">ethnolects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the <a href="/wiki/ISO_639" title="ISO 639">ISO 639</a> international standard for language codes, Judeo-Arabic is classified as a <a href="/wiki/ISO_639_macrolanguage" title="ISO 639 macrolanguage">macrolanguage</a> under the code jrb, encompassing four languages: <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan Arabic</a> (aju), <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni Arabic</a> (jye), <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian Arabic</a> (yhd), and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic</a> (yud).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Judeo-Arabic, particularly in its later forms, contains distinctive features and elements of Hebrew and Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2012_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 125
Quotation: "Summary: This paper examines Judeo-Arabic, the language of Arabic-speaking Jews, as a mixed language in the context of the Jewish linguistic spectrum. Judeo-Arabic is a mixed religiolect that contains elements of classical and post-classical Arabic, dialectal compo- nents, pseudocorrections, pseudocorrections that have become standardized, as well as elements of Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary and grammar. The essay investigates the inclusion of these elements in Judeo-Arabic, using especially the texts of the šarḥ—a liter- ary genre of translations of Hebrew (and Aramaic) religious sacred texts into Judeo-Arabic that developed especially from the fifteenth century onwards"" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">125</span> </sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2018_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 35
Quotation: "Judeo-Arabic is a religiolect that has been spoken and written in various forms by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. A religiolect is a language variety with its own history which is developed within a specific religious community, although some of its distinctive features may later spread outside of the com- munity (Hary 2009: 12–13). Judeo-Arabic literature deals, for the most part, with Jewish topics and is written by Jews for a Jewish readership. Several important features distinguish it from other varieties of Arabic. These include a mixture of elements of Classical and post-Classical Arabic, dialectal components, pseu- docorrections,1 and pseudocorrections that have become standardized. In other words, it is a typical mixed variety. Judeo-Arabic also possesses a number of spe- cific additional sociolinguistic features that set it apart: the use of Hebrew rather than Arabic characters, various traditions of Judeo-Arabic orthography, elements of Hebrew and Aramaic vocabulary and grammar, and the style of the šarḥ (a genre composed of literary translations of Jewish religious and liturgical texts from Hebrew and Aramaic into Judeo-Arabic). Users began to employ the religio- lect around the eighth century CE, as a linguistic result of the Arab conquests during the seventh century, and have been using it in various forms until today"" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">35</span> </sup> </p><p>Many significant Jewish works, including a number of religious writings by <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a>, were originally written in Judeo-Arabic, as this was the primary <a href="/wiki/Vernacular_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernacular language">vernacular language</a> of their authors. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_under_Muslim_rule" title="History of the Jews under Muslim rule">History of the Jews under Muslim rule</a></div> <p>Jewish use of Arabic in <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a> predates <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is evidence of a Jewish Arabic dialect, similar to general Arabic but including some Hebrew and Aramaic lexemes, called <i>al-Yahūdiyya</i>, predating Islam. Some of these Hebrew and Aramaic words may have passed into general usage, particularly in religion and culture, though this pre-Islamic Judeo-Arabic was not the basis of a literature.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2018_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page / location: 41–42
Quotation: "There is some evidence that the Jews on the Arabian Peninsula during the pre-Is- lamic period used a type of Jewish Arabic dialect called al-Yahūdiyya (Gil 1984: 206; Newby 1971, 1988: 21–23). This dialect was similar to the Arabic dialect used by the general public but included some Hebrew and Aramaic lexemes, especially in the domains of religion and culture. Some of these Hebrew and Aramaic words passed into the speech and writing of the Arabs. This may explain the appear- ance of words of Hebrew and Aramaic origin in the Quran. There is no evidence, however, that Pre-Islamic Judeo-Arabic ever served as the vehicle of a distinct liter- ature (see below in 4.2, as-Samaw’al bnu ‘Ādiyā’’s case). Yet al-Yahūdiyya writings in Hebrew characters may also have existed (Newby 1971: 220)."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">41–42</span> </sup> </p><p>There were Jewish <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabic_poetry" title="Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry">Pre-Islamic Arabic poets</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Samaw%27al_ibn_%27Adiya" title="Samaw'al ibn 'Adiya">al-Samawʾal ibn ʿĀdiyā</a>, though surviving written records of such Jewish poets do not indicate anything that distinguishes their use of Arabic from non-Jewish use of it, and their work according to Geoffrey Khan is generally not referred to as Judeo-Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This work is similar to and tends to follow Classical Arabic, and Benjamin Hary, who calls it Classical Judeo-Arabic, notes it still includes some dialectal features, such as in <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a>'s translation of the Pentateuch. This period includes a wide array of literary works. <sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2018_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page / location: 42
Quotation: "The second phase of Judeo-Arabic began in the eighth century in Egypt and the ninth century elsewhere. This was the period in which the Judeo-Arabic Pho- netic orthography was used, though alongside the Arabicized orthography (see below). The appearance of Saadia ibn Yosef al-Fayyūmī’s (882–942 CE) transla- tion of the Pentateuch into Judeo-Arabic at the turn of the tenth century marks the beginning of the third phase, Classical Judeo-Arabic. Although the written form of this language contained dialectal features as well as pseudocorrections, according to Blau (1999), it tended to follow the model of Classical Arabic to a large extent. The works written in this period covered the entire spectrum of lit- erary composition: theology, philosophy, biblical exegesis, philology, grammar, lexicography, law, ritual, and literature, in addition to commercial and private correspondence. Much of the material from this period has survived in several genizot, most notably the Cairo Geniza. The number of works in this period exceeded the number of Judeo-Arabic works of any other single period."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">42</span> </sup> Scholars assume that Jewish communities in Arabia spoke Arabic as their vernacular language, and some write that there is evidence of the presence of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> words in their speech, as such words appear in the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and might have come from contact with these Arabic-speaking Jewish communities.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before the spread of Islam, Jewish communities in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> spoke Aramaic, while those to the West spoke <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early Muslim conquests</a>, areas including Mesopotamia and the eastern and southern Mediterranean underwent <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a>, most rapidly in urban centers.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some isolated Jewish communities continued to speak Aramaic until the 10th century, and some communities never adopted Arabic as a vernacular language at all.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although urban Jewish communities were using Arabic as their spoken language, Jews kept Hebrew and Aramaic, traditional rabbinic languages, as their languages of writing during the first three centuries of Muslim rule, perhaps due to the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Sura_Academy" title="Sura Academy">Sura</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pumbedita_Academy" title="Pumbedita Academy">Pumbedita</a> yeshivas in rural areas where people spoke Aramaic.<sup id="cite_ref-Kahn-2017_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kahn-2017-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jews in Arabic, Muslim majority countries wrote—sometimes in their dialects, sometimes in a more classical style—in a mildly adapted <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> rather than using the <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a>, often including <a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">consonant</a> dots from the Arabic alphabet to accommodate phonemes that did not exist in the Hebrew alphabet. </p><p>By around 800 CE, most Jews within the Islamic Empire (90% of the world's Jews at the time) were native speakers of Arabic like the populations around them. This led to the development of early Judeo-Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewish_Languages_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Languages-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language quickly became the central language of Jewish scholarship and communication, enabling Jews to participate in the greater epicenter of learning at the time, which meant that they could be active participants in secular scholarship and civilization. The widespread usage of Arabic not only unified the Jewish community located throughout the Islamic Empire but also facilitated greater communication with other ethnic and religious groups, which led to important manuscripts of polemic, like the <a href="/wiki/Toledot_Yeshu" title="Toledot Yeshu">Toledot Yeshu</a>, being written or published in Arabic or Judeo-Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 10th century Judeo-Arabic would transition from Early to Classical Judeo-Arabic. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Letter_(T-S_8J18.5).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Letter_%28T-S_8J18.5%29.jpg/220px-Letter_%28T-S_8J18.5%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Letter_%28T-S_8J18.5%29.jpg/330px-Letter_%28T-S_8J18.5%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Letter_%28T-S_8J18.5%29.jpg/440px-Letter_%28T-S_8J18.5%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1603" data-file-height="1577" /></a><figcaption>A letter in <a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi Arabic</a> handwritten by <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah ha-Levi</a> (1075–1141) found in the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a>. While Muslims did not write in vernacular registers of Arabic, Jews would sometimes write in vernacular registers of Arabic using <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew script</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure><p>In <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a>, Jewish poets associated with the <a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">golden age of Jewish culture in Spain</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a>, composed poetry with Arabic. The <i><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwaššaḥ</a></i>, an Andalusi genre of strophic poetry, typically included <i><a href="/wiki/Kharja" title="Kharja">kharjas</a></i>, or closing lines often in a different language. About half of the corpus of the more than 250 known <i><a href="/wiki/Muwashshah" title="Muwashshah">muwaššaḥāt</a></i> in <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Hebrew</a> have <i><a href="/wiki/Kharja" title="Kharja">kharjas</a></i> in Arabic, compared to roughly 50 with Hebrew <i>kharjas</i>, and about 25 with Romance.<sup id="cite_ref-Menocal-2012_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menocal-2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 185">: 185 </span></sup> There are also a few <i>kharjas</i> with a combination of Hebrew and Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-Menocal-2012_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Menocal-2012-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 185">: 185 </span></sup> </p><p>During the 15th century, as Jews, especially in North Africa, gradually began to identify less with Arabs, Judeo-Arabic would undergo significant changes and become Later Judeo-Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewish_Languages_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Languages-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This coincided with increased isolation of Jewish communities and involved greater influence of Hebrew and Aramaic features.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2018_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page / location: 42
Quotation: "The fourth phase, Later Judeo-Arabic, lasted from the 15th to the 19th cen- turies. The shift from Classical to Later Judeo-Arabic was accompanied by “the increased social isolation of the Jews of the Arab world at the end of the Middle Ages within restrictive quarters, such as the məllāḥ and ḥart il-yahūd” (Stillman 1988: 5). During this period, many more dialectal elements penetrated into the written language, and the tradition of the šarḥ – the literal translation of Hebrew and Aramaic religious sacred texts into Judeo-Arabic – developed. Historical, halakhic, liturgical, and other texts were written in this period, many of them aimed at the general public rather than the erudite elite. Toward the end of this period, and even more so in the following period, an extensive folk literature also came into being. This period witnessed the development of the Hebraized orthog- raphy (Hary 1996), i.e., Judeo-Arabic written with spelling conventions that were heavily influenced by Hebrew and Aramaic."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">42</span> </sup> </p><p>Some of the most important books of medieval Jewish thought were originally written in medieval Judeo-Arabic, as were certain <a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">halakhic</a> works and biblical commentaries. Later they were translated into <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">medieval Hebrew</a> so that they could be read by contemporaries elsewhere in the Jewish world, and by others who were literate in Hebrew. These include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadia Gaon</a>'s translations of the Pentateuch,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>,<i><a href="/wiki/Emunoth_ve-Deoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Emunoth ve-Deoth">Emunoth ve-Deoth</a></i> (originally <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">كتاب الأمانات والاعتقادات</span></span>), his <a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">tafsir</a> (biblical commentary and translation) and <i><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">siddur</a></i> (explanatory content, not the prayers themselves)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_ibn_Merwan_al-Mukkamas" title="David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas">David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon_ibn_Gabirol" title="Solomon ibn Gabirol">Solomon ibn Gabirol</a>'s <i>Tikkun Middot ha-Nefesh</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahya_ibn_Paquda" title="Bahya ibn Paquda">Bahya ibn Paquda</a>'s <i>Kitab al-Hidāya ilā Fara'id al-Qulūb</i>, translated by <a href="/wiki/Judah_ben_Saul_ibn_Tibbon" title="Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon">Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon</a> as <i><a href="/wiki/Chovot_HaLevavot" title="Chovot HaLevavot">Chovot HaLevavot</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judah_Halevi" title="Judah Halevi">Judah Halevi</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Kuzari" title="Kuzari">Kuzari</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a>' <i>Commentary on the Mishnah</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Hamitzvot" title="Sefer Hamitzvot">Sefer Hamitzvot</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guide_for_the_Perplexed" title="The Guide for the Perplexed">The Guide for the Perplexed</a></i>, and many of his letters and shorter essays.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:0001_FL168254346_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/0001_FL168254346_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-0001_FL168254346_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/0001_FL168254346_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-0001_FL168254346_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/0001_FL168254346_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-0001_FL168254346_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2444" data-file-height="3227" /></a><figcaption>A manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Saadia_Gaon" title="Saadia Gaon">Saadiah Gaon's</a> translation of the <a href="/wiki/Pentateuch" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentateuch">Pentateuch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Sharch</i> (<i>šarḥ</i>, pl. <i>šurūḥ</i>, <i>šarḥanim</i>) is a literary genre consisting of the translation of sacred texts, such as <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Arabic" title="Bible translations into Arabic">Bible translations into Arabic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> or <a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">siddurim</a>, which were composed in Hebrew and Aramaic, into Judeo-Arabic, prevalent starting in the 15th century, and exhibiting a number of mixed elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2012_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>sharḥ</i> sometimes came to mean "Judeo-Arabic" in the same way that <a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">"Targum" was sometimes used</a> to mean the <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic language</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The texts of the <i>sharh</i> are based on and dependent on Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2012_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Present_day">Present day</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Present day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The significant <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">emigration</a> of Judeo-Arabic speakers in the 1940s and 1950s to Israel, France, and North America has led to endangerment or near-extinction of the ethnolects.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2003_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 63
Quotation: "The large emigration of Arab Jews, or Jews of Arab lands in the late 1940s and 1950s ofthe last century is the main reason for this situation. Most of the Jews cameto Israel (although some immigrated to France, North America, and otherplaces), where the Zionist Israeli pressure to drop Judeo-Arabic and adopt Hebrew was immense. Today there is still a sizeable Jewish community in Morocco but most of the Jewish speech community there uses French rather than Moroccan Judeo-Arabic."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">63</span> </sup> Judeo-Arabic was viewed negatively in Israel as all Arabic was viewed as an "enemy language".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their distinct Arabic dialects in turn did not thrive, and most of their descendants now speak <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> or <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern Hebrew</a> almost exclusively; thus resulting in the entire group of Judeo-Arabic dialects being considered <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered languages</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2018_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 44
Quotation: "the religiolect again experienced a dramatic change in the 20th century, with the rise of Arab and Jewish national movements, the outbreak of the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the consequent emigration of Jews from (mostly) Arabic-speaking areas. The religiolect lost ground due to migration, struggle, and nationalism (and the resulting pressure from other languages). This change brought about the near loss of the religiolect"" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">44</span> </sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2003_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There remain small populations of speakers in Morocco,<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2003_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algeria, Tunisia, Lebanon, Yemen, the United States,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and Israel.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2003_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cultural critic <a href="/wiki/Ella_Shohat" title="Ella Shohat">Ella Shohat</a> notes that Jewish speakers of Arabic did not refer to their language as 'Judeo-Arabic' but simply as 'Arabic'.<sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the period of '<a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_the_Muslim_world" title="Jewish exodus from the Muslim world">massive dislocation</a>' from the late 1940s through the 1960s, Jewish speakers of Arabic in diaspora and their descendants gradually adopted the term 'Judeo-Arabic' and its equivalents in French and Hebrew.<sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 19th century rediscovery of the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a> gave the study of Judeo-Arabic prominence within <a href="/wiki/Judaic_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaic Studies">Judaic Studies</a>, leading to publications such as <a href="/wiki/Shelomo_Dov_Goitein" title="Shelomo Dov Goitein">Shelomo Dov Goitein's</a> series <i>A Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shohat identifies linguist <a href="/wiki/Yehoshua_Blau" title="Yehoshua Blau">Yehoshua Blau</a> as a key figure in the development of the notion of Judeo-Arabic, within what she describes as a <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionist</a> linguistic project invested in prioritizing the uniqueness and separateness of isolatable '<a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a>'.<sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shohat cites the first issue of the Israeli journal <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pe%27amim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pe'amim (page does not exist)">Pe'amim</a></i>, which featured a "Scholars’ Forum" (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">בימת חוקרים</span></span>) on "The Jewish Languages – the Common, the Unique and the Problematic" (<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">הלשונות היהודיות – המשותף, המיוחד והבעייתי</span></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with articles from <a href="/wiki/Chaim_Menachem_Rabin" title="Chaim Menachem Rabin">Chaim Menachem Rabin</a> "<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">מה מייחד את הלשונות היהודיות</span></span>" ('What Distinguishes the Jewish Languages')<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Yehoshua_Blau" title="Yehoshua Blau">Yehoshua Blau</a> "<span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl">הערבית-היהודית הקלאסית</span></span>" ('Classical Judeo-Arabic').<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This project explicitly sought to describe the Arabic of Jews as a distinct, Jewish language, equating it with <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shohat-2017_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shohat-2017-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Esther-Miriam Wagner, the case of Judeo-Arabic reified a Zionist 'Arab vs. Jew' dichotomy.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pennsylvania_University_of_Pennsylvania_Libraries_Halper_317_f_1r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Pennsylvania_University_of_Pennsylvania_Libraries_Halper_317_f_1r.jpg/220px-Pennsylvania_University_of_Pennsylvania_Libraries_Halper_317_f_1r.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Pennsylvania_University_of_Pennsylvania_Libraries_Halper_317_f_1r.jpg/330px-Pennsylvania_University_of_Pennsylvania_Libraries_Halper_317_f_1r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Pennsylvania_University_of_Pennsylvania_Libraries_Halper_317_f_1r.jpg/440px-Pennsylvania_University_of_Pennsylvania_Libraries_Halper_317_f_1r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>A folio from a <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philological</a> essay on definitions of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> words found in the Cairo Geniza, 10th-12th c.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Arabic spoken by Jewish communities in the Arab world differed from the Arabic of their non-Jewish neighbors. Particularly in its later forms, Judeo-Arabic contains distinctive features and elements of Hebrew and Aramaic, such as grammar, vocabulary, orthography, and style.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2012_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2012-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2018_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For example, most Jews in Egypt lived in Cairo and Alexandria and they shared a common dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</a> is reminiscent of the <a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">dialect of Mosul</a>. For example, "I said" is <i><span title="North Mesopotamian Arabic-language text"><i lang="ayp">qeltu</i></span></i> in the speech of Baghdadi Jews and Christians, as well as in Mosul and Syria, as against Muslim Baghdadi <i><span title="Mesopotamian Arabic-language text"><i lang="acm">gilit</i></span></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Judeo-Arabic writers, such as Maimonides, were able to switch between varieties of Judeo-Arabic and the Standard Arabic dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-Hary-2003_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hary-2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Pages: 64–65
Quotation: "Judeo-Arabic authors at timesattempted to write in the more prestigious variety of Standard Arabic withvarying degrees of success resulting in pseudo-corrections (Hary 1992:62–69). In other words, several Judeo-Arabic authors mastered StandardArabic and wrote in it. When they did, their writings in Standard Arabiccannot be considered Judeo-Arabic. Therefore, these writings are outsidethe scope of Judeo-Arabic. Maimonides (1135–1204) serves as a goodexample in the period of classical Judeo-Arabic. He was certainly capableFigure 2.Continuum in Judeo-Arabic Judeo-Arabic: a diachronic reexamination65of writing in variety A and indeed did so, but he was able to switch betweenthe different varieties of the language, thus adapting to his readership. As aresult, some of his works, such as his medical writings, which were aimedat non-Jewish readers, are in variety A and cannot be considered part ofclassical Judeo-Arabic. In other works, such as his letters to his coreligion-ists, that is, Jewish readership, he used the varieties of Bn, and thereforethey are in literary written classical Judeo-Arabic.Judeo-Arabic writers and speakers’ attitude is important for under-standing the ethnolect."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">64–65</span> </sup> </p><p>Like other Jewish languages and dialects, Judeo-Arabic languages contain borrowings from Hebrew and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>. This feature is less marked in <a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Arabic#Jewish" title="Bible translations into Arabic">translations of the Bible</a>, as the authors clearly took the view that the business of a translator is to translate.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Lebanese_Arabic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judeo-Lebanese Arabic (page does not exist)">Judeo-Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Media">Media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agada_pour_la_Paque-_avec_traductions_Jud%C3%A9o-Arabe_et_Fran%C3%A7aise_515294_0003.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Agada_pour_la_Paque-_avec_traductions_Jud%C3%A9o-Arabe_et_Fran%C3%A7aise_515294_0003.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Agada_pour_la_Paque-_avec_traductions_Jud%C3%A9o-Arabe_et_Fran%C3%A7aise_515294_0003.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Agada_pour_la_Paque-_avec_traductions_Jud%C3%A9o-Arabe_et_Fran%C3%A7aise_515294_0003.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Agada_pour_la_Paque-_avec_traductions_Jud%C3%A9o-Arabe_et_Fran%C3%A7aise_515294_0003.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Agada_pour_la_Paque-_avec_traductions_Jud%C3%A9o-Arabe_et_Fran%C3%A7aise_515294_0003.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Agada_pour_la_Paque-_avec_traductions_Jud%C3%A9o-Arabe_et_Fran%C3%A7aise_515294_0003.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4880" data-file-height="3136" /></a><figcaption>A printed <a href="/wiki/Haggadah" title="Haggadah">haggadah</a> with translations in French and Judeo-Arabic, <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a>, 1920.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Most literature in Judeo-Arabic is of a Jewish nature and is intended for readership by Jewish audiences. There was also widespread translation of Jewish texts from languages like <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ladino_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ladino (language)">Ladino</a> into Judeo-Arabic, and translation of liturgical texts from Aramaic and Hebrew into Judeo-Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewish_Languages_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Languages-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also Judeo-Arabic videos on <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jewish_Languages_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jewish_Languages-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A collection of over 400,000 of Judeo-Arabic documents from the 6th-19th centuries was found in the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Geniza" title="Cairo Geniza">Cairo Geniza</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The movie <i><a href="/wiki/Farewell_Baghdad_(2013_film)" title="Farewell Baghdad (2013 film)">Farewell Baghdad</a></i> would be released in 2013 entirely in <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Judeo-Arabic orthography uses a modified version of the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a> called the Judeo-Arabic script. It is written from <a href="/wiki/Right-to-left_script" title="Right-to-left script">right to left</a> horizontally like the Hebrew script and also like the Hebrew script some letters contain final versions, used only when that letter is at the end of a word.<sup id="cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.omniglot.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also uses the letters <i>alef</i> and <i>waw</i> or <i>yodh</i> to mark long or short vowels respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.omniglot.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The order of the letters varies between alphabets. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="vertical-align: bottom;"> <th scope="col">Judeo-<br />Arabic </th> <th scope="col">Arabic </th> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Semitic name</a> </th> <th scope="col">Transliteration </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">א</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ا</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Aleph" title="Aleph">Alef</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a>/</span> <i>ā</i> and sometimes <i><span class="serif-fonts" style="font-family: 'Georgia Pro', Georgia, 'DejaVu Serif', Times, 'Times New Roman', FreeSerif, 'DejaVu Math TeX', 'URW Bookman L', serif;">ʾI</span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ב</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ب</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)" title="Bet (letter)">Beth</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ג</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ج</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Gimel" title="Gimel">Gimel</a> </th> <td><i>g</i> or <i>ǧ</i>: hard <i>G</i>, or <i>J</i>, as in <i>get</i>, or <i>Jack</i>: <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span></span>/</a></span></span>, or <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span></span>/</a></span></span> or <i>si</i> in <i>vision</i> <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʒ/: 's' in 'pleasure'">ʒ</span></span>/</a></span></span> depending on the dialect </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">גׄ</span>‎</span>, <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">עׄ</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">רׄ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">غ</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn">Ghayn</a> </th> <td><i>ġ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/</span>, a guttural <i>gh</i> sound </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ד</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">د</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Dalet" title="Dalet">Daleth</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">דׄ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ذ</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Dhaleth</a> </th> <td><i>ḏ</i>, an English <i>th</i> as in "that" <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ð/: 'th' in 'this'">ð</span></span>/</a></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ה</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ه</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)" title="He (letter)">He</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ו</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">וו</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">و</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)" title="Waw (letter)">Waw</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span></i> and sometimes <i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">ū</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ז</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ز</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin">Zayn</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ח</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ح</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Heth" title="Heth">Heth</a> </th> <td><i>ḥ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiceless pharyngeal fricative">ħ</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ט</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ط</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Teth" title="Teth">Teth</a> </th> <td><i>ṭ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">tˤ</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">טׄ</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">זׄ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ظ</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Theth</a> </th> <td><i>ẓ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">ðˤ</a>/</span>, a retracted form of the th sound as in "that" </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">י</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">יי</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ي</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Yodh" title="Yodh">Yodh</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">y</a></span></i> or <i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">ī</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">כ</span>‎</span>, <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ך</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ك</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Kaph" title="Kaph">Kaph</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">כׄ</span>‎</span>, <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ךׄ</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">חׄ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">خ</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Kheth</a> </th> <td><i>ḫ</i>, a <i>kh</i> sound like "Bach" <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ל</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ل</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Lamedh" title="Lamedh">Lamedh</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">מ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">م</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Mem" title="Mem">Mem</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">נ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ن</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)" title="Nun (letter)">Nun</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ס</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">س</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Samekh" title="Samekh">Samekh</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ע</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ع</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Ayin" title="Ayin">Ayn</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_pharyngeal_fricative" title="Voiced pharyngeal fricative">ʕ</a>/</span> <i>ʿa</i> , <i>ʿ</i> and sometimes <i>ʿi</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">פ</span>‎</span>, <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ף</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">פׄ</span>‎</span>, <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ףׄ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ف</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)">Fe</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">צ</span>‎</span>, <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ץ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;"> ص </span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Tsade" title="Tsade">Sadhe</a> </th> <td><i>ṣ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">sˤ</a>/</span>, a hard <i>s</i> sound </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">צׄ</span>‎</span>, <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ץׄ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ض</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Dhadhe</a> </th> <td><i>ḍ</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Pharyngealization" title="Pharyngealization">dˤ</a>/</span>, a retracted <i>d</i> sound </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ק</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ق</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Qoph" title="Qoph">Qof</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_uvular_plosive" title="Voiceless uvular plosive">q</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ר</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ر</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Resh" title="Resh">Resh</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ש</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ש֒</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ش</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)" title="Shin (letter)">Shin</a> </th> <td><i>š</i>, an English <i>sh</i> sound <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span></span>/</a></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ת</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ت</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/Taw" title="Taw">Taw</a> </th> <td><i><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">תׄ</span>‎</span> or <span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ת֒</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ث</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Thaw</a> </th> <td><i>ṯ</i>, an English <i>th</i> as in "thank" <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span></span>/</a></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="4">Additional letters </th></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ﭏ</span>‎</span> </td> <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:150%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1227789315"><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">الـ</span>‎</span> </td> <th scope="row">- </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Arabic_definite_article" title="Arabic definite article">Definite Article "al-"</a>.<br /><a href="/wiki/Ligature_(writing)" title="Ligature (writing)">Ligature</a> of the letters <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">א</span>‎ and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl">ל</span>‎ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_Text">Sample Text</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sample Text"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Judeo-Arabic, Iraqi variant<sup id="cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.omniglot.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>Transliteration<sup id="cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.omniglot.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <th>English<sup id="cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-www.omniglot.com-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><div dir="rtl" style="text-align:right"><span title="Hebrew-language text"><span lang="he" dir="rtl" style="font-style: normal;">יא אבאנא אלדי פי אלסמואת, יתׄקדס אסמך, תׄאתׄי מלכותׄך, תׄכון משיתך כסא פי אלסמא ועלי אלארץ, חבזנא אלדי ללעד אעטנא אליום, ואעפר לנא מא עלינו כמא נעפר נחן לםן לנא עליה, ולא תׄדחלנא אלתׄגארב, לכן נגנא מן אלשריר, לאן לך למלך ואלקות ואלמגד אלי אלאבד</span></span></div> </td> <td>Yā abānā illedī fī al-samwāti, yaṯaqaddasu asmuka, ṯāṯī malakūṯuka, ṯakūnu mašyatuka kamā fī al-samā waʕalay al-ārṣi, ḥubzanāʔ al-ladī liluʕadi aʕṭinā al-yawma. Wāǧfir lanā mā ʕalaynū kamā naǧfiru naḥnu liman lanā ʕalayhi, walā ṯudḥilnāʔ al-ṯṯagāriba, lakin nagginā mina al-šširīri, lanna laka lamluka wālquqata wālmagida alay al-abdi. </td> <td>Our father, which art in heaven, hallowed be thy name, thy kingdom come, thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven, give us this day our daily bread, and forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors, and lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil, for thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory for ever and ever. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic languages</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_in_Israel" title="Arabic language in Israel">Arabic language in Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Jews#Judaeo-Arabic_dialect" title="Syrian Jews">Judeo-Syrian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_the_Karaite_elders_of_Ascalon" title="Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon">Letter of the Karaite elders of Ascalon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Jews" title="Arab Jews">Arab Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garshuni" title="Garshuni">Garshuni</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Endnotes">Endnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Endnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e25-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/jrb">Judeo-Arabic</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (25th ed., 2022) <span style="position:relative; 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A5&rft.atitle=%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9F%3A+%D7%9B%D7%A9%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%99+%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%99+%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%94+%D7%A1%D7%A8%D7%98+%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%99&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.co.il%2Fgallery%2Fcinema%2F2014-04-10%2Fty-article%2F0000017f-f863-d887-a7ff-f8e7f47f0000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudeo-Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-www.omniglot.com-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-www.omniglot.com_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.omniglot.com/writing/judeo-arabic.htm">"Judeo-Arabic script"</a>. <i>www.omniglot.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.omniglot.com&rft.atitle=Judeo-Arabic+script&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.omniglot.com%2Fwriting%2Fjudeo-arabic.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJudeo-Arabic" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Blanc, Haim, <i>Communal Dialects in Baghdad</i>: Harvard 1964</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Blau" class="mw-redirect" title="Joshua Blau">Blau, Joshua</a>, <i>The Emergence and Linguistic Background of Judaeo-Arabic</i>: OUP, last edition 1999</li> <li>Blau, Joshua, <i>A Grammar of Mediaeval Judaeo-Arabic</i>: Jerusalem 1980 (in Hebrew)</li> <li>Blau, Joshua, <i>Studies in Middle Arabic and its Judaeo-Arabic variety</i>: Jerusalem 1988 (in English)</li> <li>Blau, Joshua, <i>Dictionary of Mediaeval Judaeo-Arabic Texts</i>: Jerusalem 2006</li> <li>Mansour, Jacob, <i>The Jewish Baghdadi Dialect: Studies and Texts in the Judaeo-Arabic Dialect of Baghdad</i>: Or Yehuda 1991</li> <li>Heath, Jeffrey, <i>Jewish and Muslim dialects of Moroccan Arabic</i> (Routledge Curzon Arabic linguistics series): London, New York, 2002.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Judeo-Arabic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303180236/https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/corre/www/judeo-arabic2.html">Alan Corré's Judeo-Arabic Literature site, via the Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225931/http://shekel.jct.ac.il/~green/judeo-arabic.html">Judeo-Arabic Literature</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070323082115/http://reka.iba.org.il/">Reka</a> <a href="/wiki/Kol_Yisrael" title="Kol Yisrael">Kol Yisrael</a>, a radio station broadcasting a daily program in <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan Arabic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewish-languages.org/judeo-arabic.html">Jewish Language Research Website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170724035400/http://www.jewish-languages.org/judeo-arabic.html">Archived</a> 2017-07-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (description and bibliography)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sefaria.org/Tafsir_Rasag%2C_Introduction?lang=bi">Tafsir Rasag</a>, a translation of the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> into literary Judeo-Arabic, at <a href="/wiki/Sefaria" title="Sefaria">Sefaria</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾAlif</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Tāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ǧīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ḥāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Dāl</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Rāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zāy</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Šīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣād</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṭāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿAyn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ġayn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Lām</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Nūn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Wāw</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Yāʾ</i></span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern<br />spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾIʿrāb</i></span> (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a><br />· <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arabic_language" title="Category:Arabic language">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arabic_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arabic_language" title="Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arabic_language" title="Template talk:Arabic language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arabic language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arabic_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> language</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Alphabet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabic_alphabet" title="History of the Arabic alphabet">History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Influence_of_Arabic_on_other_languages" title="Influence of Arabic on other languages">Influence on other languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabic_numerals" title="Eastern Arabic numerals">Eastern numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics" title="Arabic diacritics">Diacritics</a> <ul><li><span title="American Library Association – Library of Congress transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#I‘jām_(phonetic_distinctions_of_consonants)" title="Arabic diacritics">i‘jām</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Tashkil_(marks_used_as_phonetic_guides)" title="Arabic diacritics">Tashkil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_diacritics#Harakat_(short_vowel_marks)" title="Arabic diacritics">Harakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">Nunation</a> (tanwin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaddah" title="Shaddah">Shaddah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza" title="Hamza">Hamza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dagger_alif" title="Dagger alif">Dagger alif</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese alphabet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleph#Arabic_ʼAlif" title="Aleph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾAlif</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bet_(letter)#Arabic_bāʾ" title="Bet (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Bāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taw#Arabic_tāʾ" title="Taw"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Tāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B9%AE%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ṯāʾ">Ṯāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gimel#Arabic_ǧīm" title="Gimel"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ǧīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heth#Arabic_ḥāʾ" title="Heth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ḥāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%AA%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ḫāʾ">Ḫāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalet#Arabic_dāl" title="Dalet"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Dāl</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8E%C4%81l" title="Ḏāl">Ḏāl</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resh#Arabic_rāʼ" title="Resh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Rāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayin" title="Zayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Zāy</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_sīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Sīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Arabic_shīn" title="Shin (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Šīn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsade#Arabic_Ṣād" title="Tsade"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṣād</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%B8%8C%C4%81d" title="Ḍād">Ḍād</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teth#Arabic_Ṭāʾ" title="Teth"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ṭāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn"><a href="/wiki/%E1%BA%92%C4%81%CA%BE" title="Ẓāʾ">Ẓāʾ</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayin#Arabic_ʿAyn" title="Ayin"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʿAyn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghayn" title="Ghayn"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Ġayn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe_(Semitic_letter)" title="Pe (Semitic letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Fāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qoph#Arabic_qāf" title="Qoph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Qāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaph#Arabic_kāf" title="Kaph"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Kāf</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamedh#Arabic_lām" title="Lamedh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Lām</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mem#Arabic_mīm" title="Mem"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīm</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun_(letter)#Arabic_nūn" title="Nun (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Nūn</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_(letter)#Arabic_hāʾ" title="He (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Hāʾ</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waw_(letter)#Arabic_wāw" title="Waw (letter)"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Wāw</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yodh#Arabic_yāʾ" title="Yodh"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">Yāʾ</i></span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Varieties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pre-Islamic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Arabic_language" title="Proto-Arabic language">Proto-Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Arabic" title="Nabataean Arabic">Nabataean Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Arabic" title="Old Arabic">Old Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Hijazi_Arabic" title="Old Hijazi Arabic">Old Hijazi Arabic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pre-classical_Arabic" title="Pre-classical Arabic">Pre-classical Arabic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Standard_Arabic" title="Modern Standard Arabic">Modern Standard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern<br />spoken</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Arabic dialects">Pre-Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Andalusi_Arabic" title="Andalusi Arabic">Andalusi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Siculo-Arabic" title="Siculo-Arabic">Sicilian</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maltralian" title="Maltralian">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottonera_dialect" title="Cottonera dialect">Cottenera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gozitan_dialects" title="Gozitan dialects">Gozitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qormi_dialect" title="Qormi dialect">Qormi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%BBejtun_dialect" title="Żejtun dialect">Żejtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurrieq_dialect" title="Zurrieq dialect">Żurrieqi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Hilalian_Urban_Arabic_dialects" title="Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Tunis" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunis</a> (North-Eastern Tunisian)</li></ul></li> <li>Village <ul><li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sahil" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sahili</a> (Sahel)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic#Sfax" title="Tunisian Arabic">Sfaxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jijel_Arabic" title="Jijel Arabic">Jijel</a> (Lesser Kabylia)</li></ul></li> <li>Western <ul><li>Traras-Msirda</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebli_Arabic" title="Jebli Arabic">Jebli</a> (Mountain)</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Judeo-Maghrebi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hilalian_dialects" title="Hilalian dialects">Hilalian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Central Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Arabic" title="Algerian Arabic">Algerian koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Saharan_Arabic" title="Algerian Saharan Arabic">Algerian Saharan</a></li> <li>Eastern Algerian</li></ul></li> <li>Eastern Hilal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Arabic" title="Tunisian Arabic">Tunisian koiné</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maqil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hassaniya_Arabic" title="Hassaniya Arabic">Hassaniya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemadi_dialect" title="Nemadi dialect">Nemadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moroccan_Arabic" title="Moroccan Arabic">Moroccan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Morocco_Arabic" title="Eastern Morocco Arabic">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Morocco_Arabic" title="Western Morocco Arabic">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Algerian_Arabic" title="Western Algerian Arabic">Western Algerian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sulaym <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arabic" title="Libyan Arabic">Libyan koiné</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Egyptian_Bedawi_Arabic" title="Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic">Western Egyptian Bedawi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nile Valley</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Arabic" title="Egyptian Arabic">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%CA%BDidi_Arabic" title="Saʽidi Arabic">Saʽidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Arabic" title="Sudanese Arabic">Sudanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Levantine_Arabic" title="North Levantine Arabic">North</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilician_Arabic" title="Cilician Arabic">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Arabic" title="Syrian Arabic">Syrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleppo_Arabic" title="Aleppo Arabic">Aleppine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Arabic" title="Damascus Arabic">Damascene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/South_Levantine_Arabic" title="South Levantine Arabic">South</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arabic" title="Jordanian Arabic">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Mesopotamian Arabic">Mesopotamian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Gilit_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="Gilit Mesopotamian Arabic">Gilit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Arabic" title="Baghdadi Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khuzestani_Arabic" title="Khuzestani Arabic">Khuzestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawi_Arabic" title="Shawi Arabic">Shawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="South Mesopotamian Arabic">South</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Mesopotamian_Arabic" title="North Mesopotamian Arabic">North</a> (Qeltu)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Arabic" title="Anatolian Arabic">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_Arabic" title="Cypriot Arabic">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Arabic" title="Peninsular Arabic">Peninsular</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahrani_Arabic" title="Bahrani Arabic">Bahrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bareqi_Arabic" title="Bareqi Arabic">Bareqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofari_Arabic" title="Dhofari Arabic">Dhofari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Arabic" title="Gulf Arabic">Gulf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bahraini_Gulf_Arabic" title="Bahraini Gulf Arabic">Bahraini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirati_Arabic" title="Emirati Arabic">Emirati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuwaiti_Arabic" title="Kuwaiti Arabic">Kuwaiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejazi_Arabic" title="Hejazi Arabic">Hejazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdi_Arabic" title="Najdi Arabic">Najdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Arabic" title="Omani Arabic">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihhi_Arabic" title="Shihhi Arabic">Shihhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadhrami_Arabic" title="Hadhrami Arabic">Hadhrami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San%CA%BDani_Arabic" title="Sanʽani Arabic">Sanʽani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%CA%BDizzi-Adeni_Arabic" title="Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic">Taʽizzi-Adeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tihamiyya_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tihamiyya Arabic">Tihami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_Arabic" title="Central Asian Arabic">Central Asian</a> <ul><li>Bakhtiari</li> <li>Bukhara</li> <li>Kashkadarya</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khorasani_Arabic" title="Khorasani Arabic">Khorasani</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shirvani_Arabic" title="Shirvani Arabic">Shirvani</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chadian_Arabic" title="Chadian Arabic">Chadian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nigerian Arabic">Nigerian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin_Arabic" title="Bedouin Arabic">Bedouin Arabic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Judeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a> <ul><li>Kjal</li> <li>Wqal</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a> <ul><li>Tunisene</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a> <ul><li>Adeni</li> <li>Beda</li> <li>Habban</li> <li>Sanʽani</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Arabic-based_creole_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic-based creole languages">Creoles</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin Arabic">pidgins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bimbashi_Arabic" title="Bimbashi Arabic">Bimbashi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Gulf Pidgin Arabic">Gulf Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Bengali_Pidgin_Arabic" title="Jordanian Bengali Pidgin Arabic">Jordanian Bengali Pidgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juba_Arabic" title="Juba Arabic">Juba</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Maridi_Arabic" title="Maridi Arabic">Maridi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubi_language" title="Nubi language">Nubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_madam" class="mw-redirect" title="Pidgin madam">Pidgin madam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turku_Arabic" title="Turku Arabic">Turku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bongor_Arabic" title="Bongor Arabic">Bongor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_name" title="Arabic name">Names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Linguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_phonology" title="Arabic phonology">Phonology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sun_and_moon_letters" title="Sun and moon letters">Sun and moon letters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajwid" title="Tajwid">Tajwid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Im%C4%81la" title="Imāla">Imāla</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BEI%CA%BFrab" title="ʾIʿrab"><span title="DIN 31635 Arabic (Arabic language) transliteration"><i lang="ar-Latn">ʾIʿrāb</i></span> (case)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_grammar" title="Arabic grammar">Grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semitic_root" title="Semitic root">Triliteral root</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mater_lectionis" title="Mater lectionis">Mater lectionis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic_Corpus" title="Quranic Arabic Corpus">Quranic Arabic Corpus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a><br />· <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Script</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajami_script" title="Ajami script">Ajami script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diwani" title="Diwani">Diwani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hijazi_script" title="Hijazi script">Hijazi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jawi_script" title="Jawi script">Jawi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeli_Thuluth" title="Jeli Thuluth">Jeli Thuluth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouani_calligraphy" title="Kairouani calligraphy">Kairouani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kufic" title="Kufic">Kufic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_script" title="Maghrebi script">Maghrebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mashq" title="Mashq">Mashq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaqqaq" title="Muhaqqaq">Muhaqqaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskh_(script)" title="Naskh (script)">Naskh (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nastaliq" title="Nastaliq">Nastaliq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rasm" title="Rasm">Rasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruq%CA%BFah_script" title="Ruqʿah script">Ruqʿah script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahmukhi" title="Shahmukhi">Shahmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sini_(script)" title="Sini (script)">Sini (script)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taliq_script" title="Taliq script">Taliq script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawqi" title="Tawqi">Tawqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thuluth" title="Thuluth">Thuluth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_keyboard" title="Arabic keyboard">Arabic keyboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script_in_Unicode" title="Arabic script in Unicode">Arabic script in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-6" title="ISO/IEC 8859-6">ISO/IEC 8859-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windows-1256" title="Windows-1256">Windows-1256</a></li> <li>MS-DOS codepages <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_708" title="Code page 708">708</a></li> <li>709</li> <li>710</li> <li>711</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_720" title="Code page 720">720</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_page_864" title="Code page 864">864</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MacArabic_encoding" title="MacArabic encoding">MacArabic encoding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Islam and Arabic language</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></li> <li>Languages between parentheses are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the language on their left.</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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