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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabets"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Alphabets</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabets-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" 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Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لغات يهودية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغات يهودية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luengas_chodigas" title="Luengas chodigas – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Luengas chodigas" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lling%C3%BCes_xud%C3%ADes" title="Llingües xudíes – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Llingües xudíes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B9%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BF_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%B9" title="ইহুদি ভাষাসমূহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইহুদি ভাষাসমূহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidische_Sprochn" title="Jidische Sprochn – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Jidische Sprochn" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezho%C3%B9_yuzev" title="Yezhoù yuzev – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhoù yuzev" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8diske_sprog" title="Jødiske sprog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jødiske sprog" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCdische_Sprachen" title="Jüdische Sprachen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jüdische Sprachen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenguas_jud%C3%ADas" title="Lenguas judías – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lenguas judías" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judu-hizkuntzak" title="Judu-hizkuntzak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Judu-hizkuntzak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%D9%87%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="زبان‌های یهودی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان‌های یهودی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langues_juives" title="Langues juives – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Langues juives" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A0%EB%8C%80%EC%96%B4" title="유대어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="유대어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDidovski_jezici" title="Židovski jezici – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Židovski jezici" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingue_giudaiche" title="Lingue giudaiche – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingue giudaiche" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="שפות יהודיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שפות יהודיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguas_djudias" title="Linguas djudias – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Linguas djudias" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lengue_Ebraiche" title="Lengue Ebraiche – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Lengue Ebraiche" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa-bahasa_Yahudi" title="Bahasa-bahasa Yahudi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa-bahasa Yahudi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A6%E3%83%80%E3%83%A4%E8%AB%B8%E8%AA%9E" title="ユダヤ諸語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ユダヤ諸語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%B8diske_spr%C3%A5k" title="Jødiske språk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jødiske språk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyki_%C5%BCydowskie" title="Języki żydowskie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Języki żydowskie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADnguas_judaicas" title="Línguas judaicas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Línguas judaicas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Еврейские языки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Еврейские языки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Jewish languages" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%BDidovsk%C3%A9_jazyky" title="Židovské jazyky – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Židovské jazyky" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jevrejski_jezici" title="Jevrejski jezici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Jevrejski jezici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juutalaiskielet" title="Juutalaiskielet – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Juutalaiskielet" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7" title="ภาษาของชาวยิว – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาของชาวยิว" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahudi_dilleri" title="Yahudi dilleri – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yahudi dilleri" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%84%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8" title="Єврейські мови – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Єврейські мови" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%DB%81%D9%88%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C%DA%BA" title="یہودی زبانیں – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="یہودی زبانیں" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%94:%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9B%D7%9F" title="רשימה:יידישע שפראכן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="רשימה:יידישע שפראכן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8C%B6%E5%A4%AA%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="猶太語言 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="猶太語言" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q615948#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> 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0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Merge_from plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-move" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/50px-Mergefrom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Mergefrom.svg/75px-Mergefrom.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:180%;"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God in Judaism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Principles of faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvot</a> (<a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabbat" title="Shabbat">Shabbat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzedakah" title="Tzedakah">Tzedakah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_and_customs_of_the_Land_of_Israel_in_Judaism" title="Laws and customs of the Land of Israel in Judaism"><span class="wrap">Land of Israel</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brit_milah" title="Brit milah">Brit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_and_bat_mitzvah" title="Bar and bat mitzvah"><span class="wrap">Bar and bat mitzvah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bereavement_in_Judaism" title="Bereavement in Judaism">Bereavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_teshuva_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Baal teshuva movement">Baal teshuva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minhag" title="Minhag">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nusach_(Jewish_custom)" title="Nusach (Jewish custom)">Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" 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title="Talmud">Talmud</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemara" title="Gemara">Gemara</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum" title="Targum">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beit_Yosef_(book)" title="Beit Yosef (book)">Beit Yosef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishneh_Torah" title="Mishneh Torah">Mishneh Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arba%27ah_Turim" title="Arba'ah Turim">Tur</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> General</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_name_Judea" title="Timeline of the name Judea">Name "Judea"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_antisemitism" title="History of antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">Anti-Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Jewish_historiography" title="Modern Jewish historiography">Modern historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population" title="Historical Jewish population">Historical population comparisons</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tribes_of_Israel" title="Twelve Tribes of Israel">Twelve Tribes of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah"><span class="wrap">Kingdom of Judah</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Judaism" title="Jerusalem in Judaism">in Judaism</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jerusalem" title="Timeline of Jerusalem">timeline</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_in_Jerusalem" title="Temple in Jerusalem"><span class="wrap">Temple in Jerusalem</span></a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Solomon%27s_Temple" title="Solomon's Temple">First</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_captivity" title="Assyrian captivity"><span class="wrap">Assyrian captivity</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity"><span class="wrap">Babylonian captivity</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yehud_Medinata" title="Yehud Medinata">Yehud Medinata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabean_Revolt" title="Maccabean Revolt">Maccabean Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty"><span class="wrap">Hasmonean dynasty</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhedrin" title="Sanhedrin">Sanhedrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Pharisees" title="Pharisees">Pharisees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sadducees" title="Sadducees">Sadducees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Essenes" title="Essenes">Essenes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zealots" title="Zealots">Zealots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicarii" title="Sicarii">Sicarii</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_Judaism" title="Second Temple Judaism">Second Temple Judaism</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></span>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/First_Jewish-Roman_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Jewish-Roman War">Great Revolt</a></span>, <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Diaspora_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Diaspora revolt">Diaspora</a></span>, <span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Bar_Kokhba_revolt" title="Bar Kokhba revolt">Bar Kokhba</a></span>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_period" title="Rabbinic period">Rabbinic period</a> and Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire">History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Christianity and Judaism</span></a> <span style="font-size: 85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism"><span class="wrap">Hinduism and Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Islamic–Jewish</span> relations</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_European_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="History of European Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_age_of_Jewish_culture_in_Spain" title="Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain">Golden Age</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Modern era</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabbateans" title="Sabbateans">Sabbateans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Jewish atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Zionism" title="History of Zionism">Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="History of the Jews in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">The Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Arab–Israeli</span> conflict</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Communities</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Litvak</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Juhurim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romanyotim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochinim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Bnei Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypto-Judaism" title="Crypto-Judaism">Crypto-Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anusim" title="Anusim">Anusim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marrano" title="Marrano">Marranos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xueta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Mosaic Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subbotniks" title="Subbotniks">Subbotniks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noahidism" title="Noahidism">Noahides</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_by_country" title="Judaism by country">Judaism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jewish_population_by_country" title="Historical Jewish population by country">Historical population by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_of_Jews" title="Genetic studies of Jews">Genetic studies</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_Palestine_(region)" title="Demographic history of Palestine (region)">Palestine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Yishuv" title="Old Yishuv">Old Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yishuv" title="Yishuv">New Yishuv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Africa" title="History of the Jews in Africa">Africa</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Algeria" title="History of the Jews in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Angola" title="History of the Jews in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan" title="Jews of Bilad el-Sudan">Bilad-el-Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Botswana" title="History of the Jews in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cameroon" title="History of the Jews in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cape_Verde" title="History of the Jews in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Benin" title="History of the Jews in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Djibouti" title="History of the Jews in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ethiopia" title="History of the Jews in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eritrea" title="History of the Jews in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Eswatini" title="History of the Jews in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Gabon" title="History of the Jews in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Gambia" title="History of the Jews in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ghana" title="History of the Jews in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea" title="History of the Jews in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="History of the Jews in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ivory_Coast" title="History of the Jews in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kenya" title="History of the Jews in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Libya" title="History of the Jews in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Madagascar" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malawi" title="History of the Jews in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mali" title="History of the Jews in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mauritius" title="History of the Jews in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Moroccan_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Moroccan Jews">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mozambique" title="History of the Jews in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Namibia" title="History of the Jews in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Nigeria" title="History of the Jews in Nigeria">Nigeria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Igbo_Jews" title="Igbo Jews">Igbo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Jews in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="History of the Jews in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sierra_Leone" title="History of the Jews in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Somalia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Africa" title="History of the Jews in South Africa"><span class="wrap">South Africa</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sudan" title="History of the Jews in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tanzania" title="History of the Jews in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tunisia" title="History of the Jews in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uganda" title="History of the Jews in Uganda">Uganda</a> (<a href="/wiki/Abayudaya" title="Abayudaya">Abayudaya</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zambia" title="History of the Jews in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Zimbabwe" title="History of the Jews in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Asia</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bahrain" title="History of the Jews in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cambodia" title="History of the Jews in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_India" title="History of the Jews in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Indonesia" title="History of the Jews in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iraq" title="History of the Jews in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_and_Judaism_in_the_Land_of_Israel" title="History of the Jews and Judaism in the Land of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Japan" title="History of the Jews in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jordan" title="History of the Jews in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kazakhstan" title="History of the Jews in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kuwait" title="History of the Jews in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of the Jews in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lebanon" title="History of the Jews in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Malaysia" title="History of the Jews in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mongolia" title="History of the Jews in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Myanmar" title="History of the Jews in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_in_Nepal" title="Judaism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oman" title="History of the Jews in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Pakistan" title="History of the Jews in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Philippines" title="History of the Jews in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Qatar" title="History of the Jews in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_South_Korea" title="History of the Jews in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Singapore" title="History of the Jews in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sri_Lanka" title="History of the Jews in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Syria" title="History of the Jews in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Tajikistan" title="History of the Jews in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Thailand" title="History of the Jews in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Turkey" title="History of the Jews in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the Jews in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uzbekistan" title="History of the Jews in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Vietnam" title="History of the Jews in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemen</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">Europe</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Armenia" title="History of the Jews in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Austria" title="History of the Jews in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Azerbaijan" title="History of the Jews in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Belarus" title="History of the Jews in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bulgaria" title="History of the Jews in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cyprus" title="History of the Jews in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Czech_lands" title="History of the Jews in the Czech lands">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Denmark" title="History of the Jews in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Estonia" title="History of the Jews in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Finland" title="History of the Jews in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_France" title="History of the Jews in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Germany" title="History of the Jews in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Greece" title="History of the Jews in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary" title="History of the Jews in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latvia" title="History of the Jews in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Lithuania" title="History of the Jews in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Moldova" title="History of the Jews in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Netherlands" title="History of the Jews in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Norway" title="History of the Jews in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Poland" title="History of the Jews in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Portugal" title="History of the Jews in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Romania" title="History of the Jews in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Russia" title="History of the Jews in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Serbia" title="History of the Jews in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Spain" title="History of the Jews in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Sweden" title="History of the Jews in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ukraine" title="History of the Jews in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the Jews in the United Kingdom"><span class="wrap">United Kingdom</span></a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Northern America</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Canada" title="History of the Jews in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_United_States" title="History of the Jews in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Greenland" title="Jews in Greenland">Greenland</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and Caribbean</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Argentina" title="History of the Jews in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Bolivia" title="History of the Jews in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Brazil" title="History of the Jews in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Chile" title="History of the Jews in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Colombia" title="History of the Jews in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba" title="History of the Jews in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="History of the Jews in the Dominican Republic"><span class="wrap">Dominican Republic</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Ecuador" title="History of the Jews in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_El_Salvador" title="History of the Jews in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guyana" title="History of the Jews in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Haiti" title="History of the Jews in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Jamaica" title="History of the Jews in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Mexico" title="History of the Jews in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Paraguay" title="History of the Jews in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Peru" title="History of the Jews in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Puerto_Rico" title="History of the Jews in Puerto Rico"><span class="wrap">Puerto Rico</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Suriname" title="History of the Jews in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Uruguay" title="History of the Jews in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Venezuela" title="History of the Jews in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Oceania" title="History of the Jews in Oceania">Oceania</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Australia" title="History of the Jews in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Fiji" title="History of the Jews in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Guam" title="History of the Jews in Guam">Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_New_Zealand" title="History of the Jews in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Palau" title="History of the Jews in Palau">Palau</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Denominations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism"><span class="wrap">Reform</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Customs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minyan" title="Minyan">Minyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_wedding" title="Jewish wedding">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niddah" title="Niddah">Niddah</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Pidyon_haben" title="Pidyon haben">Pidyon haben</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shidduch" title="Shidduch">Shidduch</a></li> <li><span title="Hebrew-language romanization"><i lang="he-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Zeved_habat" title="Zeved habat">Zeved habat</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism"><span class="wrap">Conversion to Judaism</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Aliyah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiloni" title="Hiloni">Hiloni</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_cuisine" title="American Jewish cuisine">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine#Ashkenazi" title="Jewish cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jewish_cuisine" title="Bukharan Jewish cuisine">Bukharan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Jewish_cuisine" title="Ethiopian Jewish cuisine">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_cuisine" title="Israeli cuisine">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jewish_cuisine" title="Mizrahi Jewish cuisine">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jewish_cuisine" title="Sephardic Jewish cuisine">Sephardic</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_literature" title="Israeli literature">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaïa Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_politics" title="Judaism and politics">Politics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Jewish political movements</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Autonomism" title="Jewish Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bundism" title="Bundism">Bundism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_left" title="Jewish left">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Territorial_Organization" title="Jewish Territorial Organization">Territorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Agudath_Israel" title="World Agudath Israel">World Agudath Israel</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Zionists" title="General Zionists">General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Zionism" title="Green Zionism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_Zionism" title="Labor Zionism">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kahanism" title="Kahanism">Kahanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Maximalism" title="Revisionist Maximalism">Maximalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Zionism" title="Neo-Zionism">Neo-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revisionist_Zionism" title="Revisionist Zionism">Revisionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Zionism" title="Post-Zionism">Post-Zionism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:lavender;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/330px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/500px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/960px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1021" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Languages</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hulaul%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulaulá language">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishana_Deni" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishana Deni">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lish%C3%A1n_Did%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishán Didán">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barzani_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betanure_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishanid_Noshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishanid Noshan">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Djerbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Yemenite</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Jewish diaspora languages</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Yevanic">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalanic language">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italkian" class="mw-redirect" title="Italkian">Italkian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Gruzinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzhidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzhidi">Dzhidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhori" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhori">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani language">Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani dialect">Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuadit" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuadit">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Berber">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baal" title="Baal">Baal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">El</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Genesis 1">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilith" title="Lilith">Lilith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biblical)" title="Tree of life (biblical)">Tree of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden Fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">Patriarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodom_and_Gomorrah" title="Sodom and Gomorrah">Sodom and Gomorrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Cain and Abel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">Burning bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Plagues" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Plagues">Ten Plagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea" title="Crossing the Red Sea">Crossing the Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">The Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">Golden calf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Canaan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Canaan">Conquest of Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moloch" title="Moloch">Moloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">Gathering of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_(biblical_figure)" title="Daniel (biblical figure)">Daniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon" title="Gideon">Gideon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_and_Goliath" class="mw-redirect" title="David and Goliath">David and Goliath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson" title="Samson">Samson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haman" title="Haman">Haman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordecai" title="Mordecai">Mordecai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_(biblical_figure)" title="Job (biblical figure)">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_(biblical_figure)" title="Ruth (biblical figure)">Ruth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azrael" title="Azrael">Azrael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Michael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobiel" title="Dobiel">Dobiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouza" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouza">Ouza</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Jewish_folklore" title="Jewish folklore">Jewish folklore</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dybbuk" title="Dybbuk">Dybbuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golem" title="Golem">Golem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behemoth" title="Behemoth">Behemoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan" title="Leviathan">Leviathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shedim" title="Shedim">Shedim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannin_(monster)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tannin (monster)">Tannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahab_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahab (Egypt)">Rahab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagdana_(Judaism)" title="Bagdana (Judaism)">Bagdana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estries" title="Estries">Estries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belial" title="Belial">Belial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samael" title="Samael">Samael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Re%27em" title="Re'em">Re'em</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_Berith" title="Baal Berith">Baal Berith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lilin">Lilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Juchne" title="Bar Juchne">Bar Juchne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziz" title="Ziz">Ziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naamah_(demon)" title="Naamah (demon)">Naamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazzikin" title="Mazzikin">Mazzikin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arariel" title="Arariel">Arariel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Se%27irim" title="Se'irim">Se'irim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumah_(angel)" title="Dumah (angel)">Dumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armilus" title="Armilus">Armilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broxa" title="Broxa">Broxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elioud" title="Elioud">Elioud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alukah" title="Alukah">Alukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephaite" title="Rephaite">Rephaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_(legend)" title="Pardes (legend)">Pardes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yossele_the_Holy_Miser" title="Yossele the Holy Miser">Yossele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_ants" title="Valley of the ants">Valley of the ants</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical literature">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish#Literature" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_English_Jewish_literature" title="Early English Jewish literature">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews#Yemenite_Jewish_literature" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_literature" title="Musar literature">Musar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Jewish poetry</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_poetry" title="Biblical poetry">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_poetry_from_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jewish_poetry" title="Yemenite Jewish poetry">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Jewish_epic_poetry" title="Hebrew and Jewish epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Medieval Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_poetry" title="Modern Hebrew poetry">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust literature">Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_music" title="Mizrahi music">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_music" title="Sephardic music">Sephardic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer" title="Klezmer">Klezmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niggun" class="mw-redirect" title="Niggun">Niggun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemirot" title="Zemirot">Zemirot</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient Jewish art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Tat theatre">Judeo-Tat theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Jewish dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews_associated_with_the_visual_arts" title="Lists of Jews associated with the visual arts">List of Jews in the visual arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_film_directors" title="List of Jewish film directors">List of Jewish film directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_American_cinema" title="Jews in American cinema">Jews in American cinema</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Science_and_technology" title="Jewish culture">Science</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_medicine" title="Jewish medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology" title="Biblical cosmology">Biblical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_mathematicians" title="List of Jewish mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_scientists_and_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish scientists and philosophers">Scientists</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Sport" title="Jewish culture">Sport</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jews_in_sports" title="List of Jews in sports">List of Jews in sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_association_football" title="Jews in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_baseball" title="Jews in baseball">Baseball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_Sports_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame">Jewish Sports Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabiah_Games" title="Maccabiah Games">Maccabiah Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observance_of_Yom_Kippur_by_Jewish_athletes" title="Observance of Yom Kippur by Jewish athletes">Jewish athletes and Yom Kippur</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Ancient Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Sephardic_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Mizrahi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Other aspects</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue_architecture" title="Synagogue architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal:Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_culture" title="Category:Jewish culture">Category:Jewish culture</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_culture" title="Template talk:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Jewish languages</b> are the various <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialects</a> that developed in <a href="/wiki/Jew" class="mw-redirect" title="Jew">Jewish</a> communities in the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">diaspora</a>. The original Jewish language is <a href="/wiki/Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Hebrew">Hebrew</a>, supplanted as the primary vernacular by <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonian exile</a>. Jewish languages feature a <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a> with the languages of the local non-Jewish population. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_history">Ancient history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ancient history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Early <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Semitic_languages" title="Northwest Semitic languages">Northwest Semitic</a> (ENWS) materials are attested through the end of the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>—2350 to 1200 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-enws_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enws-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At this early state, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a> was not highly differentiated from the other Northwest Semitic languages (<a href="/wiki/Ugaritic" title="Ugaritic">Ugaritic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amarna_letters" title="Amarna letters">Amarna</a> <a href="/wiki/Canaano-Akkadian_language" title="Canaano-Akkadian language">Canaanite</a>), though noticeable differentiation did occur during the <a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> (1200–540 BCE).<sup id="cite_ref-wo8-9_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wo8-9-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hebrew as a separate language developed during the latter half of the <a href="/wiki/2nd_millennium_BC" title="2nd millennium BC">second millennium BCE</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Jordan_River" title="Jordan River">Jordan River</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, an area known as <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-s1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest distinctively Hebrew writing yet discovered was found at <a href="/wiki/Khirbet_Qeiyafa" title="Khirbet Qeiyafa">Khirbet Qeiyafa</a> and dates to the 10th century BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-eurekalert.org_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eurekalert.org-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bar_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bar-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Israelite tribes established a kingdom in Canaan at the beginning of the first millennium BCE, which later split into the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Israel_(Samaria)" title="Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)">Kingdom of Israel</a> in the north and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Judah" title="Kingdom of Judah">Kingdom of Judah</a> in the south after a dispute of succession.<sup id="cite_ref-sthist_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sthist-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The kingdom of Israel was destroyed by the <a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Israel" title="Assyrians in Israel">Assyrians</a> in 722 BCE, and the kingdom of Judah was conquered by the Babylonians in 586 BCE, its higher classes exiled and the <a href="/wiki/First_Temple" class="mw-redirect" title="First Temple">first Temple</a> destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-sthist_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sthist-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-s112_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s112-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aramaic became the primary language of the Jews deported to <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_captivity" title="Babylonian captivity">Babylonia</a>, with the first attestations of Jewish/Judean Aramaic found in <a href="/wiki/Elephantine_papyri" class="mw-redirect" title="Elephantine papyri">scrolls</a> from the 5th century BCE on the island of <a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later the Persians made Judah a province and permitted Jewish exiles to return and <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">rebuild the Temple</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-sthist_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sthist-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aramaic became the common language in the north of Israel, in <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samaria" title="Samaria">Samaria</a>, though Hebrew remained in use in Judah with Aramaic influence.<sup id="cite_ref-s112_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s112-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> conquered Judah in 332 BCE, beginning the period of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a> domination.<sup id="cite_ref-s112_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s112-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> Judea became independent under the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean">Hasmoneans</a>, but later the Romans ended their independence, making <a href="/wiki/Herod_the_Great" title="Herod the Great">Herod the Great</a> their governor.<sup id="cite_ref-sthist_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sthist-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Jewish revolt against the Romans led to the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/Second_Temple" title="Second Temple">Second Temple</a> in 70 CE, and the second <a href="/wiki/Bar-Kochba_revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Bar-Kochba revolt">Bar-Kochba revolt</a> in 132–135 CE led to a large departure of the Jewish population of Judea.<sup id="cite_ref-sthist_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sthist-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Biblical Hebrew after the Second Temple period evolved into <a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic Hebrew</a>, which ceased being spoken and developed into a literary language around 200 CE.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hebrew remained in widespread use among <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">diasporic</a> communities as the medium of writing and liturgy, forming a vast corpus of literature which includes rabbinic, medieval, and modern literature prior to the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_Jewish_varieties_of_languages">Development of Jewish varieties of languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Development of Jewish varieties of languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jewish communities were dispersed around the world in the diaspora which followed the Jewish-Roman wars. Some adopted the languages of their neighbors, but many developed new varieties of these languages, collectively termed "Jewish languages".<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various reasons led to the development of distinctive Jewish varieties of the languages of their non-Jewish host populations. Jews have often had limited exposure to non-Jewish society for various reasons, including imposed <a href="/wiki/Ghettoization" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghettoization">ghettoization</a> (whether self-imposed separation or the forced creation of the ghetto by the host city) and strict <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">endogamy</a>, and as a result, Jewish languages diverged and developed separately from non-Jewish varieties in the territories they settled in. Due to frequent <a href="/wiki/Expulsions_of_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Expulsions of Jews">expulsions</a> and migrations, single Jewish communities were often influenced by multiple distinct regional languages via <a href="/wiki/Language_contact" title="Language contact">language contact</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, while based on <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>, has elements of <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Romance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jewish languages belong to a variety of genealogical language families, but these languages have common characteristics, making their study a distinct field of comparative linguistics known as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_linguistics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jewish linguistics (page does not exist)">Jewish linguistics</a>. The common feature between the Jewish languages is the presence of <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Aramaic">Judeo-Aramaic</a> lexical components, stemming from the shared use of these languages in writing and liturgy. Many Jewish languages also display phonological, morphological, and syntactic features distinct from their non-Jewish counterparts. Most written Jewish languages are <i>Hebraized</i>, meaning they use a modified version of the Hebrew alphabet. These languages, unless they already have an accepted name (i.e. Yiddish, Ladino), are prefixed with "Judeo" (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian">Judeo-Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judeo-Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Aramaic">Judeo-Aramaic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a>, etc).<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bukharan Jews spoke <a href="/wiki/Bukhori" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhori">Bukhori</a>, a dialect of Tajik, and Mountain Jews spoke <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a>. </p><p>In the early 20th century, secularism among Jews and large population shifts prompted the beginning of a shift from Jewish to non-Jewish languages. Even so, the majority of Jews in <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jews_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews in Africa">Africa</a>, and many immigrants in <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestine</a>, still spoke Jewish languages. However, the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Holocaust</a> brought about a significant drop in the use of Jewish languages, especially <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>. Later, especially since the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19" title="COVID-19">COVID-19</a> pandemic, learning Yiddish has begun to see a significant increase in popularity and interest,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with studies revealing a surge in registration to online Yiddish language learning resources.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Jewish languages">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Jewish languages are generally defined as the unique linguistic <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of Jewish communities in the diaspora in their contact with surrounding non-Jewish languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Languages vary in their <a href="/wiki/Abstand_and_ausbau_languages" title="Abstand and ausbau languages">distance and divergence</a> from their non-Jewish sister languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni Arabic</a> is quite similar to some non-Jewish varieties of <a href="/wiki/Yemeni_Arabic" title="Yemeni Arabic">Yemeni Arabic</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Germanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic language">Germanic language</a>, shows a high degree of dissimilarity to modern German dialects. Due to continued liturgical and literary use of Hebrew and Aramaic, Jewish communities were naturally in a state of <a href="/wiki/Diglossia" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chaim_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaim-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along with their vernacular Jewish language, most Jews could read and write in Hebrew, which was necessary to fulfill the religious commandment to learn <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> and teach it. Jews were expected to also have knowledge of Judeo-Aramaic, the language of religious commentary (<i>targumim</i>) as well as many prayers, including the <a href="/wiki/Kaddish" title="Kaddish">Kaddish</a>. Hebrew, the "Holy Tongue", was the highest linguistic <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">register</a> in these communities, used for liturgy and study. Hebrew-Aramaic is the only <a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)#adstratum" title="Stratum (linguistics)">adstratum</a> shared by all Jewish languages.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Jewish languages have multiple registers; for example, both Yiddish and <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judezmo</a> have three <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">linguistic registers</a>: colloquial, written, and scholarly-liturgical. </p><p>Some Jewish languages show the effects of the history of language shift among the speakers, including Hebrew-Aramaic influence. Yiddish exemplifies such a language. Some Jewish languages may become marked as distinctively Jewish because some shift affected some parts of the language as a whole. For example, what is today known as <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Baghdad Jewish Arabic</a> (because it is the <a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic variety</a> that was up until recently spoken by Baghdad's Jews) was originally the Arabic dialect of Baghdad itself and was used by all religious groups in Baghdad, but the Muslim residents of Baghdad later adopted Bedouin dialects of Arabic. Similarly, a dialect may be perceived as Jewish because its Jewish speakers brought the dialect of another region with them when they were displaced. In some cases, this may cause a dialect to be perceived as "Jewish" in some regions but not in others. </p><p>Some Jewish language varieties may not be <a href="/wiki/Dialect#Dialect_or_language" title="Dialect">classified</a> as <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> due to <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a> with their parent language, as with <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judeo-Spanish</a>. In the case of <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judeo-Spanish</a>, also known as Ladino, linguistically it is a dialect of <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, mutually intelligible with other <a href="/wiki/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties" title="Spanish dialects and varieties">Spanish dialects and varieties</a>, albeit with <a href="/wiki/Influences_on_the_Spanish_language" title="Influences on the Spanish language">each Spanish dialect having loanwords and influences</a> from different source languages: <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Maya</a> loanwords and influences for <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Spanish" title="Mexican Spanish">Mexican Spanish</a>; <a href="/wiki/Quechuan_languages" title="Quechuan languages">Quechua</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aymara_language" title="Aymara language">Aymara</a> in <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Spanish" title="Peruvian Spanish">Peruvian Spanish</a>; <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, Quechua and <a href="/wiki/Guarani_language" title="Guarani language">Guaraní</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rioplatense_Spanish" title="Rioplatense Spanish">Argentinian Spanish</a>; <a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Arabic" title="Maghrebi Arabic">Maghrebi Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a> in "Ladino Occidental" (also known as <a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a>); <a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic" title="Levantine Arabic">Levantine Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a> in "Ladino Oriental". </p><p>In some cases, as with Judeo-Spanish, a register may be developed for Biblical translation and exegesis in which Hebrew-Aramaic patterns are frequently <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calqued</a>, though the number of true Hebrew and/or Aramaic loanwords may be low. Another possibility is that Jews may speak the same language as their non-Jewish neighbors, but occasionally insert Hebrew-Aramaic or other Jewish elements. This is a transitory state in the shift from the use of Jewish to a non-Jewish language, often made in the context of assimilation. This occurred, for example, with many educated German Jews who transitioned from Western Yiddish to German. This variety of German, used between 1760 and the end of the 19th century (the <a href="/wiki/Haskala" class="mw-redirect" title="Haskala">Haskala</a>), was written with the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a>, and contained a small number of Hebrew and Yiddish loans. An example is <a href="/wiki/Moses_Mendelssohn" title="Moses Mendelssohn">Moses Mendelssohn</a>'s translation of the Hebrew Bible into German written with Hebrew letters. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judeo-Papiamento</a>, the only living Jewish <a href="/wiki/Ethnolect" title="Ethnolect">ethnolect</a> endemic to the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and likely the only one that is also a <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole language</a>, has lexical differences from its non-Jewish counterpart that go beyond the influence of Hebrew and Aramaic. In formal contexts, Sephardic Jewish speakers of <a href="/wiki/Papiamento" title="Papiamento">Papiamento</a> tend to use extensive borrowing from <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, whereas non-Jewish <a href="/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao" title="Curaçao">Curaçaoans</a> mostly use <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> loanwords in similar contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nayot_1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Nayot_1.JPG/250px-Nayot_1.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="301" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Nayot_1.JPG/330px-Nayot_1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Nayot_1.JPG/500px-Nayot_1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a><figcaption>Signpost in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>, showing directions in <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, and transliterated into <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KJ_bus_stop_sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/KJ_bus_stop_sign.jpg/150px-KJ_bus_stop_sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/KJ_bus_stop_sign.jpg/225px-KJ_bus_stop_sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/KJ_bus_stop_sign.jpg/300px-KJ_bus_stop_sign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="344" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>Signs in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> in the predominantly <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> area of <a href="/wiki/Kiryas_Joel,_New_York" title="Kiryas Joel, New York">Kiryas Joel, New York</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Status">Status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the most widely spoken Jewish languages to develop in the diaspora are <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judeo-Spanish</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> group of languages. <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> is the Judeo-German language developed by <a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazi Jews</a> who lived in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a> before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judeo-Spanish</a>, also called <i>Judezmo</i> and <i>Muestra Spanyol</i>, is the Judeo-Spanish language developed by <a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Sephardi Jews">Sephardic Jews</a> who lived in the <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberian Peninsula</a> before the expulsion by the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Monarchs">Catholic Monarchs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Catalan" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Catalan">Judeo-Catalan</a> (also called <i>Catalanic</i> or <i>Qatalanit</i>), was the Jewish language spoken by the Jewish communities in <a href="/wiki/Catalonia" title="Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valencia" title="Valencia">Valencia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Balearic_Islands" title="Balearic Islands">Balearic Islands</a>. <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judeo-Provençal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a> were two Jewish varieties of <a href="/wiki/Occitan_language" title="Occitan language">Occitan language</a> as it was historically spoken by <a href="/wiki/French_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="French Jews">French Jews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many ancient and distinct Jewish languages, including <a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judeo-Georgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic dialects">Judeo-Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Berber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a> have largely fallen out of use due to the impact of the <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">Holocaust</a> on <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Europe" title="History of the Jews in Europe">European Jewry</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_exodus_from_Arab_lands" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish exodus from Arab lands">Jewish exodus from Arab lands</a>, the assimilation policies of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> in its early days and other factors. </p><p>Yiddish was the language spoken by the largest number of Jews in the 1850s, but today the three most commonly spoken languages among Jews are English, <a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">modern Hebrew</a>, and Russian—in that order.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yiddish, as well as several other Jewish languages, has contributed to the vocabulary of coterritorial non-Jewish languages, such as <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_words_used_in_English" title="Yiddish words used in English">English</a> or <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kol_Yisrael" title="Kol Yisrael">Kol Yisrael</a>, Israel's former public-service broadcaster, had long maintained short daily news and featured programming in many Jewish languages and dialects. For domestic audiences, it broadcast in <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judeo-Iraqi Arabic</a> on its Arabic network, while also producing in Yiddish, Judeo-Spanish, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan Arabic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukharian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judeo-Tat</a> for both domestic and overseas shortwave audiences in relevant areas. In addition, for over two decades starting in the late 1970s, a daily 30-minute shortwave transmission was made to <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> in <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni Arabic</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Radio_Exterior" title="Radio Exterior">Radio Exterior de España</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>'s international public broadcaster, provides programming in Judeo-Spanish, which they refer to as Sefardi.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as in <a href="/wiki/Birobidzhan" title="Birobidzhan">Birobidzhan, Russia</a>, there are some local radio programs in Yiddish.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a>: <span lang="mr">जुदाव मराठी</span>) is a form of <a href="/wiki/Marathi_language" title="Marathi language">Marathi</a> spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethnic_divisions" title="Jewish ethnic divisions">Jewish ethnic group</a> that developed a unique identity in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>. Judeo-Marathi, like other Marathi dialects, is written in the <a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> script. It may not be sufficiently different from Marathi as to constitute a distinct language, although it is characterized by a number of <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a> as a result of influence from the <a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Cochin Jewish</a> community, as well as from <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> and also some influence from the <a href="/wiki/Urdu" title="Urdu">Urdu</a> language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alphabets">Alphabets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Alphabets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:120_Bombay_1890.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/120_Bombay_1890.png/250px-120_Bombay_1890.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/120_Bombay_1890.png/500px-120_Bombay_1890.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="1515" /></a><figcaption>A page from a Haggada shel Pesah in Judeo-Marathi which was printed in Mumbai in 1890.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew alphabet</a></div> <p>For centuries Jews worldwide spoke the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive <a href="/wiki/Dialect" title="Dialect">dialectal</a> forms or branching off as independent languages. The usual course of development for these languages was through the addition of Hebrew words and phrases used to express uniquely Jewish concepts and concerns. Often they were written in Hebrew letters, including the block letters used in Hebrew today and <a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi script</a>. </p><p>Conversely, Judeo-Spanish, formerly written in Rashi script or <a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a>, since the 1920s is usually written in Turkey in the Latin alphabet with a spelling similar to <a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">that of Turkish</a>, and has been occasionally printed in the Greek and Cyrillic alphabets.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also, some Yiddish-speakers have adopted the use of the Latin alphabet, in place of the Hebrew alphabet. This is predominantly to enable communications over the internet, without the need for special Hebrew keyboards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">List of Jewish diaspora languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiolect" title="Religiolect">Religiolect</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-enws-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-enws_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:6–7)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wo8-9-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wo8-9_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990">Waltke & O'Connor (1990</a>:8–9)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-s1-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-s1_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:1–2)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-eurekalert.org-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-eurekalert.org_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFeldman2010">Feldman (2010)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bar-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bar_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShanks2010">Shanks (2010)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sthist-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-sthist_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteiner1997">Steiner (1997</a>:145)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-s112-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-s112_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-s112_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-s112_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:112–113)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Handbook-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Handbook_8-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sG3sCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PR1&focus=viewport&dq=">Handbook of Jewish Languages</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993">Sáenz-Badillos (1993</a>:166, 171)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a>, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.palgrave.com/gp/book/9781403917232"><i>Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403917232" title="Special:BookSources/9781403917232">9781403917232</a> / <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781403938695" title="Special:BookSources/9781403938695">9781403938695</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/yiddish.html">YIDDISH: History and Development</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2019" class="citation web cs1">Miller, Tori (November 18, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lifeandletters.la.utexas.edu/2019/11/yiddish-on-the-rise/">"Yiddish on the Rise"</a>. University of Texas<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Nov 4,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Yiddish+on+the+Rise&rft.pub=University+of+Texas&rft.date=2019-11-18&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Tori&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flifeandletters.la.utexas.edu%2F2019%2F11%2Fyiddish-on-the-rise%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSmith2022" class="citation news cs1">Smith, Noah (September 30, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2022/09/30/yiddish-pandemic-dua-lingo/">"The pandemic and apps are fueling a surge of interest in Yiddish"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Nov 4,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+pandemic+and+apps+are+fueling+a+surge+of+interest+in+Yiddish&rft.date=2022-09-30&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Noah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Freligion%2F2022%2F09%2F30%2Fyiddish-pandemic-dua-lingo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chaim-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chaim_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.adath-shalom.ca/rab_vi.pdf">A Short History of the Hebrew Language: Hebrew in the Diaspora</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShabashewitz2023" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Shabashewitz, Dor (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forward.com/yiddish/551529/a-jewish-creole-language-in-the-caribbean/">"A yidishe kreol-shprakh in di Karibishe indzlen [A Jewish creole language in the Caribbean]"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Forverts" class="mw-redirect" title="Forverts">Forverts</a></i> (in Yiddish)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Forverts&rft.atitle=A+yidishe+kreol-shprakh+in+di+Karibishe+indzlen+%5BA+Jewish+creole+language+in+the+Caribbean%5D&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Shabashewitz&rft.aufirst=Dor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fforward.com%2Fyiddish%2F551529%2Fa-jewish-creole-language-in-the-caribbean%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNahon2017" class="citation cs2">Nahon, Peter (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-01942642/file/JJL%281%29.pdf">"Diglossia among French Sephardim as a motivation for the genesis of 'Judeo-Gascon'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Journal of Jewish Languages</i>, <b>5</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">104–</span>119, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134638-12340080">10.1163/22134638-12340080</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.atitle=Diglossia+among+French+Sephardim+as+a+motivation+for+the+genesis+of+%27Judeo-Gascon%27&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E104-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22134638-12340080&rft.aulast=Nahon&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshs.hal.science%2Fhalshs-01942642%2Ffile%2FJJL%25281%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNahon2021" class="citation cs2">Nahon, Peter (2021), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hal.science/hal-03775737/file/22134638_bja10014_text.pdf">"Modern Judeo-Provençal as Known from Its Sole Textual Testimony: <i>Harcanot et Barcanot</i> (Critical Edition and Linguistic Analysis)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Journal of Jewish Languages</i>, <b>9</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">165–</span>237, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22134638-bja10014">10.1163/22134638-bja10014</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243838176">243838176</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.atitle=Modern+Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al+as+Known+from+Its+Sole+Textual+Testimony%3A+Harcanot+et+Barcanot+%28Critical+Edition+and+Linguistic+Analysis%29&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E237&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22134638-bja10014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243838176%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Nahon&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhal.science%2Fhal-03775737%2Ffile%2F22134638_bja10014_text.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080725085641/http://www.bh.org.il/Links/JewishLangs.asp">"Jewish Languages"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Beth_Hatefutsoth" class="mw-redirect" title="Beth Hatefutsoth">Beth Hatefutsoth, The Nahum Goldmann Museum of the Jewish Diaspora</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp">the original</a> on 2008-07-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jewish+Languages&rft.pub=Beth+Hatefutsoth%2C+The+Nahum+Goldmann+Museum+of+the+Jewish+Diaspora&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bh.org.il%2Flinks%2Fjewishlangs.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For Yiddish loanwords in French, see P. Nahon, « Notes lexicologiques sur des interférences entre yidich et français moderne », Revue de linguistique romane 81, 2017, p. 139-155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rtve.es/programas/sefardi">REE programs in Ladino</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.loc.gov/folklife/2021/05/american-yiddish-radio/">"American Yiddish Radio"</a>. May 17, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=American+Yiddish+Radio&rft.date=2021-05-17&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.loc.gov%2Ffolklife%2F2021%2F05%2Famerican-yiddish-radio%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jewishbookcouncil.org/book/station-identification-a-cultural-history-of-yiddish-radio-in-the-united-states">"Station Identification: A Cultural History of Yiddish Radio in the United States"</a>. <i>Jewish Book Council</i>. August 25, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Book+Council&rft.atitle=Station+Identification%3A+A+Cultural+History+of+Yiddish+Radio+in+the+United+States&rft.date=2011-08-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jewishbookcouncil.org%2Fbook%2Fstation-identification-a-cultural-history-of-yiddish-radio-in-the-united-states&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGUR2007" class="citation web cs1">GUR, HAVIV RETTIG (April 17, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jpost.com/jewish-world/jewish-features/yiddish-returns-to-birobidzhan">"Yiddish returns to Birobidzhan"</a>. <i>The Jerusalem Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post&rft.atitle=Yiddish+returns+to+Birobidzhan&rft.date=2007-04-17&rft.aulast=GUR&rft.aufirst=HAVIV+RETTIG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fjewish-world%2Fjewish-features%2Fyiddish-returns-to-birobidzhan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWalker2024" class="citation web cs1">Walker, Shaun (September 27, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/27/revival-of-a-soviet-zion-birobidzhan-celebrates-its-jewish-heritage">"Revival of a Soviet Zion: Birobidzhan celebrates its Jewish heritage"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 15,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Revival+of+a+Soviet+Zion%3A+Birobidzhan+celebrates+its+Jewish+heritage&rft.date=2024-09-27&rft.aulast=Walker&rft.aufirst=Shaun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2017%2Fsep%2F27%2Frevival-of-a-soviet-zion-birobidzhan-celebrates-its-jewish-heritage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Verba Hispanica</i> X: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hispanismo.cervantes.es/documentos/smidX.pdf">Los problemas del estudio de la lengua sefardí</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080407074136/http://hispanismo.cervantes.es/documentos/smidX.pdf">Archived</a> 2008-04-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Katja Smid, Ljubljana, pages 113–124: <i>Es interesante el hecho que en Bulgaria se imprimieron unas pocas publicaciones en alfabeto cirílico búlgaro y en Grecia en alfabeto griego. [...] Nezirović (1992: 128) anota que también en Bosnia se ha encontrado un documento en que la lengua sefardí está escrita en alfabeto cirilico</i>. The Nezirović reference is: Nezirović, M., <i>Jevrejsko-Spanjolska knjitévnost</i>. Institut za knjifevnost, Svjeálost, Sarajevo, 1992.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFeldman2010" class="citation web cs1">Feldman, Rachel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/uoh-mah010710.php">"Most ancient Hebrew biblical inscription deciphered"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110607150148/http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/uoh-mah010710.php">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 June</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Most+ancient+Hebrew+biblical+inscription+deciphered&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Feldman&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2010-01%2Fuoh-mah010710.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKahnRubin2016" class="citation book cs1">Kahn, Lily; Rubin, Aaron D. (2016). <i>Handbook of Jewish Languages</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004345775" title="Special:BookSources/9789004345775"><bdi>9789004345775</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Jewish+Languages&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9789004345775&rft.aulast=Kahn&rft.aufirst=Lily&rft.au=Rubin%2C+Aaron+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSáenz-Badillos1993" class="citation book cs1">Sáenz-Badillos, Angel (1993). <i>A History of the Hebrew Language</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-55634-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-55634-1"><bdi>0-521-55634-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Hebrew+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-521-55634-1&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1enz-Badillos&rft.aufirst=Angel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFShanks2010" class="citation journal cs1">Shanks, Hershel (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/36/2/9">"Oldest Hebrew Inscription Discovered in Israelite Fort on Philistine Border"</a>. <i>Biblical Archaeology Review</i>. <b>36</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">51–</span>6. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190602104058/https://www.baslibrary.org/biblical-archaeology-review/36/2/9">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-06-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biblical+Archaeology+Review&rft.atitle=Oldest+Hebrew+Inscription+Discovered+in+Israelite+Fort+on+Philistine+Border&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E51-%3C%2Fspan%3E6&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Shanks&rft.aufirst=Hershel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.baslibrary.org%2Fbiblical-archaeology-review%2F36%2F2%2F9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSteiner1997" class="citation cs2">Steiner, Richard C. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), <i>The Semitic Languages</i>, Routledge, pp. <span class="nowrap">145–</span>173, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-05767-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-05767-1"><bdi>0-415-05767-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ancient+Hebrew&rft.btitle=The+Semitic+Languages&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E145-%3C%2Fspan%3E173&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-05767-1&rft.aulast=Steiner&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWaltkeO'Connor1990" class="citation book cs1">Waltke, Bruce K.; O'Connor, M. (1990). <i>An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax</i>. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-931464-31-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-931464-31-5"><bdi>0-931464-31-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Biblical+Hebrew+Syntax&rft.place=Winona+Lake%2C+Indiana&rft.pub=Eisenbrauns&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-931464-31-5&rft.aulast=Waltke&rft.aufirst=Bruce+K.&rft.au=O%27Connor%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJewish+languages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghil%27ad_Zuckermann" title="Ghil'ad Zuckermann">Zuckermann, Ghil'ad</a> (ed.) 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/ijsl.2014.2014.issue-226/ijsl-2014-frontmatter226/ijsl-2014-frontmatter226.pdf"><i>Jewish Language Contact</i></a> (<i><a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_the_Sociology_of_Language" title="International Journal of the Sociology of Language">International Journal of the Sociology of Language</a></i> 226)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jewish_languages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages179" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jews_and_Judaism715" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Template:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Template talk:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jews and Judaism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jews_and_Judaism715" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a> and <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Judaism" title="Outline of Judaism">Outline of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Jewish_history-related_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="Index of Jewish history-related articles">Index of Jewish history-related articles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jewish_history" title="Timeline of Jewish history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israelites" title="Israelites">Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Judaism" title="Origins of Judaism">Origins of Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Ancient Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Temple_period" title="Second Temple period">Second Temple period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogal_Judaism" title="Synagogal Judaism">Synagogal Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Jews in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_population_by_country" title="Jewish population by country">Population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_assimilation" title="Jewish assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_atheism" title="Jewish atheism">Atheists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Buddhists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Jews" title="Israeli Jews">Israeli Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritans" title="Samaritans">Samaritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews" title="Lists of Jews">Lists of Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xueta_Christianity" title="Xueta Christianity">Xueta Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism,_race_and_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Zionism, race and genetics">Zionism, race and genetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentile" title="Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groups_claiming_affiliation_with_Israelites" title="Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites">Groups claiming affiliation with Israelites</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diaspora28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Jews" title="Ashkenazi Jews">Ashkenazim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner-Jews" title="Afrikaner-Jews">Afrikaner-Jode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuts" title="Chuts">Chuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_Jews" title="Galician Jews">Galitzianers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvaks" title="Litvaks">Lita'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oberlander_Jews" title="Oberlander Jews">Oberlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Udmurt and Tatar Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unterlander_Jews" title="Unterlander Jews">Unterlander Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yekke" title="Yekke">Yekkes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Israel" title="Beta Israel">Beta Israel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beta_Abraham" title="Beta Abraham">Beta Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falash_Mura" title="Falash Mura">Falash Mura</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desi_Jews" title="Desi Jews">Desi Jews</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bene_Israel" title="Bene Israel">Bene Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cochin_Jews" title="Cochin Jews">Kochinim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%B6nmeh" title="Dönmeh">Dönmeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Jews" title="Georgian Jews">Gruzínim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Jews" title="Italian Jews">Italkim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofiti" title="Neofiti">Neofiti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaifeng_Jews" title="Kaifeng Jews">Kaifeng Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaites</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinopolitan_Karaites" title="Constantinopolitan Karaites">Constantinopolitan Karaites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Karaites" title="Crimean Karaites">Crimean Karaites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Kurdistan" title="History of the Jews in Kurdistan">Kurdish Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchaks" title="Krymchaks">Krymchaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maghrebi_Jews" title="Maghrebi Jews">Maghrebi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berber_Jews" title="Berber Jews">Berber Jews</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Jews" title="Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Afghanistan" title="History of the Jews in Afghanistan">Afghan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Alexandria" title="History of the Jews in Alexandria">Alexandrian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghdadi_Jews" title="Baghdadi Jews">Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukharan_Jews" title="Bukharan Jews">Bukharan Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Egypt" title="History of the Jews in Egypt">Egyptian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_Jews" title="Mountain Jews">Mountain Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Jews" title="Palestinian Jews">Palestinian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Jews">Persian Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urfalim" title="Urfalim">Urfalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews" title="Yemenite Jews">Teimanim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adeni_Jews" title="Adeni Jews">Adeni Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habbani_Jews" title="Habbani Jews">Ḥabbanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Hadramaut" title="History of the Jews in Hadramaut">Hadhrami Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Saada" title="History of the Jews in Saada">Saada Jews</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musta%27arabi_Jews" title="Musta'arabi Jews">Mustaʿravim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_tribes_of_Arabia" title="Jewish tribes of Arabia">Jewish tribes of Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romaniote_Jews" title="Romaniote Jews">Romaniote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Jews" title="Sephardic Jews">Sephardim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_and_Portuguese_Jews" title="Spanish and Portuguese Jews">Eastern Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Livorno" title="History of the Jews in Livorno">Livornese Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_African_Sephardim" title="North African Sephardim">North African Sephardim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradesi_Jews" title="Paradesi Jews">Paradesi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meshuchrarim" title="Meshuchrarim">Meshuchrarim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_Bnei_Anusim" title="Sephardic Bnei Anusim">Sephardic Bnei Anusim</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xueta" title="Xueta">Xuetes</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemba_people" title="Lemba people">Lemba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Languages</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Diasporic</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manually_coded_language#List_of_signed_languages" title="Manually coded language">Signed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judeo-Amazigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judeo-Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judeo-Gascon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Judaeo-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judeo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judeo-Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judeo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Borujerdi" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Borujerdi">Judeo-Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judeo-Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani">Judeo-Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judeo-Urdu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayliñña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Kivruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotegorisch" title="Lotegorisch">Lotegorisch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwareña</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Shassagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Shassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_dialects" title="Yiddish dialects">dialects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_principles_of_faith" title="Jewish principles of faith">Beliefs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_authority" title="Rabbinic authority">Rabbinic authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_as_the_chosen_people" title="Jews as the chosen people">Chosen people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_to_Judaism" title="Conversion to Judaism">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_eschatology" title="Jewish eschatology">Eschatology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Messiah_in_Judaism" title="Messiah in Judaism">Messiah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_in_Judaism" title="Holiness in Judaism">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Judaism" title="God in Judaism">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God_in_Judaism" title="Names of God in Judaism">Names of God</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halakha" title="Halakha">Halakha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabbalah" title="Kabbalah">Kabbalah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sefirot" title="Sefirot">Sefirot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_of_Israel" title="Land of Israel">Land of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Who_is_a_Jew%3F" title="Who is a Jew?">Who is a Jew?</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of Judaism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">Religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litvishe" class="mw-redirect" title="Litvishe">Litvaks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Hasidism" title="Neo-Hasidism">Neo-Hasidism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolog_Judaism" title="Neolog Judaism">Neolog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationships_between_Jewish_religious_movements" title="Relationships between Jewish religious movements">relations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Science" title="Jewish Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_secularism" title="Jewish secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_schisms" title="Jewish schisms">Schisms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sifrei_Kodesh" title="Sifrei Kodesh">Sifrei Kodesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Tanakh</a>/Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevi%27im" title="Nevi'im">Nevi'im</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuvim" title="Ketuvim">Ketuvim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mishnah" title="Mishnah">Mishnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosefta" title="Tosefta">Tosefta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midrash" title="Midrash">Midrash</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_texts_of_Kabbalah" title="Primary texts of Kabbalah">Kabbalah texts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hekhalot_literature" title="Hekhalot literature">Hekhalot literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_Rimonim" title="Pardes Rimonim">Pardes Rimonim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_HaBahir" class="mw-redirect" title="Sefer HaBahir">Sefer HaBahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etz_Chaim_(book)" title="Etz Chaim (book)">Sefer HaEtz Chaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Raziel_HaMalakh" title="Sefer Raziel HaMalakh">Sefer Raziel HaMalakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sefer_Yetzirah" title="Sefer Yetzirah">Sefer Yetzirah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zohar" title="Zohar">Zohar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shulchan_Aruch" title="Shulchan Aruch">Shulchan Aruch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddur" title="Siddur">Siddur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_astrology" title="Jewish astrology">Astrology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_astrology" title="Jewish views on astrology">perspectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monen" title="Monen">Monen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_holidays" title="Jewish holidays">Holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">Kashrut</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_education" title="Jewish education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_leadership" title="Jewish leadership">Leadership</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rabbi" title="Rabbi">Rabbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebbe" title="Rebbe">Rebbe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_marriage" title="Jewish views on marriage">Marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Divorce in Judaism">Divorce</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_name" title="Jewish name">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_political_movements" title="Jewish political movements">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_prayer" title="Jewish prayer">Prayer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">Synagogue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazzan" title="Hazzan">Hazzan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_studies" title="Jewish studies">Studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Jewish_History" title="Center for Jewish History">Center for Jewish History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Jewish_Historical_Society" title="American Jewish Historical Society">American Jewish Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sephardi_Federation" title="American Sephardi Federation">American Sephardi Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baeck_Institute_New_York" title="Leo Baeck Institute New York">Leo Baeck Institute New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeshiva_University_Museum" title="Yeshiva University Museum">Yeshiva University Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO Institute for Jewish Research</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_of_Contemporary_Jewish_Documentation" title="Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation">Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Judaica" title="Encyclopaedia Judaica">Encyclopaedia Judaica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Jews">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jew_(word)" title="Jew (word)">Jew (word)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Jewish_Encyclopedia" title="The Jewish Encyclopedia">Jewish Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Virtual_Library" title="Jewish Virtual Library">Jewish Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Library_of_Israel" title="National Library of Israel">National Library of Israel</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_YIVO_Encyclopedia_of_Jews_in_Eastern_Europe" title="The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe">YIVO Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museum" title="United States Holocaust Memorial Museum">United States Holocaust Memorial Museum</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Holocaust" title="Encyclopedia of the Holocaust">Encyclopedia of the Holocaust</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust Encyclopedia">Holocaust Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_other_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and other religions">Relations with other religions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Christianity and Judaism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Anabaptist–Jewish relations">Anabaptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Mormonism" title="Judaism and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Judaism" title="Protestantism and Judaism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Christmas" title="Jews and Christmas">Jews and Christmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_and_Halloween" title="Jews and Halloween">Jews and Halloween</a></li></ul></li> <li>non-Christian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaism and Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_and_Judaism" title="Hinduism and Judaism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Jews_and_Judaism" title="Category:Jews and Judaism">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Star_of_David.svg/13px-Star_of_David.svg.png" decoding="async" width="13" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Israel" title="Template:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Israel" title="Template talk:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Israel" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Israel"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Israel115" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel" title="Languages of Israel">Languages of Israel</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language_in_Israel" title="Arabic language in Israel">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arabic" title="Palestinian Arabic">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Arabian_Arabic" title="Northwest Arabian Arabic">Bedouin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-official</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amharic" title="Amharic">Amharic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domari_language" title="Domari language">Domari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language_in_Israel" title="Russian language in Israel">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Israel#Other_spoken_languages" title="Languages of Israel">others</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abu_Kaf_Bedouin_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abu Kaf Bedouin Sign Language (page does not exist)">Abu Kaf</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Atrash_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Atrash Sign Language (page does not exist)">Al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Sayyid_Bedouin_Sign_Language" title="Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language">Al-Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_El-Naim_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arab El-Naim Sign Language (page does not exist)">El-Naim</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ein_Mahel_Sign_Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ein Mahel Sign Language (page does not exist)">Ein Mahel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Ghardaian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafr_Qasem_Sign_Language" title="Kafr Qasem Sign Language">Kafr Qasem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_Arabic_Sign_Language" title="Levantine Arabic Sign Language">Levantine Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Sign_Language" title="Russian Sign Language">Russian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Holy languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talmudic_Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Talmudic Aramaic">Talmudic Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranic_Arabic" class="mw-redirect" title="Quranic Arabic">Quranic Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Greek">Biblical Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>See also: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Jewish languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q615948#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata605" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse 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