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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Acceleration and forces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acceleration_and_forces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_tolerance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_tolerance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Human tolerance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Human_tolerance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Human tolerance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Human_tolerance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vertical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Vertical</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Horizontal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Horizontal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Horizontal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Horizontal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Short_duration_shock,_impact,_and_jerk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Short_duration_shock,_impact,_and_jerk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Short duration shock, impact, and jerk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Short_duration_shock,_impact,_and_jerk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_biological_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_biological_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Other biological responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_biological_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Typical_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typical_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Typical examples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Typical_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement_using_an_accelerometer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement_using_an_accelerometer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Measurement using an accelerometer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement_using_an_accelerometer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" 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Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B9" title="قوة التسارع – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قوة التسارع" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_q%C3%BCvv%C9%99si" title="G qüvvəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="G qüvvəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%8F%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%8F)" title="Перагрузка (авіяцыя) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Перагрузка (авіяцыя)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%C3%A7a_g" title="Força g – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Força g" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-kraft" title="G-kraft – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="G-kraft" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-Kraft" title="G-Kraft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="G-Kraft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Clekoormus_(f%C3%BC%C3%BCsika)" title="Ülekoormus (füüsika) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ülekoormus (füüsika)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerza_g" title="Fuerza g – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Fuerza g" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C_%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B4" title="نیروی گرانش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیروی گرانش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_(acc%C3%A9l%C3%A9ration)" title="G (accélération) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="G (accélération)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaya_g" title="Gaya g – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gaya g" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Eyngdarhr%C3%B6%C3%B0un" title="Þyngdarhröðun – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þyngdarhröðun" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%97_%D7%92%27%D7%99" title="כוח ג'י – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כוח ג'י" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%83%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BA%D2%AF%D1%88%D1%96" title="Ауырлық күші – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ауырлық күші" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daya_G" title="Daya G – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Daya G" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-kracht" title="G-kracht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="G-kracht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-kraft" title="G-kraft – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="G-kraft" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-%E0%A8%AB%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8" title="G-ਫੋਰਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="G-ਫੋਰਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="جی فورس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جی فورس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Przeci%C4%85%C5%BCenie" title="Przeciążenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Przeciążenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_(f%C3%ADsica)" title="G (física) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="G (física)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%BA%D0%B0_(%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BB)" title="Перегрузка (отношение сил) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Перегрузка (отношение сил)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-Force" title="G-Force – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="G-Force" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre%C5%A5a%C5%BEenie_(tia%C5%BEov%C3%A9_zr%C3%BDchlenie)" title="Preťaženie (tiažové zrýchlenie) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Preťaženie (tiažové zrýchlenie)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%8E%D8%B2%DB%8C_%D8%AC%DB%8C" title="ھێزی جی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھێزی جی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_(%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Убрзање (ваздухопловна физиологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Убрзање (ваздухопловна физиологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-voima" title="G-voima – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="G-voima" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/G-krafter" title="G-krafter – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="G-krafter" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_kuvveti" title="G kuvveti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="G kuvveti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F_(%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Перевантаження (авіація) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Перевантаження (авіація)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C_%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B3" title="جی فورس – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جی فورس" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%B1c_G" title="Lực G – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lực G" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/G_%E5%8A%9B" title="G 力 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="G 力" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%E5%8A%9B" title="G力 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="G力" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q284602#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Term for accelerations felt as weight in multiples of standard gravity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the physics concept. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/G-Force_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="G-Force (disambiguation)">G-Force (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"G's" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/GS_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="GS (disambiguation)">GS</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Load_factor_and_the_g-force_in_turn.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Load_factor_and_the_g-force_in_turn.svg/220px-Load_factor_and_the_g-force_in_turn.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Load_factor_and_the_g-force_in_turn.svg/330px-Load_factor_and_the_g-force_in_turn.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Load_factor_and_the_g-force_in_turn.svg/440px-Load_factor_and_the_g-force_in_turn.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="453" data-file-height="448" /></a><figcaption>In straight and level flight, lift (<i>L</i>) equals weight (<i>W</i>). In a steady level banked turn of 60°, lift equals double the weight (<i>L</i> = 2<i>W</i>). The pilot experiences 2 <i>g</i> and a doubled weight. The steeper the bank, the greater the g-forces.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nitrolympics_TopFuel_2005.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Nitrolympics_TopFuel_2005.jpg/220px-Nitrolympics_TopFuel_2005.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Nitrolympics_TopFuel_2005.jpg/330px-Nitrolympics_TopFuel_2005.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Nitrolympics_TopFuel_2005.jpg/440px-Nitrolympics_TopFuel_2005.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Top_fuel" class="mw-redirect" title="Top fuel">top-fuel dragster</a> can accelerate from zero to 160 kilometres per hour (99 mph) in 0.86 seconds. This is a horizontal acceleration of 5.3 <i>g</i>. Combining this with the vertical g-force in the stationary case using the <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a> yields a g-force of 5.4 <i>g</i>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>g-force</b> or <b>gravitational force equivalent</b> is <a href="/wiki/Specific_force" title="Specific force">mass-specific force</a> (force per unit mass), expressed in <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_measurement" title="Unit of measurement">units</a> of <a href="/wiki/Standard_gravity" title="Standard gravity">standard gravity</a> (symbol <i>g</i> or <i>g</i><sub>0</sub>, not to be confused with "g", the symbol for <a href="/wiki/Grams" class="mw-redirect" title="Grams">grams</a>). It is used for sustained <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">accelerations</a>, that cause a perception of <a href="/wiki/Weight" title="Weight">weight</a>. For example, an object at rest on Earth's surface is subject to 1 <i>g</i>, equaling the conventional value of <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration" title="Gravitational acceleration">gravitational acceleration</a> on Earth, about <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980000000000000♠"></span>9.8 <a href="/wiki/Metre_per_second_squared" title="Metre per second squared">m/s<sup>2</sup></a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More transient acceleration, accompanied with significant <a href="/wiki/Jerk_(physics)" title="Jerk (physics)">jerk</a>, is called <a href="/wiki/Shock_(mechanics)" title="Shock (mechanics)"><i>shock</i></a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When the g-force is produced by the surface of one object being pushed by the surface of another object, the reaction force to this push produces an equal and opposite force for every unit of each object's mass. The types of forces involved are transmitted through objects by interior <a href="/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">mechanical stresses</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration" title="Gravitational acceleration">Gravitational acceleration</a> is one cause of an object's <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a> in relation to <a href="/wiki/Free_fall" title="Free fall">free fall</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The g-force experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of all gravitational and non-gravitational forces acting on an object's freedom to move. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects. Such forces cause <a href="/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)" title="Stress (mechanics)">stresses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strain_(mechanics)" title="Strain (mechanics)">strains</a> on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive. </p><p>For example, a force of 1 <i>g</i> on an object sitting on the Earth's surface is caused by the mechanical force exerted in the <a href="/wiki/Ground_reaction_force" title="Ground reaction force">upward direction by the ground</a>, keeping the object from going into free fall. The upward contact force from the ground ensures that an object at rest on the Earth's surface is accelerating relative to the free-fall condition. (Free fall is the path that the object would follow when falling freely toward the Earth's center). Stress inside the object is ensured from the fact that the ground contact forces are transmitted only from the point of contact with the ground. </p><p>Objects allowed to free-fall in an <i>inertial trajectory</i>, under the influence of gravitation only, feel no g-force – a condition known as <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">weightlessness</a>. Being in free fall in an inertial trajectory is colloquially called "zero-<i>g</i>", which is short for "zero g-force". Zero g-force conditions would occur inside an elevator falling freely toward the Earth's center (in vacuum), or <a href="/wiki/Micro-g_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-g environment">(to good approximation) inside a spacecraft in Earth orbit</a>. These are examples of coordinate acceleration (a change in velocity) without a sensation of weight. </p><p>In the absence of gravitational fields, or in directions at right angles to them, proper and coordinate accelerations are the same, and any coordinate acceleration must be produced by a corresponding g-force acceleration. An example of this is a rocket in free space: when the engines produce simple changes in velocity, those changes cause g-forces on the rocket and the passengers. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unit_and_measurement">Unit and measurement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Unit and measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Unit_of_measure" class="mw-redirect" title="Unit of measure">unit of measure</a> of <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_System_of_Units" title="International System of Units">International System of Units</a> (SI) is m/s<sup>2</sup>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, to distinguish acceleration relative to free fall from simple acceleration (rate of change of velocity), the unit <i><b>g</b></i> is often used. One <i>g</i> is the force per unit mass due to gravity at the Earth's surface and is the <a href="/wiki/Standard_gravity" title="Standard gravity">standard gravity</a> (symbol: <i>g</i><sub>n</sub>), defined as <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980665000000000♠"></span>9.806<span style="margin-left:.25em;">65</span></span> <a href="/wiki/Metre_per_second_squared" title="Metre per second squared">metres per second squared</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3rd_CGPM_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3rd_CGPM-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or equivalently <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980665000000000♠"></span>9.806<span style="margin-left:.25em;">65</span></span> <a href="/wiki/Newtons" class="mw-redirect" title="Newtons">newtons</a> of force per kilogram of mass. The <i>unit definition</i> does not vary with location—the g-force when standing on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> is almost exactly <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">6</span></span> that on Earth. The unit <i>g</i> is not one of the SI units, which uses "g" for gram. Also, "<i>g</i>" should not be confused with "<i>G</i>", which is the standard symbol for the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_constant" title="Gravitational constant">gravitational constant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-symbols_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-symbols-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This notation is commonly used in aviation, especially in aerobatic or combat military aviation, to describe the increased forces that must be overcome by pilots in order to remain conscious and not <a href="/wiki/G-LOC" title="G-LOC">g-LOC</a> (<i>g</i>-induced loss of consciousness).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Measurement of g-force is typically achieved using an <a href="/wiki/Accelerometer" title="Accelerometer">accelerometer</a> (see discussion below in section <a href="#Measurement_using_an_accelerometer">#Measurement using an accelerometer</a>). In certain cases, g-forces may be measured using suitably calibrated scales. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acceleration_and_forces">Acceleration and forces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Acceleration and forces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/G-force" title="Special:EditPage/G-force">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The term g-"force" is technically incorrect as it is a measure of <i>acceleration</i>, not force. While acceleration is a <a href="/wiki/Euclidean_vector" title="Euclidean vector">vector</a> quantity, g-force accelerations ("g-forces" for short) are often expressed as a <a href="/wiki/Scalar_(physics)" title="Scalar (physics)">scalar</a>, based on the vector magnitude, with positive g-forces pointing downward (indicating upward acceleration), and negative g-forces pointing upward. Thus, a g-force is a vector of acceleration. It is an acceleration that must be produced by a mechanical force, and cannot be produced by simple gravitation. Objects acted upon <i>only</i> by gravitation experience (or "feel") no g-force, and are weightless. g-forces, when multiplied by a mass upon which they act, are associated with a certain type of mechanical <i>force</i> in the correct sense of the term "force", and this force produces <a href="/wiki/Compressive_stress" title="Compressive stress">compressive stress</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tensile_stress" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensile stress">tensile stress</a>. Such forces result in the operational sensation of weight, but the equation carries a sign change due to the definition of positive weight in the direction downward, so the direction of weight-force is opposite to the direction of g-force acceleration: </p> <dl><dd>Weight = mass × −g-force</dd></dl> <p>The reason for the minus sign is that the actual <i>force</i> (i.e., measured weight) on an object produced by a g-force is in the opposite direction to the sign of the g-force, since in physics, weight is not the force that produces the acceleration, but rather the equal-and-opposite reaction force to it. If the direction upward is taken as positive (the normal cartesian convention) then <i>positive</i> g-force (an acceleration vector that points upward) produces a force/weight on any mass, that acts <i>downward</i> (an example is positive-g acceleration of a rocket launch, producing downward weight). In the same way, a <i>negative-g force</i> is an acceleration vector <i>downward</i> (the negative direction on the y axis), and this acceleration downward produces a weight-force in a direction <i>upward</i> (thus pulling a pilot upward out of the seat, and forcing blood toward the head of a normally oriented pilot). </p><p>If a g-force (acceleration) is vertically upward and is applied by the ground (which is accelerating through space-time) or applied by the floor of an elevator to a standing person, most of the body experiences compressive stress which at any height, if multiplied by the area, is the related mechanical force, which is the product of the g-force and the supported mass (the mass above the level of support, including arms hanging down from above that level). At the same time, the arms themselves experience a tensile stress, which at any height, if multiplied by the area, is again the related mechanical force, which is the product of the g-force and the mass hanging below the point of mechanical support. The mechanical resistive force spreads from points of contact with the floor or supporting structure, and gradually decreases toward zero at the unsupported ends (the top in the case of support from below, such as a seat or the floor, the bottom for a hanging part of the body or object). With compressive force counted as negative tensile force, the rate of change of the tensile force in the direction of the g-force, per unit mass (the change between parts of the object such that the slice of the object between them has unit mass), is equal to the g-force plus the non-gravitational external forces on the slice, if any (counted positive in the direction opposite to the g-force). </p><p>For a given g-force the stresses are the same, regardless of whether this g-force is caused by mechanical resistance to gravity, or by a coordinate-acceleration (change in velocity) caused by a mechanical force, or by a combination of these. Hence, for people all mechanical forces feels exactly the same whether they cause coordinate acceleration or not. For objects likewise, the question of whether they can withstand the mechanical g-force without damage is the same for any type of g-force. For example, upward acceleration (e.g., increase of speed when going up or decrease of speed when going down) on Earth feels the same as being stationary on a celestial body with a higher <a href="/wiki/Surface_gravity" title="Surface gravity">surface gravity</a>. Gravitation acting alone does not produce any g-force; g-force is only produced from mechanical pushes and pulls. For a free body (one that is free to move in space) such g-forces only arise as the "inertial" path that is the natural effect of gravitation, or the natural effect of the inertia of mass, is modified. Such modification may only arise from influences other than gravitation. </p><p>Examples of important situations involving g-forces include: </p> <ul><li>The g-force acting on a stationary object resting on the Earth's surface is 1 <i>g</i> (upwards) and results from the resisting reaction of the Earth's surface bearing upwards equal to an acceleration of 1 <i>g</i>, and is equal and opposite to gravity. The number 1 is approximate, depending on location.</li> <li>The g-force acting on an object in any <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">weightless</a> environment such as free-fall in a vacuum is 0 <i>g</i>.</li> <li>The g-force acting on an object under acceleration can be much greater than 1 <i>g</i>, for example, the dragster pictured at top right can exert a horizontal g-force of 5.3 when accelerating.</li> <li>The g-force acting on an object under acceleration may be downwards, for example when cresting a sharp hill on a roller coaster.</li> <li>If there are no other external forces than gravity, the g-force in a <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocket</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Thrust" title="Thrust">thrust</a> per unit mass. Its magnitude is equal to the <a href="/wiki/Thrust-to-weight_ratio" title="Thrust-to-weight ratio">thrust-to-weight ratio</a> times <i>g</i>, and to the consumption of <a href="/wiki/Delta-v" title="Delta-v">delta-v</a> per unit time.</li> <li>In the case of a <a href="/wiki/Shock_(mechanics)" title="Shock (mechanics)">shock</a>, e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Collision" title="Collision">collision</a>, the g-force can be very large during a short time.</li></ul> <p>A classic example of negative g-force is in a fully inverted <a href="/wiki/Roller_coaster" title="Roller coaster">roller coaster</a> which is accelerating (changing velocity) toward the ground. In this case, the roller coaster riders are accelerated toward the ground faster than gravity would accelerate them, and are thus pinned upside down in their seats. In this case, the mechanical force exerted by the seat causes the g-force by altering the path of the passenger downward in a way that differs from gravitational acceleration. The difference in downward motion, now faster than gravity would provide, is caused by the push of the seat, and it results in a g-force toward the ground. </p><p>All "coordinate accelerations" (or lack of them), are described by <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_laws_of_motion" title="Newton's laws of motion">Newton's laws of motion</a> as follows: </p><p>The <i>Second Law of Motion</i>, the law of acceleration, states that <span class="nowrap"><i>F</i> = <i>ma</i>,</span> meaning that a force <i>F</i> acting on a body is equal to the <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> <i>m</i> of the body times its acceleration <i>a</i>. </p><p>The <i>Third Law of Motion</i>, the law of reciprocal actions, states that all forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. Newton's third law of motion means that not only does gravity behave as a force acting downwards on, say, a rock held in your hand but also that the rock exerts a force on the Earth, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg/220px-Red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg/330px-Red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg/440px-Red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Acrobatic_airplane" class="mw-redirect" title="Acrobatic airplane">acrobatic airplane</a> is pulling up in a +g maneuver; the pilot is experiencing several g's of inertial acceleration in addition to the force of gravity. The cumulative vertical axis forces acting upon his body make him momentarily 'weigh' many times more than normal.</figcaption></figure> <p>In an airplane, the pilot's seat can be thought of as the hand holding the rock, the pilot as the rock. When flying straight and level at 1 <i>g</i>, the pilot is acted upon by the force of gravity. His weight (a downward force) is 725 <a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newtons</a> (163 <a href="/wiki/Pound_(force)" title="Pound (force)">lb<sub>f</sub></a>). In accordance with Newton's third law, the plane and the seat underneath the pilot provides an equal and opposite force pushing upwards with a force of 725 N. This mechanical force provides the 1.0 <i>g</i> upward <a href="/wiki/Proper_acceleration" title="Proper acceleration">proper acceleration</a> on the pilot, even though this velocity in the upward direction does not change (this is similar to the situation of a person standing on the ground, where the ground provides this force and this g-force). </p><p>If the pilot were suddenly to pull back on the stick and make his plane accelerate upwards at 9.8 m/s<sup>2</sup>, the total g‑force on his body is 2 <i>g</i>, half of which comes from the seat pushing the pilot to resist gravity, and half from the seat pushing the pilot to cause his upward acceleration—a change in velocity which also is a <i>proper acceleration</i> because it also differs from a free fall trajectory. Considered in the frame of reference of the plane his body is now generating a force of 1,450 N (330 lb<sub>f</sub>) downwards into his seat and the seat is simultaneously pushing upwards with an equal force of 1450 N. </p><p>Unopposed acceleration due to mechanical forces, and consequentially g-force, is experienced whenever anyone rides in a vehicle because it always causes a proper acceleration, and (in the absence of gravity) also always a coordinate acceleration (where velocity changes). Whenever the vehicle changes either direction or speed, the occupants feel lateral (side to side) or longitudinal (forward and backwards) forces produced by the mechanical push of their seats. </p><p>The expression <span class="nowrap">"1 <i>g</i> = <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980665000000000♠"></span>9.806<span style="margin-left:.25em;">65</span> m/s<sup>2</sup></span>"</span> means that <i>for every second that elapses,</i> velocity changes <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980665000000000♠"></span>9.806<span style="margin-left:.25em;">65</span></span> metres per second (<span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980665000000000♠"></span>35.303<span style="margin-left:.25em;">94</span> km/h</span>). This rate of change in velocity can also be denoted as <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980665000000000♠"></span>9.806<span style="margin-left:.25em;">65</span></span> (metres per second) per second, or <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000980665000000000♠"></span>9.806<span style="margin-left:.25em;">65</span> m/s<sup>2</sup>.</span> For example: An acceleration of 1 <i>g</i> equates to a rate of change in velocity of approximately 35 km/h (22 mph) for each second that elapses. Therefore, if an automobile is capable of braking at 1 <i>g</i> and is traveling at 35 km/h, it can brake to a standstill in one second and the driver will experience a deceleration of 1 <i>g</i>. The automobile traveling at three times this speed, 105 km/h (65 mph), can brake to a standstill in three seconds. </p><p>In the case of an increase in speed from 0 to <i>v</i> with constant acceleration within a distance of <i>s</i> this acceleration is <i>v</i><sup>2</sup>/(2<i>s</i>). </p><p>Preparing an object for g-tolerance (not getting damaged when subjected to a high g-force) is called g-hardening.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This may apply to, e.g., instruments in a <a href="/wiki/Projectile" title="Projectile">projectile</a> shot by a gun. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Human_tolerance">Human tolerance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Human tolerance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Jerk_(physics)#Physiological_effects_and_human_perception" title="Jerk (physics)">Jerk (physics) § Physiological effects and human perception</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_linear_acceleration_tolerance.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Human_linear_acceleration_tolerance.svg/250px-Human_linear_acceleration_tolerance.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Human_linear_acceleration_tolerance.svg/375px-Human_linear_acceleration_tolerance.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Human_linear_acceleration_tolerance.svg/500px-Human_linear_acceleration_tolerance.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>Semilog graph of the limits of tolerance of humans to linear acceleration<sup id="cite_ref-Brulle_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brulle-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Human tolerances depend on the magnitude of the gravitational force, the length of time it is applied, the direction it acts, the location of application, and the posture of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-Balldin_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balldin-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BBB_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBB-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 350">: 350 </span></sup> </p><p>The human body is flexible and deformable, particularly the softer tissues. A hard slap on the face may briefly impose hundreds of <i>g</i> locally but not produce any real damage; a constant 16 <i>g</i> for a minute, however, may be deadly. When <a href="/wiki/Vibration" title="Vibration">vibration</a> is experienced, relatively low peak g-force levels can be severely damaging if they are at the <a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonant frequency</a> of organs or connective tissues.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Where does 16g come from? Can we back up the claim about resonant frequency of body parts? (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>To some degree, g-tolerance can be trainable, and there is also considerable variation in innate ability between individuals. In addition, some illnesses, particularly <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">cardiovascular</a> problems, reduce g-tolerance. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vertical">Vertical</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vertical"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aircraft pilots (in particular) sustain g-forces along the axis aligned with the spine. This causes significant variation in blood pressure along the length of the subject's body, which limits the maximum g-forces that can be tolerated. </p><p>Positive, or "upward" g-force, drives blood downward to the feet of a seated or standing person (more naturally, the feet and body may be seen as being driven by the upward force of the floor and seat, upward around the blood). Resistance to positive g-force varies. A typical person can handle about 5 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub> (49 m/s<sup>2</sup>) (meaning some people might pass out when riding a higher-g roller coaster, which in some cases exceeds this point) before <a href="/wiki/G-LOC" title="G-LOC">losing consciousness</a>, but through the combination of special <a href="/wiki/G-suit" title="G-suit">g-suits</a> and efforts to strain muscles—both of which act to force blood back into the brain—modern pilots can typically handle a sustained 9 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub> (88 m/s<sup>2</sup>) (see <a href="/wiki/High-G_training" class="mw-redirect" title="High-G training">High-G training</a>). </p><p>In aircraft particularly, vertical g-forces are often positive (force blood towards the feet and away from the head); this causes problems with the eyes and brain in particular. As positive vertical g-force is progressively increased (such as in a <a href="/wiki/Centrifuge" title="Centrifuge">centrifuge</a>) the following symptoms may be experienced:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greyout_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Greyout (medical)">Grey-out</a>, where the vision loses hue, easily reversible on levelling out</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_vision" title="Tunnel vision">Tunnel vision</a>, where peripheral vision is progressively lost</li> <li>Blackout, a loss of vision while consciousness is maintained, caused by a lack of blood flow to the head</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G-LOC" title="G-LOC">G-LOC</a>, a g-force induced loss of consciousness<sup id="cite_ref-pmid3281645_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid3281645-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Death, if g-forces are not quickly reduced</li></ul> <p>Resistance to "negative" or "downward" g, which drives blood to the head, is much lower. This limit is typically in the −2 to −3 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub> (−20 to −29 m/s<sup>2</sup>) range. This condition is sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Red_out" class="mw-redirect" title="Red out">red out</a> where vision is literally reddened<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to the blood-laden lower eyelid being pulled into the field of vision.<sup id="cite_ref-Fundamentals_of_Aerospace_Medicine_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fundamentals_of_Aerospace_Medicine-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negative g-force is generally unpleasant and can cause damage. Blood vessels in the eyes or brain may swell or burst under the increased blood pressure, resulting in degraded sight or even blindness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Horizontal">Horizontal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Horizontal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The human body is better at surviving g-forces that are perpendicular to the spine. In general when the acceleration is forwards (subject essentially lying on their back, colloquially known as "eyeballs in"),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a much higher tolerance is shown than when the acceleration is backwards (lying on their front, "eyeballs out") since blood vessels in the retina appear more sensitive in the latter direction.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Early experiments showed that untrained humans were able to tolerate a range of accelerations depending on the time of exposure. This ranged from as much as <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002196132999999999♠"></span>20 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub></span> for less than 10 seconds, to <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001980664999999999♠"></span>10 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub></span> for 1 minute, and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001588399000000000♠"></span>6 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub></span> for 10 minutes for both eyeballs in and out.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These forces were endured with cognitive facilities intact, as subjects were able to perform simple physical and communication tasks. The tests were determined not to cause long- or short-term harm although tolerance was quite subjective, with only the most motivated non-pilots capable of completing tests.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The record for peak experimental horizontal g-force tolerance is held by acceleration pioneer <a href="/wiki/John_Stapp" title="John Stapp">John Stapp</a>, in a series of rocket sled deceleration experiments culminating in a late 1954 test in which he was clocked in a little over a second from a land speed of Mach 0.9. He survived a peak "eyeballs-out" acceleration of 46.2 times the acceleration of gravity, and more than <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7002245166250000000♠"></span>25 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub></span> for 1.1 seconds, proving that the human body is capable of this. Stapp lived another 45 years to age 89<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> without any ill effects.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The highest recorded g-force experienced by a human who survived was during the <a href="/wiki/2003_IndyCar_Series" title="2003 IndyCar Series">2003 IndyCar Series</a> finale at Texas Motor Speedway on 12 October 2003, in the 2003 Chevy 500 when the car driven by <a href="/wiki/Kenny_Br%C3%A4ck" title="Kenny Bräck">Kenny Bräck</a> made wheel-to-wheel contact with <a href="/wiki/Tomas_Scheckter" title="Tomas Scheckter">Tomas Scheckter</a>'s car. This immediately resulted in Bräck's car impacting the catch fence that would record a peak of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003209862309999999♠"></span>214 <i>g</i><sub>0</sub></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Short_duration_shock,_impact,_and_jerk"><span id="Short_duration_shock.2C_impact.2C_and_jerk"></span>Short duration shock, impact, and jerk</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Short duration shock, impact, and jerk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Impact_(mechanics)" title="Impact (mechanics)">Impact</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical shock">mechanical shock</a> are usually used to describe a high-<a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic-energy</a>, short-term excitation. A shock pulse is often measured by its peak acceleration in <span class="texhtml"><i>ɡ</i><sub>0</sub></span>·s and the pulse duration. <a href="/wiki/Vibration" title="Vibration">Vibration</a> is a periodic <a href="/wiki/Oscillation" title="Oscillation">oscillation</a> which can also be measured in <span class="texhtml"><i>ɡ</i><sub>0</sub></span>·s as well as frequency. The dynamics of these phenomena are what distinguish them from the g-forces caused by a relatively longer-term accelerations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After a free fall from a height <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>h</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/b26be3e694314bc90c3215047e4a2010c6ee184a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.339ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h}"></span> followed by deceleration over a distance <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>d</mi> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}"></span> during an impact, the shock on an object is <span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (h/d)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>h</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>/</mo> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (h/d)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/85da18aa36bc25aee69fa5026c3e4a471e465d58" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.527ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (h/d)}"></span>· <span class="texhtml"><i>ɡ</i><sub>0</sub></span>. For example, a stiff and compact object dropped from 1 m that impacts over a distance of 1 mm is subjected to a 1000 <span class="texhtml"><i>ɡ</i><sub>0</sub></span> deceleration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jerk_(physics)" title="Jerk (physics)">Jerk</a> is the rate of change of acceleration. In SI units, jerk is expressed as m/s<sup>3</sup>; it can also be expressed in <a href="/wiki/Standard_gravity" title="Standard gravity">standard gravity</a> per second (<span class="texhtml"><i>ɡ</i><sub>0</sub></span>/s; 1 <span class="texhtml"><i>ɡ</i><sub>0</sub></span>/s ≈ 9.81 m/s<sup>3</sup>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_biological_responses">Other biological responses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Other biological responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent research carried out on <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophiles</a> in Japan involved a variety of bacteria (including <i><a href="/wiki/E._coli" class="mw-redirect" title="E. coli">E. coli</a></i> as a non-extremophile control) being subject to conditions of extreme gravity. The bacteria were cultivated while being rotated in an <a href="/wiki/Ultracentrifuge" title="Ultracentrifuge">ultracentrifuge</a> at high speeds corresponding to 403,627 g. <i><a href="/wiki/Paracoccus_denitrificans" title="Paracoccus denitrificans">Paracoccus denitrificans</a></i> was one of the bacteria that displayed not only survival but also robust cellular growth under these conditions of hyperacceleration, which are usually only to be found in cosmic environments, such as on very massive stars or in the shock waves of <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovas</a>. Analysis showed that the small size of prokaryotic cells is essential for successful growth under <a href="/wiki/Hypergravity" title="Hypergravity">hypergravity</a>. Notably, two multicellular species, the <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Panagrolaimus_superbus" title="Panagrolaimus superbus">Panagrolaimus superbus</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i> were shown to be able to tolerate 400,000 × <i>g</i> for 1 hour.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The research has implications on the feasibility of <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">panspermia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typical_examples">Typical examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Typical examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(acceleration)" title="Orders of magnitude (acceleration)">Orders of magnitude (acceleration)</a></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Example </th> <th>g-force<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td>The gyro rotors in <a href="/wiki/Gravity_Probe_B" title="Gravity Probe B">Gravity Probe B</a> and the free-floating proof masses in the TRIAD I navigation satellite<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">0 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>A ride in the <a href="/wiki/Vomit_Comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vomit Comet">Vomit Comet</a> (parabolic flight) </td> <td align="right"><a href="/wiki/Approximation#Unicode" title="Approximation">≈</a> 0 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Mimas_(moon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mimas (moon)">Mimas</a>, the smallest and least massive known body <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium#Planetary_geology" title="Hydrostatic equilibrium">rounded by its own gravity</a> </td> <td align="right">0.006 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a>, the smallest and least massive known body <i>currently</i> in <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_equilibrium#Planetary_geology" title="Hydrostatic equilibrium">hydrostatic equilibrium</a> </td> <td align="right">0.029 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a> at average ground level </td> <td align="right">0.063 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Eris_(dwarf_planet)" title="Eris (dwarf planet)">Eris</a> at average ground level </td> <td align="right">0.084 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a> at average ground level </td> <td align="right">0.138 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymede</a> at average surface level </td> <td align="right">0.146 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> at surface level </td> <td align="right">0.1657 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2000 <a href="/wiki/Toyota_Sienna" title="Toyota Sienna">Toyota Sienna</a> from 0 to 100 km/h in 9.2 s<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">0.3075–0.314 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a> </td> <td align="right">0.377 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> at its equator at mean ground level </td> <td align="right">0.378 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> at average ground level </td> <td align="right">0.905 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standing on Earth at sea level–standard </td> <td align="right">1 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Saturn_V" title="Saturn V">Saturn V</a> Moon rocket just after launch and the gravity of <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a> where atmospheric pressure is about Earth's </td> <td align="right">1.14 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bugatti_Veyron" title="Bugatti Veyron">Bugatti Veyron</a> from 0 to 100 km/h in 2.4 s </td> <td align="right">1.55 <i>g</i><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gravitron" title="Gravitron">Gravitron</a> amusement ride </td> <td align="right">2.5-3 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gravity of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> at its mid-latitudes and where atmospheric pressure is about Earth's </td> <td align="right">2.528 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Uninhibited sneeze after sniffing ground pepper<sup id="cite_ref-allen94_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen94-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">2.9 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a>, maximum during launch and reentry </td> <td align="right">3 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>High-g <a href="/wiki/Roller_coaster" title="Roller coaster">roller coasters</a><sup id="cite_ref-BBB_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BBB-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 340">: 340 </span></sup> </td> <td align="right">3.5–12 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hearty greeting slap on upper back<sup id="cite_ref-allen94_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-allen94-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">4.1 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Top_Fuel" title="Top Fuel">Top Fuel</a> <a href="/wiki/Drag_racing" title="Drag racing">drag racing</a> world record of 4.4 s over 1/4 mile </td> <td align="right">4.2 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>First world war aircraft (ex:<a href="/wiki/Sopwith_Camel" title="Sopwith Camel">Sopwith Camel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fokker_Dr.1" class="mw-redirect" title="Fokker Dr.1">Fokker Dr.1</a>, <a href="/wiki/SPAD_S.XIII" title="SPAD S.XIII">SPAD S.XIII</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nieuport_17" title="Nieuport 17">Nieuport 17</a>, <a href="/wiki/Albatros_D.III" title="Albatros D.III">Albatros D.III</a>) in dogfight maneuvering. </td> <td align="right">4.5–7 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Luge" title="Luge">Luge</a>, maximum expected at the Whistler Sliding Centre </td> <td align="right">5.2 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Formula_One_car" title="Formula One car">Formula One car</a>, maximum under heavy braking<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">6.3 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gold_Reef_City#Rides_and_attractions" title="Gold Reef City">Tower Of Terror</a>, highest g-force steel rollercoaster </td> <td align="right">6.3 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Formula_One_car" title="Formula One car">Formula One car</a>, peak lateral in turns<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">6–6.5 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Standard, full aerobatics certified <a href="/wiki/Glider_aircraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Glider aircraft">glider</a> </td> <td align="right">+7/−5 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Apollo_16" title="Apollo 16">Apollo 16</a> on reentry<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">7.19 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maximum permitted g-force in <a href="/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-27" title="Sukhoi Su-27">Sukhoi Su-27</a> plane </td> <td align="right">9 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maximum permitted g-force in <a href="/wiki/Mikoyan_MiG-35" title="Mikoyan MiG-35">Mikoyan MiG-35</a> plane and maximum permitted g-force turn in <a href="/wiki/Red_Bull_Air_Race" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Bull Air Race">Red Bull Air Race</a> planes </td> <td align="right">10 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flip_Flap_Railway" title="Flip Flap Railway">Flip Flap Railway</a>, highest g-force wooden rollercoaster </td> <td align="right">12 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Jet Fighter pilot during <a href="/wiki/Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">ejection seat</a> activation </td> <td align="right">15-25 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gravitational acceleration at the surface of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> </td> <td align="right">28 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Maximum g-force in <a href="/wiki/Tor_missile_system" title="Tor missile system">Tor missile system</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">30 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Stapp#Work_on_effects_of_deceleration" title="John Stapp">Maximum for human on a rocket sled</a> </td> <td align="right">46.2 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Formula_One" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> <a href="/wiki/2021_British_Grand_Prix" title="2021 British Grand Prix">2021 British Grand Prix</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Verstappen" title="Max Verstappen">Max Verstappen</a> Crash with <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Hamilton" title="Lewis Hamilton">Lewis Hamilton</a> </td> <td align="right">51 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Formula_One" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> <a href="/wiki/2020_Bahrain_Grand_Prix" title="2020 Bahrain Grand Prix">2020 Bahrain Grand Prix</a> <a href="/wiki/Romain_Grosjean" title="Romain Grosjean">Romain Grosjean</a> Crash<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">67 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sprint_(missile)" title="Sprint (missile)">Sprint missile</a> </td> <td align="right">100 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Brief human exposure survived in crash<sup id="cite_ref-nhtsa.dot.gov_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nhtsa.dot.gov-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">> 100 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/IndyCar" title="IndyCar">IndyCar</a> <a href="/wiki/2003_Chevy_500" title="2003 Chevy 500">2003 Texas</a> <a href="/wiki/Kenny_Br%C3%A4ck" title="Kenny Bräck">Kenny Bräck</a> Crash </td> <td align="right">214 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Formula_One" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> <a href="/wiki/2014_Japanese_Grand_Prix" title="2014 Japanese Grand Prix">2014 Japanese Grand Prix</a> <a href="/wiki/Jules_Bianchi" title="Jules Bianchi">Jules Bianchi</a> Crash </td> <td align="right">254 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Formula_One" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> <a href="/wiki/1994_Monaco_Grand_Prix" title="1994 Monaco Grand Prix">1994 Monaco Grand Prix</a> <a href="/wiki/Karl_Wendlinger" title="Karl Wendlinger">Karl Wendlinger</a><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crash </td> <td align="right">≈360 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a> (Sun)<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">480 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Formula_One" title="Formula One">Formula One</a> <a href="/wiki/1994_San_Marino_Grand_Prix" title="1994 San Marino Grand Prix">1994 San Marino Grand Prix</a> <a href="/wiki/Roland_Ratzenberger" title="Roland Ratzenberger">Roland Ratzenberger</a> Qualifying Crash </td> <td align="right">500 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Space_gun" title="Space gun">Space gun</a> with a barrel length of 1 km and a <a href="/wiki/Muzzle_velocity" title="Muzzle velocity">muzzle velocity</a> of 6 km/s, as proposed by <a href="/wiki/Quicklaunch" title="Quicklaunch">Quicklaunch</a> (assuming constant acceleration) </td> <td align="right">1,800 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Shock capability of mechanical wrist watches<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">> 5,000 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>V8 <a href="/wiki/Formula_One_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Formula One engine">Formula One engine</a>, maximum piston acceleration<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">8,600 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mantis_Shrimp" class="mw-redirect" title="Mantis Shrimp">Mantis Shrimp</a>, acceleration of claw during predatory strike<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">10,400 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rating of electronics built into military artillery shells<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">15,500 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Analytical ultracentrifuge spinning at 60,000 rpm, at the bottom of the analysis cell (7.2 cm)<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">300,000 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Calculated acceleration of the mandibles of the ant species <i><a href="/wiki/Mystrium" title="Mystrium">Mystrium camillae</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">607,805 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Acceleration of a <a href="/wiki/Cnidocyte" title="Cnidocyte">nematocyst</a>: the fastest recorded acceleration from any biological entity.<sup id="cite_ref-Timm+2006_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Timm+2006-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">5,410,000 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mean acceleration of a proton in the <a href="/wiki/Large_Hadron_Collider" title="Large Hadron Collider">Large Hadron Collider</a><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right">190,000,000 <i>g</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Gravitational acceleration at the surface of a typical <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star" title="Neutron star">neutron star</a><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7011200000000000000♠"></span>2.0<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>11</sup> <i>g</i></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Acceleration from a <a href="/wiki/Wakefield_plasma_accelerator" class="mw-redirect" title="Wakefield plasma accelerator">wakefield plasma accelerator</a><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td align="right"><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7020890000000000000♠"></span>8.9<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>20</sup> <i>g</i></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measurement_using_an_accelerometer">Measurement using an accelerometer</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Measurement using an accelerometer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/G-force" title="Special:EditPage/G-force">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Superman_Escape_from_Krypton_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Superman_Escape_from_Krypton_tower.jpg/170px-Superman_Escape_from_Krypton_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Superman_Escape_from_Krypton_tower.jpg/255px-Superman_Escape_from_Krypton_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Superman_Escape_from_Krypton_tower.jpg/340px-Superman_Escape_from_Krypton_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Superman:_Escape_from_Krypton" title="Superman: Escape from Krypton">Superman: Escape from Krypton</a> roller coaster at <a href="/wiki/Six_Flags_Magic_Mountain" title="Six Flags Magic Mountain">Six Flags Magic Mountain</a> provides 6.5 seconds of ballistic weightlessness</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Accelerometer" title="Accelerometer">accelerometer</a>, in its simplest form, is a <a href="/wiki/Dashpot" title="Dashpot">damped</a> mass on the end of a spring, with some way of measuring how far the mass has moved on the spring in a particular direction, called an 'axis'. </p><p>Accelerometers are often <a href="/wiki/Calibrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calibrate">calibrated</a> to measure g-force along one or more axes. If a stationary, single-axis accelerometer is oriented so that its measuring axis is horizontal, its output will be 0 <i>g</i>, and it will continue to be 0 <i>g</i> if mounted in an automobile traveling at a constant velocity on a level road. When the driver presses on the brake or gas pedal, the accelerometer will register positive or negative acceleration. </p><p>If the accelerometer is rotated by 90° so that it is vertical, it will read +1 <i>g</i> upwards even though stationary. In that situation, the accelerometer is subject to two forces: the <a href="/wiki/Gravitational_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational force">gravitational force</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ground_reaction_force" title="Ground reaction force">ground reaction force</a> of the surface it is resting on. Only the latter force can be measured by the accelerometer, due to mechanical interaction between the accelerometer and the ground. The reading is the acceleration the instrument would have if it were exclusively subject to that force. </p><p>A three-axis accelerometer will output zero‑g on all three axes if it is dropped or otherwise put into a <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">ballistic</a> trajectory (also known as an <a href="/wiki/Inertial" class="mw-redirect" title="Inertial">inertial</a> trajectory), so that it experiences "free fall", as do astronauts in orbit (astronauts experience small tidal accelerations called microgravity, which are neglected for the sake of discussion here). Some amusement park rides can provide several seconds at near-zero g. Riding NASA's "<a href="/wiki/Vomit_Comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vomit Comet">Vomit Comet</a>" provides near-zero g-force for about 25 seconds at a time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_gravity" title="Artificial gravity">Artificial gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_gravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's gravity">Earth's gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_acceleration" title="Gravitational acceleration">Gravitational acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational interaction">Gravitational interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergravity" title="Hypergravity">Hypergravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(aeronautics)" title="Load factor (aeronautics)">Load factor (aeronautics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_ground_acceleration" title="Peak ground acceleration">Peak ground acceleration</a> – g-force of earthquakes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prone_pilot" title="Prone pilot">Prone pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_weight#Comparison_with_g-force" title="Apparent weight">Relation between g-force and apparent weight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_vibration_data_logger" title="Shock and vibration data logger">Shock and vibration data logger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_detector" title="Shock detector">Shock detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supine_cockpit" title="Supine cockpit">Supine cockpit</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Including contribution from resistance to gravity.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Directed 40 degrees from horizontal.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDeziel" class="citation web cs1">Deziel, Chris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sciencing.com/convert-newtons-gforce-8720337.html">"How to Convert Newtons to G-Force"</a>. <i>sciencing.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230129224605/https://sciencing.com/convert-newtons-gforce-8720337.html">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 January</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=sciencing.com&rft.atitle=How+to+Convert+Newtons+to+G-Force&rft.aulast=Deziel&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsciencing.com%2Fconvert-newtons-gforce-8720337.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy99/phy99491.htm">G Force</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120125033953/http://newton.dep.anl.gov/askasci/phy99/phy99491.htm">Archived</a> 25 January 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Newton.dep.anl.gov. Retrieved on 14 October 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSircar2007" class="citation book cs1">Sircar, Sabyasachi (12 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zFl7y5xqHj4C&pg=PA6"><i>Principles of Medical Physiology</i></a>. Thieme. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58890-572-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58890-572-7"><bdi>978-1-58890-572-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230721042220/https://books.google.com/books?id=zFl7y5xqHj4C&pg=PA6">Archived</a> from the original on 21 July 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Medical+Physiology&rft.pub=Thieme&rft.date=2007-12-12&rft.isbn=978-1-58890-572-7&rft.aulast=Sircar&rft.aufirst=Sabyasachi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzFl7y5xqHj4C%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nist.gov/pml/owm/si-units-length">"SI Units – Length"</a>. <i>NIST</i>. 12 April 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221218153038/https://www.nist.gov/pml/owm/si-units-length">Archived</a> from the original on 18 December 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NIST&rft.atitle=SI+Units+%E2%80%93+Length&rft.date=2010-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nist.gov%2Fpml%2Fowm%2Fsi-units-length&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3rd_CGPM-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3rd_CGPM_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">BIPM: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/3-1901/resolution-2">Declaration on the unit of mass and on the definition of weight; conventional value of g<sub>n</sub></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211016214949/https://www.bipm.org/en/committees/cg/cgpm/3-1901/resolution-2">Archived</a> 16 October 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-symbols-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-symbols_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Symbol g: ESA: GOCE, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.esa.int/esaLP/ESAK4XZK0TC_LPgoce_0.html">Basic Measurement Units</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120212231429/http://www.esa.int/esaLP/ESAK4XZK0TC_LPgoce_0.html">Archived</a> February 12, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, NASA: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4201/ch2-4.htm">Multiple G</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171225233506/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4201/ch2-4.htm">Archived</a> December 25, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Astronautix: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.astronautix.com/astros/stapp.htm">Stapp</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090321182843/http://www.astronautix.com/astros/stapp.htm">Archived</a> March 21, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Honeywell: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.honeywell.com/sensing/sensotec/accelerometers.asp">Accelerometers</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090217092615/http://content.honeywell.com/sensing/sensotec/accelerometers.asp">Archived</a> February 17, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Sensr LLC: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sensr.com/products/gp1/index.php">GP1 Programmable Accelerometer</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090201150824/http://sensr.com/products/gp1/index.php">Archived</a> February 1, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Farnell: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://au.farnell.com/jsp/search/browse.jsp?N=500001+1000197&Ntk=gensearch_001&Ntt=accelerometer&Ntx=">accelometers</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged February 2020">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></i>, Delphi: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://delphi.com/about/motorsports/products/adr3/">Accident Data Recorder 3 (ADR3) MS0148</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202091041/http://delphi.com/about/motorsports/products/adr3/">Archived</a> December 2, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, NASA: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ksc.nasa.gov/facts/faq04.html">Constants and Equations for Calculations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090118161602/http://www.ksc.nasa.gov/facts/faq04.html">Archived</a> January 18, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Jet Propulsion Laboratory: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mtp.jpl.nasa.gov/notes/altitude/altitude.html">A Discussion of Various Measures of Altitude</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090210035728/http://mtp.jpl.nasa.gov/notes/altitude/altitude.html">Archived</a> February 10, 2009, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/problems/studies/record/chidester.htm">Recording Automotive Crash Event Data</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100405091131/http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/problems/studies/record/chidester.htm">Archived</a> April 5, 2010, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i><br /> Symbol G: Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/s2ch5.htm"><i>ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: BIOMEDICAL RESULTS OF APOLLO</i>, Section II, Chapter 5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081122024243/http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/s2ch5.htm">Archived</a> 22 November 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Honywell: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://content.honeywell.com/sensing/sensotec/pdf_catalog08/008727-1-EN_Model_JTF_Gen_Pur.pdf">Model JTF, General Purpose Accelerometer</a></i> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://goflightmedicine.com/pulling-gs/">"Pulling G's"</a>. <i>Go Flight Medicine</i>. 5 April 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210112121657/https://goflightmedicine.com/pulling-gs/">Archived</a> from the original on 12 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Go+Flight+Medicine&rft.atitle=Pulling+G%27s&rft.date=2013-04-05&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgoflightmedicine.com%2Fpulling-gs%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brulle-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brulle_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_V._Brulle2008" class="citation book cs1">Robert V. Brulle (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170104164718/http://www.au.af.mil/au/aupress/digital/pdf/book/b_0113_brulle_engineering_space_age.pdf"><i>Engineering the Space Age: A Rocket Scientist Remembers</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Air University Press. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58566-184-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58566-184-8"><bdi>978-1-58566-184-8</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.defense.gov/2017/Apr/05/2001727358/-1/-1/0/B_0113_BRULLE_ENGINEERING_SPACE_AGE.PDF">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 4 January 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Engineering+the+Space+Age%3A+A+Rocket+Scientist+Remembers&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Air+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-58566-184-8&rft.au=Robert+V.+Brulle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.defense.gov%2F2017%2FApr%2F05%2F2001727358%2F-1%2F-1%2F0%2FB_0113_BRULLE_ENGINEERING_SPACE_AGE.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balldin-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Balldin_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalldin2002" class="citation book cs1">Balldin, Ulf I. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130806031016/http://www.cs.amedd.army.mil/borden/Portlet.aspx?ID=7c0ebab2-6720-4e15-883b-dbfaafa960f9">"Chapter 33: Acceleration effects on fighter pilots."</a>. In Lounsbury, Dave E. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.amedd.army.mil/borden/Portlet.aspx?ID=7c0ebab2-6720-4e15-883b-dbfaafa960f9"><i>Medical conditions of Harsh Environments</i></a>. Vol. 2. Washington, DC: Office of The Surgeon General, Department of the Army, United States of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780160510717" title="Special:BookSources/9780160510717"><bdi>9780160510717</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49322507">49322507</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/harshEnv2/HE2ch33.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 August 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 September</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+33%3A+Acceleration+effects+on+fighter+pilots.&rft.btitle=Medical+conditions+of+Harsh+Environments&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Office+of+The+Surgeon+General%2C+Department+of+the+Army%2C+United+States+of+America&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49322507&rft.isbn=9780160510717&rft.aulast=Balldin&rft.aufirst=Ulf+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fke.army.mil%2Fbordeninstitute%2Fpublished_volumes%2FharshEnv2%2FHE2ch33.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBB-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBB_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBB_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">George Bibel. <i>Beyond the Black Box: the Forensics of Airplane Crashes</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-8631-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-8631-7">0-8018-8631-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid3281645-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid3281645_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurton_RR1988" class="citation journal cs1">Burton RR (1988). "G-induced loss of consciousness: definition, history, current status". <i>Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine</i>. <b>59</b> (1): 2–5. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3281645">3281645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aviation%2C+Space%2C+and+Environmental+Medicine&rft.atitle=G-induced+loss+of+consciousness%3A+definition%2C+history%2C+current+status&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=2-5&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3281645&rft.au=Burton+RR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown1999" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Robert G (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hw_0x_pBP3AC&pg=PA60"><i>On the edge: Personal flying experiences during the Second World War</i></a>. GeneralStore PublishingHouse. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-896182-87-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-896182-87-2"><bdi>978-1-896182-87-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+edge%3A+Personal+flying+experiences+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.pub=GeneralStore+PublishingHouse&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-896182-87-2&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Robert+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhw_0x_pBP3AC%26pg%3DPA60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fundamentals_of_Aerospace_Medicine-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Fundamentals_of_Aerospace_Medicine_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeHart2002" class="citation book cs1">DeHart, Roy L. (2002). <i>Fundamentals of Aerospace Medicine: 3rd Edition</i>. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Aerospace+Medicine%3A+3rd+Edition&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=DeHart&rft.aufirst=Roy+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080520061140/http://roland.lerc.nasa.gov/~dglover/dictionary//tables/table11.html">"NASA Physiological Acceleration Systems"</a>. 20 May 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://roland.lerc.nasa.gov/~dglover/dictionary//tables/table11.html">the original</a> on 20 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NASA+Physiological+Acceleration+Systems&rft.date=2008-05-20&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Froland.lerc.nasa.gov%2F~dglover%2Fdictionary%2F%2Ftables%2Ftable11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19980223621/downloads/19980223621.pdf">NASA Technical note D-337, Centrifuge Study of Pilot Tolerance to Acceleration and the Effects of Acceleration on Pilot Performance</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217014537/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19980223621/downloads/19980223621.pdf">Archived</a> 17 February 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Brent Y. Creer, Captain Harald A. Smedal, USN (MC), and Rodney C. Wingrove, figure 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19980223621/downloads/19980223621.pdf">NASA Technical note D-337, Centrifuge Study of Pilot Tolerance to Acceleration and the Effects of Acceleration on Pilot Performance</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220217014537/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19980223621/downloads/19980223621.pdf">Archived</a> 17 February 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Brent Y. Creer, Captain Harald A. Smedal, USN (MC), and Rodney C. Vtlfngrove</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejectionsite.com/stapp.htm">Fastest Man on Earth – John Paul Stapp</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171215201020/http://www.ejectionsite.com/stapp.htm">Archived</a> 15 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Ejection Site. Retrieved on 14 October 2011.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin1999" class="citation web cs1">Martin, Douglas (16 November 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/16/us/john-paul-stapp-89-is-dead-the-fastest-man-on-earth.html">"John Paul Stapp, 89, Is Dead; 'The Fastest Man on Earth'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230903155450/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/16/us/john-paul-stapp-89-is-dead-the-fastest-man-on-earth.html">Archived</a> from the original on 3 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=John+Paul+Stapp%2C+89%2C+Is+Dead%3B+%27The+Fastest+Man+on+Earth%27&rft.date=1999-11-16&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1999%2F11%2F16%2Fus%2Fjohn-paul-stapp-89-is-dead-the-fastest-man-on-earth.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news.com.au/sport/motorsport/formula-one/jules-bianchi-survived-92g-impact-in-horror-formula-one-crash/news-story/c381589f42393105511f8413c3b2fd52">"New details from horror crash"</a>. <i>News.com.au</i>. 16 October 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032013/http://www.news.com.au/sport/motorsport/formula-one/jules-bianchi-survived-92g-impact-in-horror-formula-one-crash/news-story/c381589f42393105511f8413c3b2fd52">Archived</a> from the original on 1 December 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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YouTube. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zJRh9FG83d0">the original</a> on 30 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=F1+2017+v+2016%3A+G-Force+Comparison&rft.pub=YouTube&rft.date=2017-03-31&rft.au=FORMULA+1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3DzJRh9FG83d0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">6 <i>g</i> has been recorded in the 130R turn at Suzuka circuit, Japan. <i><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100228061655/http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2009/9/10005.html">"Formula 1™ - the Official F1™ Website"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2009/9/10005.html">the original</a> on 28 February 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Formula+1%E2%84%A2+-+the+Official+F1%E2%84%A2+Website&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.formula1.com%2Fnews%2Fheadlines%2F2009%2F9%2F10005.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></i> Many turns have 5 <i>g</i> peak values, like turn 8 at Istanbul or Eau Rouge at Spa</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NASA: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090226122959/http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/Resize-jpg/ts2c5-2.jpg">Table 2: Apollo Manned Space Flight Reentry G Levels</a> Lsda.jsc.nasa.gov</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Russia trains Greek Tor-M1 crews". 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.fia.com&rft.atitle=FIA+CONCLUDES+INVESTIGATION+INTO+ROMAIN+GROSJEAN%27S+ACCIDENT+AT+2020+BAHRAIN+FORMULA+1+GRAND+PRIX+AND+RELEASES+2021+CIRCUIT+RACING+SAFETY+INITIATIVES&rft.date=2021-03-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.fia.com%2Fnews%2Ffia-concludes-investigation-romain-grosjeans-accident-2020-bahrain-formula-1-grand-prix-and&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nhtsa.dot.gov-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nhtsa.dot.gov_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Several Indy car drivers have withstood impacts in excess of 100 G without serious injuries." Dennis F. Shanahan, M.D., M.P.H.: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ftp.rta.nato.int/public/PubFullText/RTO/EN/RTO-EN-HFM-113/EN-HFM-113-06.pdf"><i>Human Tolerance and Crash Survivability</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131104162124/http://ftp.rta.nato.int/public//PubFullText/RTO/EN/RTO-EN-HFM-113///EN-HFM-113-06.pdf">Archived</a> 4 November 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, citing Society of Automotive Engineers. Indy racecar crash analysis. Automotive Engineering International, June 1999, 87–90. And National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/problems/studies/record/chidester.htm">Recording Automotive Crash Event Data</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100405091131/http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/problems/studies/record/chidester.htm">Archived</a> 5 April 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mellor, Andrew. "Formula One Accident Investigations." 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Auto123.com&rft.atitle=F1%3A+Stunning+data+about+the+Cosworth+V-8+Formula+1+engine+-+Auto123.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.auto123.com%2Fen%2Fracing-news%2Fformula-1%2Ff1-stunning-data-about-the-cosworth-v-8-formula-1-engine%3Fartid%3D117234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFS._N._Patek,_W._L._Korff_&_R._L._Caldwell2004" class="citation journal cs1">S. N. Patek, W. L. Korff & R. L. Caldwell (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210126130108/https://pateklab.biology.duke.edu/sites/pateklab.biology.duke.edu/files/Pateketal2004Nature.pdf">"Deadly strike mechanism of a mantis shrimp"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>428</b> (6985): 819–820. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004Natur.428..819P">2004Natur.428..819P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F428819a">10.1038/428819a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15103366">15103366</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4324997">4324997</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pateklab.biology.duke.edu/sites/pateklab.biology.duke.edu/files/Pateketal2004Nature.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 26 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 June</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Deadly+strike+mechanism+of+a+mantis+shrimp&rft.volume=428&rft.issue=6985&rft.pages=819-820&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F428819a&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4324997%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15103366&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004Natur.428..819P&rft.au=S.+N.+Patek%2C+W.+L.+Korff+%26+R.+L.+Caldwell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpateklab.biology.duke.edu%2Fsites%2Fpateklab.biology.duke.edu%2Ffiles%2FPateketal2004Nature.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110221062358/http://www.iechome.com/news/032003.htm">"L3 IEC"</a>. <i>Iechome.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iechome.com/news/032003.htm">the original</a> on 21 February 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Iechome.com&rft.atitle=L3+IEC&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iechome.com%2Fnews%2F032003.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(rpm·π/30)<sup>2</sup>·0.072/g</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBittel" class="citation web cs1">Bittel, Jason. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210306180237/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/dracula-ant-fastest-animal-quickest-strike-on-record">"Dracula ant's killer bite makes it the fastest animal on Earth"</a>. <i>National Geographic</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/dracula-ant-fastest-animal-quickest-strike-on-record">the original</a> on 6 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic&rft.atitle=Dracula+ant%27s+killer+bite+makes+it+the+fastest+animal+on+Earth&rft.aulast=Bittel&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalgeographic.com%2Fanimals%2Farticle%2Fdracula-ant-fastest-animal-quickest-strike-on-record&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Timm+2006-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Timm+2006_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNüchter_TimmBenoit_MartinEngel_UlrikeÖzbek_Suat2006" class="citation journal cs1">Nüchter Timm; Benoit Martin; Engel Ulrike; Özbek Suat; Holstein Thomas W (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.03.089">"Nanosecond-scale kinetics of nematocyst discharge"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>16</b> (9): R316–R318. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006CBio...16.R316N">2006CBio...16.R316N</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.03.089">10.1016/j.cub.2006.03.089</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16682335">16682335</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Nanosecond-scale+kinetics+of+nematocyst+discharge&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=R316-R318&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16682335&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2006.03.089&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006CBio...16.R316N&rft.au=N%C3%BCchter+Timm&rft.au=Benoit+Martin&rft.au=Engel+Ulrike&rft.au=%C3%96zbek+Suat&rft.au=Holstein+Thomas+W&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2006.03.089&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(7 TeV/(20 minutes·c))/proton mass</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreenJonesBurnell2004" class="citation book cs1">Green, Simon F.; Jones, Mark H.; Burnell, S. Jocelyn (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lb5owLGIQGsC"><i>An Introduction to the Sun and Stars</i></a> (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54622-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54622-5"><bdi>978-0-521-54622-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Sun+and+Stars&rft.pages=322&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54622-5&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Simon+F.&rft.au=Jones%2C+Mark+H.&rft.au=Burnell%2C+S.+Jocelyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlb5owLGIQGsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lb5owLGIQGsC&pg=PA322">Extract of page 322</a> note: <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7012200000000000000♠"></span>2.00<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>12</sup> ms<sup>−2</sup></span> = <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7008204000000000000♠"></span>2.04<span style="margin-left:0.25em;margin-right:0.15em;">×</span>10<sup>11</sup> g</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(42 <i>g</i>eV/85 cm)/electron mass</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaller2005" class="citation journal cs1">Faller, James E. (November–December 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4846227">"The Measurement of Little g: A Fertile Ground for Precision Measurement Science"</a>. <i>Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology</i>. <b>110</b> (6): 559–581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.6028%2Fjres.110.082">10.6028/jres.110.082</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4846227">4846227</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27308179">27308179</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Research+of+the+National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft.atitle=The+Measurement+of+Little+g%3A+A+Fertile+Ground+for+Precision+Measurement+Science&rft.volume=110&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=559-581&rft.date=2005-11%2F2005-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4846227%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27308179&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.6028%2Fjres.110.082&rft.aulast=Faller&rft.aufirst=James+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4846227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AG-force" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=G-force&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PyEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA91">"How Many Gs Can a Flyer Take?"</a>, October 1944, <i><a href="/wiki/Popular_Science" title="Popular Science">Popular Science</a></i>—one of the first detailed public articles explaining this subject</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.03/7g.html">Enduring a human centrifuge at the NASA Ames Research Center</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://aviation.stackexchange.com/questions/6411/does-a-prone-position-for-the-pilot-minimize-g-force-effects">[1]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.nestofdragons.net/weird-airplanes/proned-pilots/">[2]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.nurflugel.com/Nurflugel/n_o_d/weird_07.htm">[3]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://medium.com/@vaishnavirajesh/a-preface-to-planes-with-pronated-pilots-33f5286cd721">[4]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/tr/pdf/AD0282780.pdf">HUMAN CAPABILITIES IN THE PRONE AND SUPINE POSITIONS. AN ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=G-force&oldid=1256955936">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=G-force&oldid=1256955936</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Acceleration" title="Category:Acceleration">Acceleration</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Gravimetry" title="Category:Gravimetry">Gravimetry</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Units_of_acceleration" title="Category:Units of acceleration">Units of acceleration</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" 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