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href="#Middle_Vietnamese_alphabet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Middle Vietnamese alphabet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Vietnamese_alphabet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Vowels </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vowels subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pronunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Pronunciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spelling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spelling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Spelling </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spelling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowel_nuclei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_nuclei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Vowel nuclei </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_nuclei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diphthongs_and_triphthongs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diphthongs_and_triphthongs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Diphthongs and triphthongs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diphthongs_and_triphthongs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tone_marks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tone_marks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Tone marks </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tone_marks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Name" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Name"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Name </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Name-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creation_of_chữ_Quốc_ngữ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_of_chữ_Quốc_ngữ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Creation of chữ Quốc ngữ </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creation_of_chữ_Quốc_ngữ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Colonial period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mass_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Mass education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century_to_present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century_to_present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Late 20th century to present </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century_to_present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Computing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unicode_code_points" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unicode_code_points"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1.1 Unicode code points </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unicode_code_points-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Vietnamese alphabet</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" > 37 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%A8%D8%AC%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أبجديات فيتنامية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أبجديات فيتنامية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetu_vietnamita" title="Alfabetu vietnamita – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alfabetu vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kok-g%C3%BA-j%C4%AB" title="Kok-gú-jī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kok-gú-jī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_vietnamita" title="Alfabet vietnamita – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Alfabet vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamesische_Schrift" title="Vietnamesische Schrift – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Vietnamesische Schrift" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_vietnamita" title="Alfabeto vietnamita – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alfabeto vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="الفبای ویتنامی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="الفبای ویتنامی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Chữ quốc ngữ – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Chữ quốc ngữ" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_vietnamita" title="Alfabeto vietnamita – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Alfabeto vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ye%CC%8Dt-n%C3%A0m-ng%C3%AE_s%E1%B9%B3-m%C3%BB" title="Ye̍t-nàm-ngî sṳ-mû – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ye̍t-nàm-ngî sṳ-mû" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%AF%94_%EA%BE%B8%EC%98%A5_%EC%9D%91%EC%9C%BC" title="쯔 꾸옥 응으 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="쯔 꾸옥 응으" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BF" title="वियतनामी लिपि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वियतनामी लिपि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Quốc ngữ – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Quốc ngữ" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_vietnamita" title="Alfabeto vietnamita – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alfabeto vietnamita" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Виетнамска азбука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Виетнамска азбука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Quốc ngữ – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Quốc ngữ" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad_Vietnam" title="Abjad Vietnam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Abjad Vietnam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C5%8Fk-n%C3%A0ng-ng%E1%B9%B3%CC%84_c%C3%AA-m%C5%8D%CC%A4" title="Uŏk-nàng-ngṳ̄ cê-mō̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Uŏk-nàng-ngṳ̄ cê-mō̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamees_alfabet" title="Vietnamees alfabet – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Vietnamees alfabet" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%81%E3%83%A5%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AF%E3%82%AA%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B0%E3%83%BC" title="チュ・クオック・グー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="チュ・クオック・グー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Quốc ngữ – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Quốc ngữ" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vyetnam_yozuvi" title="Vyetnam yozuvi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Vyetnam yozuvi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D9%84%D9%BE%DB%8C" title="ویتنامی لپی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ویتنامی لپی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabet_wietnamski" title="Alfabet wietnamski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Alfabet wietnamski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%8B" title="Куокнгы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Куокнгы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Vietnamese alphabet" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamska_abeceda" title="Vietnamska abeceda – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vietnamska abeceda" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%84%D9%81%D9%88%D8%A8%DB%8E%DB%8C_%DA%A4%DB%8E%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C" title="ئەلفوبێی ڤێتنامی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ئەلفوبێی ڤێتنامی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Chữ Quốc ngữ – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Chữ Quốc ngữ" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Quốc ngữ – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Quốc ngữ" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%8B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A7%E0%B9%8A%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD" title="จื๋อโกว๊กหงือ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จื๋อโกว๊กหงือ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B8_%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D3%A3" title="Алифбои ветнамӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Алифбои ветнамӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_alfabesi" title="Vietnam alfabesi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vietnam alfabesi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%27%D1%94%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="В'єтнамська абетка – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="В'єтнамська абетка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" title="Chữ Quốc ngữ – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chữ Quốc ngữ" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Special:EditPage/Vietnamese alphabet">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Vietnamese+alphabet%22">"Vietnamese alphabet"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Vietnamese+alphabet%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Vietnamese+alphabet%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Vietnamese+alphabet%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Vietnamese+alphabet%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Vietnamese+alphabet%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (April 2018) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em; background:lightblue;">Vietnamese alphabet <div style="font-weight:normal">chữ Quốc ngữ</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Script type</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Creator</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Pina" title="Francisco de Pina">Francisco de Pina</a> and other Portuguese and Italian <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a><a href="#cite_note-Jacques_2002-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jacques_2004-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tran_2019-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETran2022-4">[4]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>, other indigenous <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Vietnam" class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Vietnam">languages of Vietnam</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">Related scripts</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Parent systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="padding-top:0.15em;"><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sinaitic">Proto-Sinaitic</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography#Diacritics" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese alphabet</a><ul style="margin-left:0.8em;"><li>Vietnamese alphabet</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Child systems</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Bahnar_language" title="Bahnar language">Bahnar alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cham_language" title="Cham language">Cham alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/N%C3%B9ng_language_(Tai)" title="Nùng language (Tai)">Nùng alphabet</a>, <a href="/wiki/T%C3%A0y_language" title="Tày language">Tày alphabet</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> The Vietnamese alphabet (<a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>: Chữ Quốc ngữ, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'Script of the National Language', <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>IPA: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">[t͡ɕɨ˦ˀ˥ kuək̚˧˦ ŋɨ˦ˀ˥]</a>) is the modern writing script for the <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese language</a>. It uses the <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> originally developed by <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Pina" title="Francisco de Pina">Francisco de Pina</a> (1585–1625), a <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a> from <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jacques_2002-1">[1]</a> The Vietnamese alphabet contains 29 <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a>, including seven letters using four <a href="/wiki/Diacritic" title="Diacritic">diacritics</a>: ⟨ă⟩, ⟨â⟩, ⟨ê⟩, ⟨ô⟩, ⟨ơ⟩, ⟨ư⟩, and ⟨đ⟩. There are an additional five diacritics used to designate <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tone</a> (as in ⟨à⟩, ⟨á⟩, ⟨ả⟩, ⟨ã⟩, and ⟨ạ⟩). The complex vowel system and the large number of letters with diacritics, which can stack twice on the same letter (e.g. nhất meaning 'first'), makes it easy to distinguish the Vietnamese orthography from other writing systems that use the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabets" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin alphabets">Latin script</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Friederichsen2009-7">[7]</a> The Vietnamese system's use of diacritics produces an accurate transcription for <a href="/wiki/Tonal_Languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal Languages">tones</a> despite the limitations of the Roman alphabet. On the other hand, sound changes in the spoken language have led to different letters, digraphs and trigraphs now representing the same sounds. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Letter_names_and_pronunciation">Letter names and pronunciation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Letter names and pronunciation">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> Vietnamese uses 22 letters of the <a href="/wiki/ISO_basic_Latin_alphabet" title="ISO basic Latin alphabet">ISO basic Latin alphabet</a>. The four remaining letters are not considered part of the Vietnamese alphabet although they are used to write <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>, languages of other ethnic groups in the country based on Vietnamese phonetics to differentiate the meanings or even Vietnamese dialects, for example: ⟨dz⟩ or ⟨z⟩ for southerner pronunciation of ⟨v⟩ in standard Vietnamese. In total, there are 12 vowels (nguyên âm) and 17 consonants (phụ âm, literally 'extra sound'). <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vietnamese_Decision_31_Cursive_Chart.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Vietnamese_Decision_31_Cursive_Chart.svg/220px-Vietnamese_Decision_31_Cursive_Chart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="393" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Vietnamese_Decision_31_Cursive_Chart.svg/330px-Vietnamese_Decision_31_Cursive_Chart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Vietnamese_Decision_31_Cursive_Chart.svg/440px-Vietnamese_Decision_31_Cursive_Chart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="1350" /></a><figcaption>Handwritten Vietnamese alphabet</figcaption></figure> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Vietnamese alphabet<a href="#cite_note-Vietnam_Alphabet-8">[8]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2" scope="col">Letter </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_and_computers" title="Vietnamese language and computers">Input keys</a> </th> <th rowspan="2">Name (when pronounced) </th> <th colspan="3">IPA </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Telex_(input_method)" title="Telex (input method)">TELEX</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/VNI" title="VNI">VNI</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hanoi" title="Hanoi">Hanoi</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87_An_province" title="Nghệ An province">Nghệ An</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A0i_G%C3%B2n" class="mw-redirect" title="Sài Gòn">Sài Gòn</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/A" title="A">A</a>, a </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>a </td> <td>ʔaː˧˧ </td> <td>ʔaː˧˥ </td> <td>ʔaː˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%82" title="Ă">Ă</a>, ă </td> <td><code>AW</code> </td> <td><code>A8</code> </td> <td>á </td> <td>ʔaː˧˥ </td> <td>ʔaː˩˩ </td> <td>ʔaː˧˥ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%82" title="Â">Â</a>, â </td> <td><code>AA</code> </td> <td><code>A6</code> </td> <td>ớ </td> <td colspan="1">ʔəː˧˥ </td> <td>ʔəː˩˩ </td> <td>ʔəː˧˥ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/B" title="B">B</a>, b </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>bê / bờ </td> <td colspan="1">ʔɓe˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɓe˧˥ </td> <td>ʔɓe˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/C" title="C">C</a>, c </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>xê / cờ </td> <td>se˧˧ </td> <td>se˧˥ </td> <td>se˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/D" title="D">D</a>, d </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>dê / dờ </td> <td>ze˧˧ </td> <td>ze˧˥ </td> <td>je˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C4%90" class="mw-redirect" title="Đ">Đ</a>, đ </td> <td><code>DD</code> </td> <td><code>D9</code> </td> <td>đê </td> <td>ʔɗe˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɗe˧˥ </td> <td>ʔɗe˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/E" title="E">E</a>, e </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>e </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˥ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%8A" title="Ê">Ê</a>, ê </td> <td><code>EE</code> </td> <td><code>E6</code> </td> <td>ê </td> <td>ʔe˧˧ </td> <td>ʔe˧˥ </td> <td>ʔe˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/G" title="G">G</a>, g </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>giê / gờ </td> <td>zə˧˧ </td> <td>zə˧˥ </td> <td>jə˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/H" title="H">H</a>, h </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>hát </td> <td colspan="1">haːt˧˥ </td> <td>haːt˩˩ </td> <td>haːk˧˥ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/I" title="I">I</a>, i </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>i ngắn </td> <td>ʔi˧˧ </td> <td>ʔi˧˥ </td> <td>ʔi˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/K" title="K">K</a>, k </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ca </td> <td>kaː˧˧ </td> <td>kaː˧˥ </td> <td>kaː˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">L</a>, l </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(e) lờ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˧ lə̤ː˨˩ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˥ ləː˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˧ ləː˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/M" title="M">M</a>, m </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(e) mờ </td> <td>ʔɛm˧˧ mə̤ː˨˩ </td> <td>ʔɛm˧˥ məː˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɛm˧˧ məː˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/N" title="N">N</a>, n </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>(e) nờ </td> <td>ʔɛn˧˧ nə̤ː˨˩ </td> <td>ʔɛn˧˥ nəː˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɛŋ˧˧ nəː˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/O" title="O">O</a>, o </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>o </td> <td>ʔɔ˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɔ˧˥ </td> <td>ʔɔ˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C3%94" class="mw-redirect" title="Ô">Ô</a>, ô </td> <td><code>OO</code> </td> <td><code>O6</code> </td> <td>ô </td> <td>ʔo˧˧ </td> <td>ʔo˧˥ </td> <td>ʔo˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C6%A0" title="Ơ">Ơ</a>, ơ </td> <td><code>OW</code> </td> <td><code>O7</code> </td> <td>ơ </td> <td>ʔəː˧˧ </td> <td>ʔəː˧˥ </td> <td>ʔəː˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/P" title="P">P</a>, p </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>pê </td> <td>pe˧˧ </td> <td>pe˧˥ </td> <td>pe˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">Q</a>, q </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>quy / quờ </td> <td colspan="1">kwi˧˧ </td> <td>kwi˧˥ </td> <td>wi˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/R" title="R">R</a>, r </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>rờ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˧ zə̤ː˨˩ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˥ ɹəː˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɛ˧˧ ɹəː˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/S" title="S">S</a>, s </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ét / sờ nặng </td> <td>ʔɛt˧˥ si̤˨˩ </td> <td>ʔɛt˩˩ si˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɛk˧˥ ʂi˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/T" title="T">T</a>, t </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>tê / tờ </td> <td>te˧˧ </td> <td>te˧˥ </td> <td>te˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/U" title="U">U</a>, u </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>u </td> <td>ʔu˧˧ </td> <td>ʔu˧˥ </td> <td>ʔu˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/%C6%AF" title="Ư">Ư</a>, ư </td> <td><code>UW/W</code> </td> <td><code>U7</code> </td> <td>ư </td> <td>ʔɨ˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɨ˧˥ </td> <td>ʔɨ˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/V" title="V">V</a>, v </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>vê / vờ </td> <td>ve˧˧ </td> <td>ve˧˥ </td> <td>je˧˧ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/X" title="X">X</a>, x </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>ích / xờ nhẹ </td> <td>ʔik˧˥ si̤˨˩ </td> <td>ʔik˩˩ si˧˧ </td> <td>ʔɨt˧˥ si˨˩ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">Y</a>, y </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>i dài </td> <td>ʔi˧˧ za̤ːj˨˩ </td> <td>ʔi˧˥ zaːj˧˧ </td> <td>ʔi˧˧ jaːj˨˩ </td></tr></tbody></table> <dl><dt>Notes</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Vietnamese unused letters </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Letter </th> <th rowspan="2">Name (when pronounced) </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/H%C3%A0_N%E1%BB%99i" class="mw-redirect" title="Hà Nội">Hà Nội</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87_An_province" title="Nghệ An province">Nghệ An</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A0i_G%C3%B2n" class="mw-redirect" title="Sài Gòn">Sài Gòn</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>IPA </th> <th>Phoneme </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Phoneme </th> <th>IPA </th> <th>Phoneme </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/F" title="F">F</a>, f </td> <td>ép </td> <td>ʔɛp˧˥ </td> <td>/f/ </td> <td>ʔɛp˩˩ </td> <td>/f/ </td> <td>ʔɛp˧˥ </td> <td>/f/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/J" title="J">J</a>, j </td> <td>gi </td> <td>zi̤˧˧ </td> <td>/z/ </td> <td>ji˧˥ </td> <td>/z/ </td> <td>ji˧˧ </td> <td>/j/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/W" title="W">W</a>, w </td> <td>vê kép / đớp lưu </td> <td>ve˧˧ kɛp˧˥ </td> <td>/w/ </td> <td>ve˧˥ kɛp˩˩ </td> <td>/w/ </td> <td>je˧˧ kɛp˧˥ </td> <td>/w/ </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z">Z</a>, z </td> <td>dét </td> <td colspan="1">zɛt˧˥ </td> <td>/z/ </td> <td>zɛt˩˩ </td> <td>/z/ </td> <td>jɛk˧˥ </td> <td>/j/ </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The vowels in the table are bolded and italicized.</li> <li>The use of the terms bê bò or bờ bò to refer to ⟨b⟩ and as pê phở or pờ phở to refer to ⟨p⟩ is to avoid confusion in some contexts, the same for ⟨s⟩ as sờ mạnh or sờ nặng. (literally, 'strong s' or 'heavy s') and ⟨x⟩ as xờ nhẹ (literally, 'light x'), ⟨i⟩ as i ngắn (literally, 'short i') and ⟨y⟩ as y dài (literally, 'long y').</li> <li>⟨q⟩ is always followed by ⟨u⟩ in every word and phrase in Vietnamese, e.g. quần 'trousers', quyến rũ 'to attract', etc.</li> <li>The name i-cờ-rét for ⟨y⟩ is from the French name for the letter: i grec (literally, 'Greek i'),<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> referring to the letter's origin from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek letter</a> <a href="/wiki/Upsilon" title="Upsilon">upsilon</a>. The other obsolete French pronunciations include ⟨e⟩ (/əː˧/) and ⟨u⟩ (/wi˧/).</li> <li>The Vietnamese alphabet does not contain the 4 letters ⟨f⟩ (ép, ép-phờ), ⟨j⟩ (gi), ⟨w⟩ (đớp lưu 'double u', vê kép, vê đúp 'double v') and ⟨z⟩ (giét). However, these letters are often used for foreign loanwords (even partially adapted ones: flo 'fluorine', jun 'joule', bazơ 'base') or may be kept for foreign names.</li> <li>⟨y⟩ is most commonly treated as a vowel along with ⟨i⟩. ⟨i⟩ represents 'short /i˧/' and ⟨y⟩ represents 'long /i˧/'. ⟨y⟩ can have tones as well as other vowels (⟨ý⟩, ⟨ỳ⟩, ⟨ỹ⟩, ⟨ỷ⟩, ⟨ỵ⟩) e.g. Mỹ 'America'. It may also act as a consonant (when used after ⟨â⟩ and ⟨a⟩). It can sometimes be used to replace ⟨i⟩, e.g. bánh mì 'bread' can sometimes be written bánh mỳ by some people, but it is not generally considered standard or accurate.</li> <li>⟨s⟩ and ⟨x⟩ are similar to each other in sound in Northern Vietnamese dialects or with some Southern Vietnamese speakers (especially in the <a href="/wiki/Mekong_Delta" title="Mekong Delta">Mekong Delta region</a>) and can sometimes be used interchangeably between these speakers, e.g. sương xáo or sương sáo '<a href="/wiki/Grass_jelly" title="Grass jelly">grass jelly</a>'.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Vietnamese_alphabet">Middle Vietnamese alphabet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Middle Vietnamese alphabet">edit</a>]</div> The Vietnamese alphabet in the <a href="/wiki/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum" title="Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum">Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a> has 23 letters: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Upper case </th> <td>A </td> <td>B </td> <td rowspan="2">ꞗ </td> <td>C </td> <td>D </td> <td rowspan="2">đ </td> <td>E </td> <td>G </td> <td>H </td> <td>I </td> <td>K </td> <td>L </td> <td>M </td> <td>N </td> <td>O </td> <td>P </td> <td>Q </td> <td>R </td> <td>S </td> <td>T </td> <td>V </td> <td>X </td> <td>Y </td></tr> <tr> <th>Lower case </th> <td>a </td> <td>b </td> <td>c </td> <td>d </td> <td>e </td> <td>g </td> <td>h </td> <td>i </td> <td>k </td> <td>l </td> <td>m </td> <td>n </td> <td>o </td> <td>p </td> <td>q </td> <td>r </td> <td>ſ/s </td> <td>t </td> <td>v/u </td> <td>x </td> <td>y </td></tr></tbody></table> In this dictionary, there are fewer letters than the modern alphabet. The letters ă, â, ê, ô, ơ, and ư are regarded as separate letters in the modern alphabet and are used in the dictionary, but the author does not regard them as separate letters. In the dictionary, a letter with diacritics, like à, ạ, ă, ằ, and ặ, are not separate from the letter a; à, ạ, ă, ằ, and ặ are just regarded as the letter a with diacritics. In the alphabet, there is a letter, the <a href="/wiki/B_with_flourish" title="B with flourish">letter b with flourish</a> ꞗ, that has fallen out of use. It was used to represents the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">voiced bilabial fricative</a> /β/.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Two letters, ꞗ and đ, are neither upper nor lower case.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> So according to that orthography, the names of the two provinces <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%93ng_Nai_province" title="Đồng Nai province">Đồng Nai</a> and <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A2m_%C4%90%E1%BB%93ng_province" title="Lâm Đồng province">Lâm Đồng</a> will be đồng Nai and Lâm đồng. In the modern alphabet, the lower case version of đ is đ, and upper case version of đ is Đ. There are two variants of minuscule s: the long s, ſ, and the short s, s. In the modern alphabet, the long s, ſ, is no longer used, and the short s, s, is the only variant of s. Normal v in the dictionary has two variants: the normal v, v, and the curving-bottom v, u.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In the 17th century, v and u were not different letters, v being a variant of u.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consonants">Consonants</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> The alphabet is largely derived from <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese</a> with some influence from <a href="/wiki/French_orthography" title="French orthography">French</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>], although the usage of ⟨gh⟩ and ⟨gi⟩ was borrowed from <a href="/wiki/Italian_orthography" title="Italian orthography">Italian</a> (compare <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ghetto#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:ghetto">ghetto</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Giuseppe#Italian" class="extiw" title="wikt:Giuseppe">Giuseppe</a>) and that for ⟨c, k, qu⟩ from (Latinised) Greek and Latin (compare <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/canis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:canis">canis</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:κίνησις">kinesis</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quo_vadis#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:quo vadis">quō vādis</a>), mirroring the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> usage of these letters (compare <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cat#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:cat">cat</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kite#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:kite">kite</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/queen#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:queen">queen</a>). 10 <a href="/wiki/Digraph_(orthography)" title="Digraph (orthography)">digraphs</a> consist: ⟨ch⟩, ⟨gh⟩, ⟨gi⟩, ⟨kh⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨nh⟩, ⟨ph⟩, ⟨qu⟩, ⟨th⟩, ⟨tr⟩, and only one <a href="/wiki/Trigraph_(orthography)" title="Trigraph (orthography)">trigraph</a> ⟨ngh⟩. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Consonants </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Grapheme </th> <th colspan="2">Word-initial (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">IPA</a>) </th> <th colspan="2">Word-final </th> <th rowspan="2">Notes </th></tr> <tr> <th>Northern </th> <th>Southern </th> <th>Northern </th> <th>Southern </th></tr> <tr> <th>B b </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_implosive" title="Voiced bilabial implosive">ɓ</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #ccc;"> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>C c </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/No_audible_release" title="No audible release">k̚</a>/ </td> <td>⟨k⟩ is used instead when preceding ⟨i, y, e, ê⟩. ⟨qu⟩ is used instead of ⟨co, cu⟩ if a /w/ on-glide exists. Realized as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labial%E2%80%93velar_plosive" title="Voiceless labial–velar plosive">k͡p</a>] word-finally following rounded vowels ⟨u, ô, o⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ch ch </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_plosive" title="Voiceless palatal plosive">c</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/ʲk/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/No_audible_release" title="No audible release">t̚</a>/ </td> <td>Multiple phonemic analyses of final ⟨ch⟩ have been proposed (<a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Analysis_of_final_ch.2C_nh" title="Vietnamese phonology">main article</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>D d </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="9" style="background-color: #ccc;"> </td> <td>In <a href="/wiki/Middle_Vietnamese" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Vietnamese">Middle Vietnamese</a>, ⟨d⟩ represented /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_fricative" title="Voiced dental fricative">ð</a>/. The distinction between ⟨d⟩ and ⟨gi⟩ is now purely etymological in most modern dialects. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Đ đ </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_implosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar implosive">ɗ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>G g </th> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gh gh </th> <td>Used instead of ⟨g⟩ before ⟨i, e, ê⟩, seemingly to follow the <a href="/wiki/Italian_orthography#C_and_G" title="Italian orthography">Italian convention</a>. ⟨g⟩ is not allowed in these environments. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gi gi </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>In Middle Vietnamese, ⟨gi⟩ represented /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_fricative" title="Voiced palatal fricative">ʝ</a>/. The distinction between ⟨d⟩ and ⟨gi⟩ is now purely etymological in most modern dialects. Realized as /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiced alveolo-palatal fricative">ʑ</a>/ in Northern spelling pronunciation, and /<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ in Southern spelling pronunciation. Spelled ⟨g⟩ before another ⟨i⟩.<a href="#cite_note-14">[a]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>H h </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>K k </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td>Used instead of ⟨c⟩ before ⟨i, y, e, ê⟩ to follow the <a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_C" title="Hard and soft C">European tradition</a>. ⟨c⟩ is not allowed in these environments. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Kh kh </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a>/ </td> <td>In Middle Vietnamese, ⟨kh⟩ represented [<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th>L l </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar lateral approximant">l</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>M m </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>/ </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>N n </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/ </td> <td>In Southern Vietnamese, word-final ⟨n⟩ is realized as [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>] if not following ⟨i, ê⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ng ng </th> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_nasal" title="Voiced velar nasal">ŋ</a>/ </td> <td>Realized as [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_nasal" title="Voiced labial–velar nasal">ŋ͡m</a>] word finally after rounded vowels ⟨u, ô, o⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ngh ngh </th> <td colspan="2" style="background-color: #ccc;"> </td> <td>Spelling used instead of ⟨ng⟩ before ⟨i, e, ê⟩ in accordance with ⟨gh⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nh nh </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_nasal" title="Voiced palatal nasal">ɲ</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/ʲŋ/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a>/ </td> <td>Multiple phonemic analyses of final ⟨nh⟩ have been proposed (<a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Analysis_of_final_ch.2C_nh" title="Vietnamese phonology">main article</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>P p </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>/ </td> <td>Only occurs initially in loanwords. Some Vietnamese pronounce it as a "b" sound instead (as in <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>). </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ph ph </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiceless labiodental fricative">f</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="4" style="background-color: #ccc;"> </td> <td>In Middle Vietnamese, ⟨ph⟩ represented [<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <th>Qu qu </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">kʷ</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>/ </td> <td>Used in place of ⟨co cu⟩ if a /w/ on-glide exists. </td></tr> <tr> <th>R r </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiced alveolar fricative">z</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>/ </td> <td>In southern speech, the phoneme /r/, generally represented in Vietnamese linguistics by the letter ⟨r⟩, has a number of variant pronunciations. It may occur as a retroflex fricative [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiced retroflex fricative">ʐ</a>], an alveolar approximant [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a>], an alveolar flap [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a>], a trill [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar trill">r</a>], a velar fricative [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_fricative" title="Voiced velar fricative">ɣ</a>], and a palatal approximant [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>]. The last two are not considered standard. </td></tr> <tr> <th>S s </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_fricative" title="Voiceless retroflex fricative">ʂ</a>/ </td> <td>Realized as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] in Northern spelling pronunciation. </td></tr> <tr> <th>T t </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/No_audible_release" title="No audible release">t̚</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>/ </td> <td>In Southern Vietnamese, word-final ⟨t⟩ is realized as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>] if not following ⟨i, ê⟩. </td></tr> <tr> <th>Th th </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">tʰ</a>/ </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="4" style="background-color: #ccc;"> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Tr tr </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate">tɕ</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_retroflex_plosive" title="Voiceless retroflex plosive">ʈ</a>/ </td> <td>Realized as [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">tʃ</a>] in Northern spelling pronunciation. </td></tr> <tr> <th>V v </th> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/ </td> <td style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>/~/<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>/ </td> <td>In Middle Vietnamese, it was spelled with the now-obsolete letter ⟨<a href="/wiki/%EA%9E%96" class="mw-redirect" title="Ꞗ">ꞗ</a>⟩ to represent [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiced bilabial fricative">β</a>]. Can be realized as [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labiodental_fricative" title="Voiced labiodental fricative">v</a>] in Southern speech through <a href="/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation" title="Spelling pronunciation">spelling pronunciation</a> and in loanwords. In traditional performance including Cải lương, Đờn ca tài tử, Hát bội and some old speakers of Overseas Vietnamese, it is pronounced as consonant cluster [bj], [βj] or [vj].<a href="#cite_note-15">[14]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th>X x </th> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center;">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/ </td> <td>In Middle Vietnamese, ⟨x⟩ was pronounced [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolo-palatal_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative">ɕ</a>]. </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The consonants also called with its phoneme with ờ, except k. So b will be bờ, c will be cờ and so on.</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> This causes some ambiguity with the diphthong ⟨ia, iê⟩, for example gia could be either ⟨gi⟩+⟨a⟩ [za ~ ja] or ⟨gi⟩+⟨ia⟩ [ziə̯ ~ jiə̯]. If there is a <a href="#Tone_marks">tone mark</a> the ambiguity is resolved: giá is ⟨gi⟩+⟨á⟩ and gía is ⟨gi⟩+⟨ía⟩. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vowels">Vowels</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronunciation">Pronunciation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pronunciation">edit</a>]</div> The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is somewhat complicated. In some cases, the same letter may represent several different sounds, and different letters may represent the same sound. This is because the orthography was designed centuries ago and the spoken language has changed, as shown in the chart directly above that contrasts the difference between Middle and Modern Vietnamese.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] ⟨i⟩ and ⟨y⟩ are mostly equivalent, and there is no concrete rule that says when to use one or the other, except in sequences like ⟨ay⟩ and ⟨uy⟩ (i.e. tay 'arm, hand' is read as /tă̄j/ while tai 'ear' is read as /tāj/). There have been attempts since the late 20th century to standardize the orthography by replacing ⟨y⟩ with ⟨i⟩ when it represents a vowel, the latest being a decision from the Vietnamese Ministry of Education in 1984. These efforts seem to have had limited effect. In textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục ('Publishing House of Education'), ⟨y⟩ is used to represent /i/ only in <a href="/wiki/Sino-Vietnamese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary">Sino-Vietnamese</a> words that are written with one letter ⟨y⟩ alone (diacritics can still be added, as in ⟨ý⟩, ⟨ỷ⟩), at the beginning of a syllable when followed by ⟨ê⟩ (as in yếm, yết), after ⟨u⟩ and in the sequence ⟨ay⟩; therefore such forms as *lý and *kỹ are not "standard", though they are much preferred elsewhere. Most people and the popular media continue to use the spelling that they are most accustomed to.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Spelling and pronunciation in Vietnamese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Spelling </th> <th scope="col">Sound </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">a </th> <td> /a/ ([æ] in some dialects) except as below  /ă/ in au /ăw/ and ay /ăj/ (but /a/ in ao /aw/ and ai /aj/)  /ăj/ before syllable-final nh /ŋ/ and ch /k/, see  <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Analysis_of_final_ch,_nh" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch, nh</a>  /ə̯/ in ưa /ɨə̯/, ia /iə̯/ and ya /iə̯/  /ə̯/ in ua except after q<a href="#cite_note-16">[note 1]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ă </th> <td> /ă/ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">â </th> <td> /ə̆/ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">e </th> <td> /ɛ/ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ê </th> <td> /e/ except as below  /ə̆j/ before syllable-final nh /ŋ/ and ch /k/, see  <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology#Analysis_of_final_ch,_nh" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology#Analysis of final ch, nh</a>  /ə̯/ in iê /iə̯/ and yê /iə̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">i </th> <td> /i/ except as below  /j/ after any vowel letter </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">o </th> <td> /ɔ/ except as below  /ăw/ before ng and c<a href="#cite_note-17">[note 2]</a>  /w/ after any vowel letter (= after a or e)  /w/ before any vowel letter except i (= before ă, a or e) </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ô </th> <td> /o/ except as below  /ə̆w/ before ng and c except after a u that is not preceded by a q<a href="#cite_note-18">[note 3]</a>  /ə̯/ in uô except after q<a href="#cite_note-19">[note 4]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ơ </th> <td> /ə/ except as below  /ə̯/ in ươ /ɨə̯/ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">u </th> <td> /u/ except as below  /w/ after q or any vowel letter  /w/ before any vowel letter except a, ô and i  Before a, ô and i: /w/ if preceded by q, /u/ otherwise </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">ư </th> <td> /ɨ/ </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row">y </th> <td> /i/ except as below  /j/ after any vowel letter except u (= after â and a) </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> qua is pronounced /kwa/ except in quay, where it is pronounced /kwă/. When not preceded by q, ua is pronounced /uə̯/. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> However, oong and ooc are pronounced /ɔŋ/ and /ɔk/. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> uông and uôc are pronounced /uə̯ŋ/ and /uə̯k/ when not preceded by a q. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> quô is pronounced /kwo/ except in quông and quôc, where it is pronounced /kwə̆w/. When not preceded by q, uô is pronounced /uə̯/. </li> </ol></div></div> The uses of ⟨i⟩ and ⟨y⟩ to represent the phoneme /i/ can be categorized as "standard" (as used in textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục) and "non-standard" as follows. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Standard spellings in Vietnamese </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col">Context </th> <th scope="col">"Standard" </th> <th scope="col">"Non-standard" </th></tr> <tr> <td>In one-lettered non-Sino-Vietnamese syllables </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: í ới) </td></tr> <tr> <td>In one-lettered Sino-Vietnamese syllables </td> <td colspan="2">y (e.g.: y học) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Syllable-initial, not followed by ê </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: im lặng) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Syllable-initial, followed by ê </td> <td colspan="2">y (e.g.: yết hầu) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After u </td> <td colspan="2">y (e.g.: khuyết tật) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After qu, not followed by ê, nh </td> <td>y (e.g.: quý giá) </td> <td>i (e.g.: quí giá) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After qu, followed by ê, nh </td> <td colspan="2">y (e.g.: xảo quyệt) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After b, d, đ, r, x </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: địch thủ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After g, not followed by a, ă, â, e, ê, o, ô, ơ, u, ư </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: giữ gìn) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After h, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in non-Sino-Vietnamese syllables </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: mí mắt) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After h, k, l, m, t, not followed by any letter, in Sino-Vietnamese syllables </td> <td>i (e.g.: kì thú) </td> <td>y (e.g.: kỳ thú) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After ch, gh, kh, nh, ph, th </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: ý nghĩa) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After n, s, v, not followed by any letter, in non-proper-noun syllables </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: ni cô) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After n, s, v, not followed by any letter, in <a href="/wiki/Proper_noun" title="Proper noun">proper nouns</a> </td> <td>i (e.g.: Vi) </td> <td>y (e.g.: Vy) </td></tr> <tr> <td>After h, k, l, m, n, s, t, v, followed by a letter </td> <td colspan="2">i (e.g.: ngôi miếu) </td></tr> <tr> <td>In Vietnamese <a href="/wiki/Personal_name" title="Personal name">personal names</a>, after a consonant </td> <td>i </td> <td>either i or y, depending on personal preference </td></tr></tbody></table> This "standard" set by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục is not definite. It is unknown why the literature books use Lí while the history books use Lý. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spelling">Spelling</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Spelling">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowel_nuclei">Vowel nuclei</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Vowel nuclei">edit</a>]</div> The table below matches the vowels of Hanoi Vietnamese (written in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>) and their respective orthographic symbols used in the writing system. <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Sound </th> <th>Spelling </th> <th>Sound </th> <th>Spelling </th> <th>Sound </th> <th>Spelling </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Centering_diphthong" class="mw-redirect" title="Centering diphthong">Centering</a> </th> <td align="center">/iə̯/</td> <td>iê/ia* </td> <td align="center">/ɨə̯/</td> <td>ươ/ưa* </td> <td align="center">/uə̯/</td> <td>uô/ua* </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center">/i/</td> <td>i, y </td> <td align="center">/ɨ/</td> <td>ư </td> <td align="center">/u/</td> <td>u </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td align="center" rowspan="2">/e/</td> <td rowspan="2">ê </td> <td align="center">/ə/</td> <td>ơ </td> <td align="center" rowspan="2">/o/</td> <td rowspan="2">ô </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td align="center">/ə̆/</td> <td>â </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td align="center" rowspan="2">/ɛ/</td> <td rowspan="2">e </td> <td align="center">/a/</td> <td>a </td> <td align="center" rowspan="2">/ɔ/</td> <td rowspan="2">o </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <td align="center">/ă/</td> <td>ă </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Notes: <ul><li>The vowel /i/ is: <ul><li>usually written ⟨i⟩: /sǐˀ/ = sĩ (a suffix indicating profession, similar to the English suffix -er).</li> <li>sometimes written ⟨y⟩ after ⟨h⟩, ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, ⟨t⟩, ⟨v⟩, ⟨x⟩: /mǐˀ/ = Mỹ 'America' <ul><li>It is always written ⟨y⟩ when:</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><ol><li>preceded by an orthographic vowel: /xwīə̯n/ = khuyên 'to advise';</li> <li>at the beginning of a word derived from Chinese (written as ⟨i⟩ otherwise): /ʔīə̯w/ = yêu 'to love'.</li></ol></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The vowel /ɔ/ is written ⟨oo⟩ before ⟨c⟩ or ⟨ng⟩ (since ⟨o⟩ in that position represents /ăw/): /ʔɔ̌k/ = oóc 'organ (musical)'; /kǐŋ kɔ̄ŋ/ = kính coong. This generally only occurs in recent loanwords or when representing dialectal pronunciation.</li> <li>Similarly, the vowel /o/ is written ⟨ôô⟩ before ⟨c⟩ or ⟨ng⟩: /ʔōŋ/ = <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C3%B4%C3%B4ng#Vietnamese" class="extiw" title="wikt:ôông">ôông</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ngh%E1%BB%87_An" class="mw-redirect" title="Nghệ An">Nghệ An</a>/<a href="/wiki/H%C3%A0_T%C4%A9nh" title="Hà Tĩnh">Hà Tĩnh</a> variant of ông /ʔə̆̄wŋ/). But unlike ⟨oo⟩ being frequently used in onomatopoeia, <a href="/wiki/Orthographic_transcription" title="Orthographic transcription">transcriptions</a> from other languages and words "borrowed" from Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh dialects (such as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/vo%E1%BB%8Dc#Vietnamese" class="extiw" title="wikt:voọc">voọc</a>), ⟨ôô⟩ seems to be used solely to convey the feel of the Nghệ An/Hà Tĩnh accents. In transcriptions, ⟨ô⟩ is preferred (e.g. các-tông 'cardboard', ắc-coóc-đê-ông 'accordion').</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Diphthongs_and_triphthongs">Diphthongs and triphthongs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Diphthongs and triphthongs">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable" align="center"> <tbody><tr align="center"> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th>Rising Vowels </th> <th>Rising-Falling Vowels </th> <th colspan="2">Falling Vowels </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th> </th> <th>nucleus (V) </th> <th>/w/ on-glides </th> <th>/w/ + V + off-glide </th> <th>/j/ off-glides </th> <th>/w/ off-glides </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front</a> </th> <th>e </th> <td>/wɛ/ oe/(q)ue*</td> <td>/wɛw/ oeo/(q)ueo*</td> <td></td> <td>/ɛw/ eo </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ê </th> <td>/we/ uê</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>/ew/ êu </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>i </th> <td>/wi/ uy</td> <td>/wiw/ uyu</td> <td></td> <td>/iw/ iu </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ia/iê/yê* </th> <td>/wiə̯/ uyê/uya*</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td align="center">/iə̯w/ iêu/yêu* </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">central</a> </th> <th>a </th> <td>/wa/ oa/(q)ua*</td> <td>/waj/ oai/(q)uai, /waw/ oao/(q)uao*</td> <td>/aj/ ai</td> <td>/aw/ ao </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ă </th> <td>/wă/ oă/(q)uă*</td> <td>/wăj/ oay/(q)uay*</td> <td>/ăj/ ay</td> <td>/ăw/ au </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>â </th> <td>/wə̆/ uâ</td> <td>/wə̆j/ uây</td> <td>/ə̆j/ ây</td> <td>/ə̆w/ âu </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ơ </th> <td>/wə/ uơ</td> <td></td> <td>/əj/ ơi</td> <td>/əw/ ơu </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ư </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>/ɨj/ ưi</td> <td>/ɨw/ ưu </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ưa/ươ* </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>/ɨə̯j/ ươi</td> <td>/ɨə̯w/ ươu </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th rowspan="4"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back</a> </th> <th>o </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>/ɔj/ oi</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ô </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>/oj/ ôi</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>u </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>/uj/ ui</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>ua/uô* </th> <td></td> <td></td> <td>/uə̯j/ uôi</td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> Notes: The glide /w/ is written: <ul><li>⟨u⟩ after /k/ (spelled ⟨q⟩ in this instance)</li> <li>⟨o⟩ in front of ⟨a⟩, ⟨ă⟩, or ⟨e⟩ except after ⟨q⟩</li> <li>⟨o⟩ following ⟨a⟩ and ⟨e⟩</li> <li>⟨u⟩ in all other cases; /ăw/ is written as ⟨au⟩ instead of *⟨ăw⟩ (cf. ⟨ao⟩ /aw/), and that /i/ is written as ⟨y⟩ after ⟨y⟩</li></ul> The off-glide /j/ is written as ⟨i⟩ except after ⟨â⟩ and ⟨ă⟩, where it is written as ⟨y⟩; /ăj/ is written as ⟨ay⟩ instead of *⟨ăy⟩ (cf. ai /aj/). The diphthong /iə̯/ is written: <ul><li>⟨ia⟩ at the end of a syllable: /mǐə̯/ = mía 'sugar cane'</li> <li>iê before a consonant or off-glide: /mǐə̯ŋ/ = miếng 'piece'; /sīə̯w/ = xiêu 'to slope, slant'</li></ul> <dl><dd>The ⟨i⟩ of the diphthong changes to ⟨y⟩ after ⟨u⟩: <ul><li>⟨ya⟩: /xwīə̯/ = khuya 'late at night'</li> <li>⟨yê⟩: /xwīə̯n/ = khuyên 'to advise'</li></ul></dd> <dd>⟨iê⟩ changes to ⟨yê⟩ at the beginning of a syllable (⟨ia⟩ does not change): <ul><li>/īə̯n/ = yên 'calm'; /ǐə̯w/ yếu 'weak, feeble'</li></ul></dd></dl> The diphthong /uə̯/ is written: <ul><li>⟨ua⟩ at the end of a syllable: /mūə̯/ = mua 'to buy'</li> <li>⟨uô⟩ before a consonant or off-glide: /mūə̯n/ = muôn 'ten thousand'; /sūə̯j/ = xuôi 'down'</li></ul> The diphthong /ɨə̯/ is written: <ul><li>⟨ưa⟩ at the end of a syllable: /mɨ̄ə̯/ = mưa 'to rain'</li> <li>⟨ươ⟩ before a consonant or off-glide: /mɨ̄ə̯ŋ/ = mương 'irrigation canal'; /tɨ̌ə̯j/ = tưới 'to water, irrigate, sprinkle'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tone_marks">Tone marks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Tone marks">edit</a>]</div> Vietnamese is a <a href="/wiki/Tonal_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tonal language">tonal language</a>, so the meaning of each word depends on the pitch in which it is pronounced. Tones are marked in the IPA as <a href="/wiki/Suprasegmentals" class="mw-redirect" title="Suprasegmentals">suprasegmentals</a> following the phonemic value. Some tones are also associated with a <a href="/wiki/Glottalization" title="Glottalization">glottalization</a> pattern. There are six distinct tones in the standard northern dialect. The first one ("level tone") is not marked and the other five are indicated by diacritics applied to the vowel part of the syllable. The tone names are chosen such that the name of each tone is spoken in the tone it identifies. In the south, there is a merging of the hỏi and ngã tones, in effect leaving five tones.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Order </th> <th rowspan="2" align="center">Diacritic </th> <th rowspan="2">Symbol </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_and_computers" title="Vietnamese language and computers">Input keys</a> </th> <th rowspan="2" align="center">Name </th> <th rowspan="2" align="center">IPA diacritic </th> <th rowspan="2" align="center">Vowels with diacritic </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Telex_(input_method)" title="Telex (input method)">TELEX</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/VNI" title="VNI">VNI</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>1 </td> <td align="left">unmarked </td> <td>N/A </td> <td><code>Z</code>* </td> <td><code>0</code>* </td> <td align="center">ngang </td> <td align="left">mid level, ˧</td> <td>A/a, Ă/ă, Â/â, E/e, Ê/ê, I/i, O/o, Ô/ô, Ơ/ơ, U/u, Ư/ư, Y/y </td></tr> <tr> <td>2 </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Acute_accent" title="Acute accent">acute accent</a> </td> <td><big>á</big> </td> <td><code>S</code> </td> <td><code>1</code> </td> <td align="center">sắc </td> <td align="left">high rising, ˧˥</td> <td>Á/á, Ắ/ắ, Ấ/ấ, É/é, Ế/ế, Í/í, Ó/ó, Ố/ố, Ớ/ớ, Ú/ú, Ứ/ứ, Ý/ý </td></tr> <tr> <td>3 </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Grave_accent" title="Grave accent">grave accent</a> </td> <td><big>à</big> </td> <td><code>F</code> </td> <td><code>2</code> </td> <td align="center">huyền </td> <td align="left">low falling, ˨˩</td> <td>À/à, Ằ/ằ, Ầ/ầ, È/è, Ề/ề, Ì/ì, Ò/ò, Ồ/ồ, Ờ/ờ, Ù/ù, Ừ/ừ, Ỳ/ỳ </td></tr> <tr> <td>4 </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Hook_above" title="Hook above">hook above</a> </td> <td><big>ả</big> </td> <td><code>R</code> </td> <td><code>3</code> </td> <td align="center">hỏi </td> <td align="left">mid falling, ˧˩ (Northern); dipping, ˨˩˥ (Southern)</td> <td>Ả/ả, Ẳ/ẳ, Ẩ/ẩ, Ẻ/ẻ, Ể/ể, Ỉ/ỉ, Ỏ/ỏ, Ổ/ổ, Ở/ở, Ủ/ủ, Ử/ử, Ỷ/ỷ </td></tr> <tr> <td>5 </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Perispomeni" class="mw-redirect" title="Perispomeni">perispomeni</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[15]</a> </td> <td><big>ã</big> </td> <td><code>X</code> </td> <td><code>4</code> </td> <td align="center">ngã </td> <td align="left">glottalized rising, ˧˥ˀ (Northern); slightly lengthened dấu hỏi tone (Southern)</td> <td>Ã/ã, Ẵ/ẵ, Ẫ/ẫ, Ẽ/ẽ, Ễ/ễ, Ĩ/ĩ, Õ/õ, Ỗ/ỗ, Ỡ/ỡ, Ũ/ũ, Ữ/ữ, Ỹ/ỹ </td></tr> <tr> <td>6 </td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)#Underdot" title="Dot (diacritic)">dot below</a> </td> <td><big>ạ</big> </td> <td><code>J</code> </td> <td><code>5</code> </td> <td align="center">nặng </td> <td align="left">glottalized falling, ˧˨ˀ (Northern); low rising, ˩˧ (Southern)</td> <td>Ạ/ạ, Ặ/ặ, Ậ/ậ, Ẹ/ẹ, Ệ/ệ, Ị/ị, Ọ/ọ, Ộ/ộ, Ợ/ợ, Ụ/ụ, Ự/ự, Ỵ/ỵ </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>*: <code>Z</code> (in <a href="/wiki/Telex_(input_method)" title="Telex (input method)">TELEX</a>) and <code>0</code> (in <a href="/wiki/VNI" title="VNI">VNI</a>) keys are used to remove the mark. For example, in VNI, <code>U2</code> → ⟨ù⟩, then press <code>0</code> → ⟨u⟩.</li> <li>Unmarked vowels are pronounced with a level voice, in the middle of the speaking range.</li> <li>The grave accent indicates that the speaker should start somewhat low and drop slightly in tone, with the voice becoming increasingly <a href="/wiki/Breathy_voice" title="Breathy voice">breathy</a>.</li> <li>The hook indicates in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker should start in the middle range and fall, but in Southern Vietnamese that the speaker should start somewhat low and fall, then rise (as when asking a question in English).</li> <li>In the North, a perispomeni indicates that the speaker should start mid, break off (with a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>), then start again and rise like a question in tone. In the South, it is realized identically to the Hỏi tone.</li> <li>The acute accent indicates that the speaker should start mid and rise sharply in tone.</li> <li>The dot or cross signifies in Northern Vietnamese that the speaker starts low and fall lower in tone, with the voice becoming increasingly <a href="/wiki/Creaky_voice" title="Creaky voice">creaky</a> and ending in a <a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">glottal stop</a>.</li></ul> In syllables where the vowel part consists of more than one vowel (such as diphthongs and triphthongs), the placement of the tone is still a matter of debate. Generally, there are two methodologies, an "old style" and a "new style". While the "old style" emphasizes aesthetics by placing the tone mark as close as possible to the center of the word (by placing the tone mark on the last vowel if an ending consonant part exists and on the next-to-last vowel if the ending consonant does not exist, as in hóa, hủy), the "new style" emphasizes linguistic principles and tries to apply the tone mark on the main vowel (as in hoá, huỷ). In both styles, when one vowel already has a quality diacritic on it, the tone mark must be applied to it as well, regardless of where it appears in the syllable (thus thuế is acceptable while *thúê is not). In the case of the ⟨ươ⟩ diphthong, the mark is placed on the ⟨ơ⟩. The ⟨u⟩ in ⟨qu⟩ is considered part of the consonant. Currently, the new style is usually used in textbooks published by Nhà Xuất bản Giáo dục, while most people still prefer the old style in casual uses. Among Overseas Vietnamese communities, the old style is predominant for all purposes. In lexical ordering, differences in letters are treated as primary, differences in tone markings as secondary and differences in case as tertiary differences. (Letters include for instance ⟨a⟩ and ⟨ă⟩ but not ⟨ẳ⟩. Older dictionaries also treated digraphs and trigraphs like ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨ngh⟩ as base letters.<a href="#cite_note-21">[16]</a>) Ordering according to primary and secondary differences proceeds syllable by syllable. According to this principle, a dictionary lists tuân thủ before tuần chay because the secondary difference in the first syllable takes precedence over the primary difference in the second syllable. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> In the past, syllables in multisyllabic words were concatenated with hyphens, but this practice has died out and hyphenation is now reserved for word-borrowings from other languages. A written syllable consists of at most three parts, in the following order from left to right: <ol><li>An optional beginning consonant part</li> <li>A required vowel <a href="/wiki/Syllable_nucleus" class="mw-redirect" title="Syllable nucleus">syllable nucleus</a> and the tone mark, if needed, applied above or below it</li> <li>An ending consonant part, can only be one of the following: ⟨c⟩, ⟨ch⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, ⟨ng⟩, ⟨nh⟩, ⟨p⟩, ⟨t⟩, or nothing.<a href="#cite_note-22">[17]</a></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam" title="History of writing in Vietnam">History of writing in Vietnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_and_computers" title="Vietnamese language and computers">Vietnamese language and computers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg/170px-L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg/255px-L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg/340px-L-2360-a_0008_1_t24-C-R0072.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>A page from Alexandre de Rhodes' 1651 dictionary</figcaption></figure> Since the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Chinese</a> rule 111 BC, literature, government papers, scholarly works, and religious scripture were all written in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">classical Chinese</a> (漢文 <a href="/wiki/Literary_Chinese_in_Vietnam" title="Literary Chinese in Vietnam">Hán văn</a>) while indigenous writing with chữ Hán started around the ninth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017568-23">[18]</a> Since the 12th century, several Vietnamese words started to be written in <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">chữ Nôm</a>, using <a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a>. The system was based on Chinese characters, but was also supplemented with Vietnamese-invented characters to represent native Vietnamese words. These characters adapted or created using methods such as creating phono-semantic compounds (形聲 hình thanh), double-phonetic compounds (會音 hội âm), and borrowing the character for its pronunciation (假借 giả tá). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Name">Name</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Name">edit</a>]</div> People have called the Latinized script of Vietnamese chữ Quốc ngữ at least since 1867.<a href="#cite_note-24">[19]</a> In 1867, scholar <a href="/wiki/Tr%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_V%C4%A9nh_K%C3%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="Trương Vĩnh Ký">Trương Vĩnh Ký</a> published two grammar books. The first book is Mẹo luật dạy học tiếng pha-lang-sa (Tips to teach and learn French), a Vietnamese book written in chữ Quốc ngữ about French grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was called chữ quốc ngự (not ngữ). The second book is Abrégé de grammaire annamite (Simplification of Annamite grammar), a French book about Vietnamese grammar. In this book, the Latinized script of Vietnamese was called "l’alphabet européen" (European alphabet), les caractères latins (Latin characters). On <a href="/wiki/Gia_Dinh_Bao" title="Gia Dinh Bao">Gia Dinh Bao</a> April 15th issue of 1867, when mentioned the French book about Vietnamese grammar, the name chữ quốc ngữ was used to indicate the Latinized script of Vietnamese.<a href="#cite_note-25">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creation_of_chữ_Quốc_ngữ">Creation of chữ Quốc ngữ</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Creation of chữ Quốc ngữ">edit</a>]</div> As early as 1620, with the work of <a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Pina" title="Francisco de Pina">Francisco de Pina</a>, Portuguese and Italian <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionaries</a> in Vietnam began using Latin script to transcribe the Vietnamese language as an assistance for learning the language.<a href="#cite_note-Jacques_2002-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tran_2019-3">[3]</a> The work was continued by the Avignonese <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a>. Building on previous dictionaries by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaspar_do_Amaral&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaspar do Amaral (page does not exist)">Gaspar do Amaral</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ant%C3%B3nio_Barbosa_(missionary)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="António Barbosa (missionary) (page does not exist)">António Barbosa</a>, Rhodes compiled the <a href="/wiki/Dictionarium_Annamiticum_Lusitanum_et_Latinum" title="Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum">Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum</a>, a Vietnamese–Portuguese–Latin dictionary, which was later printed in Rome in 1651, using their spelling system.<a href="#cite_note-Jacques_2002-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tran_2018-26">[21]</a> These efforts led eventually to the development of the present Vietnamese alphabet. For 200 years, chữ Quốc ngữ was used within the Catholic community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020106-27">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ostrowski-28">[23]</a> However, works written in the Vietnamese alphabet was in the minority and Catholic works in chữ Nôm were significantly more widespread. Chữ Nôm was the primary writing system used by Vietnamese Catholics.<a href="#cite_note-Ostrowski-28">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_period">Colonial period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Colonial period">edit</a>]</div> In 1910, the <a href="/wiki/French_Indochina" title="French Indochina">French colonial administration</a> enforced chữ Quốc ngữ.<a href="#cite_note-29">[24]</a> The Latin alphabet then became a means to publish Vietnamese popular literature, which was disparaged as vulgar by the Chinese-educated imperial elites.<a href="#cite_note-Nguyên_Tùng_pp._135-149-30">[25]</a> Historian Pamela A. Pears asserted that by instituting the Latin alphabet in Vietnam, the French cut the Vietnamese from their traditional Hán Nôm literature.<a href="#cite_note-31">[26]</a> An important reason why Latin script became the standard writing system in Vietnam but not in <a href="/wiki/Cambodia" title="Cambodia">Cambodia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laos" title="Laos">Laos</a>, which were both dominated by the French for a similar amount of time under the same colonial framework, had to do with the <a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Nguyễn Emperors</a> of Vietnam heavily promoting its usage.<a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-32">[27]</a> According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Liam_Kelley_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Liam Kelley (historian)">Liam Kelley</a> in his 2016 work "Emperor Thành Thái’s Educational Revolution" neither the French nor the revolutionaries had enough power to spread the usage of chữ Quốc ngữ down to the village level.<a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-32">[27]</a> It was by imperial decree in 1906 of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh_Th%C3%A1i" title="Thành Thái">Thành Thái</a>, that parents could decide whether their children will follow a curriculum in Hán văn (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1051880798">.mw-parser-output .vi-nom{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Nom Na Tong","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","HAN NOM A","HAN NOM B","Han-Nom Kai","TH-Khaai-TP0","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP0","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP0","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP0","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP0","TH-Ming-JP2","Sun-ExtA","Sun-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-UNI-H","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinA","HanaMinB","HanaMin","MingLiU","MingLiU-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","SimSun","SimSun-ExtB","FZKaiT-Extended","FZKaiT-Extended(SIP)",sans-serif}.mw-parser-output .vi-nom.ext{font-family:"Han-Nom Gothic","Han-Nom Ming","Han-Nom Minh","TH-Khaai-TP2","TH-Khaai-PP2","TH-Sung-PP2","TH-Sung-TP2","TH-Sy-P0","TH-Sy-P2","TH-Ming-JP2","BabelStone Han","Sun-ExtB","MingLiU HKSCS-ExtB","Ming-Lt-HKSCS-ExtB","HanaMinB","Han-Nom Kai",sans-serif}</style>漢文) or Nam âm (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1051880798">南音, 'Southern sound', the contemporary Vietnamese name for chữ Quốc ngữ).<a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-32">[27]</a> This decree was issued at the same time when other social changes, such as the cutting of long male hair, were occurring.<a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-32">[27]</a> The main reason for the popularisation of the Latin alphabet in Vietnam/Đại Nam during the Nguyễn dynasty (the <a href="/wiki/Annam_(French_protectorate)" title="Annam (French protectorate)">French protectorates of Annam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_(French_protectorate)" title="Tonkin (French protectorate)">Tonkin</a>) was because of the pioneering efforts by intellectuals from <a href="/wiki/French_Cochinchina" title="French Cochinchina">French Cochinchina</a> combined with the progressive and scientific policies of the French government in French Indochina, that created the momentum for the usage of chữ Quốc ngữ to spread.<a href="#cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-32">[27]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">From the first days it was recognized that the Chinese language was a barrier between us and the natives; the education provided by means of the hieroglyphic characters was completely beyond us; this writing makes possible only with difficulty transmitting to the population the diverse ideas which are necessary for them at the level of their new political and commercial situation. Consequently we are obliged to follow the traditions of our own system of education; it is the only one which can bring close to us the Annamites of the colony by inculcating in them the principles of European civilization and isolating them from the hostile influence of our neighbors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020107-33">[28]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>In a letter dated January 15, 1866, Paulin Vial, Directeur du Cabinet du Gouverneur de la Cochinchine</cite></div></blockquote> Since the 1920s, the Vietnamese mostly use chữ Quốc ngữ, and new Vietnamese terms for new items or words are often calqued from Hán Nôm. Some French had originally planned to replace Vietnamese with French, but this never was a serious project, given the small number of French settlers compared with the native population. The French had to reluctantly accept the use of chữ Quốc ngữ to write Vietnamese since this writing system, created by Portuguese missionaries, is based on Portuguese orthography, not French.<a href="#cite_note-TBS-34">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mass_education">Mass education</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Mass education">edit</a>]</div> Between 1907 and 1908, the short-lived <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_Free_School" title="Tonkin Free School">Tonkin Free School</a> promulgated chữ Quốc ngữ and taught French language to the general population. In 1917, the French system suppressed Vietnam's <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">Confucian examination system</a>, viewed as an aristocratic system linked with the "ancient regime", thereby forcing Vietnamese elites to educate their offspring in the French language education system. Emperor <a href="/wiki/Kh%E1%BA%A3i_%C4%90%E1%BB%8Bnh" title="Khải Định">Khải Định</a> declared the traditional writing system abolished in 1918.<a href="#cite_note-Nguyên_Tùng_pp._135-149-30">[25]</a> While traditional nationalists favoured the Confucian examination system and the use of chữ Hán, Vietnamese revolutionaries, progressive nationalists, and pro-French elites viewed the French education system as a means to "liberate" the Vietnamese from old Chinese domination and the unsatisfactory "outdated" Confucian examination system, to democratize education and to help bridge Vietnamese to European philosophies. The French colonial system then set up another educational system, teaching Vietnamese as a first language using chữ Quốc ngữ in primary school and then the French language (taught in chữ Quốc ngữ). Hundreds of thousands of textbooks for primary education began to be published in chữ Quốc ngữ, with the unintentional result of turning the script into the popular medium for the expression for Vietnamese culture.<a href="#cite_note-Anderson,_Benedict._1991,_pp._128-35">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century_to_present">Late 20th century to present</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Late 20th century to present">edit</a>]</div> Typesetting and printing Vietnamese has been challenging due to its number of accents/diacritics.<a href="#cite_note-36">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[33]</a> This had led to the use of accent and diacritic-less names in <a href="/wiki/Overseas_Vietnamese" title="Overseas Vietnamese">Overseas Vietnamese</a>, such as Viet instead of the proper Việt. Contemporary Vietnamese texts sometimes include words which have not been adapted to modern Vietnamese orthography, especially for documents written in <a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">chữ Hán</a>. The Vietnamese language itself has been likened to a system akin to <a href="/wiki/Ruby_character" title="Ruby character">ruby characters</a> elsewhere in Asia. French, which left a mark on the Vietnamese language in the form of <a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Vietnam" title="French language in Vietnam">loanwords and other influences</a>, is no longer as widespread in Vietnam, with <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> or <a href="/wiki/International_English" title="International English">International English</a> the preferred European language for commerce. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Computing">Computing</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Computing">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language_and_computers" title="Vietnamese language and computers">Vietnamese language and computers</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:V%E1%BB%81.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/V%E1%BB%81.png/220px-V%E1%BB%81.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/V%E1%BB%81.png 1.5x" data-file-width="254" data-file-height="107" /></a><figcaption>Different ways in which tone marks can be presented on letters that already have diacritic, e.g. (`) on letter ê when computerising Vietnamese</figcaption></figure> The universal character set <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> has full support for the Latin Vietnamese writing system, although it does not have a separate segment for it. The required characters that other languages use are scattered throughout the <a href="/wiki/Basic_Latin_(Unicode_block)" title="Basic Latin (Unicode block)">Basic Latin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin-1_Supplement" title="Latin-1 Supplement">Latin-1 Supplement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended-A" title="Latin Extended-A">Latin Extended-A</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended-B" title="Latin Extended-B">Latin Extended-B</a> blocks; those that remain (such as the letters with dau hoi) are placed in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Extended_Additional" title="Latin Extended Additional">Latin Extended Additional</a> block. An <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a>-based writing convention, <a href="/wiki/VIQR" class="mw-redirect" title="VIQR">Vietnamese Quoted Readable</a> and several byte-based encodings including <a href="/wiki/VSCII" title="VSCII">VSCII (TCVN)</a>, VNI, <a href="/wiki/VISCII" title="VISCII">VISCII</a> and <a href="/wiki/Windows-1258" title="Windows-1258">Windows-1258</a> were widely used before Unicode became popular. Most new documents now exclusively use the Unicode format <a href="/wiki/UTF-8" title="UTF-8">UTF-8</a>. Unicode allows the user to choose between <a href="/wiki/Precomposed_character" title="Precomposed character">precomposed characters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Combining_character" title="Combining character">combining characters</a> in inputting Vietnamese. Because in the past some fonts implemented combining characters in a nonstandard way (see <a href="/wiki/Verdana#Combining_characters_bug" title="Verdana">Verdana font</a>), most people use precomposed characters when composing Vietnamese-language documents (except on Windows where <a href="/wiki/Windows-1258" title="Windows-1258">Windows-1258</a> used combining characters). Most keyboards on modern phone and computer operating systems, including iOS,<a href="#cite_note-39">[34]</a> Android<a href="#cite_note-40">[35]</a> and MacOS,<a href="#cite_note-41">[36]</a> have now supported the Vietnamese language and direct input of diacritics by default. Previously, Vietnamese users had to manually install <a href="/wiki/Free_software" title="Free software">free software</a> such as <a href="/wiki/UniKey_(software)" title="UniKey (software)">Unikey</a> on computers or Laban Key on phones to type Vietnamese diacritics. These keyboards support input methods such as <a href="/wiki/Telex_(IME)" class="mw-redirect" title="Telex (IME)">Telex</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Unicode_code_points">Unicode code points</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Unicode code points">edit</a>]</div> The following table provides Unicode code points for all non-ASCII Vietnamese letters. <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Unmarked</th> <th>Grave</th> <th>Hook</th> <th>Perispomeni</th> <th>Acute</th> <th>Dot </th></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>̀ (U+0300)</td> <td>̉ (U+0309)</td> <td>̃ (U+0303)</td> <td>́ (U+0301)</td> <td>̣ (U+0323) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Uppercase letters </th></tr> <tr> <td>A</td> <td>À (U+00C0)</td> <td>Ả (U+1EA2)</td> <td>Ã (U+00C3)</td> <td>Á (U+00C1)</td> <td>Ạ (U+1EA0) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ă (U+0102)</td> <td>Ằ (U+1EB0)</td> <td>Ẳ (U+1EB2)</td> <td>Ẵ (U+1EB4)</td> <td>Ắ (U+1EAE)</td> <td>Ặ (U+1EB6) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Â (U+00C2)</td> <td>Ầ (U+1EA6)</td> <td>Ẩ (U+1EA8)</td> <td>Ẫ (U+1EAA)</td> <td>Ấ (U+1EA4)</td> <td>Ậ (U+1EAC) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Đ (U+0110)</td> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>E</td> <td>È (U+00C8)</td> <td>Ẻ (U+1EBA)</td> <td>Ẽ (U+1EBC)</td> <td>É (U+00C9)</td> <td>Ẹ (U+1EB8) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ê (U+00CA)</td> <td>Ề (U+1EC0)</td> <td>Ể (U+1EC2)</td> <td>Ễ (U+1EC4)</td> <td>Ế (U+1EBE)</td> <td>Ệ (U+1EC6) </td></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td>Ì (U+00CC)</td> <td>Ỉ (U+1EC8)</td> <td>Ĩ (U+0128)</td> <td>Í (U+00CD)</td> <td>Ị (U+1ECA) </td></tr> <tr> <td>O</td> <td>Ò (U+00D2)</td> <td>Ỏ (U+1ECE)</td> <td>Õ (U+00D5)</td> <td>Ó (U+00D3)</td> <td>Ọ (U+1ECC) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ô (U+00D4)</td> <td>Ồ (U+1ED2)</td> <td>Ổ (U+1ED4)</td> <td>Ỗ (U+1ED6)</td> <td>Ố (U+1ED0)</td> <td>Ộ (U+1ED8) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ơ (U+01A0)</td> <td>Ờ (U+1EDC)</td> <td>Ở (U+1EDE)</td> <td>Ỡ (U+1EE0)</td> <td>Ớ (U+1EDA)</td> <td>Ợ (U+1EE2) </td></tr> <tr> <td>U</td> <td>Ù (U+00D9)</td> <td>Ủ (U+1EE6)</td> <td>Ũ (U+0168)</td> <td>Ú (U+00DA)</td> <td>Ụ (U+1EE4) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ư (U+01AF)</td> <td>Ừ (U+1EEA)</td> <td>Ử (U+1EEC)</td> <td>Ữ (U+1EEE)</td> <td>Ứ (U+1EE8)</td> <td>Ự (U+1EF0) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Y</td> <td>Ỳ (U+1EF2)</td> <td>Ỷ (U+1EF6)</td> <td>Ỹ (U+1EF8)</td> <td>Ý (U+00DD)</td> <td>Ỵ (U+1EF4) </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="6">Lowercase letters </th></tr> <tr> <td>a</td> <td>à (U+00E0)</td> <td>ả (U+1EA3)</td> <td>ã (U+00E3)</td> <td>á (U+00E1)</td> <td>ạ (U+1EA1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ă (U+0103)</td> <td>ằ (U+1EB1)</td> <td>ẳ (U+1EB3)</td> <td>ẵ (U+1EB5)</td> <td>ắ (U+1EAF)</td> <td>ặ (U+1EB7) </td></tr> <tr> <td>â (U+00E2)</td> <td>ầ (U+1EA7)</td> <td>ẩ (U+1EA9)</td> <td>ẫ (U+1EAB)</td> <td>ấ (U+1EA5)</td> <td>ậ (U+1EAD) </td></tr> <tr> <td>đ (U+0111)</td> <td colspan="5"> </td></tr> <tr> <td>e</td> <td>è (U+00E8)</td> <td>ẻ (U+1EBB)</td> <td>ẽ (U+1EBD)</td> <td>é (U+00E9)</td> <td>ẹ (U+1EB9) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ê (U+00EA)</td> <td>ề (U+1EC1)</td> <td>ể (U+1EC3)</td> <td>ễ (U+1EC5)</td> <td>ế (U+1EBF)</td> <td>ệ (U+1EC7) </td></tr> <tr> <td>i</td> <td>ì (U+00EC)</td> <td>ỉ (U+1EC9)</td> <td>ĩ (U+0129)</td> <td>í (U+00ED)</td> <td>ị (U+1ECB) </td></tr> <tr> <td>o</td> <td>ò (U+00F2)</td> <td>ỏ (U+1ECF)</td> <td>õ (U+00F5)</td> <td>ó (U+00F3)</td> <td>ọ (U+1ECD) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ô (U+00F4)</td> <td>ồ (U+1ED3)</td> <td>ổ (U+1ED5)</td> <td>ỗ (U+1ED7)</td> <td>ố (U+1ED1)</td> <td>ộ (U+1ED9) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ơ (U+01A1)</td> <td>ờ (U+1EDD)</td> <td>ở (U+1EDF)</td> <td>ỡ (U+1EE1)</td> <td>ớ (U+1EDB)</td> <td>ợ (U+1EE3) </td></tr> <tr> <td>u</td> <td>ù (U+00F9)</td> <td>ủ (U+1EE7)</td> <td>ũ (U+0169)</td> <td>ú (U+00FA)</td> <td>ụ (U+1EE5) </td></tr> <tr> <td>ư (U+01B0)</td> <td>ừ (U+1EEB)</td> <td>ử (U+1EED)</td> <td>ữ (U+1EEF)</td> <td>ứ (U+1EE9)</td> <td>ự (U+1EF1) </td></tr> <tr> <td>y</td> <td>ỳ (U+1EF3)</td> <td>ỷ (U+1EF7)</td> <td>ỹ (U+1EF9)</td> <td>ý (U+00FD)</td> <td>ỵ (U+1EF5) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese orthography</a></li> <li>Special characters: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%82" title="Ă">Ă</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%82" title="Â">Â</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C4%90" class="mw-redirect" title="Đ">Đ</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%8A" title="Ê">Ê</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C3%94" class="mw-redirect" title="Ô">Ô</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C6%A0" title="Ơ">Ơ</a>, <a href="/wiki/%C6%AF" title="Ư">Ư</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dot_(diacritic)" title="Dot (diacritic)">Dot (diacritic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hook_above" title="Hook above">Hook above</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horn_(diacritic)" title="Horn (diacritic)">Horn (diacritic)</a></li></ul></li> <li>Historic Writing <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chữ Hán</a>", classical Chinese written in Vietnam (Han characters)</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a>", former script used to write Vietnamese using Han and Nom (invented characters) words</li></ul></li> <li>Coding and Input Methods: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telex_(input_method)" title="Telex (input method)">Telex</a>, the oldest standard input method for the Vietnamese alphabet on electronic devices.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VNI" title="VNI">VNI</a>, another input and encoding convention for Vietnamese alphabet.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VIQR" class="mw-redirect" title="VIQR">VIQR</a>, another standard 7-bit input method for Vietnamese alphabet.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/VISCII" title="VISCII">VISCII</a>, another standard 8-bit encoding for Vietnamese alphabet.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a>, character encoding standard for most of the world's writing systems</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_calligraphy" title="Vietnamese calligraphy">Vietnamese calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_phonology" title="Vietnamese phonology">Vietnamese phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_de_Pina" title="Francisco de Pina">Francisco de Pina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandre_de_Rhodes" title="Alexandre de Rhodes">Alexandre de Rhodes</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Jacques_2002-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jacques_2002_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacques_2002_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacques_2002_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jacques_2002_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJacques2002" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jacques, Roland (2002). Portuguese Pioneers of Vietnamese Linguistics Prior to 1650 – Pionniers Portugais de la Linguistique Vietnamienne Jusqu'en 1650 (in English and French). Bangkok, Thailand: Orchid Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/974-8304-77-9" title="Special:BookSources/974-8304-77-9"><bdi>974-8304-77-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Portuguese+Pioneers+of+Vietnamese+Linguistics+Prior+to+1650+%E2%80%93+Pionniers+Portugais+de+la+Linguistique+Vietnamienne+Jusqu%27en+1650&rft.place=Bangkok%2C+Thailand&rft.pub=Orchid+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=974-8304-77-9&rft.aulast=Jacques&rft.aufirst=Roland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jacques_2004-2"><a href="#cite_ref-Jacques_2004_2-0">^</a> Jacques, Roland (2004). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ttntt.free.fr/archive/Roland4.html">Bồ Đào Nha và công trình sáng chế chữ quốc ngữ: Phải chăng cần viết lại lịch sử?</a>" Translated by Nguyễn Đăng Trúc. In Các nhà truyền giáo Bồ Đào Nha và thời kỳ đầu của Giáo hội Công giáo Việt Nam (Quyển 1) – Les missionnaires portugais et les débuts de l'Eglise catholique au Viêt-nam (Tome 1) (in Vietnamese & French). Reichstett, France: Định Hướng Tùng Thư. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-912554-26-8" title="Special:BookSources/2-912554-26-8">2-912554-26-8</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tran_2019-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tran_2019_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tran_2019_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrầnPhạm2019" class="citation conference cs1">Trần, Quốc Anh; Phạm, Thị Kiều Ly (October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/41197889">Từ Nước Mặn đến Roma: Những đóng góp của các giáo sĩ Dòng Tên trong quá trình La tinh hoá tiếng Việt ở thế kỷ 17</a>. Conference 400 năm hình thành và phát triển chữ Quốc ngữ trong lịch sử loan báo Tin Mừng tại Việt Nam. Ho Chi Minh City: Ủy ban Văn hóa, <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bishops%27_Conference_of_Vietnam" title="Catholic Bishops' Conference of Vietnam">Catholic Bishops' Conference of Vietnam</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=T%E1%BB%AB+N%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc+M%E1%BA%B7n+%C4%91%E1%BA%BFn+Roma%3A+Nh%E1%BB%AFng+%C4%91%C3%B3ng+g%C3%B3p+c%E1%BB%A7a+c%C3%A1c+gi%C3%A1o+s%C4%A9+D%C3%B2ng+T%C3%AAn+trong+qu%C3%A1+tr%C3%ACnh+La+tinh+ho%C3%A1+ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t+%E1%BB%9F+th%E1%BA%BF+k%E1%BB%B7+17&rft.place=Ho+Chi+Minh+City&rft.pub=%E1%BB%A6y+ban+V%C4%83n+h%C3%B3a%2C+Catholic+Bishops%27+Conference+of+Vietnam&rft.date=2019-10&rft.aulast=Tr%E1%BA%A7n&rft.aufirst=Qu%E1%BB%91c+Anh&rft.au=Ph%E1%BA%A1m%2C+Th%E1%BB%8B+Ki%E1%BB%81u+Ly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F41197889&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETran2022-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETran2022_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTran2022">Tran (2022)</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSidwellJenny2021" class="citation book cs1">Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias, eds. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/205815/1/10.1515_9783110558142-fm.pdf">The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia</a> (PDF). De Gruyter. pp. 898–899. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110558142">10.1515/9783110558142</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-055814-2"><bdi>978-3-11-055814-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242359233">242359233</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Languages+and+Linguistics+of+Mainland+Southeast+Asia&rft.pages=898-899&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A242359233%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110558142&rft.isbn=978-3-11-055814-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.zora.uzh.ch%2Fid%2Feprint%2F205815%2F1%2F10.1515_9783110558142-fm.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Haudricourt, André-Georges. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/92/00/64/PDF/Haudricourt1949_Peculiarities_MonKhmerStudies2010.pdf">"The Origin of the Peculiarities of the Vietnamese Alphabet."</a> <a href="/wiki/Mon-Khmer_Studies" title="Mon-Khmer Studies">Mon-Khmer Studies</a> 39: 89–104. Translated from: Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1949. "L'origine Des Particularités de L'alphabet Vietnamien." Dân Viêt-Nam 3: 61–68. </li> <li id="cite_note-Friederichsen2009-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Friederichsen2009_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriederichsen2009" class="citation book cs1">Friederichsen, Jakob Rupert (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_g8yi6E0pDAC&q=%22French+colonial+science+in+Vietnam%22&pg=PA126">Opening Up Knowledge Production Through Participatory Research?: Agricultural Research for Vietnam's Northern Uplands</a>. Peter Lang. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-631-58842-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-631-58842-0"><bdi>978-3-631-58842-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 1 November 2024. <q>[6.1.2 French colonial science in Vietnam]: With the colonial era, deep changes took place in education, communication, and ... French colonizers installed a modern European system of education to replace the literary and Confucianism-based model, they promoted a romanized Vietnamese script (Quốc Ngữ) to replace the Sino-Vietnamese characters (Hán Nôm)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opening+Up+Knowledge+Production+Through+Participatory+Research%3F%3A+Agricultural+Research+for+Vietnam%27s+Northern+Uplands&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-631-58842-0&rft.aulast=Friederichsen&rft.aufirst=Jakob+Rupert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_g8yi6E0pDAC%26q%3D%2522French%2Bcolonial%2Bscience%2Bin%2BVietnam%2522%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vietnam_Alphabet-8"><a href="#cite_ref-Vietnam_Alphabet_8-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vietnamesetypography.com/alphabet/">"Vietnam Alphabet"</a>. vietnamesetypography.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Vietnam+Alphabet&rft.pub=vietnamesetypography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvietnamesetypography.com%2Falphabet%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.howtopronounce.com/french/igrec/">"Do you know How to pronounce Igrec?"</a>. HowToPronounce.com. Retrieved 2017-10-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HowToPronounce.com&rft.atitle=Do+you+know+How+to+pronounce+Igrec%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.howtopronounce.com%2Ffrench%2Figrec%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> André-Georges Haudricourt. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01631486v2/document">"The two b's in the Vietnamese dictionary of Alexandre de Rhodes"</a>. HAL, Alexis Michaud dịch, trang 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Alexandre de Rhodes. Dictionarium Anamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum. Romae, Sacra Congregationis de propaganda fide, năm 1651, trang chứa cột 65, cột 191 trong phần chính văn của sách (sách không được đánh số trang). </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Kenneth J. Gregerson. "A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology". Bulletin de la Société des Études Indochinoises, Nouvelle Série – Tome XLIV, Nº 2, 1969, page 151, 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> André-Georges Haudricourt. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00918824v2/document">“The origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabet”</a>. HAL, Alexis Michaud dịch, trang 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1959" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson, Laurence C. (July 1959). "Saigon Phonemics". Language. 35 (3): 454–476. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F411232">10.2307/411232</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/411232">411232</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=Saigon+Phonemics&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=454-476&rft.date=1959-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F411232&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F411232%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Laurence+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Mistakenly[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] encoded in Unicode as the <a href="/wiki/Tilde" title="Tilde">tilde</a>. However, the tilde was used for something different in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Vietnamese" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Vietnamese">Middle Vietnamese</a>, the so-called <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_apex" class="mw-redirect" title="Vietnamese apex">Vietnamese apex</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> See for example <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLê_Bá_KhanhLê_Bá_Kông1998" class="citation book cs1">Lê Bá Khanh; Lê Bá Kông (1998) [1975]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780870529245">Vietnamese–English / English–Vietnamese Dictionary</a> (7th ed.). New York City: <a href="/wiki/Hippocrene_Books" title="Hippocrene Books">Hippocrene Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87052-924-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-87052-924-2"><bdi>0-87052-924-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vietnamese%E2%80%93English+%2F+English%E2%80%93Vietnamese+Dictionary&rft.place=New+York+City&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Hippocrene+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-87052-924-2&rft.au=L%C3%AA+B%C3%A1+Khanh&rft.au=L%C3%AA+B%C3%A1+K%C3%B4ng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780870529245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omniglot.com/writing/vietnamese.htm">"vietnamese Alphabet"</a>. Omniglot.com. 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Omniglot.com&rft.atitle=vietnamese+Alphabet&rft.date=2014&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fomniglot.com%2Fwriting%2Fvietnamese.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017568-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKornicki2017568_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKornicki2017">Kornicki 2017</a>, p. 568. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> John DeFrancis. Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam. The Hague, Mouton Publishers, 1977, page 82–84. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> John DeFrancis. Colonialism and Language Policy in Viet Nam. The Hague, Mouton Publishers, 1977, page 82. </li> <li id="cite_note-Tran_2018-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Tran_2018_26-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTran2018" class="citation journal cs1">Tran, Anh Q. (October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/jesuit-historiography-online/the-historiography-of-the-jesuits-in-vietnam-16151773-and-19572007-COM_210470">"The Historiography of the Jesuits in Vietnam: 1615–1773 and 1957–2007"</a>. Jesuit Historiography Online. Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jesuit+Historiography+Online&rft.atitle=The+Historiography+of+the+Jesuits+in+Vietnam%3A+1615%E2%80%931773+and+1957%E2%80%932007&rft.date=2018-10&rft.aulast=Tran&rft.aufirst=Anh+Q.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fjesuit-historiography-online%2Fthe-historiography-of-the-jesuits-in-vietnam-16151773-and-19572007-COM_210470&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020106-27"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020106_27-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ostrowski-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ostrowski_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ostrowski_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrowski2010" class="citation book cs1">Ostrowski, Brian Eugene (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EvqKqpSCpaEC&pg=PA23">"The Rise of Christian Nôm Literature in Seventeenth-Century Vietnam: Fusing European Content and Local Expression"</a>. In Wilcox, Wynn (ed.). Vietnam and the West: New Approaches. Ithaca, New York: SEAP Publications, Cornell university Press. pp. 23, 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780877277828" title="Special:BookSources/9780877277828"><bdi>9780877277828</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Rise+of+Christian+N%C3%B4m+Literature+in+Seventeenth-Century+Vietnam%3A+Fusing+European+Content+and+Local+Expression&rft.btitle=Vietnam+and+the+West%3A+New+Approaches&rft.place=Ithaca%2C+New+York&rft.pages=23%2C+38&rft.pub=SEAP+Publications%2C+Cornell+university+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780877277828&rft.aulast=Ostrowski&rft.aufirst=Brian+Eugene&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEvqKqpSCpaEC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Quoc-ngu">"Quoc-ngu | Vietnamese writing system"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Quoc-ngu+%7C+Vietnamese+writing+system&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FQuoc-ngu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nguyên_Tùng_pp._135-149-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nguyên_Tùng_pp._135-149_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nguyên_Tùng_pp._135-149_30-1">b</a> Nguyên Tùng, "Langues, écritures et littératures au Viêt-nam", Aséanie, Sciences humaines en Asie du Sud-Est, Vol. 2000/5, pp. 135-149. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPamela_A._Pears2006" class="citation book cs1">Pamela A. Pears (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f0InWkpBI0wC&q=vietnamese+alphabet&pg=PA18">Remnants of Empire in Algeria and Vietnam: Women, Words and War</a>. Lexington Books. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-2022-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-2022-0"><bdi>0-7391-2022-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2010-11-28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Remnants+of+Empire+in+Algeria+and+Vietnam%3A+Women%2C+Words+and+War&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-7391-2022-0&rft.au=Pamela+A.+Pears&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df0InWkpBI0wC%26q%3Dvietnamese%2Balphabet%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_32-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_32-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_32-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Người-Việt-Daily-News-Thoát-Hán-2018_32-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn_Quang_Duy2018" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Nguyễn Quang Duy (12 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nguoi-viet.com/van-hoc-nghe-thuat/quoc-ngu-va-no-luc-thoat-han-cua-cac-vua-nha-nguyen/">"Quốc ngữ và nỗ lực 'thoát Hán' của các vua nhà Nguyễn"</a> (in Vietnamese). Người Việt Daily News. Retrieved 15 September 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Qu%E1%BB%91c+ng%E1%BB%AF+v%C3%A0+n%E1%BB%97+l%E1%BB%B1c+%27tho%C3%A1t+H%C3%A1n%27+c%E1%BB%A7a+c%C3%A1c+vua+nh%C3%A0+Nguy%E1%BB%85n.&rft.pub=Ng%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Di+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Daily+News&rft.date=2018-09-12&rft.au=Nguy%E1%BB%85n+Quang+Duy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nguoi-viet.com%2Fvan-hoc-nghe-thuat%2Fquoc-ngu-va-no-luc-thoat-han-cua-cac-vua-nha-nguyen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELi2020107-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELi2020107_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLi2020">Li 2020</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-TBS-34"><a href="#cite_ref-TBS_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrần_Bích_San" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Trần Bích San. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200924164125/http://www.vanhoanghean.com.vn/component/k2/28-van-hoa-hoc-duong/11200-thi-cu-va-giao-duc-viet-nam-duoi-thoi-thuoc-phap">"Thi cử và giáo dục Việt Nam dưới thời thuộc Pháp"</a> (in Vietnamese). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vanhoanghean.com.vn/component/k2/28-van-hoa-hoc-duong/11200-thi-cu-va-giao-duc-viet-nam-duoi-thoi-thuoc-phap">the original</a> on 2020-09-24. Retrieved 2020-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thi+c%E1%BB%AD+v%C3%A0+gi%C3%A1o+d%E1%BB%A5c+Vi%E1%BB%87t+Nam+d%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bi+th%E1%BB%9Di+thu%E1%BB%99c+Ph%C3%A1p&rft.au=Tr%E1%BA%A7n+B%C3%ADch+San&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vanhoanghean.com.vn%2Fcomponent%2Fk2%2F28-van-hoa-hoc-duong%2F11200-thi-cu-va-giao-duc-viet-nam-duoi-thoi-thuoc-phap&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> Note 3. "The French had to accept reluctantly the existence of chữ quốc ngữ. The propagation of chữ quốc ngữ in Cochinchina was, in fact, not without resistance [by French authority or pro-French Vietnamese elite] [...] Chữ quốc ngữ was created by Portuguese missionaries according to the phonemic orthography of Portuguese language. The Vietnamese could not use chữ quốc ngữ to learn French script. The French would mispronounce chữ quốc ngữ in French orthography, particularly people's names and place names. Thus, the French constantly disparaged chữ quốc ngữ because of its uselessness in helping with the propagation of French script." </li> <li id="cite_note-Anderson,_Benedict._1991,_pp._128-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Anderson,_Benedict._1991,_pp._128_35-0">^</a> Anderson, Benedict. 1991. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso. pp. 127-128. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellisch1978" class="citation book cs1">Wellisch, Hans H. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SVRiAAAAMAAJ&q=printer's+nightmare">The Conversion of Scripts, Its Nature, History, and Utilization</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-01620-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-01620-5"><bdi>978-0-471-01620-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Conversion+of+Scripts%2C+Its+Nature%2C+History%2C+and+Utilization&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-471-01620-5&rft.aulast=Wellisch&rft.aufirst=Hans+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSVRiAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dprinter%27s%2Bnightmare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kXxkAAAAMAAJ&q=typesetting+nightmare">Language Monthly</a>. Praetorius. 1987.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Language+Monthly&rft.pub=Praetorius&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkXxkAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dtypesetting%2Bnightmare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassoon1995" class="citation book cs1">Sassoon, Rosemary (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/acquisitionofsec0000sass">The acquisition of a second writing system</a>. Internet Archive. Oxford [England] : Intellect. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-871516-43-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-871516-43-2"><bdi>978-1-871516-43-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+acquisition+of+a+second+writing+system&rft.pub=Oxford+%5BEngland%5D+%3A+Intellect&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-871516-43-2&rft.aulast=Sassoon&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Facquisitionofsec0000sass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnh2021" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Anh, Hao (2021-09-21). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ictnews.vietnamnet.vn/san-pham-so/thu-thuat/huo-ng-da-n-go-tie-ng-vie-t-tren-ios-15-ba-ng-quickpath-393644.html">"Hướng dẫn gõ tiếng Việt trên iOS 15 bằng tính năng lướt phím QuickPath"</a>. VietNamNet (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 2022-03-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VietNamNet&rft.atitle=H%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bng+d%E1%BA%ABn+g%C3%B5+ti%E1%BA%BFng+Vi%E1%BB%87t+tr%C3%AAn+iOS+15+b%E1%BA%B1ng+t%C3%ADnh+n%C4%83ng+l%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bt+ph%C3%ADm+QuickPath&rft.date=2021-09-21&rft.aulast=Anh&rft.aufirst=Hao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fictnews.vietnamnet.vn%2Fsan-pham-so%2Fthu-thuat%2Fhuo-ng-da-n-go-tie-ng-vie-t-tren-ios-15-ba-ng-quickpath-393644.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://support.google.com/gboard/answer/6380730?visit_id=636779931281375154-2572284319&rd=1#languages&zippy=,find-supported-languages">"Set up Gboard on Android"</a>. Google Support. Retrieved 2022-03-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Support&rft.atitle=Set+up+Gboard+on+Android&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsupport.google.com%2Fgboard%2Fanswer%2F6380730%3Fvisit_id%3D636779931281375154-2572284319%26rd%3D1%23languages%26zippy%3D%2Cfind-supported-languages&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhan" class="citation web cs1">Phan, Kim Long. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unikey.org/en/apple.html">"UniKey in macOS and iOS"</a>. UniKey. Retrieved 2022-03-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UniKey&rft.atitle=UniKey+in+macOS+and+iOS&rft.aulast=Phan&rft.aufirst=Kim+Long&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unikey.org%2Fen%2Fapple.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Gregerson, Kenneth J. (1969). A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology. Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, 44, 135–193. (Published version of the author's MA thesis, University of Washington). (Reprinted 1981, Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaudricourt1949" class="citation journal cs1">Haudricourt, André-Georges (1949). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/92/00/64/PDF/Haudricourt1949_Peculiarities_MonKhmerStudies2010.pdf">"Origine des particularités de l'alphabet vietnamien (English translation as: The origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabet)"</a> (PDF). Dân Việt-Nam. 3: 61–68.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=D%C3%A2n+Vi%E1%BB%87t-Nam&rft.atitle=Origine+des+particularit%C3%A9s+de+l%27alphabet+vietnamien+%28English+translation+as%3A+The+origin+of+the+peculiarities+of+the+Vietnamese+alphabet%29&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=61-68&rft.date=1949&rft.aulast=Haudricourt&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9-Georges&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhalshs.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Fdocs%2F00%2F92%2F00%2F64%2FPDF%2FHaudricourt1949_Peculiarities_MonKhmerStudies2010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Healy, Dana.(2003). Teach Yourself Vietnamese, Hodder Education, London.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKornicki2017" class="citation cs2">Kornicki, Peter (2017), "Sino-Vietnamese literature", in Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE), Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 568–578, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-199-35659-1"><bdi>978-0-199-35659-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Sino-Vietnamese+literature&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Classical+Chinese+Literature+%281000+BCE-900+CE%29&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=568-578&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-199-35659-1&rft.aulast=Kornicki&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLi2020" class="citation book cs1">Li, Yu (2020). The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-00-069906-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-00-069906-7"><bdi>978-1-00-069906-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Writing+System+in+Asia%3A+An+Interdisciplinary+Perspective&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-00-069906-7&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Yu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Nguyen, Đang Liêm. (1970). Vietnamese pronunciation. PALI language texts: Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87022-462-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87022-462-X">0-87022-462-X</a>.</li> <li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1955). Quốc-ngữ: The modern writing system in Vietnam. Washington, D. C.: Author.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNguyễn1992" class="citation journal cs1">Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà (1992). "Vietnamese phonology and graphemic borrowings from Chinese: The Book of 3,000 Characters revisited". <a href="/wiki/Mon-Khmer_Studies" title="Mon-Khmer Studies">Mon-Khmer Studies</a>. 20: 163–182.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mon-Khmer+Studies&rft.atitle=Vietnamese+phonology+and+graphemic+borrowings+from+Chinese%3A+The+Book+of+3%2C000+Characters+revisited&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=163-182&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Nguy%E1%BB%85n&rft.aufirst=%C4%90%C3%ACnh-Ho%C3%A0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.), The world's writing systems, (pp. 691–699). New York: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-507993-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-507993-0">0-19-507993-0</a>.</li> <li>Nguyễn, Đình-Hoà. (1997). Vietnamese: Tiếng Việt không son phấn. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55619-733-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-55619-733-0">1-55619-733-0</a>.</li> <li>Pham, Andrea Hoa. (2003). Vietnamese tone: A new analysis. Outstanding dissertations in linguistics. New York: Routledge. (Published version of author's 2001 PhD dissertation, University of Florida: Hoa, Pham. Vietnamese tone: Tone is not pitch). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-96762-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-96762-7">0-415-96762-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPham2018" class="citation thesis cs1">Pham, Thi Kieu Ly (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theses.fr/2018USPCA122">La grammatisation du vietnamien (1615–1919): histoire des grammaires et de l'écriture romanisée du vietnamien</a> (PhD). Université Sorbonne Paris Cité.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=La+grammatisation+du+vietnamien+%281615%E2%80%931919%29%3A+histoire+des+grammaires+et+de+l%27%C3%A9criture+romanis%C3%A9e+du+vietnamien&rft.inst=Universit%C3%A9+Sorbonne+Paris+Cit%C3%A9&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Pham&rft.aufirst=Thi+Kieu+Ly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theses.fr%2F2018USPCA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassoon1995" class="citation book cs1">Sassoon, Rosemary (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/acquisitionofsec0000sass">The Acquisition of a Second Writing System</a> (illustrated, reprint ed.). Intellect Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1871516439" title="Special:BookSources/1871516439"><bdi>1871516439</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Acquisition+of+a+Second+Writing+System&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+reprint&rft.pub=Intellect+Books&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=1871516439&rft.aulast=Sassoon&rft.aufirst=Rosemary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Facquisitionofsec0000sass&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Thompson, Laurence E. (1991). A Vietnamese reference grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1117-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1117-8">0-8248-1117-8</a>. (Original work published 1965).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTran2022" class="citation journal cs1">Tran, Anh Q. (2022). "Catholicism and the Development of the Vietnamese Alphabet, 1620–1898". Journal of Vietnamese Studies. 17 (2–3): 9–37. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fvs.2022.17.2-3.9">10.1525/vs.2022.17.2-3.9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250513843">250513843</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Vietnamese+Studies&rft.atitle=Catholicism+and+the+Development+of+the+Vietnamese+Alphabet%2C+1620%E2%80%931898&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=9-37&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Fvs.2022.17.2-3.9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A250513843%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Tran&rft.aufirst=Anh+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWellisch1978" class="citation book cs1">Wellisch, Hans H. (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/conversionofscri0000well">The conversion of scripts, its nature, history and utilization</a>. Information sciences series (illustrated ed.). Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0471016209" title="Special:BookSources/0471016209"><bdi>0471016209</bdi></a>. Retrieved 24 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+conversion+of+scripts%2C+its+nature%2C+history+and+utilization&rft.series=Information+sciences+series&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0471016209&rft.aulast=Wellisch&rft.aufirst=Hans+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconversionofscri0000well&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AVietnamese+alphabet" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Nguyen, A. M. (2006). Let's learn the Vietnamese alphabet. Las Vegas: Viet Baby. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9776482-0-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-9776482-0-6">0-9776482-0-6</a></li> <li>Shih, Virginia Jing-yi. Quoc Ngu Revolution: A Weapon of Nationalism in Vietnam. 1991.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Vietnamese_alphabet&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Vietnamese_writing" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Vietnamese writing">Vietnamese writing</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" 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orthography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam" title="History of writing in Vietnam">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Literary Chinese (古文)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Hán-Nôm (漢喃)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization" title="Romanization">Latinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">Intonation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)" title="Tone (linguistics)">Tone marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_digit" title="Numerical digit">Numerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_letters" title="List of Latin-script letters">List</a> of letters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A" title="A">Aa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%82" title="Ă">Ăă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%82" title="Â">Ââ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B" title="B">Bb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C" title="C">Cc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D" title="D">Dd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90" class="mw-redirect" title="Đ">Đđ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E" title="E">Ee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%8A" title="Ê">Êê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F" title="F">Ff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G" title="G">Gg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H" title="H">Hh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I" title="I">Ii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J" title="J">Jj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K" title="K">Kk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L" title="L">Ll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M" title="M">Mm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N" title="N">Nn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/O" title="O">Oo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%94" class="mw-redirect" title="Ô">Ôô</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C6%A0" title="Ơ">Ơơ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P" title="P">Pp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q" title="Q">Qq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R" title="R">Rr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S" title="S">Ss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T" title="T">Tt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U" title="U">Uu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C6%AF" title="Ư">Ưư</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V" title="V">Vv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W" title="W">Ww</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X" title="X">Xx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y" title="Y">Yy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z" title="Z">Zz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elemental (<a href="/wiki/Unigraph_(orthography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Unigraph (orthography)">Unigraphs</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>a</li> <li>ă</li> <li>â</li> <li>e</li> <li>ê</li> <li>i</li> <li>o</li> <li>ô</li> <li>ơ</li> <li>u</li> <li>ư</li> <li>y</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combinative (<a href="/wiki/Multigraph_(orthography)" title="Multigraph (orthography)">Multigraphs</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ai</li> <li>ao</li> <li>au</li> <li>ay</li></ul> <ul><li>âu</li> <li>ây</li></ul> <ul><li>eo</li> <li>ey</li></ul> <ul><li>êu</li></ul> <ul><li>iê</li> <li>iu</li> <li>iêu</li></ul> <ul><li>oa</li> <li>oă</li> <li>oe</li> <li>oi</li> <li>oo</li> <li>oy</li> <li>oai</li></ul> <ul><li>ôi</li></ul> <ul><li>ơi</li></ul> <ul><li>ua</li> <li>uâ</li> <li>uê</li> <li>ui</li> <li>uô</li> <li>uơ</li> <li>uy</li> <li>uôi</li> <li>uyê</li></ul> <ul><li>ưa</li> <li>ưi</li> <li>ươ</li> <li>ưu</li> <li>ươi</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Consonant" title="Consonant">Consonants</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unigraphs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>b</li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_with_flourish" title="B with flourish">ꞗ</a></li> <li>c</li> <li>d</li> <li>đ</li> <li>f</li> <li>g</li> <li>h</li> <li>j</li> <li>k</li> <li>l</li> <li>m</li> <li>n</li> <li>p</li> <li>q</li> <li>r</li> <li>s</li> <li>t</li> <li>v</li> <li>w</li> <li>x</li> <li>y</li> <li>z</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_digraphs" title="List of Latin-script digraphs">Digraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ch</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dz_(digraph)#Vietnamese" title="Dz (digraph)">dz</a></li> <li>gh</li> <li>gi</li> <li>kh</li> <li>ng</li> <li>nh</li> <li>ph</li> <li>qu</li> <li>th</li> <li>tr</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Latin-script_trigraphs" title="List of Latin-script trigraphs">Trigraphs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>ngh</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_8859-1" title="ISO/IEC 8859-1">ISO/IEC 8859-1</a> with Vietnamese extension</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script_in_Unicode" title="Latin script in Unicode">Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Latin_character_sets_(computing)" title="Western Latin character sets (computing)">Western Latin character sets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_precomposed_Latin_characters_in_Unicode" title="List of precomposed Latin characters in Unicode">precomposed Latin characters in Unicode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_letters_used_in_mathematics" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin letters used in mathematics">letters used in mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeography" title="Palaeography">Palaeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QWERTY" title="QWERTY">QWERTY</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Italicized entries are officially unrecognized, but in use in some purposes; y is treated as a semi-vowel </li></ul> even though "q" is fully a consonant, it always appears in digraph-form "qu" when in combination with a vowel </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaans_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Afrikaans alphabet">Afrikaans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_orthography" title="Danish orthography">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_orthography" title="Dutch orthography">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_orthography" title="English orthography">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_orthography" title="Faroese orthography">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_orthography" title="German orthography">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_orthography" title="Icelandic orthography">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_orthography" title="Norwegian orthography">Norwegian</a></li> <li>Swedish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_alphabet" title="Swedish alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_orthography" title="Swedish orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_alphabet" title="West Frisian alphabet">West Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_orthography" title="Yiddish orthography">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language#Orthography" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language#Orthography" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kernewek_Kemmyn" title="Kernewek Kemmyn">Kernewek Kemmyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Written_Form" title="Standard Written Form">Standard Written Form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernowek_Standard" title="Kernowek Standard">Kernowek Standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Cornish" title="Modern Cornish">Modern Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Cornish" title="Unified Cornish">Unified Cornish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_orthography" title="Irish orthography">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language#Orthography" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_orthography" title="Scottish Gaelic orthography">Scottish Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_orthography" title="Welsh orthography">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_alphabet" title="Aromanian alphabet">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_orthography" title="Catalan orthography">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_orthography" title="French orthography">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istro-Romanian_alphabet" title="Istro-Romanian alphabet">Istro-Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_orthography" title="Italian orthography">Italian</a></li> <li>Latin <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_phonology_and_orthography" title="Latin phonology and orthography">Phonology & ortography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">alphabet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_orthography" title="Portuguese orthography">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_alphabet" title="Romanian alphabet">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_orthography" title="Sicilian orthography">Sicilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_orthography" title="Spanish orthography">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_orthography" title="Walloon orthography">Walloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_orthography" title="Latvian orthography">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_orthography" title="Lithuanian orthography">Lithuanian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_alphabet" title="Belarusian alphabet">Belarusian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_alphabet" title="Belarusian alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Latin_alphabet" title="Belarusian Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara%C5%A1kievica" title="Taraškievica">Classical orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_alphabet" title="Bulgarian alphabet">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_orthography" title="Czech orthography">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_alphabet" title="Macedonian alphabet">Macedonian</a></li> <li>Polish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polish_alphabet" title="Polish alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_orthography" title="Polish orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li>Russian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_alphabet" title="Russian alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_orthography" title="Russian orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_orthography" title="Silesian orthography">Silesian</a></li> <li>Serbo-Croatian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Serbian Cyrillic alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaj%27s_Latin_alphabet" title="Gaj's Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_alphabet" title="Montenegrin alphabet">Montenegrin alphabet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_orthography" title="Slovak orthography">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_alphabet" title="Slovene alphabet">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_alphabet" title="Sorbian alphabet">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_orthography" title="Ukrainian orthography">Ukrainian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_alphabet" title="Ukrainian alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Latin_alphabet" title="Ukrainian Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets" title="Kurdish alphabets">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_alphabet" title="Pashto alphabet">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_alphabet" title="Persian alphabet">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tajik_alphabet" title="Tajik alphabet">Tajik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_alphabet" title="Bengali alphabet">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindustani_orthography" title="Hindustani orthography">Hindustani</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urdu_alphabet" title="Urdu alphabet">Urdu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balbodh" title="Balbodh">Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_alphabets" title="Romani alphabets">Romani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_alphabet" title="Albanian alphabet">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_orthography" title="Greek orthography">Greek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_orthography" title="Estonian orthography">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_orthography" title="Finnish orthography">Finnish</a></li> <li>Hungarian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_alphabet" title="Hungarian alphabet">alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_orthography" title="Hungarian orthography">orthography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelian_alphabet" title="Karelian alphabet">Karelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komi_alphabets" title="Komi alphabets">Komi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livonian_language" title="Livonian language">Livonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansi_alphabets" title="Mansi alphabets">Mansi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordvinic_alphabets" title="Mordvinic alphabets">Mordvinic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moksha_language" title="Moksha language">Moksha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzya_language" title="Erzya language">Erzyan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_orthography" title="Sámi orthography">Sámi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kildin_S%C3%A1mi_orthography" title="Kildin Sámi orthography">Kildin Sámi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_alphabets" title="Udmurt alphabets">Udmurt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_alphabet" title="Azerbaijani alphabet">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashkir_alphabet" title="Bashkir alphabet">Bashkir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_Tatar_alphabet" title="Crimean Tatar alphabet">Crimean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gagauz_alphabet" title="Gagauz alphabet">Gagauz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_alphabets" title="Kazakh alphabets">Kazakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khakas_alphabets" title="Khakas alphabets">Khakas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_alphabets" title="Kyrgyz alphabets">Kyrgyz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nogai_alphabets" title="Nogai alphabets">Nogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_alphabet" title="Tatar alphabet">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_alphabet" title="Turkish alphabet">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkmen_alphabet" title="Turkmen alphabet">Turkmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_alphabets" title="Uyghur alphabets">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzbek_alphabet" title="Uzbek alphabet">Uzbek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_scripts" title="Yakut scripts">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungus—Manchu</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Even_alphabets" title="Even alphabets">Even</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_orthography" title="Evenki orthography">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udege_alphabets" title="Udege alphabets">Udege</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_alphabet" title="Abkhaz alphabet">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_alphabet" title="Basque alphabet">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dargin_writing" title="Dargin writing">Dargwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a></li> <li>Aramaic <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Ethiopian Semitic languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_spelling" title="Hebrew spelling">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew_orthography" title="Biblical Hebrew orthography">Biblical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_alphabet" title="Maltese alphabet">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_alphabets" title="Somali alphabets">Somali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Niger%E2%80%93Congo_languages" title="Niger–Congo languages">Niger–Congo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_alphabets" title="Fula alphabets">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesotho_orthography" title="Sesotho orthography">Sotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_scripts" title="Okinawan scripts">Okinawan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Written_Chinese" title="Written Chinese">Chinese</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dungan_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungan alphabet">Dungan</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_writing_systems" title="Mongolian writing systems">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_alphabets" title="Nivkh alphabets">Nivkh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_orthography" title="Filipino orthography">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_alphabet" title="Hawaiian alphabet">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malay_orthography" title="Malay orthography">Malay</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_writing_systems" title="Massachusett writing systems">Massachusett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_syllabics" title="Inuktitut syllabics">Inuktitut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_orthography" title="Nahuatl orthography">Nahuatl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Haitian Creole alphabet">Haitian Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papiamento_orthography" title="Papiamento orthography">Papiamento</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Constructed_language" title="Constructed language">Constructed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_orthography" title="Esperanto orthography">Esperanto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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