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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foundation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Foundation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expansion_and_early_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_and_early_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Expansion and early development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_and_early_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contact_with_Portugal_and_Christianization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contact_with_Portugal_and_Christianization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Contact with Portugal and Christianization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contact_with_Portugal_and_Christianization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reign_of_Afonso_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_Afonso_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Reign of Afonso I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_Afonso_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Expansion_of_the_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expansion_of_the_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Expansion of the slave trade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expansion_of_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_rivalries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_rivalries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Royal rivalries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_rivalries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kwilu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kwilu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Kongo under the House of Kwilu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kwilu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Factionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Factionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kongo_under_the_House_of_Nsundi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kongo_under_the_House_of_Nsundi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Kongo under the House of Nsundi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kongo_under_the_House_of_Nsundi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Kongo-Portuguese_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Kongo-Portuguese_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>First Kongo-Portuguese War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Kongo-Portuguese_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Factionalism_and_return_of_the_House_of_Kwilu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Factionalism_and_return_of_the_House_of_Kwilu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Factionalism and return of the House of Kwilu</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Factionalism_and_return_of_the_House_of_Kwilu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kinlaza" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kinlaza"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Kongo under the House of Kinlaza</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kinlaza-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dutch_invasion_of_Luanda,_and_the_Second_Portuguese_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dutch_invasion_of_Luanda,_and_the_Second_Portuguese_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.1</span> <span>Dutch invasion of Luanda, and the Second Portuguese War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dutch_invasion_of_Luanda,_and_the_Second_Portuguese_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kongo's_war_with_Soyo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kongo's_war_with_Soyo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.2</span> <span>Kongo's war with Soyo</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kongo's_war_with_Soyo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third_Portuguese_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third_Portuguese_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.3</span> <span>Third Portuguese War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third_Portuguese_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Mbwila" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Mbwila"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8.4</span> <span>Battle of Mbwila</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Mbwila-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kongo_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kongo_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Kongo Civil War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Kongo_Civil_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Kongo Civil War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Kongo_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fragmentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fragmentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Fragmentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fragmentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-18th_and_19th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#18th_and_19th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>18th and 19th centuries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-18th_and_19th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_entrepreneurial_nobles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_entrepreneurial_nobles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Rise of entrepreneurial nobles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_entrepreneurial_nobles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Military structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Other_battles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_battles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Other battles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_battles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Political structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Royal_Council" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_Council"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Royal Council</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_Council-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bureaucratic_posts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureaucratic_posts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Bureaucratic posts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureaucratic_posts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Electors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Electors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Matrons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Matrons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.3</span> <span>Matrons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Matrons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Economic structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economic_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economic structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economic_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Currency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Currency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Currency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Currency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marketplace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marketplace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Marketplace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marketplace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_of_the_Kongo_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_of_the_Kongo_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Art of the Kongo Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Art_of_the_Kongo_Kingdom-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Art of the Kongo Kingdom subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Art_of_the_Kongo_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Social structure</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_structure-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social structure subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Matrilineal_organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Matrilineal_organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Matrilineal organization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Matrilineal_organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Documentary_collections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentary_collections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.1</span> <span>Documentary collections</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentary_collections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books_and_documents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_and_documents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1.2</span> <span>Books and documents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_and_documents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Secondary_literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Secondary literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Kongo</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 50 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-50" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">50 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%88%D9%86%D8%BA%D9%88" title="مملكة الكونغو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة الكونغو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_del_Congu" title="Reinu del Congu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu del Congu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_%C3%94ng-kok" title="Kongo Ông-kok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kongo Ông-kok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%9E%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Каралеўства Конга – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каралеўства Конга" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rouantelezh_Kongo" title="Rouantelezh Kongo – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Rouantelezh Kongo" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_del_Congo" title="Regne del Congo – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne del Congo" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kon%C5%BEsk%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD" title="Konžské království – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Konžské království" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo-riget" title="Kongo-riget – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kongo-riget" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigreich_Kongo" title="Königreich Kongo – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Königreich Kongo" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_Kuningriik" title="Kongo Kuningriik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kongo Kuningriik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_del_Congo" title="Reino del Congo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino del Congo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Re%C4%9Dlando_Kongo" title="Reĝlando Kongo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Reĝlando Kongo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongoko_Erresuma" title="Kongoko Erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kongoko Erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88" title="پادشاهی کنگو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی کنگو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_du_Kongo" title="Royaume du Kongo – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume du Kongo" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_do_Congo" title="Reino do Congo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Reino do Congo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BD%A9%EA%B3%A0_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="콩고 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="콩고 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masarautar_Kongo" title="Masarautar Kongo – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Masarautar Kongo" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevstvo_Kongo" title="Kraljevstvo Kongo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kraljevstvo Kongo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Kongo" title="Kerajaan Kongo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Kongo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konungsr%C3%ADki%C3%B0_Kong%C3%B3" title="Konungsríkið Kongó – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Konungsríkið Kongó" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_del_Congo" title="Regno del Congo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno del Congo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%95" title="ממלכת קונגו – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ממלכת קונגו" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ufalme_wa_Kongo" title="Ufalme wa Kongo – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ufalme wa Kongo" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kg.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B4ngo_ya_Ntotila" title="Kôngo ya Ntotila – Kongo" lang="kg" hreflang="kg" data-title="Kôngo ya Ntotila" data-language-autonym="Kongo" data-language-local-name="Kongo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnum_Congum" title="Regnum Congum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Regnum Congum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_imperija" title="Kongo imperija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kongo imperija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mani_ya_K%C9%94%CC%81ng%C9%94" title="Mani ya Kɔ́ngɔ – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Mani ya Kɔ́ngɔ" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Kongo" title="Kerajaan Kongo – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kerajaan Kongo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkrijk_Kongo" title="Koninkrijk Kongo – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koninkrijk Kongo" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="コンゴ王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="コンゴ王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongoriket" title="Kongoriket – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kongoriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongoriket" title="Kongoriket – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kongoriket" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reiaume_de_Kongo" title="Reiaume de Kongo – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Reiaume de Kongo" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88" title="مملکت کانگو – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مملکت کانگو" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%B3lestwo_Kongo" title="Królestwo Kongo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Królestwo Kongo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_do_Congo" title="Reino do Congo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Reino do Congo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Королевство Конго – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Королевство Конго" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kingdom of Kongo" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevstvo_Kongo" title="Kraljevstvo Kongo – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kraljevstvo Kongo" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongon_kuningaskunta" title="Kongon kuningaskunta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kongon kuningaskunta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongoriket" title="Kongoriket – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kongoriket" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%81" title="ราชอาณาจักรคองโก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ราชอาณาจักรคองโก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_Krall%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Kongo Krallığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kongo Krallığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BE" title="Королівство Конго – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Королівство Конго" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%DA%A9%D8%AA_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%88" title="مملکت کانگو – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مملکت کانگو" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C6%B0%C6%A1ng_qu%E1%BB%91c_Kongo" title="Vương quốc Kongo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Vương quốc Kongo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="刚果王国 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="刚果王国" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%9B%E6%9E%9C%E7%8E%8B%E5%9C%8B" title="剛果王國 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="剛果王國" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%88%9A%E6%9E%9C%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="刚果王国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="刚果王国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q796583#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1390–1914 state in Central Africa; Portuguese vassal from 1857</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Congo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Congo (disambiguation)">Congo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Kongo</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Kongo-language text"><i lang="kg">Wene wa Kongo</i></span>/<span title="Kongo-language text"><i lang="kg">Kongo dya Ntotila</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kongo</a>)</span><br /><span title="Portuguese-language text"><i lang="pt">Reino do Congo</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1390<sup id="cite_ref-start_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-start-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>–1914<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_according_to_Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Kongo"><img alt="Flag of Kongo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_according_to_Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_according_to_Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_according_to_Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_according_to_Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_according_to_Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_according_to_Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div>Flag according to <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo" title="Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo">Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo</a>, 1650s</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Kongo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of Afonso I (c. 1528–1541) of Kongo"><img alt="Coat of arms of Afonso I (c. 1528–1541) of Kongo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Coat_of_arms_of_Kongo.svg/85px-Coat_of_arms_of_Kongo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Coat_of_arms_of_Kongo.svg/128px-Coat_of_arms_of_Kongo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Coat_of_arms_of_Kongo.svg/170px-Coat_of_arms_of_Kongo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="344" data-file-height="484" /></a></span></div> <div>Coat of arms of <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1528</span>–1541)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:KingdomKongo1711.png" class="mw-file-description" title="The "Kingdom of Congo" (now usually rendered as "Kingdom of Kongo" to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations)"><img alt="The "Kingdom of Congo" (now usually rendered as "Kingdom of Kongo" to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/KingdomKongo1711.png/250px-KingdomKongo1711.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/KingdomKongo1711.png/375px-KingdomKongo1711.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/KingdomKongo1711.png/500px-KingdomKongo1711.png 2x" data-file-width="774" data-file-height="540" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">The "Kingdom of Congo" (now usually rendered as "Kingdom of Kongo" to maintain distinction from the present-day Congo nations)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Sovereign kingdom</a> (1390–1857)<br /> <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">Vassal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a> (1857–1910)<br /> Subject of the <a href="/wiki/First_Portuguese_Republic" title="First Portuguese Republic">First Portuguese Republic</a> (1910–1914)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">São Salvador (today <a href="/wiki/Mbanza-Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbanza-Kongo">Mbanza-Kongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kikongo</a> <br /><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Bukongo</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Kongo" title="Catholic Church in Kongo">Catholicism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Antonianism" title="Antonianism">Antonianism</a> (1704–1708)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Constitutional Elective Monarchy</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Manikongo" title="Manikongo">Manikongo</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1390</span>–1420 <small>(first)</small> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Lukeni_lua_Nimi" title="Lukeni lua Nimi">Lukeni lua Nimi</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1911–1914 <small>(last)</small> </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Manuel_III_of_Kongo" title="Manuel III of Kongo">Manuel III of Kongo</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ne_Mbanda-Mbanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ne Mbanda-Mbanda">Ne Mbanda-Mbanda</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Conquest of Kabunga </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1390<sup id="cite_ref-start_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-start-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Kongo" title="Catholic Church in Kongo">Christianization</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3 May 1491</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbumbi" title="Battle of Mbumbi">Battle of Mbumbi</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1622</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbanda_Kasi" title="Battle of Mbanda Kasi">Battle of Mbanda Kasi</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1623</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbwila" title="Battle of Mbwila">Battle of Mbwila</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">29 October 1665</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Kongo_Civil_War" title="Kongo Civil War">Kongo Civil War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1665–1709</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Reunification </div></th><td class="infobox-data">February 1709</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Vassalage </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1857</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1884–1885</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Abolishment<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1914<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1623<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_2021_201-212_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_2021_201-212-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">129,400 km<sup>2</sup> (50,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1623<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_2021_201-212_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_2021_201-212-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">appx 790,000</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nzimbu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nzimbu">Nzimbu</a> shells and <a href="/wiki/Raffia" class="mw-redirect" title="Raffia">Lubongo (Libongo, Mbongo), Mpusu</a> cloth</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mpemba_Kasi" title="Mpemba Kasi">Mpemba Kasi</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mbata_Kingdom" title="Mbata Kingdom">Mbata Kingdom</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Vungu" title="Vungu">Vungu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mpemba" title="Mpemba">Mpemba</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Seven_Kingdoms_of_Kongo_dia_Nlaza" title="Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza">Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/International_Congo_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="International Congo Association">International Congo Association</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_West_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Portuguese West Africa">Portuguese West Africa</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a><br /></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Kingdom of Kongo</b> (<a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kongo</a>: <i lang="kg">Kongo Dya Ntotila</i><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i>Wene wa Kongo;</i><sup id="cite_ref-wene_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wene-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>: <i lang="pt">Reino do Congo</i>) was a kingdom in <a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central Africa</a>. It was located in present-day northern <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, the western portion of the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-region_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-region-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Southern of Gabon and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At its greatest extent it reached from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> in the west to the <a href="/wiki/Kwango_River" title="Kwango River">Kwango River</a> in the east, and from the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> in the north to the <a href="/wiki/Kwanza_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwanza River">Kwanza River</a> in the south. The kingdom consisted of several core provinces ruled by the <i><a href="/wiki/Manikongo" title="Manikongo">Manikongo</a></i>, the Portuguese version of the Kongo title <i>Mwene Kongo</i>, meaning "lord or ruler of the Kongo kingdom", but its <a href="/wiki/Sphere_of_influence" title="Sphere of influence">sphere of influence</a> extended to neighbouring kingdoms, such as <a href="/wiki/Ngoyo" title="Ngoyo">Ngoyo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kakongo" title="Kakongo">Kakongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Loango" title="Kingdom of Loango">Loango</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Ndongo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Matamba" title="Kingdom of Matamba">Matamba</a>, the latter two located in what is Angola today.<sup id="cite_ref-Thornton_1977_526_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thornton_1977_526-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1390</span> to 1862, it was an independent state. From 1862 to 1914, it functioned intermittently as a <a href="/wiki/Vassal_state" title="Vassal state">vassal state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1914, following the Portuguese suppression of a Kongo revolt, Portugal abolished the <a href="/wiki/Titular_ruler" title="Titular ruler">titular monarchy</a>. The title of King of Kongo was restored from 1915 until 1975, as an honorific without real power.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The remaining territories of the kingdom were assimilated into the colonies of <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Angola" title="Portuguese Angola">Portuguese Angola</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Cabinda" title="Republic of Cabinda">Republic of Cabinda</a>, respectively. The modern-day <a href="/wiki/Bundu_dia_Kongo" title="Bundu dia Kongo">Bundu dia Kongo</a> sect favours reviving the kingdom through <a href="/wiki/Secession" title="Secession">secession</a> from Angola, the Republic of the Congo, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.<sup id="cite_ref-bundu_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bundu-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oral traditions about the early history of the country were set in writing for the first time in the late 16th century, and especially detailed versions were recorded in the mid-17th century, include those written by the Italian <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor_Capuchin" title="Order of Friars Minor Capuchin">Capuchin</a> missionary <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Cavazzi_da_Montecuccolo" title="Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo">Giovanni Cavazzi da Montecuccolo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditions about the foundation changed over time, depending on historical circumstances. </p><p>Modern research into <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a>, including recording them in writing began in the 1910s with Mpetelo Boka and Lievan Sakala Boku writing in Kikongo and extended by <a href="/wiki/Redemptorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Redemptorist">Redemptorist</a> missionaries like <a href="/wiki/Jean_Cuvelier" title="Jean Cuvelier">Jean Cuvelier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_de_Munck" title="Joseph de Munck">Joseph de Munck</a>. In 1934, Cuvelier published a Kikongo language summary of these traditions in <a href="/wiki/Nkutama_a_mvila_za_makanda" title="Nkutama a mvila za makanda">Nkutama a mvila za makanda</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Cuvelier and other scholars contended that these traditions applied to the earliest period of Kongo's history, it is more likely that they relate primarily to local traditions of clans (<i><a href="/wiki/Kanda_(lineage)" title="Kanda (lineage)">makanda</a></i>) and especially to the period following 1750.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundation">Foundation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Foundation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin. In the east were the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Kingdoms_of_Kongo_dia_Nlaza" title="Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza">Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza</a>, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, which likely included <a href="/wiki/Nsundi" title="Nsundi">Nsundi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mbata_Kingdom" title="Mbata Kingdom">Mbata</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpangu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpangu (page does not exist)">Mpangu</a>, and possibly <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kundi_kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kundi kingdom (page does not exist)">Kundi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Okanga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Okanga (page does not exist)">Okanga</a>. South of these was <a href="/wiki/Mpemba" title="Mpemba">Mpemba</a>. It included various kingdoms such as <a href="/wiki/Mpemba_Kasi" title="Mpemba Kasi">Mpemba Kasi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vunda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vunda (page does not exist)">Vunda</a>. To its west across the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo River</a> was a confederation of three small states; <a href="/wiki/Vungu" title="Vungu">Vungu</a> (its leader), <a href="/wiki/Kakongo" title="Kakongo">Kakongo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ngoyo" title="Ngoyo">Ngoyo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 24–25">: 24–25 </span></sup> </p><p>According to Kongo tradition in the seventeenth century, the kingdom's origin was in <a href="/wiki/Vungu" title="Vungu">Vungu</a>, which had extended its authority across the Congo to <a href="/wiki/Mpemba_Kasi" title="Mpemba Kasi">Mpemba Kasi</a>, which was itself the northernmost territory of <a href="/wiki/Mpemba" title="Mpemba">Mpemba</a> whose capital was located about 150 miles south. A <a href="/wiki/Dynasty" title="Dynasty">dynasty</a> of rulers from this small <a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">polity</a> built up its rule along the Kwilu Valley, or what was called <a href="/wiki/Nsi_Kwilu" title="Nsi Kwilu">Nsi a Kwilu</a> and its elite are buried near its center. Traditions from the 17th century allude to this sacred burial ground. According to the <a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">missionary</a> <a href="/wiki/Girolamo_da_Montesarchio" title="Girolamo da Montesarchio">Girolamo da Montesarchio</a>, an Italian Capuchin who visited the area from 1650 to 1652, the site was so holy that looking upon it was deadly.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rocks may be the rugged uplands of Lovo where there is extensive cave and rock art that dates from at least the fifteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At some point around 1375, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nimi_a_Nzima&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nimi a Nzima (page does not exist)">Nimi a Nzima</a>, ruler of Mpemba Kasi and Vungu, made an alliance with Nsaku Lau, the ruler of the neighboring <a href="/wiki/Mbata_Kingdom" title="Mbata Kingdom">Mbata Kingdom</a>. Nimi a Nzima married Lukeni lua Nsanze (Luqueni Luansanze in the text), Nsaku Lau's daughter.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This alliance guaranteed that each of the two allies would help ensure the succession of its ally's lineage in the other's territory. Mbata in turn was a former province of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Kingdoms_of_Kongo_dia_Nlaza" title="Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza">Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza</a> whose capital lay farther east along the current border of <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>. Mbata may have been the senior partner in the original alliance, as he had the title of "Nkaka andi a Mwene Kongo," or grandfather of the king of Kongo.<sup id="cite_ref-:17a_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17a-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nimi a Nzima and Lukeni lua Nsanze's son <a href="/wiki/Lukeni_lua_Nimi" title="Lukeni lua Nimi">Lukeni lua Nimi</a><sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (circa 1380–1420) began the expansion that would found the Kingdom of Kongo. The name Nimi a Lukeni appeared in later oral traditions and some modern historians, notably Jean Cuvelier, popularized it. Lukeni lua Nimi, or Nimi a Lukeni, led expansion southward into lands ruled by Mpemba. He established a new base on the mountain Mongo dia Kongo and made alliances with the Mwene Mpangala, ruler of a market town then loyal to Mpemba and also with the Mwene Kabunga whose lands lay west of there of uncertain loyalty but the site of a famous shrine. Two centuries later the Mwene Kabunga's descendants still symbolically challenged the conquest in an annual celebration. He furthered this with a second more important alliance with Vunda, another of Mpemba's subordinate rulers. To cement this alliance, as with the one with Mbata, Lukeni lua Nimi allowed him to be an elector to the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-:17a_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17a-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the death of Nimi a Lukeni, the rulers that followed Lukeni claimed relation to his <i><a href="/wiki/Kanda_(lineage)" title="Kanda (lineage)">kanda</a></i>, or lineage, and were known as the <a href="/wiki/Kilukeni" title="Kilukeni">Kilukeni</a>. The Kilukeni Kanda — or "house", as it was recorded in Portuguese language documents written in Kongo — ruled Kongo unopposed until 1567.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expansion_and_early_development">Expansion and early development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Expansion and early development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The 16th-century tradition contended that the former kingdoms "in ancient times had separate kings, but now all are subjects and tributaries of the king of Congo."<sup id="cite_ref-Relacion_del_Regno_de_Congo_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relacion_del_Regno_de_Congo-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tradition noted that in each case the governorship was given to members of the royal family or other noble families.<sup id="cite_ref-Relacion_del_Regno_de_Congo_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Relacion_del_Regno_de_Congo-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Governors who served terms determined by the king had the right to appoint their own clients to lower positions, down to villages who had their own locally chosen leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As this centralization increased, the allied provinces gradually lost influence until their powers were only symbolic, manifested in Mbata, once a co-kingdom, but by 1620 simply known by the title "Grandfather of the King of Kongo" (<i>Nkaka'ndi a Mwene Kongo</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The kingdom of the Kongo's early campaigns of expansion brought new populations under the kingdom's control and produced many war captives.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in the 14th century (and reaching its height in the 17th century), the kings of the Kongo forcibly relocated captured peoples to the royal capital at <a href="/wiki/M%27banza-Kongo" title="M'banza-Kongo">Mbanza Kongo</a>. The resulting high concentration of population around Mbanza Kongo and its outskirts played a critical role in the centralization of Kongo. The capital was a densely settled area in an otherwise sparsely populated region where rural <a href="/wiki/Population_density" title="Population density">population densities</a> probably did not exceed 5 persons per km<sup>2</sup>. Early Portuguese travelers described Mbanza Kongo as a large city, the size of the Portuguese town of <a href="/wiki/%C3%89vora" title="Évora">Évora</a> as it was in 1491. By the end of the sixteenth century, Kongo's population was probably over half a million people in a core region of some 130,000 square kilometers. By the early seventeenth century the city and its <a href="/wiki/Hinterland" title="Hinterland">hinterland</a> had a population of around 100,000, or nearly one out of every six inhabitants in the Kingdom (according to baptismal statistics compiled by a <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> priest in 1623), while the kingdom as a whole numbered some 780,000.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The concentration of population, economic activity, and political power in Mbanza Kongo strengthened the Kongolese monarchy and allowed for a centralized government. Captives taken in war were enslaved and integrated into the local population, producing a food and labor surplus, while rural regions of the kingdom paid taxes in the form of goods the capital could not produce itself. A class of urban nobility developed in the capital, and their demand for positions at court and consumer goods fueled the kingdom's economy. Rural development was intentionally discouraged by the Kongolese king,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ensuring the capital remained the economic and political center of the kingdom. This concentration allowed resources, soldiers and surplus foodstuffs to be readily available at the request of the king and made the king overwhelmingly powerful when compared to any potential rival.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time of the first recorded contact with the Europeans, the Kingdom of Kongo was sited at the centre of an extensive trading network. Apart from natural resources and <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a>, the country manufactured and traded copperware, <a href="/wiki/Ferrous" title="Ferrous">ferrous</a> metal goods, <a href="/wiki/Raffia" class="mw-redirect" title="Raffia">raffia</a> cloth, and <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>. The Kongo people spoke in the <a href="/wiki/Kikongo_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Kikongo language">Kikongo language</a>. The eastern regions, especially that part known as the Seven Kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kongo_dia_Nlaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Kongo dia Nlaza">Kongo dia Nlaza</a>, were particularly famous for the production of cloth. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contact_with_Portugal_and_Christianization">Contact with Portugal and Christianization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contact with Portugal and Christianization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Kongo" title="Catholic Church in Kongo">Catholic Church in Kongo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg/220px-Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg/330px-Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg/440px-Jean_Roy_de_Congo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="760" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_I_of_Kongo" title="João I of Kongo">João I Nzinga a Nkuwu</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1483, the Portuguese explorer <a href="/wiki/Diogo_C%C3%A3o" title="Diogo Cão">Diogo Cão</a> reached the coast of the Kongo Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-diogo_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diogo-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cão left some of his men in Kongo and took Kongo nobles to Portugal. He returned to Kongo with the Kongo nobles in 1485; such commissioning, hiring, or even kidnapping of local Africans to use as local ambassadors, especially for newly contacted areas, was by then an already established practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Elbl_1992_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elbl_1992-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At that point the ruling king, Nzinga a Nkuwu, decided he would become Christian and sent another, large mission headed by Kala ka Mfusu, the noble who had earlier gone to Portugal as a hostage. They remained in Europe for nearly four years, studying <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> and learning reading and writing.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mission returned with Cão along with <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> priests and soldiers in 1491, baptizing Nzinga a Nkuwu as well as his principal nobles, starting with the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Soyo" title="Soyo">Soyo</a>, the coastal province. Nzinga a Nkuwu took the <a href="/wiki/Christian_name" title="Christian name">Christian name</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_I_of_Kongo" title="João I of Kongo">João I</a> in honor of Portugal's king at the time, <a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_II_of_Portugal" class="mw-redirect" title="João II of Portugal">João II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_World_Biography_2008_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_World_Biography_2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>João I ruled until his death around 1509 and was succeeded by his son Afonso <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Mvemba a Nzinga</a>. He faced a serious challenge from a half brother, Mpanzu a Kitima. The king overcame his brother in a battle waged at <a href="/wiki/Mbanza_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbanza Kongo">Mbanza Kongo</a>. According to Afonso's own account, sent to Portugal in 1506, he was able to win the battle thanks to the intervention of a heavenly vision of the cross <a href="/wiki/James,_son_of_Zebedee" class="mw-redirect" title="James, son of Zebedee">Saint James</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Virgin Mary</a>. Inspired by these events, he subsequently designed a <a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms" title="Coat of arms">coat of arms</a> for Kongo that was used by all following kings on official documents, royal paraphernalia and the like until 1860.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While King João I later reverted to his traditional beliefs, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I</a> established Christianity as the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a> of his kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_World_Biography_2008_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_World_Biography_2008-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_Afonso_I">Reign of Afonso I</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reign of Afonso I"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I of Kongo</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_banner_of_Kongo_(Afonso_I).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Royal_banner_of_Kongo_%28Afonso_I%29.svg/220px-Royal_banner_of_Kongo_%28Afonso_I%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Royal_banner_of_Kongo_%28Afonso_I%29.svg/330px-Royal_banner_of_Kongo_%28Afonso_I%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Royal_banner_of_Kongo_%28Afonso_I%29.svg/440px-Royal_banner_of_Kongo_%28Afonso_I%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="187" /></a><figcaption>Banner of <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">King Afonso I</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Upon his ascension as king in 1509, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I</a> worked to create a viable version of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Kongo" title="Catholic Church in Kongo">Catholic Church in Kongo</a>, providing for its income from royal assets and taxation that provided salaries for its workers. With advisers from Portugal such as Rui d'Aguiar, the Portuguese royal chaplain sent to assist Kongo's religious development, Afonso created a <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretic</a> version of Christianity that would remain a part of its culture for the rest of the kingdom's independent existence. King <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso</a> himself studied hard at this task. Rui d'Aguiar once said Afonso I knew more of the church's tenets than he did. </p><p>The Kongo church was always short of ordained clergy and made up for it by the employment of a strong laity. Kongolese school teachers or <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mestre#Portuguese" class="extiw" title="wikt:mestre">mestres</a></i> (Kikongo alongi a aleke) were the anchor of this system. Recruited from the nobility and trained in the kingdom's schools, they provided religious instruction and services to others building upon Kongo's growing Christian population. At the same time, they permitted the growth of syncretic forms of Christianity which incorporated older religious ideas with Christian ones. Examples of this are the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">KiKongo</a> words to translate Christian concepts. The KiKongo words <i>ukisi</i> (an abstract word meaning charm, but used to mean "holy") and <i>nkanda</i> (meaning book) were merged so that the Christian <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> became known as the <i>nkanda ukisi</i> (holy book). The church became known as the <i>nzo a ukisi</i> (holy house). While some European clergy often denounced these mixed traditions, they were never able to root them out.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kongo_audience.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Kongo_audience.jpg/220px-Kongo_audience.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Kongo_audience.jpg/330px-Kongo_audience.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Kongo_audience.jpg/440px-Kongo_audience.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>An image depicting Portuguese encounter with Kongo royal family</figcaption></figure> <p>Part of the establishment of this church was the creation of a strong priesthood and to this end, Afonso's son Henrique was sent to Europe to be educated. Henrique became an ordained priest and in 1518 was named as <a href="/wiki/Titular_bishop" title="Titular bishop">titular bishop</a> of <a href="/wiki/Utica,_Tunisia" title="Utica, Tunisia">Utica</a> (a North African diocese recently reclaimed from the Muslims). He returned to Kongo in the early 1520s to run Kongo's new church. He died in 1531.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Expansion_of_the_slave_trade">Expansion of the slave trade</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Expansion of the slave trade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Slavery had existed since the Kingdom of Kongo's founding, as during its early wars of expansion the nascent kingdom had taken many captives.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_31-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kongo's tradition of forcibly transferring peoples captured in wars to the royal capital was key to the power of the Kongolese king, and it was the same mechanism of enslavement and transfer of population that made Kongo an efficient exporter of slaves. Kongolese laws and cultural traditions protected freeborn Kongolese from enslavement, and so most of the enslaved population were war captives. Convicted Kongolese criminals could also be forced into slavery, but were initially protected from sale outside the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-wene_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wene-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The export of female slaves was also prohibited.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afonso's early letters show evidence of domestic slave markets.<sup id="cite_ref-Abolitionism_and_Imperialism_in_Bri_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abolitionism_and_Imperialism_in_Bri-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As relations between Kongo and Portugal grew in the early 16th century, trade between the kingdoms also increased. Most of the trade was in palm cloth, copper, and ivory, but also increasing numbers of slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although initially Kongo exported few slaves, following the development of a successful sugar-growing colony on the Portuguese island of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9" title="São Tomé">São Tomé</a>, Kongo became a major source of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slaves</a> for the island's traders and plantations. The <a href="/wiki/Cantino_planisphere" title="Cantino planisphere">Cantino Atlas</a> of 1502 mentions Kongo as a source of slaves for the <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9" title="São Tomé">São Tomé</a> colony, but notes they were few. Correspondence by Afonso also show the purchase and sale of slaves within the country and his accounts on capturing slaves in war which were given and sold to Portuguese merchants.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Afonso continued to expand the kingdom of Kongo into the 1540s, expanding its borders to the south and east. The expansion of Kongo's population, coupled with his earlier religious reforms, allowed Afonso to centralize power in his capital and increase the power of the monarchy. He also established a royal monopoly on some trade.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To govern the growing slave trade, Afonso and several Portuguese kings claimed a joint monopoly on the external slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_41-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, as the slave trade grew in size, it came to gradually erode royal power in Kongo. Portuguese traders based in São Tomé began violating the royal monopoly on the slave trade, trading instead with other African states in the region. Portuguese merchants also began to trade goods with powerful Kongolese nobles, depriving the monarchy of tax revenue, while Portuguese priests and merchants living in the Kongo became increasingly politically active.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New markets for slaves such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mpanzalumbu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mpanzalumbu (page does not exist)">Mpanzalumbu</a> (a rebel Kongolese province conquered by Afonso in 1526) and the <a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Mbundu</a> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Kingdom of Ndongo</a> also harmed the Kongolese monopoly on the slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-wene_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wene-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1526, Afonso complained in correspondence to King <a href="/wiki/John_III_of_Portugal" title="John III of Portugal">João III of Portugal</a> about merchants' violation of his end of the monopoly, claiming that Portuguese officials had not regulated them sufficiently, and threatened to stop the slave trade altogether. Afonso noted that some unscrupulous nobles were resorting to kidnapping their fellow Kongolese to supply the slave trade. To reform the trade, Afonso reiterated the need to follow Kongolese law and not enslave Kongolese freemen, while also establishing a board to better regulate the slave trade. Afonso also established a special committee to determine the legality of the enslavement of those who were being sold.<sup id="cite_ref-Abolitionism_and_Imperialism_in_Bri_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abolitionism_and_Imperialism_in_Bri-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the kings of Portugal eventually determined the best way to deal with the trade through the Kwanza to Ndongo was to establish their own base there. In 1560, again responding to a request from Angola, the Portuguese crown sent <a href="/wiki/Paulo_Dias_de_Novais" title="Paulo Dias de Novais">Paulo Dias de Novais</a> as ambassador to Ndongo with the idea of settling relations with the country. Ngola Kiluanji was not interested in this mission, however, as it offered only baptism and diplomatic relations, while he hoped for military support. In 1575, Portugal would follow with a mission of conquest, also under Paulo Dias de Novais, this time to conquer the country and monopolize its slave trade.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_rivalries">Royal rivalries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Royal rivalries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A common characteristic of political life in the kingdom of Kongo was fierce competition over succession to the throne. Afonso's own contest for the throne was intense, and he had to fight a major battle with his half brother, and probably against lesser enemies in the early years of his reign. Afonso described his ascent to the throne, representing it as specifically a war by pagans against the Christian ruler. But this was probably more propaganda on his part, and succession struggles were probably normal even in the early years of the kingdom. </p><p>A great deal is known about how such struggles took place from the contest that followed Afonso's death in late 1542 or early 1543. This is in large part due to a detailed inquest conducted by royal officials in 1550, which survives in the Portuguese archives. In this inquest, one can see that factions formed behind prominent men, such as Afonso I's son, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Kongo" title="Pedro I of Kongo">Pedro Nkanga a Mvemba</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diogo_I_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogo I of Kongo">Diogo Nkumbi a Mpudi</a>, his grandson who ultimately overthrew Pedro in 1545. Although the factions placed themselves in the idiom of kinship (using the Portuguese term <i>geração</i> or lineage, probably <i>kanda</i> in Kikongo) they were not formed strictly along heredity lines since close kin were often in separate factions. The players included nobles holding appointive titles to provincial governorships, members of the royal council and also officials in the now well-developed Church hierarchy. </p><p>King <a href="/wiki/Diogo_I_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogo I of Kongo">Diogo I</a> skillfully replaced or outmaneuvered his entrenched competitors after he was crowned in 1545. He faced a major conspiracy led by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Kongo" title="Pedro I of Kongo">Pedro I</a>, who had taken refuge in a church, and whom Diogo in respect of the Church's <a href="/wiki/Right_of_asylum" title="Right of asylum">rule of asylum</a> allowed to remain in the church. However, Diogo did conduct an inquiry into the plot, the text of which was sent to Portugal in 1552 which shows the way in which plotters hoped to overthrow the king by enticing his supporters to abandon him.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>King Diogo's successor, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_II_of_Kongo" title="Afonso II of Kongo">Afonso II</a>, was killed by the Portuguese days after his succession, and an uprising occurred which killed the Portuguese candidate, allowing <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernardo I">King Bernardo I of Kongo</a> to be enthroned. However, King Bernardo I was killed by the "Jaga" <a href="/wiki/Yaka_people" title="Yaka people">Yaka</a>, invasion in 1567. And was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Henrique_I_of_Kongo" title="Henrique I of Kongo">Henrique I</a> who was also killed while fighting in the east, leaving the government in the hands of his stepson <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_I_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro I of Kongo">Álvaro Nimi a Lukeni lua Mvemba</a>. He was crowned Álvaro I, "by common consent," according Duarte Lopes, Kongo's ambassador to Rome. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kwilu">Kongo under the House of Kwilu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kongo under the House of Kwilu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">History of <span class="fn org label">the Democratic Republic of the Congo</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_(black_spear).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Coat of arms of the Democratic Republic of the Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo_%28black_spear%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="622" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Pre-colonial_history_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Pre-colonial history of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Early history</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <b>pre–1876</b></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Kongo</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1390–1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Luba" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Luba">Kingdom of Luba</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1585–1889</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lunda" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Lunda">Kingdom of Lunda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1600–1887</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Kuba_Kingdom" title="Kuba Kingdom">Kuba Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1625–1884</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Chokwe_people#History" title="Chokwe people">Kingdom of Chokwe</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1800–1891</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Yeke_Kingdom" title="Yeke Kingdom">Yeke Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1856–1891</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo_Basin" title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <b>1876–1960</b></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/International_African_Association" title="International African Association">Intl. African Association</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1876–1879</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_the_Congo" title="International Association of the Congo">Intl. Congo Society</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1879–1885</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Congo_Free_State" title="Congo Free State">Congo Free State</a> (<a href="/wiki/Atrocities_in_the_Congo_Free_State" title="Atrocities in the Congo Free State">Atrocities</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1885–1908</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo" title="Belgian Congo">Belgian Congo</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1908–1960</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Belgian_Congo_in_World_War_II" title="Belgian Congo in World War II">World War II</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1940–1945</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <b><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Independence</a></b></td><td style="text-align:right;"> <b>post–1960</b></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Congo_Crisis" title="Congo Crisis">Congo Crisis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1960–1965</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_(L%C3%A9opoldville)" title="Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)">Congo–Léopoldville</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1960–1971</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Zaire" title="Zaire">Zaire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shaba_I" title="Shaba I">Shaba I</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shaba_II" title="Shaba II">II</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1971–1997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/First_Congo_War" title="First Congo War">First Congo War</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1996–1997</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Second_Congo_War" title="Second Congo War">Second Congo War</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 1998–2003</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Kabila" title="Joseph Kabila">Joseph Kabila presidency</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2001–2019</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.5em"> <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Tshisekedi" title="Félix Tshisekedi">Félix Tshisekedi presidency</a></td><td style="text-align:right;"> 2019–present</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Years_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Category:Years in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Years</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Portal:Democratic Republic of the Congo">DRC Portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the Republic of the Congo"><img alt="Coat of arms of the Republic of the Congo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coat_of_arms_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="490" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Kongo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1390–1914</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Loango" title="Kingdom of Loango">Kingdom of Loango</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1550–1883</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Kongo_Civil_War" title="Kongo Civil War">Kongo Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1665–1709</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Colonization_of_the_Congo_Basin" title="Colonization of the Congo Basin">Colonization</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1876–1885</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/French_Congo" title="French Congo">French Congo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1882–1910</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/French_Equatorial_Africa" title="French Equatorial Africa">French Equatorial Africa</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1910–1958</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Fulbert_Youlou" title="Fulbert Youlou">Fulbert Youlou</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Trois_Glorieuses_(1963)" title="Trois Glorieuses (1963)">Trois Glorieuses</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1963</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/1968_Republic_of_the_Congo_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1968 Republic of the Congo coup d'état">1968 coup d'état</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="People's Republic of the Congo">People's Republic of the Congo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1970–1992</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/1990s_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="1990s in the Republic of the Congo">1990s</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_Civil_War_(1993%E2%80%931994)" title="Republic of the Congo Civil War (1993–1994)">First Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1993–1994</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_the_Congo_Civil_War_(1997%E2%80%931999)" title="Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997–1999)">Second Civil War</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1997–1999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/2002_Republic_of_the_Congo_constitutional_referendum" title="2002 Republic of the Congo constitutional referendum">2002 constitutional referendum</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2002</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/2015_Republic_of_the_Congo_constitutional_referendum" title="2015 Republic of the Congo constitutional referendum">2015 constitutional referendum</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2015</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:4px"> <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the Republic of the Congo">COVID-19 crisis</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 2020–present</td></tr></tbody></table></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/16px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/24px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Portal:Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template:History of the Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Template talk:History of the Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Republic of the Congo"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Álvaro I was not directly descended from a previous king, and so his seizure of the throne in the midst of the crisis caused by the Jaga invasion marked the beginning of a new royal line, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Kwilu" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kwilu">House of Kwilu</a>. There were certainly factions that opposed him, though it is not known specifically who they were. Álvaro's rule began in war with the <a href="/wiki/Jagas" class="mw-redirect" title="Jagas">Jagas</a>, who may have been external invaders or rebels from within the country, either peasants or nobles from rival factions fighting against the profound changes and instability introduced by European trading and slaving. As the Jagas drove him from the capital to refuge on an island in the Congo River, Alvaro appealed to Portugal for aid, and was sent an expedition under Francisco de Gouveia Sottomaior governor of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9" title="São Tomé">São Tomé</a>. As a part of the same process, Álvaro agreed to allow the Portuguese to establish a colony in <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a>, the source of the <i>nzimbu</i> <a href="/wiki/Shell_money" title="Shell money">shell money</a> used by the kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 218">: 218 </span></sup> In addition, Kongo provided the Portuguese with support in their war against the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Ndongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Ndongo">Ndongo</a> in 1579.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The kingdom of Ndongo was located inland east of <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a> and although claimed in Kongo's royal titles as early as 1535, was probably never under a firm Kongo administration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Álvaro also worked hard to westernize Kongo, gradually introducing European style titles for his nobles, so that the Mwene Nsundi became the Duke of Nsundi; the Mwene Mbamba became the Duke of Mbamba. The Mwene Mpemba became Marquis of Mpemba, and the Mwene Soyo became <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">Count</a> of Soyo. In 1607, he and his son <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_II_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro II of Kongo">Álvaro II Nimi a Nkanga</a> (crowned in 1587) bestowed <a href="/wiki/Order_of_chivalry" title="Order of chivalry">orders of chivalry</a> called the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Christ_(Kongo)" title="Order of Christ (Kongo)">Order of Christ</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AppiahGates2010_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AppiahGates2010-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The capital was also renamed <a href="/wiki/M%27banza-Kongo" title="M'banza-Kongo">São Salvador</a> or "Holy Savior" in <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> during this period. In 1596, Álvaro's emissaries to Rome persuaded the Pope to recognize São Salvador as the cathedral of a new <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">diocese</a> which would include Kongo and the Portuguese territory in Angola. However, the king of Portugal won the right to nominate the bishops to this <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_see" title="Episcopal see">see</a>, which became a source of tension between the two countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Portuguese bishops in the kingdom were often favourable to European interests in a time when relations between Kongo and Angola were tense. They refused to appoint priests, forcing Kongo to rely more and more heavily on the laity. Documents of the time show that lay teachers (called <i>mestres</i> in Portuguese-language documents) were paid salaries and appointed by the crown, and at times Kongo kings withheld income and services to the bishops and their supporters (a tactic called "country excommunication"). Controlling revenue was vital for Kongo's kings since even <a href="/wiki/Jesuits" title="Jesuits">Jesuit</a> missionaries were paid salaries from the royal exchequer.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the same time as this ecclesiastical problem developed, the governors of Angola began to extend their campaigns into areas that Kongo regarded as firmly under its sovereignty. This included the region around <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbumbi" title="Battle of Mbumbi">Nambu a Ngongo</a>, which Governor João Furtado attacked in the mid-1590s. Other campaigns in the vicinity led to denunciations by the rulers of Kongo against these violations of their sovereignty.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Factionalism">Factionalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Factionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Álvaro I and his successor, Álvaro II, also faced problems with factional rivals from families that had been displaced from succession. In order to raise support against some enemies, they had to make concessions to others. One of the most important of these concessions was allowing Manuel, the Count of Soyo, to hold office for many years beginning some time before 1591. During this same period, Álvaro II made a similar concession to António da Silva, the Duke of Mbamba. António da Silva was strong enough to decide the succession of the kingdom, selecting <a href="/wiki/Bernardo_II_of_Kongo" title="Bernardo II of Kongo">Bernardo II</a> in 1614, but putting him aside in favor of <a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%81lvaro_III&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Álvaro III (page does not exist)">Álvaro III</a> in 1615. It was only with difficulty that Álvaro III was able to put his own choice in as Duke of Mbamba when António da Silva died in 1620 instead of having the province fall into the hands of the duke's son. At the same time, however, Álvaro III created another powerful and semi-independent nobleman in Manuel Jordão, who held <a href="/wiki/Nsundi" title="Nsundi">Nsundi</a> for him.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kongo_under_the_House_of_Nsundi">Kongo under the House of Nsundi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kongo under the House of Nsundi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Tensions between Portugal and Kongo increased further as the governors of Portuguese Angola became more aggressive. <a href="/wiki/Luis_Mendes_de_Vasconcelos" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos">Luis Mendes de Vasconcelos</a>, who arrived as governor in 1617, used mercenary African groups called <a href="/wiki/Imbangala" title="Imbangala">Imbangala</a> to make a devastating war on Ndongo, and then to raid and pillage some southern Kongo provinces. He was particularly interested in the province of <a href="/wiki/Kasanze" class="mw-redirect" title="Kasanze">Kasanze</a>, a marshy region that lay just north of Luanda. Many slaves being deported through Luanda fled into this region and were often granted sanctuary, and for this reason, Mendes de Vasconcelos decided that a determined action was needed to stop it. The next governor of Angola, João Correia de Sousa, used the Imbangala to launch a full-scale invasion of southern Kongo in 1622, following the death of Álvaro III. Correia de Sousa claimed he had the right to choose the king of Kongo. He was also upset that the Kongolese electors chose <a href="/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Kongo" title="Pedro II of Kongo">Pedro II</a>, a former Duke of Mbamba. Pedro II was originally from the duchy of Nsundi, hence the name of the royal house he created, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Nsundi" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Nsundi">House of Nsundi</a>. Correia de Sousa also contended that Pedro II had sheltered runaway slaves from Angola during the latter's governorship of Mbamba.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Kongo-Portuguese_War">First Kongo-Portuguese War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: First Kongo-Portuguese War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The First Kongo-Portuguese War began in 1622, initially because of a Portuguese campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Kasanze_Kingdom" title="Kasanze Kingdom">Kasanze Kingdom</a>, which was conducted ruthlessly. From there, the army moved to Nambu a Ngongo, whose ruler, Pedro Afonso, was held to be sheltering runaway slaves as well. Although Pedro Afonso, facing an overwhelming army of over 20,000, agreed to return some runaways, the army attacked his country and killed him.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Following its success in Nambu a Ngongo, the Portuguese army advanced into Mbamba in November. The Portuguese forces scored a victory at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbumbi" title="Battle of Mbumbi">Battle of Mbumbi</a>. There they faced a quickly gathered local force led by the new Duke of Mbamba, and reinforced by forces from <a href="/wiki/Mpemba_Kasi" title="Mpemba Kasi">Mpemba</a> led by its marquis. Both the Duke of Mbamba and the Marquis of Mpemba were killed in the battle. According to <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Esikongo</a> accounts, they were eaten by the <a href="/wiki/Imbangala" title="Imbangala">Imbangala</a> allies of the Portuguese. However, Pedro II, the newly crowned king of Kongo, brought the main army, including troops from Soyo, down into Mbamba and decisively defeated the Portuguese, driving them from the country at a battle waged somewhere near <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbanda_Kasi" title="Battle of Mbanda Kasi">Mbanda Kasi</a> in January 1623. Portuguese residents of Kongo, frightened by the consequences for their business of the invasion, wrote a hostile letter to Correia de Sousa, denouncing his invasion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Following the defeat of the Portuguese at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbanda_Kasi" title="Battle of Mbanda Kasi">Mbanda Kasi</a>, Pedro II declared <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a> an official enemy. The king then wrote letters denouncing Correia de Sousa to the King of Spain and the Pope. Meanwhile, anti-Portuguese riots broke out all over the kingdom and threatened its long-established merchant community. Portuguese throughout the country were humiliatingly disarmed and even forced to give up their clothes. Pedro, anxious not to alienate the Portuguese merchant community, and aware that they had generally remained loyal during the war, did as much as he could to preserve their lives and property, leading some of his detractors to call him "king of Portuguese".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As a result of Kongo's victory, the Portuguese merchant community of Luanda revolted against the governor, hoping to preserve their ties with the king. Backed by the Jesuits, who had also just recommenced their mission there, they forced João Correia de Sousa to resign and flee the country. The interim government that followed the departure was led by the bishop of Angola. They were very conciliatory to Kongo and agreed to return over a thousand of the slaves captured by Correia de Sousa, especially the lesser nobles captured at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbumbi" title="Battle of Mbumbi">Battle of Mbumbi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regardless of the overtures of the new government in Angola, Pedro II had not forgotten the invasion and planned to remove the Portuguese from the realm altogether. The king sent a letter to the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Estates_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Estates General">Dutch Estates General</a> proposing a joint military attack on Angola with a Kongo army and a Dutch fleet. He would pay the Dutch with gold, silver and ivory for their efforts.<sup id="cite_ref-NA_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NA-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As planned, a Dutch fleet under the command of the celebrated admiral <a href="/wiki/Piet_Heyn" class="mw-redirect" title="Piet Heyn">Piet Heyn</a> arrived in Luanda to carry out an attack in 1624. The plan failed to come to fruition as by then Pedro had died and his son Garcia <a href="/wiki/Garcia_I_of_Kongo" title="Garcia I of Kongo">Mvemba a Nkanga</a> was elected king. King Garcia I was more forgiving of the Portuguese and had been successfully persuaded by their various gestures of conciliation. He was unwilling to press the attack on Angola at that time, contending that as a Catholic, he could not ally with non-Catholics to attack the city.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Factionalism_and_return_of_the_House_of_Kwilu">Factionalism and return of the House of Kwilu</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Factionalism and return of the House of Kwilu"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The end of the first quarter of the 17th century saw a new flare-up in Kongo's political struggle. At the heart of the conflict were two noble houses fighting over the kingship. On one side of the conflict was the House of Kwilu, which counted most of the kings named Álvaro. They were ousted by the opposing <a href="/wiki/Kinkanga" title="Kinkanga">House of Nsundi</a>, when Pedro II was placed on the throne by powerful local forces in São Salvador, probably as a compromise when Álvaro III died without an heir old enough to rule.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As the reigning power, the House of Nsundi worked earnestly to place partisans in king-making positions throughout the empire. Either Pedro II or Garcia I managed to secure Soyo in the hands of Count Paulo, who held it and supported the House of Nsundi from about 1625 until 1641. Meanwhile, Manuel Jordão, a partisan of the House of Kwilu, managed to force Garcia I to flee and placed <a href="/wiki/Ambr%C3%B3sio_I_of_Kongo" title="Ambrósio I of Kongo">Ambrósio I</a> of the House of Kwilu on the throne.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>King Ambrósio either could not or did not remove Paulo from Soyo, though he did eventually remove Jordão. After a rule marked by rumors of war mobilizations and other disruptions, a great riot at the capital resulted in the death of the king by a mob. Ambrosio was replaced with <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_IV_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro IV of Kongo">Alvaro IV</a> by the Duke of Mbamba, Daniel da Silva. King Alvaro IV was only eleven at the time and easily manipulated. In 1632, Daniel da Silva marched on the capital in order to "rescue his nephew from his enemies". At the time, he was under the protection of the Count of Soyo, Paulo, <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_VI_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro VI of Kongo">Alvaro Nimi a Lukeni a Nzenze a Ntumba</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Garcia_II_Nkanga_a_Lukeni" class="mw-redirect" title="Garcia II Nkanga a Lukeni">Garcia II Nkanga a Lukeni</a>. After a dramatic battle in Soyo, the young king was successfully restored only to be later poisoned by <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_V_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro V of Kongo">Alvaro V</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Kimpanzu" title="Kimpanzu">Kimpanzu</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kongo_under_the_House_of_Kinlaza">Kongo under the House of Kinlaza</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Kongo under the House of Kinlaza"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After waging a second war against his cousins, Nimi a Lukeni and Nkanga a Lukeni, Alvaro V was killed, and replaced by <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_VI_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro VI of Kongo">Alvaro VI</a> in 1636, initiating the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Kinlaza" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kinlaza">House of Kinlaza</a>'s rule over Kongo. Following his death in 1641, Alvaro VI's brother took over, and was crowned <a href="/wiki/Garcia_II_of_Kongo" title="Garcia II of Kongo">Garcia II</a>. The former House of Nsundi was consolidated with their House of Kwilu rivals as the <a href="/wiki/Kimpanzu" title="Kimpanzu">Kimpanzu</a> lineage of the dead <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_V_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro V of Kongo">Alvaro V</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Garcia II took the throne on the eve of several crises. One of his rivals, Daniel da Silva (who probably received the patronage of the Daniel da Silva who was killed by Garcia II while defending <a href="/wiki/Alvaro_IV_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvaro IV of Kongo">Alvaro IV</a>), managed to secure the County of Soyo and used it as a base against Garcia II for the whole of his reign. As a result, Garcia II was prevented from completely consolidating his authority. Another problem facing King Garcia II was a rebellion in the <a href="/wiki/Dembos" title="Dembos">Dembos</a> region, which also threatened his authority. Lastly, there was the agreement made by <a href="/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Kongo" title="Pedro II of Kongo">Pedro II</a> in 1622, promising Kongo's support to the Dutch in an offensive to oust Portugal from Luanda.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dutch_invasion_of_Luanda,_and_the_Second_Portuguese_War"><span id="Dutch_invasion_of_Luanda.2C_and_the_Second_Portuguese_War"></span>Dutch invasion of Luanda, and the Second Portuguese War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Dutch invasion of Luanda, and the Second Portuguese War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1641, the Dutch invaded Angola and captured Luanda, after an almost bloodless struggle. They immediately sought to renew their alliance with Kongo, which had had a false start in 1624, when Garcia I refused to assist a Dutch attack on Luanda. While relations between Sao Salvador and Luanda were not warm, the two polities had enjoyed an easy peace, due to the former's internal distractions, and the latter's war against the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Matamba" title="Kingdom of Matamba">Kingdom of Matamba</a>. The same year of the Portuguese ouster from Luanda, Kongo entered into a formal agreement with the new government, and agreed to provide military assistance as needed. Garcia II ejected nearly all Portuguese and Luso-African merchants from his kingdom. The colony of Angola was declared an enemy once again, and the Duke of Mbamba was sent with an army to assist the Dutch. The Dutch also provided Kongo with military assistance, in exchange for payment in slaves.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1642, the Dutch sent troops to help Garcia II put down an uprising by peoples of the southern district in the Dembos region. The government quickly put down the Nsala rebellion, reaffirming the Kongo-Dutch alliance. King Garcia II paid the Dutch for their services in slaves taken from ranks of Dembos rebels. These slaves were sent to <a href="/wiki/Pernambuco" title="Pernambuco">Pernambuco</a>, Brazil where the Dutch had taken over a portion of the Portuguese sugar-producing region. A Dutch-Kongo force attacked Portuguese bases on the <a href="/wiki/Bengo_River" title="Bengo River">Bengo River</a> in 1643 in retaliation for Portuguese harassment. The Dutch captured Portuguese positions and forced their rivals to withdraw to Dutch forts on the <a href="/wiki/Kwanza_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kwanza River">Kwanza River</a> at <a href="/wiki/Muxima" title="Muxima">Muxima</a> and Masangano. Following this victory, the Dutch once again appeared to lose interest in conquering the colony of Angola.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As in their conquest of Pernambuco, the Dutch West India Company was content to allow the Portuguese to remain inland. The Dutch sought to spare themselves the expense of war, and instead relied on control of shipping to profit from the colony. Thus, to Garcia's chagrin, the Portuguese and Dutch signed a peace treaty in 1643, ending the brief albeit successful war. With the Portuguese out of the way and an end to Dutch pursuit of troops, Garcia II could finally turn his attention to the growing threat posed by the Count of Soyo.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kongo's_war_with_Soyo"><span id="Kongo.27s_war_with_Soyo"></span>Kongo's war with Soyo</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Kongo's war with Soyo"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While Garcia was disappointed that his alliance with the Dutch could not drive out the Portuguese, it did free him to turn his attention to the growing threat posed by the Count of Soyo. The Counts of Soyo were initially strong partisans of the House of Nsundi and its successor, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Kinlaza" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kinlaza">House of Kinlaza</a>. Count Paulo had assisted in the rise of the Kinlaza to power. However, Paulo died at about the same time as Garcia became king in 1641. A rival count, Daniel da Silva from the House of Kwilu, took control of the county as a partisan of the newly formed Kimpanzu faction. He would claim that Soyo had the right to choose its own ruler, though Garcia never accepted this claim, and spent much of the first part of his reign fighting against it. Garcia did not support da Silva's move, as Soyo's ruler was one of the most important offices in Kongo.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1645, Garcia II sent a force against Daniel da Silva under the command of his son, Afonso. The campaign was a failure, due to Kongo's inability to take Soyo's fortified position at Mfinda Ngula. Worse still, Afonso was captured in the battle, forcing Garcia to engage in humiliating negotiations with da Silva to win back his son's freedom. Italian Capuchin missionaries who had just arrived in Soyo, in the aftermath of the battle, assisted in the negotiations. In 1646, Garcia sent a second military force against Soyo, but his forces were again defeated. Because Garcia was so intent on subduing Soyo, he was unable to make a full military effort to assist the Dutch in their war against Portugal.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_Portuguese_War">Third Portuguese War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Third Portuguese War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Dutch were convinced that they could avoid committing their forces to any further wars and made peace with Portugal in 1643, while retaining their military presence in their part of Angola. The Portuguese moved aggressively against Queen <a href="/wiki/Njinga" class="mw-redirect" title="Njinga">Njinga</a> and when Portuguese reinforcements managed to defeat her at Kavanga in 1646, the Dutch felt obliged to be more aggressive. Queen Njinga persuaded Garcia II to send forces to assist in another venture against the Portuguese. In 1647, Kongo troops participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kombi" title="Battle of Kombi">Battle of Kombi</a>, where they soundly defeated the Portuguese field army, after forcing them to fight defensively. Subsequently, Njinga's army besieged all the Portuguese in the interior of the colony.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A year later, Portuguese reinforcements from Brazil forced the Dutch to surrender Luanda and withdraw from Angola in 1648. The new Portuguese governor, <a href="/wiki/Salvador_de_S%C3%A1" title="Salvador de Sá">Salvador de Sá</a>, sought terms with Kongo, demanding the Island of Luanda, the source of Kongo's money supply of nzimbu shells. Although neither Kongo nor Angola ever ratified the treaty, sent to the king in 1649, the Portuguese gained <i>de facto</i> control of the island. The war resulted in the Dutch losing their claims in Central Africa, Njinga being forced back into Matamba, the Portuguese restored to their coastal position. Kongo lost or gained nothing, other than the indemnity Garcia paid, which ended hostilities between the two rival powers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Battle_of_Mbwila">Battle of Mbwila</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Battle of Mbwila"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lossy-page1-1171px-Kongo_1648_coloured.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Lossy-page1-1171px-Kongo_1648_coloured.png/220px-Lossy-page1-1171px-Kongo_1648_coloured.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Lossy-page1-1171px-Kongo_1648_coloured.png/330px-Lossy-page1-1171px-Kongo_1648_coloured.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Lossy-page1-1171px-Kongo_1648_coloured.png/440px-Lossy-page1-1171px-Kongo_1648_coloured.png 2x" data-file-width="1171" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The Kingdom of Kongo in 1648</figcaption></figure> <p>Portugal began pressing claims over southern vassals of Kongo, especially the country of <a href="/wiki/Mbwila" title="Mbwila">Mbwila</a>, following Portuguese restoration at Luanda. <a href="/wiki/Mbwila" title="Mbwila">Mbwila</a>, a nominal vassal of Kongo, had also signed a treaty of vassalage with Portugal in 1619. It divided its loyalty between the Colony of Angola and Kongo in the intervening period. Though the Portuguese often attacked <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbwila" title="Battle of Mbwila">Mbwila</a>, they never brought it under their authority.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Kongo began working towards a Spanish alliance, especially following <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_I_of_Kongo" title="António I of Kongo">António I</a>'s succession as king in 1661. Although it is not clear what diplomatic activities he engaged in with Spain itself, the Portuguese clearly believed that he hoped to repeat the Dutch invasion, this time with the assistance of Spain. António sent emissaries to the Dembos region and to Matamba and Mbwila, attempting to form a new anti-Portuguese alliance. The Portuguese had been troubled, moreover, by Kongo support of runaway slaves, who flocked to southern Kongo throughout the 1650s. At the same time, the Portuguese were advancing their own agenda for Mbwila, which they claimed as a <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a>. In 1665, both sides invaded Mbwila, and their rival armies met each other at Ulanga, in the valley below Mbanza Mbwila, capital of the district.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbwila" title="Battle of Mbwila">Battle of Mbwila</a> in 1665, the Portuguese forces from Angola had their first victory against the kingdom of Kongo since 1622. They defeated the forces under <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_I_of_Kongo" title="António I of Kongo">António I</a> killing him and many of his courtiers as well as the Luso-African Capuchin priest Manuel Roboredo (also known by his cloister name of Francisco de São Salvador), who had attempted to prevent this final war.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kongo_Civil_War">Kongo Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Kongo Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kongo_Civil_War" title="Kongo Civil War">Kongo Civil War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Bansa,_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo,_called_St._Salvador_(M%27Banza_Kongo),_Astley_1745_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745_%28cropped%29.jpg/240px-The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745_%28cropped%29.jpg/480px-The_Bansa%2C_or_residence_of_the_King_of_Kongo%2C_called_St._Salvador_%28M%27Banza_Kongo%29%2C_Astley_1745_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1287" data-file-height="874" /></a><figcaption>Sao Salvador after painting by <a href="/wiki/Olfert_Dapper" title="Olfert Dapper">Olfert Dapper</a>, 1668</figcaption></figure> <p>In the aftermath of the battle of Mbwila, there was no clear succession. The country was divided between rival claimants to the throne. The two factions, <a href="/wiki/Kimpanzu" title="Kimpanzu">Kimpanzu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinlaza" title="Kinlaza">Kinlaza</a>, hardened, and partitioned the country between them. Pretenders would ascend to the throne, and then be ousted. The period was marked by an increase in <a href="/wiki/BaKongo" class="mw-redirect" title="BaKongo">BaKongo</a> slaves being sold across the Atlantic, the weakening of the Kongo monarchy and the strengthening of <a href="/wiki/Soyo" title="Soyo">Soyo</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During this chaos, Kongo was being increasingly manipulated by Soyo. In an act of desperation, the central authority in Kongo called on Luanda to attack Soyo in return for various concessions. The Portuguese invaded the county of Soyo in 1670. They met with no more success than Garcia II, being roundly defeated by Soyo's forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kitombo" title="Battle of Kitombo">Battle of Kitombo</a> on 18 October 1670. The kingdom of Kongo was to remain completely independent, though still embroiled in civil war, thanks to the very force (Portuguese colonials) it had fought so long to destroy. This Portuguese defeat was resounding enough to end all Portuguese ambitions in Kongo's sphere of influence, until the end of the nineteenth century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The battles between the Kimpanzu and Kinlaza continued plunging the kingdom into a chaos not known in centuries. The fighting between the two lineages led to the sack of São Salvador in 1678. Ironically, the capital built by the pact of Mpemba and Mbata was burned to the ground, not by the Portuguese or rival African nations but by its very heirs. The city and hinterland around Mbanza Kongo became depopulated. The population dispersed into the mountain top fortresses of the rival kings. These were the Mountain of Kibangu east of the capital and the fortress of the Águas Rosadas, a line founded in the 1680s from descendants of Kinlaza and Kimpanzu, the region of Mbula, or Lemba where a line founded by the Kinlaza pretender, Pedro III ruled; and Lovota, a district in southern Soyo that sheltered a Kimpanzu lineage whose head was D Suzanna de Nóbrega. Finally, D Ana Afonso de Leão founded her own center on the Mbidizi River at Nkondo and guided her junior kinsmen to reclaim the country, even as she sought to reconcile the hostile factions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the interim, however, tens of thousands fleeing the conflict or caught up in the battles were sold as slaves to <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">European slave traders</a> every year. One human stream led north to Loango, whose merchants, known as Vili (Mubires in the period) carried them primarily to merchants bound for <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>, and others were taken south to Luanda, where they were sold to Portuguese merchants bound for <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Brazil" title="Colonial Brazil">Brazil</a>. By the end of the seventeenth century, several long wars and interventions by the now independent Counts of Soyo (who restyled themselves as Grand Princes) had brought an end to Kongo's golden age.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fragmentation">Fragmentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Fragmentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As the 17th-century drew to a close several places once part of Kongo became de facto independent. This included areas such as <a href="/wiki/Nsonso" title="Nsonso">Nsonso</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="18th_and_19th_centuries">18th and 19th centuries</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 18th and 19th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1770_Bonne_(coloured_excerpt).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1770_Bonne_%28coloured_excerpt%29.png/220px-1770_Bonne_%28coloured_excerpt%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="179" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1770_Bonne_%28coloured_excerpt%29.png/330px-1770_Bonne_%28coloured_excerpt%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/1770_Bonne_%28coloured_excerpt%29.png/440px-1770_Bonne_%28coloured_excerpt%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1837" data-file-height="1493" /></a><figcaption>Kongo in 1770</figcaption></figure> <p>In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Kongo artists began making crucifixes and other religious objects that depicted Jesus as an African. Such objects produced by many workshops over a long period (given their variety) reflect that emerging belief that Kongo was a central part of the Christian world, and fundamental to its history. A story of the eighteenth century was that the partially ruined cathedral of São Salvador, originally constructed for the Jesuits in 1549 and eventually elevated to cathedral status, was actually built overnight by angels. It was called affectionately, Nkulumbimbi. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_of_Kongo" title="Manuel II of Kongo">Manuel II of Kongo</a> succeeded Pedro IV in 1718. Manuel II ruled over a restored and restive kingdom until his death in 1743. However, Soyo's provincial status in the kingdom, nominal for years, limited Manuel's power. Nsundi on the north had also more or less become independent, although still claiming to be part of the larger kingdom and more or less permanently ruled by a Kimpanzu family. Even within the remaining portions of the kingdom, there were still powerful and violent rivalries. At least one major war took place in the 1730s in the province of Mbamba. Pedro IV's successor, <a href="/wiki/Garcia_IV_of_Kongo" title="Garcia IV of Kongo">Garcia IV Nkanga a Mvandu</a>, ruled from 1743 to 1752. Pedro IV's restoration required his successor's membership in a branch of the Kinlaza faction resident in Matadi that had sworn loyalty to Pedro IV in 1716. Other Kinlaza branches had developed in the north, at Lemba and Matari, and in the south along the Mbidizi River in lands that had been ruled by D. <a href="/wiki/Ana_Afonso_de_Le%C3%A3o" title="Ana Afonso de Leão">Ana Afonso de Leão</a>. De Leão's lands came to be called the "Lands of the Queen".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The system of alternating succession broke down in 1764, when <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_XI_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro XI of Kongo">Álvaro XI</a>, a Kinlaza, drove out the usurping Kimpanzu king <a href="/wiki/Pedro_V_of_Kongo_(usurper)" title="Pedro V of Kongo (usurper)">Pedro V</a> (the first to bear this title) and took over the throne. Pedro and his successor in Luvata maintained a separate court at Sembo, and never acknowledged the usurpation. A regent of Pedro's successor claimed the throne in the early 1780s and pressed his claims against a <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_I_of_Kongo" title="José I of Kongo">José I</a>, a Kinlaza from the Mbidizi Valley branch of the royal family. José won the showdown, fought at São Salvador in 1781, a massive battle involving 30,000 soldiers on José's side alone. To show his contempt for his defeated rival, José refused to allow the soldiers of the other faction to receive Christian burial. José's power was limited, as he had no sway over the lands controlled by the Kinlaza faction of Lemba and Matari, even though they were technically of the same family, and he did not follow up his victory to extend his authority over the Kimpanzu lands around Luvota. At the same time, the lands around Mount Kibangu, Pedro IV's original base, was controlled—as it had been for the whole eighteenth century—by members of the Água Rosada family, who claimed descent from both the Kimpanzu and Kinlaza.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>José ruled until 1785, when he handed power over to his brother <a href="/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Kongo" title="Afonso V of Kongo">Afonso V</a> (1785–87). Afonso's brief reign ended in his sudden death, rumored to be by poisoning. A confused struggle broke out following Afonso's death. By 1794, the throne ended up in the hands of <a href="/wiki/Henrique_I_of_Kongo" title="Henrique I of Kongo">Henrique I</a>, a man of uncertain factional origin, who arranged for three parties to divide the succession. <a href="/wiki/Garcia_V_of_Kongo" title="Garcia V of Kongo">Garcia V</a> abrogated the arrangement, proclaiming himself king in 1805. He ruled until 1830. <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_II_of_Kongo" title="André II of Kongo">André II</a>, who followed Garcia V, appeared to have restored the older rotational claims, as he was from the northern branch of the Kinlaza, whose capital had moved from Matadi to Manga. Andre ruled until 1842 when <a href="/wiki/Henrique_II_of_Kongo" title="Henrique II of Kongo">Henrique II</a>, from the southern (Mbidizi Valley) branch of the same family, overthrew him. Henrique II developed his power in the same manner as other entrepreneurial nobles, by founding villages of slaves or followers and drawing strength from them.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Andre, however, did not accept his fate and withdrew with his followers to Mbanza Mputo, a village just beyond the edge of São Salvador, where he and his descendants kept up their claims. King Henrique III, who came to power after overthrowing André II, ruled Kongo from 1842 until his death in 1857.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Aleixo de Água Rosada (<a href="/wiki/Henrique_III_of_Kongo" title="Henrique III of Kongo">brother of king Henrique III</a>) ordered a Dembo chief Nambwa Ngôngo not to pay a new Portuguese tax in 1841. His capture and imprisonment by the Portuguese took place some time after he Ordered Nambwa Ngôngo.<sup id="cite_ref-Chilcote_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chilcote-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_entrepreneurial_nobles">Rise of entrepreneurial nobles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Rise of entrepreneurial nobles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1750s and beyond, a new class of nobles emerged in Kongo. While they belonged to the less category of nobles, they lived by banditry and captured people to found new villages under their control. They took advantage of the lack of control that higher nobles had over their territories to construct fortified locations. One of the more famous of these nobles is only known by the sobriquet Mbwa Lau (Mad Dog) who, along with several other nobles, founded a fortified settlement not far from the capital. A Portuguese missionary priest raveled with an order from the bishop demanding that Kongo nobles cease selling slaves to merchants from Loango (called Vilis) because they would be selling Catholics to Protestants, as the trade of Loango included English and Dutch merchants. Mbwa Lau abused the priest and threatened to kill him. The weak documentary record does not record the rise of these nobles in detail, although modern traditions of the more successful may allow their reconstruction.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Even members of the higher nobility founded their own villages of captured people or persuaded the commoners to join them for protection. The kings, who no longer operated as the heads of a responsible bureaucracy, might appoint them as Dukes or Marquis, but they only ever controlled the lands they ruled themselves. While the entrepreneurial nobles sought local political and economic power, they also sold slaves into the slave trade, and it was largely their small scale wars and captures of other people that fed the growing trade from the country to the New World. The most destructive part of Kongo's long involvement in the slave trade probably occurred in this period.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1839, the Portuguese government, acting on British pressure, abolished the slave trade south of the equator which had so damaged Central Africa. Human trafficking continued until well into the 1920s, first as an illegal slave trade, then as contract labor. A commodity trade replaced the slave trade, at first focused on ivory and wax, but gradually grew to include peanuts and rubber. This trade revolutionized the economies and eventually the politics of the whole of Central Africa. In place of the slave trade, largely under the control of state authorities, thousands, and eventually hundreds of thousands, of commoners began carrying goods from inland to coastal ports. These people managed to share in the wealth of the new trade, and as a result, commercially connected people constructed new villages and challenged the authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:17b_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17b-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this period, as the slave trade ended, long-distance trade became more prominent, and entrepreneurial nobles became more stable founding markets and protecting trade. They founded new, <i>makanda</i>, nominally clans descended from common ancestors that were as much trading associations as family units. These clans founded strings of villages connected by fictional kinship along the trade routes, from Boma or the coast of Soyo to São Salvador and then on into the interior. A new oral tradition about the founder of the kingdom, often held to be Afonso I, described the kingdom as originating when the king caused the clans to disperse in all directions. The histories of these clans, typically describing the travels of their founder and his followers from an origin point to their final villages, replaced the history of the kingdom itself in many areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite violent rivalries and the fracturing of the kingdom, it continued to exist independently well into the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_XIII_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro XIII of Kongo">Álvaro Ndongo</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Kimpanzu" title="Kimpanzu">Kimpanzu</a>, claimed the throne on behalf of the Kinlaza faction of Matari, ignoring the existence of Andre's group at Mbanza Puto, calling himself Álvaro XIII; while <a href="/wiki/Pedro_V_of_Kongo" title="Pedro V of Kongo">Pedro Lelo</a> claimed the throne on behalf of the Mbidizi Valley faction of the Kinlaza, from a base at Bembe. Pedro ultimately won a long military struggle thanks to soliciting Portuguese aid, and with their help his soldiers defeated Álvaro in 1859. Like André II, Álvaro XIII did not accept defeat and established his own base at Nkunga, not far from São Salvador. The Portuguese support which had put Pedro Lelo on the throne had a price, for when he was crowned <a href="/wiki/Pedro_V_of_Kongo" title="Pedro V of Kongo">Pedro V</a> (he was actually the second king named Pedro V; <a href="/wiki/Pedro_V_of_Kongo_(usurper)" title="Pedro V of Kongo (usurper)">the first one</a> ruled in the late 1770s) he had also sworn a treaty of vassalage to Portugal. Portugal thus gained nominal authority over Kongo when Pedro gained control of it in 1859, and even constructed a fort in São Salvador to house a garrison. In the same year prince Nicolas protested vassalage of Kongo by publishing a letter in the newspaper <i>Jornal do Commércio</i> in Lisbon, on 1 December.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chilcote_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chilcote-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Os_Reis_do_Congo,_D._Pedro_VII_e_D._Isabel,_1934_(Sociedade_de_Geografia_de_Lisboa).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Os_Reis_do_Congo%2C_D._Pedro_VII_e_D._Isabel%2C_1934_%28Sociedade_de_Geografia_de_Lisboa%29.png/220px-Os_Reis_do_Congo%2C_D._Pedro_VII_e_D._Isabel%2C_1934_%28Sociedade_de_Geografia_de_Lisboa%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="323" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Os_Reis_do_Congo%2C_D._Pedro_VII_e_D._Isabel%2C_1934_%28Sociedade_de_Geografia_de_Lisboa%29.png/330px-Os_Reis_do_Congo%2C_D._Pedro_VII_e_D._Isabel%2C_1934_%28Sociedade_de_Geografia_de_Lisboa%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Os_Reis_do_Congo%2C_D._Pedro_VII_e_D._Isabel%2C_1934_%28Sociedade_de_Geografia_de_Lisboa%29.png/440px-Os_Reis_do_Congo%2C_D._Pedro_VII_e_D._Isabel%2C_1934_%28Sociedade_de_Geografia_de_Lisboa%29.png 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="906" /></a><figcaption>Pedro VII and Isabel, titular King and Queen of Kongo, pictured in 1934.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1866, citing excessive costs, the Portuguese government withdrew its garrison. Pedro was able to continue reigning over Kongo, although he faced increasing rivalry from clan-based trading magnates who drained his authority from much of the country. The most dangerous of these was Garcia Mbwaka Matu of the town of Makuta. This town had been founded by a man named Kuvo, one of the entrepreneurial nobles, his successors including Garcia made a great deal of controlling markets in the new trading regime. Though this was a great challenge in the 1870s, after Garcia's death in 1880 Makuta became less problematic.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Conference of Berlin">Conference of Berlin</a> of 1884–1885, European powers divided most of Central Africa between them. Portugal claimed the lion's share of what remained of independent Kongo; however, Portugal was not then in a position to make "effective occupation". King Pedro V continued to rule until his death in 1891, and was able to use the Portuguese to strengthen his control. In 1888 he voluntarily reaffirmed Kongo's position as a Portuguese vassal state. After a revolt against the Portuguese in 1914, Portugal declared the abolition of the kingdom of Kongo, of which the ruler at that time was <a href="/wiki/Manuel_III_of_Kongo" title="Manuel III of Kongo">Manuel III of Kongo</a>, ending native rule and replacing it with direct colonial rule. However, according to the <i><a href="/wiki/Almanach_de_Bruxelles" title="Almanach de Bruxelles">Almanach de Bruxelles</a></i> a series of titular kings kept on using the title until at least until 1964, when a dispute over the succession began.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_structure">Military structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Military structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:African-congo-bowmen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/African-congo-bowmen.jpg/220px-African-congo-bowmen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/African-congo-bowmen.jpg/330px-African-congo-bowmen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/African-congo-bowmen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption>Congo bowmen. The bulk of Kongo's infantry forces, consisted of archers equipped and dressed in a similar fashion to these encountered by the <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a> expedition.</figcaption></figure> <p>The kingdom's army consisted of a mass levy of archers, drawn from the general male population, and a smaller corps of heavy infantry, who fought with swords and carried shields for protection. Portuguese documents typically referred to <a href="/wiki/Heavy_infantry" title="Heavy infantry">heavy infantry</a>, considered nobles, as <i>fidalgos</i> in documents.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The bearing of a shield was also important, as Portuguese documents usually called the heavy infantry as <i>adargueiros</i> (shield bearers). The shields of the heavy infantry extended from the knees unto the neck of the soldier but this force lacked <a href="/wiki/Armor" class="mw-redirect" title="Armor">armor</a>. Most shield bearers bore a "<a href="/wiki/Scimitar" title="Scimitar">scimitar</a>-shaped <a href="/wiki/Longsword" title="Longsword">longsword</a>" as described by military historian Wayne Lee.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_warfare_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_warfare-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shield bearers were limited by number and approximately 1000 were deployed in most Kongo armies.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some archers, especially those in eastern Kongo, used <a href="/wiki/Arrow_poison" title="Arrow poison">poison arrows</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_warfare_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee_warfare-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is weak evidence to suggest revenue assignments paid and supported them. A large number, perhaps as many as 20,000, stayed in the capital. Smaller contingents lived in the major provinces under the command of provincial rulers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Kongo imported European arms such as swords into the military. In 1583, soldiers of the Mbamba province were armed with longswords similar to that of the <a href="/wiki/Slavonia" title="Slavonia">Slavonians</a>. Portuguese emissary Duarte Lopez believed this sword "could cut a slave in two."<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After 1600, civil war became far more common than inter-state warfare. The government instituted a draft for the entire population during wartime, but only a limited number actually served. Many who did not carry arms instead carried baggage and supplies. Thousands of women supported armies on the move. Administrators expected soldiers to have two weeks' worth of food upon reporting for campaign duty. Logistical difficulties probably limited both the size of armies and their capacity to operate for extended periods. Some Portuguese sources suggested that the king of Kongo fielded armies as large as 70,000 soldiers for a 1665 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbwila" title="Battle of Mbwila">Battle of Mbwila</a>, but it is unlikely that armies larger than 20–30,000 troops could be raised for military campaigns.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Troops were mobilized and reviewed on Saint James' Day, 25 July, when taxes were also collected. Subjects celebrated this day in honor of Saint James and Afonso I, whose miraculous victory over his brother in 1509 was the principal significance of the holiday in the Kongo.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When the Portuguese arrived in Kongo they were immediately added as a mercenary force, probably under their own commander, and used special-purpose weapons, like crossbows and muskets, to add force to the normal Kongo order of battle. Their initial impact was muted; Afonso complained in a letter of 1514 that they had not been very effective in a war he waged against Munza, a Mbundu rebel, the year before. By the 1580s, however, a musketeer corps, which was locally raised from resident Portuguese and their Kongo-mestiço (mixed race) offspring, was a regular part of the main Kongo army in the capital. Provincial armies had some musketeers; for example, they served against the Portuguese invading army in 1622. Three hundred and sixty musketeers served in the Kongo army against the Portuguese at the Battle of Mbwila.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kongolese forces became accustomed to firearms in the 18th century. Primary sources about the battle between regent of King Pedro V and <a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_I_of_Kongo" title="José I of Kongo">Jose I</a> in 1781 indicated that Jose's 30,000 soldiers were armed with "musket and ball."<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artillery was used to an extent in the 18th century. According to the historian <a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">John Thornton</a>, a Kongolese unit that faced Portuguese forces in 1790 sometimes employed artillery.<sup id="cite_ref-T_110_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T_110-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1509, <a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I of Kongo</a> built <a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">holes containing an iron</a> each in defense of <a href="/wiki/Mbanza-Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Mbanza-Kongo">Mbanza-Kongo</a> where they were dug to fortify and surround the city. Its main purpose was to attract the opponent's forces to the central public square of the city where most of the army was assembled. Rival and brother of Afonso, Mpanzu a Kitima, succumbed to this <a href="/wiki/Anti-personnel_weapon" title="Anti-personnel weapon">anti-personnel</a> trap during a campaign against Afonso.<sup id="cite_ref-T_110_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-T_110-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sources from the early 16th century document about Central African naval vessels carved from a single log which could carry 150 people. In the 16th century, Kongo was recorded to be able to deploy 800 of such naval vessels. In 1525, one of such boats cooperated with a Portuguese vessel to capture a French ship off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Soyo" title="Soyo">Soyo</a>. The Kongolese vessel played the role of capturing and attacking the <a href="/wiki/Landing_party" title="Landing party">shore party</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Longboat" title="Longboat">longboat</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_battles">Other battles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other battles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbanda_Kasi" title="Battle of Mbanda Kasi">Battle of Mbanda Kasi</a> (or Mbandi Kasi)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbidizi_River" title="Battle of Mbidizi River">Battle of Mbidizi River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kitombo" title="Battle of Kitombo">Battle of Kitombo</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_structure">Political structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Political structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>vata</i> village, referred to as <i>libata</i> in Kongo documents and by the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, served as Kongo's basic social unit after the family. <i>Nkuluntu</i>, or mocolunto to the Portuguese, chiefs headed the villages. The one to two hundred citizens per village migrated about every ten years to accommodate soil exhaustion. Communal land-ownership and collective farms produced harvests divided by families according to the number of people per household. The nkuluntu received special premium from the harvest before the division.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Villages were grouped in <i>wene</i>, small states, led by <i>awene</i> (plural of <i>mwene</i>) or <i>mani</i> to the Portuguese. Awene lived in <i>mbanza</i>, larger villages or small towns of somewhere between 1,000 and 5,000 citizens. Higher nobility typically chose these leaders. The king also appointed lower-level officials to serve, typically for three-year terms, by assisting him in <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Various provinces made up Kongo's higher administrative divisions, with some of the larger and more complex states, such as Mbamba, divided into varying numbers of sub-provinces, which the administration further subdivided. The king appointed the Mwene Mbamba, the Duke of Mbamba after the 1590s. The king technically had the power to dismiss the Mwene Mbamba, but the complex political situation limited the king's exercise of his power. When the administration gave out European-style titles, large districts like Mbamba and Nsundi typically became <i>Duchies</i>. The administration made smaller ones, such as Mpemba, Mpangu or a host of territories north of the capital), <i>Marquisates</i>. Soyo, a complex province on the coast, became a "County," as did Nkusu, a smaller and less complex state east of the capital.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_22.1203_Grave_Marker_Tumba_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Brooklyn_Museum_22.1203_Grave_Marker_Tumba_%282%29.jpg/220px-Brooklyn_Museum_22.1203_Grave_Marker_Tumba_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Brooklyn_Museum_22.1203_Grave_Marker_Tumba_%282%29.jpg/330px-Brooklyn_Museum_22.1203_Grave_Marker_Tumba_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Brooklyn_Museum_22.1203_Grave_Marker_Tumba_%282%29.jpg/440px-Brooklyn_Museum_22.1203_Grave_Marker_Tumba_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1205" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><b>Kongo (Boma subgroup)</b>. 19th century <i>Grave Marker (<a href="/wiki/Tumba_(Kongo)" title="Tumba (Kongo)">Tumba</a>).</i> The Kongo people placed stone figures called <i>tumba</i> on the graves of powerful people. His cap (mpu) with four leopard's teeth, the beaded necklace, and the bracelet (nlunga) identify him as a chief. The term <i>tumba</i> comes from the old Portuguese word for "tomb"—this genre may have been inspired by grave monuments for European merchants and missionaries in Kongo cemeteries. <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure><p><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Hereditary families controlled a few provinces, most notably the Duchy of Mbata and the County of Nkusu, through their positions as officers appointed by the king. In the case of Mbata, the kingdom's origin as an alliance produced this power, exercised by the Nsaku Lau. In the seventeenth century, political maneuvering also caused some provinces, notably Soyo, but occasionally Mbamba, to be held for very long terms by the same person. Provincial governments still paid income to the crown and their rulers reported to the capital to give account.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The kingdom of Kongo was made up of a large number of provinces. Various sources list from six to fifteen as the principal ones. Duarte Lopes' description, based on his experience there in the late sixteenth century, identified six provinces as the most important. These were Nsundi in the northeast, Mpangu in the center, Mbata in the southeast, Soyo in the southwest and two southern provinces of Mbamba and Mpemba.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The king of Kongo also held several kingdoms in at least nominal vassalage. These included the kingdoms of Kakongo, Ngoyo and Vungu to the north of Kongo. The royal titles, first elaborated by Afonso in 1512, styled the ruler as "King of Kongo and Lord of the Mbundus" and later titles listed a number of other counties over which he also ruled as "king". The Mbundu kingdoms included Ndongo (sometimes erroneously mentioned as "Angola"), Kisama and Matamba. All of these kingdoms were south of Kongo and much farther from the king's cultural influence than the northern kingdoms. Still later eastern kingdoms such as Kongo dia Nlaza were named in the ruler's titles as well.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Royal_Council">Royal Council</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Royal Council"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The kingdom of Kongo was governed in concert by the Mwene Kongo and the royal council<sup id="cite_ref-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> known as the <a href="/wiki/Ne_mbanda-mbanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Ne mbanda-mbanda">ne mbanda-mbanda</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Schueren,_G._page_136_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schueren,_G._page_136-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> roughly translates as "the top of the top". It was composed of twelve members<sup id="cite_ref-Schueren,_G._page_136_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schueren,_G._page_136-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> divided into three groups. One group were bureaucrats, another who were electors and a last of matrons. Senior officials chose the Mwene Kongo or king who served for life following their choice. Electors varied over time, and there was probably never a completely fixed list; rather, senior officials who exercised power did so. Many kings tried to choose their successor, not always successfully. One of the central problems of Kongo history was the succession of power, and as a result, the country was disturbed by many rebellions and revolts.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bureaucratic_posts">Bureaucratic posts</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Bureaucratic posts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These four, non-electing posts, were composed of the Mwene Lumbo (lord of the palace/major-domo), Mfila Ntu<sup id="cite_ref-Schueren,_G._page_136_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schueren,_G._page_136-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (most trusted councilor/prime minister), Mwene Vangu-Vangu (lord of deeds or actions/high judge particularly in adultery cases), and Mwene Bampa (treasurer).<sup id="cite_ref-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These four are all appointed by the king and have a great influence on the day-to-day operations of the court.<sup id="cite_ref-Hilton,_Anne_page_38_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilton,_Anne_page_38-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Electors">Electors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Electors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another four councillors worked to elect the king as well as man important posts. The electors are composed of the Mwene Vunda (lord of Vunda, a small territory north of the capital with mostly religious obligations who leads the electors,<sup id="cite_ref-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) the Mwene Mbata (lord of Mbata province directly east of the capital and run by the Nsaka Lau kanda which provides the king's <a href="/wiki/Great_Wife" title="Great Wife">great wife</a>), Mwene Soyo (lord of Soyo province west of the capital and historically the wealthiest province due to it being the only port and having access to salt), and a fourth elector, likely the Mwene Mbamba (lord of Mbamba province south of the capital and captain-general of the armies).<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Mwene Vunda was appointed by the king from the Nsaku ne Vunda kanda. The Mwene Mbata was nominally confirmed by the king from the Nsaku Lau kanda. The Mwene Soyo was appointed by the king from the Da Silva kanda. The Mwene Mbamba was appointed by the king from anywhere he desired, but was usually a close family relation. These four men elected the king, while the Mwene Vunda and Mwene Mbata played crucial roles in the coronation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Matrons">Matrons</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Matrons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lastly, the council contained four women with great influence on the council. They were led by the Mwene Nzimba Mpungu, a <a href="/wiki/Queen_mothers_(Africa)" class="mw-redirect" title="Queen mothers (Africa)">queen-mother</a>, usually being the king's paternal aunt. The next most powerful woman was the Mwene Mbanda,<sup id="cite_ref-Hilton,_Anne_page_38_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hilton,_Anne_page_38-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the king's <a href="/wiki/Great_Wife" title="Great Wife">great wife</a>, chosen from the Nsaku Lau kanda. The other two posts were given to the next most important women in the kingdom being widowed queens dowager or the matriarchs of former ruling kandas.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economic_structure">Economic structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Economic structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Currency">Currency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Currency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The universal currency in Kongo and the surrounding region of Central Africa was the shell of <i><a href="/wiki/Olivella_nana" title="Olivella nana">Olivella nana</a></i>; a sea snail known locally as <i><a href="/wiki/Nzimbu" class="mw-redirect" title="Nzimbu">nzimbu</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One hundred nzimbu could purchase a hen; 300 a <a href="/wiki/Garden_hoe" class="mw-redirect" title="Garden hoe">garden hoe</a> and 2,000 a goat. Slaves, which were always a part of Kongo's economy, were also bought in nzimbu. A female slave could be purchased (or sold) for 20,000 nzimbu and a male slave for 30,000. The slave trade had increased in volume after contact with Portugal. </p><p>Nzimbu shells were collected from the island of <a href="/wiki/Ilha_de_Luanda" title="Ilha de Luanda">Luanda</a> and kept as a royal monopoly. The smaller shells were filtered out so that only the large shells entered the marketplace as currency. Kongo would not trade for gold or silver, but nzimbu shells, often put in pots in special increments, could buy anything. Kongo's "money pots" held increments of 40, 100, 250, 400, and 500. For especially large purchases, there were standardized units such as a funda (1,000 big shells), Lufuku (10,000 big shells) and a kofo (20,000 big shells).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Kongo administration regarded their land as <i>renda</i>, revenue assignments. The Kongo government exacted a monetary head tax for each villager, which may well have been paid in kind as well, forming the basis for the kingdom's finances. The king granted titles and income, based on this head tax. Holders reported annually to the court of their superior for evaluation and renewal. </p><p>Provincial governors paid a portion of the tax returns from their provinces to the king. Dutch visitors to Kongo in the 1640s reported this income as twenty million nzimbu shells. In addition, the crown collected its own special taxes and levies, including tolls on the substantial trade that passed through the kingdom, especially the lucrative cloth trade between the great cloth-producing region of the "<a href="/wiki/Seven_Kingdoms_of_Kongo_dia_Nlaza" title="Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza">Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza</a>", the eastern regions (also called "Momboares"), "The Seven" in Kikongo, and the coast, especially the Portuguese colony of Luanda.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Crown revenues supported the church, paid by revenue assignments based on royal income. For example, <a href="/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Kongo" title="Pedro II of Kongo">Pedro II</a> (1622–1624) detailed the finances of his royal chapel by specifying that revenues from various estates and provincial incomes would support it. Baptismal and burial fees also supported local churches.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When King <a href="/wiki/Garcia_II_of_Kongo" title="Garcia II of Kongo">Garcia II</a> gave up the island of Luanda and its royal fisheries to the Portuguese in 1651, he switched the kingdom's currency to <a href="/wiki/Raffia" class="mw-redirect" title="Raffia">raffia</a> cloth. The cloth was "napkin-sized" and called <i>mpusu</i>. In the 17th century, 100 mpusu could buy one slave implying a value greater than that of the nzimbu currency. Raffia cloth was also called Lubongo (singular : <i>Lubongo</i>, <i>Libongo</i>, plural : <i>Mbongo</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marketplace">Marketplace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Marketplace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A major cornerstone of the economic and social center of the people of the Kongo is situated in the market (<i>nzandu</i>). This was an area that was reserved for peace and commerce, the chief authority ensured security here by placing the area in neutral territory that was defended against possible attack. They also provided the freedom to trade as well as the implementation of price standardizations. Areas set aside for the display of merchandise (<i>mbangu</i>) was separated by type, such as an area for blacksmithing equipment, one for slaves etc. Besides being a commercial center it was also a place where political and matrimonial negotiations were carried out, a place for the dissemination of news, an execution area for criminals and where rituals of sorcerers were made.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The connections of these marketplaces were linked by several roads (rich caravans had armed protection from bandits (<i>mpanzulungu</i>) who raided travellers in the late 15th century). These routes were maintained by a compulsory labor force through a collection of tolls to ensure revenue for the capital.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Art_of_the_Kongo_Kingdom">Art of the Kongo Kingdom</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Art of the Kongo Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brooklyn_Museum_2011.74_Crucifix_Nkangi_Kiditu_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Brooklyn_Museum_2011.74_Crucifix_Nkangi_Kiditu_%282%29.jpg/150px-Brooklyn_Museum_2011.74_Crucifix_Nkangi_Kiditu_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Brooklyn_Museum_2011.74_Crucifix_Nkangi_Kiditu_%282%29.jpg/225px-Brooklyn_Museum_2011.74_Crucifix_Nkangi_Kiditu_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Brooklyn_Museum_2011.74_Crucifix_Nkangi_Kiditu_%282%29.jpg/300px-Brooklyn_Museum_2011.74_Crucifix_Nkangi_Kiditu_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1101" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Copper-alloy crucifix, early 17th century</figcaption></figure> <p>The people of the Kongo are divided into many subgroups including the <a href="/wiki/Yombe_people" title="Yombe people">Yombe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beembe_tribe_(Kongo)" title="Beembe tribe (Kongo)">Beembe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sundi" title="Sundi">Sundi</a>, and others, but share a common language, <a href="/wiki/Kikongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Kikongo">Kikongo</a>. These groups have many cultural similarities, including that they all produce a huge range of sculptural art. The most notable feature of this region's figurative style is the relative naturalism of the representation of both humans and animals. "The musculature of face and body is carefully rendered, and great attention is paid to items of personal adornment and scarification. Much of the region's art was produced for social and political leaders such as the Kongo king."<sup id="cite_ref-Siegmann_Brooklyn_Museum_2009_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Siegmann_Brooklyn_Museum_2009-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture">Architecture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first stone and mortar building in the capital of <a href="/wiki/M%27banza-Kongo" title="M'banza-Kongo">M'banza-Kongo</a> was a church built by Portuguese craftsmen with the aid of Kongo laborers on 1 June 1491.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the reign of Afonso I in the early 16th century, several stone buildings were constructed in the Kongo capital. For instance, he constructed a stone wall around the royal quarter and a quarter assigned to the Portuguese. The wall stood at a height of 15–20 feet as it was 2 feet 6 inches and 3 feet thick. Afonso also built stone churches and a stone palace starting from 1509. According to scholar Rathbone, the king successfully developed a cadre of Kongolese who could construct and repair stone buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-rathbone_689_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rathbone_689-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the peak of the capital in the mid 17th century, the city contained stone cathedrals, chapels as well as a <a href="/wiki/Jesuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesuit">Jesuit</a> <a href="/wiki/College" title="College">college</a> and its streets <a href="/wiki/Street_name" title="Street name">were named</a>. Houses of both the poor and rich were besieged by a fence to serve as a border to the neighbor's house.<sup id="cite_ref-rathbone_689_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rathbone_689-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_structure">Social structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Social structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Matrilineal_organization">Matrilineal organization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Matrilineal organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The central Bantu groups which comprised most of the Kongo kingdom passed on status through matrilineal succession.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, women in the group of kingdoms that at various times were provinces in the Kongo kingdom could have important roles in rulership and war. For example, Queen <a href="/wiki/Nzinga_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba" title="Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba">Nzinga</a>, or Njinga, who ruled parts of the kingdom in Ndongo and Matamba provinces in the 17th century, was an effective ruler and war leader. In fact, she became a thorn in the side of the Portuguese to the degree that their correspondence at times was mainly about how to foil her. Nevertheless, the only thing that ended her efforts against them was her death in 1663 at an advanced age.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_Civil_War" title="Kongo Civil War">Kongo Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Kongo" title="List of rulers of Kongo">List of rulers of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kinlaza" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kinlaza">House of Kinlaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kimpanzu" class="mw-redirect" title="House of Kimpanzu">House of Kimpanzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_textiles" title="Kongo textiles">Kongo textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_military_systems_to_1800" class="mw-redirect" title="African military systems to 1800">African military systems to 1800</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_military_systems_(1800%E2%80%931900)" title="African military systems (1800–1900)">African military systems (1800–1900)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_military_systems_after_1900" title="African military systems after 1900">African military systems after 1900</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-start-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-start_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTshilemalema2001" class="citation book cs1">Tshilemalema, Mukenge (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00muke/page/18"><i>Culture and Customs of the Congo</i></a></span>. Greenwood Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00muke/page/18">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-31485-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-31485-3"><bdi>0-313-31485-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Customs+of+the+Congo&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-313-31485-3&rft.aulast=Tshilemalema&rft.aufirst=Mukenge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fculturecustomsof00muke%2Fpage%2F18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alisa LaGamma, <i>Kongo: Power and Majesty</i>, <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mbanza-Kongo, named São Salvador in the late-16th century; reverted to the name Mbanza-Kongo in 1975</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nassoro Habib Mbwana Msonde, <i>A Revised History for Advanced Level and Colleges: Part One</i>, Xlibris Corporation, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton_2021_201-212-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_2021_201-212_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference <code>Thornton 2021 201-212</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaman1953" class="citation book cs1">Laman, Karl Edvard (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=46gMAQAAMAAJ&q=Kongo+Dya+Ntotila"><i>The Kongo, Volume 2</i></a>. Statens Humanistiska Forskningsråd. pp. 138–156.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kongo%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=138-156&rft.pub=Statens+Humanistiska+Forskningsr%C3%A5d&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Laman&rft.aufirst=Karl+Edvard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D46gMAQAAMAAJ%26q%3DKongo%2BDya%2BNtotila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalandier1968" class="citation book cs1">Balandier, Georges (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinkingd0000bala/mode/2up"><i>Daily Life in the Kingdom of the Kongo: From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century</i></a>. New York, New York, United States: Pantheon Books. p. 24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+in+the+Kingdom+of+the+Kongo%3A+From+the+Sixteenth+to+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York%2C+United+States&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Balandier&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinkingd0000bala%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchemmel,_B.2008" class="citation web cs1">Schemmel, B. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rulers.org/angotrad.html">"Traditional Polities"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Traditional+Polities&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Schemmel%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frulers.org%2Fangotrad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wene-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wene_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wene_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wene_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorntonLinda_M._Heywood2007" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John; Linda M. Heywood (2007). <i>Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77065-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77065-1"><bdi>978-0-521-77065-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Central+Africans%2C+Atlantic+Creoles%2C+and+the+Foundation+of+the+Americas%2C+1585%E2%80%931660&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-77065-1&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Linda+M.+Heywood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-region-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-region_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFryer2000" class="citation book cs1">Fryer, Peter (2000). <i>Rhythms of Resistance: African Musical Heritage in Brazil</i>. p. 158.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rhythms+of+Resistance%3A+African+Musical+Heritage+in+Brazil&rft.pages=158&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Fryer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM'Bokolo1995" class="citation book cs1">M'Bokolo, Elikia (1995). <i>Afrique Noire: Histoire et Civilisations, jusqu'au XVIIIème sicècle</i>. Vol. I. Paris: Hatier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-218-03881-1" title="Special:BookSources/2-218-03881-1"><bdi>2-218-03881-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afrique+Noire%3A+Histoire+et+Civilisations%2C+jusqu%27au+XVIII%C3%A8me+sic%C3%A8cle&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=Hatier&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=2-218-03881-1&rft.aulast=M%27Bokolo&rft.aufirst=Elikia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thornton_1977_526-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thornton_1977_526_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2021" class="citation journal cs1">Thornton, John (2021). "Revising the Population History of the Kingdom of Kongo". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>62</b> (2): 201–212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853721000451">10.1017/S0021853721000451</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:237296222">237296222</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Revising+the+Population+History+of+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=201-212&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853721000451&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A237296222%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeander2016" class="citation web cs1">Leander (18 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914">"Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914"</a>. <i>South African History Online</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+African+History+Online&rft.atitle=Kingdom+of+Kongo+1390+%E2%80%93+1914&rft.date=2016-05-18&rft.au=Leander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahistory.org.za%2Farticle%2Fkingdom-kongo-1390-1914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alisa LaGamma, <i>Kongo: Power and Majesty</i>, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2015, p. 15</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jelmer Vos, <i>Kongo in the Age of Empire 1860–1913: The Breakdown of a Moral Order</i>, The University of Wisconsin Press, 2015, p. 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bundu-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bundu_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/para/bundu-dia-kongo.htm">"Bundu dia Kongo"</a>. Global Security<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 December</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bundu+dia+Kongo&rft.pub=Global+Security&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.globalsecurity.org%2Fmilitary%2Fworld%2Fpara%2Fbundu-dia-kongo.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCavazzi_da_Montecuccolo1687" class="citation book cs1">Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Giovanni Antonio (1687). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3aYPCUKOWZYC"><i>Istorica Descrizione de' tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola</i></a>. Bologna: Giacomo Monti. p. Book II, nos. 86–90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Istorica+Descrizione+de%27+tre+regni+Congo%2C+Matamba+ed+Angola&rft.place=Bologna&rft.pages=Book+II%2C+nos.+86-90&rft.pub=Giacomo+Monti&rft.date=1687&rft.aulast=Cavazzi+da+Montecuccolo&rft.aufirst=Giovanni+Antonio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3aYPCUKOWZYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2001" class="citation journal cs1">Thornton, John (2001). "The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo, c. 1350–1550". <i>The International Journal of African Historical Studies</i>. <b>34</b> (1): 89–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3097288">10.2307/3097288</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3097288">3097288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+African+Historical+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Origins+and+Early+History+of+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo%2C+c.+1350%E2%80%931550&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=89-120&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3097288&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3097288%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Thornton, "Modern Oral Traditions and the Historic Kingdom of Kongo" in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandau2011" class="citation book cs1">Landau, Paul (2011). <i>The Power of Doubt: Essays in Honor of David Henige</i>. Madison, WI: University of Wlsconsin African Studies Center. pp. 195–208.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+of+Doubt%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+David+Henige&rft.place=Madison%2C+WI&rft.pages=195-208&rft.pub=University+of+Wlsconsin+African+Studies+Center&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Landau&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2020" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John (2020). <i>A History of West Central Africa to 1850</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 24–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-12715-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-12715-9"><bdi>978-1-107-12715-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+West+Central+Africa+to+1850&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=24-35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-107-12715-9&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2020" class="citation cs2">Thornton, John K. (2020), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/history-of-west-central-africa-to-1850/development-of-states-in-west-central-africa-to-1540/CE71122CF8DFD7B4B188BA34F8F65BFC">"The Development of States in West Central Africa to 1540"</a>, <i>A History of West Central Africa to 1850</i>, New Approaches to African History, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 16–55, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-56593-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-56593-7"><bdi>978-1-107-56593-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2024</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=A+History+of+West+Central+Africa+to+1850&rft.atitle=The+Development+of+States+in+West+Central+Africa+to+1540&rft.pages=16-55&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-107-56593-7&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fbooks%2Fabs%2Fhistory-of-west-central-africa-to-1850%2Fdevelopment-of-states-in-west-central-africa-to-1540%2FCE71122CF8DFD7B4B188BA34F8F65BFC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2020" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John (2020). <i>A History of West Central Africa to 1850</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 24–35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-12715-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-12715-9"><bdi>978-1-107-12715-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+West+Central+Africa+to+1850&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=24-35&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-107-12715-9&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeimlich2017" class="citation book cs1">Heimlich, Geoffroy (2017). <i>Le massif de Lovo, sur les traces du royaume de Kongo</i>. Archaeopress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1784916350" title="Special:BookSources/978-1784916350"><bdi>978-1784916350</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Le+massif+de+Lovo%2C+sur+les+traces+du+royaume+de+Kongo&rft.pub=Archaeopress&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1784916350&rft.aulast=Heimlich&rft.aufirst=Geoffroy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeander2016" class="citation web cs1">Leander (18 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/kingdom-kongo-1390-1914">"Kingdom of Kongo 1390 – 1914"</a>. <i>South African History Online</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 May</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=South+African+History+Online&rft.atitle=Kingdom+of+Kongo+1390+%E2%80%93+1914&rft.date=2016-05-18&rft.au=Leander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sahistory.org.za%2Farticle%2Fkingdom-kongo-1390-1914&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17a-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:17a_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:17a_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2020" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John (2020). <i>A History of Central Africa to 1850</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 24–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-127159" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-127159"><bdi>978-1-107-127159</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Central+Africa+to+1850&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=24-31&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-107-127159&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2006" class="citation journal cs1">Thornton, John K. (November 2006). "Elite women in the kingdom of Kongo: historical perspectives on women's political power". <i>The Journal of African History</i>. <b>47</b> (3): 437–460. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853706001812">10.1017/S0021853706001812</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145136736">145136736</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Elite+women+in+the+kingdom+of+Kongo%3A+historical+perspectives+on+women%27s+political+power&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=437-460&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853706001812&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145136736%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Relacion_del_Regno_de_Congo-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Relacion_del_Regno_de_Congo_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Relacion_del_Regno_de_Congo_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnknown_(prob_Carmelite_Missionary1586" class="citation book cs1">Unknown (prob Carmelite Missionary (1586). <i>"Relacion del Regno de Congo"</i>. Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale de Firenze, MS Pancitichiani 200. p. fol 163-163v.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Relacion+del+Regno+de+Congo%22&rft.place=Biblioteca+Nazionale+Centrale+de+Firenze%2C+MS+Pancitichiani+200&rft.pages=fol+163-163v&rft.date=1586&rft.au=Unknown+%28prob+Carmelite+Missionary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anonymous manuscript c. 1608 but informed by Carmelite missionaries of 1584–1586 in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuvelier1954" class="citation book cs1">Cuvelier, Jean and Louis Jadin (1954). <i>L'ancien royaume de Congo d'apres les archives romaines (1518–1640)</i>. 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The Development of an African Social Formation (Le Royaume Du Kongo, ca. 1390-1678. Développement d’une Formation Sociale Africaine).” <i>Cahiers d’Études Africaines</i> 22, no. 87/88 (1982): 325–42. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4391812.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2021" class="citation journal cs1">Thornton, John K. (July 2021). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kongo+Religion&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Aguilar%2C+Mario+Ignacio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphiltar.ucsm.ac.uk%2Fencyclopedia%2Fsub%2Fkongo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Encyclopedia_of_World_Biography_2008-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_World_Biography_2008_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Encyclopedia_of_World_Biography_2008_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEncyclopedia_of_World_Biography2008" class="citation book cs1">Encyclopedia of World Biography (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bookrags.com/biography/nzinga-nkuwu/"><i>Nzinga Nkuwu</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-106647781.html">the original</a> on 13 February 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Destruction+of+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft.au=Lopes%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fdoc%2F1G1-106647781.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2013" class="citation journal cs1">Thornton, John (2013). "Afro-Christian Syncretism in the Kingdom of Kongo". <i>Journal of African History</i>. <b>54</b> (1): 53–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021853713000224">10.1017/S0021853713000224</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161133804">161133804</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=Afro-Christian+Syncretism+in+the+Kingdom+of+Kongo&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-77&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021853713000224&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161133804%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBontinck1971" class="citation journal cs1">Bontinck, Francois (1971). "Ndoadidiki Ne-Kinu a Mubemba, premier évêque du Kongo (c. 1495–c. 1531)'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Revue africaine de theology</i>. <b>3</b>: 149–169.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+africaine+de+theology&rft.atitle=Ndoadidiki+Ne-Kinu+a+Mubemba%2C+premier+%C3%A9v%C3%AAque+du+Kongo+%28c.+1495%E2%80%93c.+1531%29%27&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=149-169&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Bontinck&rft.aufirst=Francois&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Abolitionism_and_Imperialism_in_Bri-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Abolitionism_and_Imperialism_in_Bri_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Abolitionism_and_Imperialism_in_Bri_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Thornton, "African Political Ethics and the Slave Trade,"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2011" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Derrick (2011). <i>Abolitionism and Imperialism in Britain, Africa, and the Atlantic</i>. Columbus, OH: Ohio University Press. pp. 38–62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Abolitionism+and+Imperialism+in+Britain%2C+Africa%2C+and+the+Atlantic&rft.place=Columbus%2C+OH&rft.pages=38-62&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Derrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_41-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtmore,_Anthony_and_Oliver2001" class="citation book cs1">Atmore, Anthony and Oliver (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola"><i>Medieval Africa, 1250–1800</i></a></span>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola/page/171">171</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Africa%2C+1250%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=171&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Atmore%2C+Anthony+and+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalafrica1200rola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thornton J. Early Kongo-Portuguese Relations: A New Interpretation. <i>History in Africa</i>. 1981;8:183-204. doi:10.2307/3171515</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thornton, 2020, pp. 67–69</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John K Thornton and Linda Heywood, "The Treason of Dom Pedro Nkanga a Mvemba against Dom Diogo, King of Kongo, 1550"<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKnight_and_Leo_Garofalo2009" class="citation book cs1">McKnight and Leo Garofalo, Kathryn (2009). <i>Afro-Latino Voices: Narratives from the Early Modern Ibero-Atlantic World, 1550–1812</i>. Indianolpolis/Cambridge: Hackett. pp. 2–29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-994-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-994-7"><bdi>978-0-87220-994-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afro-Latino+Voices%3A+Narratives+from+the+Early+Modern+Ibero-Atlantic+World%2C+1550%E2%80%931812&rft.place=Indianolpolis%2FCambridge&rft.pages=2-29&rft.pub=Hackett&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87220-994-7&rft.aulast=McKnight+and+Leo+Garofalo&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Green_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreen2020" class="citation book cs1">Green, Toby (2020). <i>A Fistful of Shells</i>. UK: Penguin Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Fistful+of+Shells&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Toby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thornton, 2020, pp. 74–79</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AppiahGates2010-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AppiahGates2010_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAppiahGates2010" class="citation book cs1">Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010). <i>Encyclopedia of Africa</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533770-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533770-9"><bdi>978-0-19-533770-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Africa&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533770-9&rft.aulast=Appiah&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft.au=Gates%2C+Henry+Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thornton, 2020, pp. 81–82; 102</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2010" class="citation cs2">Thornton, John (2010), "A Re-Interpretation of the Kongo-Portuguese War of 1622 According to New Documentary Evidence", <i>The Journal of African History</i>, <b>51</b> (2): 235–248, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0021853710000277">10.1017/s0021853710000277</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40985072">40985072</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159509249">159509249</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+African+History&rft.atitle=A+Re-Interpretation+of+the+Kongo-Portuguese+War+of+1622+According+to+New+Documentary+Evidence&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=235-248&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159509249%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40985072%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0021853710000277&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NA-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NA_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NA Neth, Staten Generaal 5157 Session 27 Oct 1623.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John K. Thornton. <i>History of West Central Africa to 1850</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 206</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton,_John_K.2000" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John K. (2000). <i>"Kongo's Holy City" in Africa's Urban Past</i>. p. 75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Kongo%27s+Holy+City%22+in+Africa%27s+Urban+Past&rft.pages=75&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Thornton%2C+John+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chilcote-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chilcote_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chilcote_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald H. Chilcote, <i>Protest and Resistance in Angola and Brazil: Comparative Studies</i>, University of California Press, Reprint 2021 ed. edition (January 1, 1972), p. 68</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patrício Batsîkama Mampuya Cipriano, <i>Nação, nacionalidade e nacionalismo em Angola</i>, Universidade Fernando Pessoa, Porto, 2015, p. 196</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:17b-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:17b_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2020" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John (2020). <i>A History of Central Africa to 1850</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 275–285. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-127159" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-127159"><bdi>978-1-107-127159</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Central+Africa+to+1850&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=275-285&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-107-127159&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas L. Wheeler, <i>Nineteenth-Century African Protest in Angola: Prince Nicolas of Kongo (1830?–1860)</i> In: African Historical Studies, Vol. 1, No. 1 (1968), Boston University African Studies Center, 1968, p. 40-59</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton2000" class="citation book cs1">Thornton, John (2000). "Kongo's Incorporation into Angola: A Perspective from Kongo". <i>A Africa e a Instalação do Sistema Colonial (c. 1885–c. 1930), vol. III</i>. pp. 354–57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kongo%27s+Incorporation+into+Angola%3A+A+Perspective+from+Kongo&rft.btitle=A+Africa+e+a+Instala%C3%A7%C3%A3o+do+Sistema+Colonial+%28c.+1885%E2%80%93c.+1930%29%2C+vol.+III&rft.pages=354-57&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lee_warfare-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_warfare_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lee_warfare_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLee2011" class="citation book cs1">Lee, Wayne (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xatMrooibacC&dq=nsanga+martial+arts&pg=PA171"><i>Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion, and Warfare in the Early Modern World</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_University_Press" title="New York University Press">NYU Press</a>. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814765272" title="Special:BookSources/9780814765272"><bdi>9780814765272</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+and+Indigenes%3A+Intercultural+Alliance%2C+Imperial+Expansion%2C+and+Warfare+in+the+Early+Modern+World&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780814765272&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxatMrooibacC%26dq%3Dnsanga%2Bmartial%2Barts%26pg%3DPA171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1988" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">Thornton, John K.</a> (1988). "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680". <i><a href="/wiki/Comparative_Studies_in_Society_and_History" title="Comparative Studies in Society and History">Comparative Studies in Society and History</a></i>. <b>30</b> (2): 360–378. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0010417500015231">10.1017/S0010417500015231</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144152478">144152478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comparative+Studies+in+Society+and+History&rft.atitle=The+Art+of+War+in+Angola%2C+1575%E2%80%931680&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=360-378&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0010417500015231&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144152478%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">Thornton, John Kelly</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MdI8DYItvg8C&q=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500-1800</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781857283921" title="Special:BookSources/9781857283921"><bdi>9781857283921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Atlantic+Africa%2C+1500-1800&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781857283921&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John+Kelly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMdI8DYItvg8C%26q%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMancall2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._Mancall" title="Peter C. Mancall">Mancall, Peter C.</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IqPqCQAAQBAJ"><i>The Atlantic World and Virginia, 1550–1624</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">UNC Press</a>. p. 199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807838839" title="Special:BookSources/9780807838839"><bdi>9780807838839</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Atlantic+World+and+Virginia%2C+1550%E2%80%931624&rft.pages=199&rft.pub=UNC+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780807838839&rft.aulast=Mancall&rft.aufirst=Peter+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIqPqCQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtmore,_Anthony_and_Oliver2001" class="citation book cs1">Atmore, Anthony and Oliver (2001). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola"><i>Medieval Africa, 1250–1800</i></a></span>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medievalafrica1200rola/page/178">178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Africa%2C+1250%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=178&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Atmore%2C+Anthony+and+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedievalafrica1200rola&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThornton1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Thornton_(historian)" title="John Thornton (historian)">Thornton, John K.</a> (1991). "African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion". <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Historical_Review" title="The American Historical Review">The American Historical Review</a></i>. <b>96</b> (4): 1101–1113. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2164997">10.2307/2164997</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2164997">2164997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=African+Dimensions+of+the+Stono+Rebellion&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1101-1113&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2164997&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2164997%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Thornton&rft.aufirst=John+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThornton1999">Thornton (1999)</a>, p. 109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-T_110-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-T_110_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-T_110_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThornton1999">Thornton (1999)</a>, p. 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThornton1999">Thornton (1999)</a>, p. 112</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Foutou,_Célestin_Goma_page_167_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Foutou, Célestin Goma: "Histoire des civilisations du Congo", page 167. 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Oxford University Press. p. 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-822719-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-822719-1"><bdi>0-19-822719-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kingdom+of+Kongo&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-19-822719-1&rft.aulast=Hilton&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French, Marilyn: "From Eve to Dawn, A History of Women in the World, Volume II", page 160. The Feminist Press at CUNY, 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBergerWhite1999" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Iris; White, E. Frances (1999). <i>Women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Restoring Women to History</i>. Indiana University Press. p. 78. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-33476-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-33476-4"><bdi>0-253-33476-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Sub-Saharan+Africa%3A+Restoring+Women+to+History&rft.pages=78&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-253-33476-4&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Iris&rft.au=White%2C+E.+Frances&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHogendornJohnson1986" class="citation book cs1">Hogendorn, Jan; Johnson, Marion (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uhq94TIsRQwC"><i>The Shell Money of the Slave Trade</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511563041">10.1017/CBO9780511563041</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5115-6304-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5115-6304-1"><bdi>978-0-5115-6304-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shell+Money+of+the+Slave+Trade&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCBO9780511563041&rft.isbn=978-0-5115-6304-1&rft.aulast=Hogendorn&rft.aufirst=Jan&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Marion&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUhq94TIsRQwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaessenVan_De_Velde1991" class="citation book cs1">Claessen, Henri J. M.; Van De Velde, Pieter (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YW0zEureujAC&dq=nzimbu&pg=PA85"><i>Early State Economics</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781412822053" title="Special:BookSources/9781412822053"><bdi>9781412822053</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+State+Economics&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=9781412822053&rft.aulast=Claessen&rft.aufirst=Henri+J.+M.&rft.au=Van+De+Velde%2C+Pieter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYW0zEureujAC%26dq%3Dnzimbu%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMann1996" class="citation book cs1">Mann, Kenny (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/32923028"><i>Kongo Ndongo : West Central Africa</i></a>. Dillon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87518-658-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-87518-658-0"><bdi>0-87518-658-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32923028">32923028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kongo+Ndongo+%3A+West+Central+Africa&rft.pub=Dillon+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32923028&rft.isbn=0-87518-658-0&rft.aulast=Mann&rft.aufirst=Kenny&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32923028&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Edoumba, <i>Aperçu sur les monnaies d'Afrique</i>, p. 111, Revue-Numismatique, 2001</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Phyllis M. Martin, <i>Power, Cloth and Currency on the Loango Coast</i>, University of Wisconsin Press, 1986</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alain Anselin, <i>Résistances africaines sur la Côte d'Angola au XVIIIe siècle</i>, Présence Africaine, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. Yandesa Mavuzi, <i>Histoire et numismatique des monnaies du Congo du XVe siècle à nos jours</i> ou <i>Les monnaies du Congo – L’histoire et la numismatique</i>, Weyrich Edition, 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_79-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_79-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalandier1968" class="citation book cs1">Balandier, Georges (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/dailylifeinkingd0000bala"><i>Daily life in the Kingdom of the Kongo from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century</i></a>. New York, USA: Pantheon Books. pp. 135–136.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+life+in+the+Kingdom+of+the+Kongo+from+the+sixteenth+to+the+eighteenth+century&rft.place=New+York%2C+USA&rft.pages=135-136&rft.pub=Pantheon+Books&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Balandier&rft.aufirst=Georges&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeinkingd0000bala&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Siegmann_Brooklyn_Museum_2009-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Siegmann_Brooklyn_Museum_2009_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegmannDumouchelle,_Kevin_D.2009" class="citation book cs1">Siegmann, William C.; Dumouchelle, Kevin D. (2009). <i>African art a century at the Brooklyn Museum</i>. Brooklyn, NY: Brooklyn Museum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87273-163-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87273-163-9"><bdi>978-0-87273-163-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+art+a+century+at+the+Brooklyn+Museum&rft.place=Brooklyn%2C+NY&rft.pub=Brooklyn+Museum&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-87273-163-9&rft.aulast=Siegmann&rft.aufirst=William+C.&rft.au=Dumouchelle%2C+Kevin+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkyeampongBates2014" class="citation book cs1">Akyeampong, Emmanuel; Bates, Robert H. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Kv4OBAAAQBAJ&dq=Afonso+Kongo+palace&pg=PA369"><i>Africa's Development in Historical Perspective</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 369. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107041158" title="Special:BookSources/9781107041158"><bdi>9781107041158</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa%27s+Development+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=369&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9781107041158&rft.aulast=Akyeampong&rft.aufirst=Emmanuel&rft.au=Bates%2C+Robert+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKv4OBAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DAfonso%2BKongo%2Bpalace%26pg%3DPA369&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rathbone_689-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rathbone_689_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rathbone_689_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRathbone2000" class="citation book cs1">Rathbone, R. J. A R. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0IwMwBVfr0sC&dq=mbanza+kongo+stone+wall+1529&pg=PA68"><i>Africa's Urban Past</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/James_Currey_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="James Currey Publishers">James Currey Publishers</a>. pp. 68–69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780852557617" title="Special:BookSources/9780852557617"><bdi>9780852557617</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africa%27s+Urban+Past&rft.pages=68-69&rft.pub=James+Currey+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780852557617&rft.aulast=Rathbone&rft.aufirst=R.+J.+A+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0IwMwBVfr0sC%26dq%3Dmbanza%2Bkongo%2Bstone%2Bwall%2B1529%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZjbESL6YWU0C&pg=PA146"><i>Boy-Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities</i>, edited by Stephen Murray & Will Roscoe. Published by St. Martin's Press in 1998. p. 146</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeywood2019" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Heywood" title="Linda Heywood">Heywood, Linda</a> (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674971820">"Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen"</a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Njinga+of+Angola%3A+Africa%27s+Warrior+Queen&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Heywood&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hup.harvard.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Fisbn%3D9780674971820&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Documentary_collections">Documentary collections</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Documentary collections"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Brásio, António. <i>Monumenta Missionaria Africana</i> 15 volumes. Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colonias and others, 1952–1988.</li> <li>Cuvelier, Jean and Louis Jadin. <i>L'ancien Congo après les archives romaines</i> Brussels, 1954.</li> <li>Jadin, Louis. <i>L'ancien Congo et l'Angola 1639–1655 d'après les archives romaines, Portugaises, Néerlandaises et Espagnoles</i> 3 vols., Brussels: Institut historique belge de Rome, 1975.</li> <li>Paiva Manso, Levy Jordão. <i>História de Congo</i> (Documentos) Lisbon, 1877.</li> <li>Afonso's letters are all published, along with most of the documents relating to his reign, in:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>António Brásio, <i>Monumenta Missionaria Africana</i> (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agência Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88), vols. 1, 2 and 4.</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books_and_documents">Books and documents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Books and documents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Anguiano, Juan Mateo d'. <i>Missiones Capuchinas en Africa.</i> ed. Buenaventura de Carrocera, 2 vols., Madrid, 1950.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellino_d%27Atri" title="Marcellino d'Atri">Atri, Marcellino d'</a>. mod ed. Carlo Toso, <i>L'anarchia congolese nel sec. XVII. La relazione inedita di Marcellino d'Atri.</i> Genoa: Bozzi, 1984.</li> <li>W. Holman Bentley, <i>Pioneering on the Congo,</i> London, 1900.</li> <li>Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. <i>História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)</i>. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. Lisbon, 1942–44 (reprinted, 1972).</li> <li>Carli, Dionigio da Piacenza. <i>Il Moro transportado nell'inclita città di Venezia</i>. Bassano, 1687.</li> <li>Carli, Dionigio da Piacenza. <i>Viaggio del Padre Michael Angelo de Guattini da Reggio et del P. Dionigi de Carli da Piacensa...Regno del Congo</i>. (Bologna, 1674). Mod. ed. Francesco Surdich, Milan, 1997. French translation, Michel Chandeigne, Paris, 2006.</li> <li>Cardoso, Mateus <i>História do reino de Congo</i> ed. António Brásio, Lisbon, 1969. French translation François Bontinck, 1972.</li> <li>Cavazzi da Montecuccolo, Giovanni Antonio. <i>Istorica Descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola</i> (Bologna, 1687). Portuguese translation by Graziano Saccardo da Luggazano, 2 vols., Lisbon, 1965.</li> <li>Dapper, Olfried. <i>Naukeurige beschrijvinge der Africa gewesten</i>. (Amsterdam, 1668) English translation, John Ogilby, London, 1670.</li> <li>Franco, António. <i>Synopsis Annalium societatis Jesu in Lusitania ab anno 1540 usque ad annum 1725</i>. Augsburg, 1726.</li> <li>Gallo, Bernardo da. "Conto delle Villacazione Missionale..." pub in Carlo Toso, ed. <i>Una pagina poco nota di storia congolese</i> Rome: Edizioni pro Sanctitate, 1999.</li> <li>Lucca, Lorenzo da. Letters, mod. trans. Jean Cuvelier, <i>Relations sur le Congo du Père Laurent de Lucques</i>. Brussels, 1954.</li> <li>Merolla da Sorrento, Girolamo. <i>Breve e succinta relatione del viaggio nel Congo</i>. Naples, 1692, 2nd ed. 1726.</li> <li>Montesarchio, Girolamo da. "Viaggio al Gongho (1669)." mod. ed. Calogero Piazza, <i>La prefetura apostolica del Congo alla metà del XVII secolo. La Relazione inedita di Girolamo da Montesarchio</i>. Milan, 1976.</li> <li>Pavia, Andrea da. "Viaggio Apostolico" pub. in Carlo Toso, ed. <i>"Viaggio apostolico in Africa de Andrea da Pavia (inedito del sec. XVII)</i>. Rome, 2000.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippo_Pigafetta" title="Filippo Pigafetta">Pigafetta, Filippo</a>. <i>Relatione del Regno di Congo et delle circonvince contrade tratta dalli scritti e ragionamenti di Oduarte Lopez Portuguese</i>. Rome, 1591. English translation, <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Hartwell" title="Abraham Hartwell">Abraham Hartwell</a>, 1594; Ann Hutchinson, 1888.</li> <li>Roma, Giovanni Francesco da. <i>Breve relatione del successo della missione de' frati minori cappuccini del serafico P. S. Francesco al regno del Congo</i>. Rome, 1648 (2nd ed. 1649). French translation, François Bontinck, 1964.</li> <li>Zucchelli, Antonio da Gradisca. <i>Relatione del viaggio e missione di Congo nell'Ethiopia inferiore occidentale</i> Venice, 1712.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_literature">Secondary literature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Secondary literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Patrício Batsîkama, <i>A Catedral de São Salvador de Angola: História e Memória de um Lugar Mítico</i>, Universidade Fernando Pessoa Porto, 2011.</li> <li>Patrício Batsîkama Mampuya Cipriano, <i>Nação, nacionalidade e nacionalismo em Angola</i>, Universidade Fernando Pessoa Porto, 2015.</li> <li>David Birmingham, <i>Trade and Conquest in Angola</i>. Oxford and London: Oxford University Press, 1966.</li> <li>David Birmingham, <i>A Short History of Modern Angola</i>, Oxford University Press, 2016.</li> <li>Olivier de Bouveignes, <i>Les anciens rois du Congo</i>, Namur: Grands Lacs, 1948.</li> <li>Ronald H. Chilcote, <i>Protest and resistance in Angola and Brazil: Comparative studies</i>, University of California Press, 1972.</li> <li>E. Dartevelle, <i>Les Nzimbu, monnaie du royaume du Congo</i>, Bruxelles, 1953.</li> <li>Cécile Fromont, <i>The Art of Conversion: Christian Visual Culture in the Kingdom of Kongo</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014.</li> <li>Cécile Fromont, <i>Images on a Mission in Early Modern Kongo and Angola</i>. University Park: Penn State University Press, 2022.</li> <li>Ann Hilton, <i>The Kingdom of Kongo</i> Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Edvard_Laman" title="Karl Edvard Laman">Karl Edvard Laman</a>,<i>The Kongo</i>. 4 vols. 1954–68.</li> <li>Phyllis M. Martin, <i>Power, Cloth and Currency on the Loango Coast</i>, University of Wisconsin Press, 1986.</li> <li>Martin Yandesa Mavuzi, <i>Histoire et numismatique des monnaies du Congo du XVe siècle à nos jours</i> ou <i>Les monnaies du Congo – L’histoire et la numismatique</i>, Weyrich Edition, 2015.</li> <li>Lussunzi Vita Mbala, <i>La société Kongo face à la colonisation portugaise 1885–1961</i>, Paari éditeur, 2021.</li> <li>Graziano Saccardo, <i>Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei Cappuccini</i> 3 vols., Venice, 1982–83.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_K._Thornton" class="mw-redirect" title="John K. Thornton">John K. Thornton</a>, <i>The Kingdom of Kongo: Civil War and Transition, 1641–1718</i>, 1983.</li> <li>John K. Thornton, <i>The Kongolese Saint Anthony: Dona Beatriz Kimpa Vita and the Antonian Movement, 1683–1706</i> Cambridge University Press, 1998.</li> <li>John K. Thornton, "The Origins and Early History of the Kingdom of Kongo," <i>International Journal of African Historical Studies</i> 34/1 (2001): 89–120.</li> <li>John K. Thornton, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MdI8DYItvg8C&q=gbs_navlinks_s"><i>Warfare in Atlantic Africa, 1500–1800</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychology Press">Psychology Press</a>. 1999. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781857283921" title="Special:BookSources/9781857283921"><bdi>9781857283921</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Warfare+in+Atlantic+Africa%2C+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=9781857283921&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMdI8DYItvg8C%26q%3Dgbs_navlinks_s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Kongo" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Vansina" title="Jan Vansina">Jan Vansina</a>, <i>Kingdoms of the Savanna</i>, Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin Press, 1966.</li> <li>Jelmer Vos, <i>Empire, patronage and a revolt in the kingdom of Kongo</i>, Old Dominion University, 2017.</li> <li>Jelmer Vos, <i>Kongo in the Age of Empire, 1860–1913: The Breakdown of a Moral Order</i>, University of Wisconsin Press, 2015.</li> <li>Douglas L. Wheeler, <i>Nineteenth-Century African Protest in Angola: Prince Nicolas of Kongo (1830?–1860)</i>, Boston University African Studies Center, 1968.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Kongo" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060507231250/http://www.nekongo.org/observateur/kongo-0204/ntinukongo.html">L'Observateur Kongo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051109191958/http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/toc/people/Kongo.html">Kongo people information</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051124031433/http://www.inquiceweb.com/dondeKongo.html">Kongo religion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/10chapter2.shtml">The Story of Africa: Kongo</a> — BBC World Service</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Kingdom_of_Kongo" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e1bae7"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Template:Kingdom of Kongo"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Kingdom_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Kingdom of Kongo (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Kingdom of Kongo"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Kingdom_of_Kongo" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Kingdom of Kongo</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Kongo" title="Category:Kongo">Topics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Angola" title="History of Angola">History of Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kongo_Cosmogram_-_blank.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kongo_Cosmogram_-_blank.png/120px-Kongo_Cosmogram_-_blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kongo_Cosmogram_-_blank.png/180px-Kongo_Cosmogram_-_blank.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Kongo_Cosmogram_-_blank.png/240px-Kongo_Cosmogram_-_blank.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Preceded by</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Kingdoms_of_Kongo_dia_Nlaza" title="Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza">Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbata_Kingdom" title="Mbata Kingdom">Mbata Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mpemba_Kasi" title="Mpemba Kasi">Mpemba Kasi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Titles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manikongo" title="Manikongo">Awenekongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ngola_(title)" title="Ngola (title)">Ngola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_mother_(Africa)" title="Queen mother (Africa)">Queen Mother</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Council_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Royal Council of the Kingdom of Kongo">Mbanda Mbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Christ_(Kongo)" title="Order of Christ (Kongo)">Order of Christ</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monarch" title="Monarch">Rulers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Kongo" title="List of rulers of Kongo">List of rulers of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kanda_(lineage)" title="Kanda (lineage)">Ruling houses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kilukeni" title="Kilukeni">House of Kilukeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwilu_dynasty" title="Kwilu dynasty">House of Kwilu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinkanga" title="Kinkanga">House of Kinkanga/Nsundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimpanzu" title="Kimpanzu">House of Kimpanzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinlaza" title="Kinlaza">House of Kinlaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81gua_Rosada" title="Água Rosada">House of Água Rosada</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Currency</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shell_money" title="Shell money">Nzimbu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Olivella_nana" title="Olivella nana">Olivella nana</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Kongo_and_the_slave_trade_under_Afonso">Enslaved people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Goods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana" title="Banana">Banana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raffia_palm" title="Raffia palm">Lubongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_textiles" title="Kongo textiles">Lubongo cloth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taro" title="Taro">Taro</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%27banza-Kongo" title="M'banza-Kongo">Capital: M'banza-Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsi_Kwilu" title="Nsi Kwilu">Nsi Kwilu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsundi" title="Nsundi">Nsundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyo" title="Soyo">Soyo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_language" title="Kongo language">Kikongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antonianism" title="Antonianism">Antonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Kongo" title="Catholic Church in Kongo">Kongo Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_deities_and_mythological_figures#Kongo" title="List of African deities and mythological figures">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunzi" title="Bunzi">Bunzi</a></li> <li>Chicamassi-chinuinji</li> <li>Dinganga</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li> <li>Kimbazi</li> <li>Kuitikuiti</li> <li>Lubangala</li> <li>Lusiemo</li> <li>Lusunzi</li> <li>Makanga</li> <li>Ma Kiela</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mami_Wata" title="Mami Wata">Mamba Muntu</a></li> <li>Mbantilanda</li> <li>Mbenza</li> <li>Mboze</li> <li>Mbumba</li> <li>Moni-Mambu</li> <li>Ngonde</li> <li>Ntangu</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nzambi_a_Mpungu" title="Nzambi a Mpungu">Nzambi Mpungu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nzambici" title="Nzambici">Nzambici</a></li> <li>Nzazi</li> <li>Phulu Bunzi</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Elements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Veneration_of_the_dead" title="Veneration of the dead"> Ancestral veneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalunga_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Kalunga line">Kalunga line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_cosmogram" title="Kongo cosmogram">Kongo cosmogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mfinda" title="Mfinda">Mfinda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion#Nature_spirits_and_fetishes" title="Kongo religion">Nature spirits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nganga" title="Nganga">Nganga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_medicine" title="Traditional African medicine">Nlongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simbi" title="Simbi">Simbi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nkisi" title="Nkisi">Nkisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkondi" title="Nkondi">Nkondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumba_(Kongo)" title="Tumba (Kongo)">Tumba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Military_structure">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Tactics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bow_and_arrow" title="Bow and arrow">Archery</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arrow_poison" title="Arrow poison">Poisoned Arrows</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longboat" title="Longboat">Kongolese longboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punji_stick" title="Punji stick">Iron stake traps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scimitar" title="Scimitar">Scimitar-shaped</a> <a href="/wiki/Longsword" title="Longsword">Longsword</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#edd7f1;;width:1%">Battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Conquest of Kabunga</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbumbi" title="Battle of Mbumbi">Battle of Mbumbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbanda_Kasi" title="Battle of Mbanda Kasi">Battle of Mbanda Kasi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kitombo" title="Battle of Kitombo">Battle of Kitombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbwila" title="Battle of Mbwila">Battle of Mbwila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mbidizi_River" title="Battle of Mbidizi River">Battle of Mbidizi River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_S%C3%A3o_Salvador" title="Battle of São Salvador">Battle of São Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_Civil_War" title="Kongo Civil War">Kongo Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#e1bae7"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Category:Kingdom of Kongo">Category</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rulers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#e1bae7"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Rulers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Template:Rulers of the Kingdom of Kongo"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Rulers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Template talk:Rulers of the Kingdom of Kongo"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Rulers of the Kingdom of Kongo"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rulers_of_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Manikongo" title="Manikongo">Rulers</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Kongo</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Awenekongo of the <a href="/wiki/Kilukeni" title="Kilukeni">Kilukeni</a> kanda (1390–1567)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lukeni_lua_Nimi" title="Lukeni lua Nimi">Lukeni lua Nimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanga_of_Kongo" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanga of Kongo">Nanga of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nlaza_of_Kongo" title="Nlaza of Kongo">Nlaza of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nkuwu_a_Ntinu_of_Kongo" title="Nkuwu a Ntinu of Kongo">Nkuwu a Ntinu of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_I_of_Kongo" title="João I of Kongo">João I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Kongo" title="Afonso I of Kongo">Afonso I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_I_of_Kongo" title="Pedro I of Kongo">Pedro I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogo_I_Nkumbi_a_Mpudi" title="Diogo I Nkumbi a Mpudi">Diogo I Nkumbi a Mpudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afonso_II_of_Kongo" title="Afonso II of Kongo">Afonso II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_I_of_Kongo" title="Bernardo I of Kongo">Bernardo I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrique_I_of_Kongo" title="Henrique I of Kongo">Henrique I of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Awenekongo of the <a href="/wiki/Kwilu_dynasty" title="Kwilu dynasty">Kwilu</a> kanda (1567–1622)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_I_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro I of Kongo">Álvaro I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_II_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro II of Kongo">Álvaro II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernardo_II_of_Kongo" title="Bernardo II of Kongo">Bernardo II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_III_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro III of Kongo">Álvaro III of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Awenekongo of the <a href="/wiki/Kinkanga" title="Kinkanga">Nkanga a Mvika</a> kanda (1622–1626)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_II_of_Kongo" title="Pedro II of Kongo">Pedro II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcia_I_of_Kongo" title="Garcia I of Kongo">Garcia I of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Mwenekongo of the <a href="/wiki/Kwilu_dynasty" title="Kwilu dynasty">Kwilu</a> kanda (1626–1636)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambr%C3%B3sio_I_of_Kongo" title="Ambrósio I of Kongo">Ambrósio I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_IV_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro IV of Kongo">Álvaro IV of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Awenekongo of the <a href="/wiki/Kimpanzu" title="Kimpanzu">Kimpanzu</a> kanda (1636)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_V_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro V of Kongo">Álvaro V of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Awenekongo of the <a href="/wiki/Kinlaza" title="Kinlaza">Kinlaza</a> kanda (1636–1665)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_VI_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro VI of Kongo">Álvaro VI of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcia_II_of_Kongo" title="Garcia II of Kongo">Garcia II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_I_of_Kongo" title="António I of Kongo">António I of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kongo_Civil_War" title="Kongo Civil War">Civil War</a> Awenekongo (1665–1678)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afonso_II_of_Kongo_and_Nkondo" title="Afonso II of Kongo and Nkondo">Afonso II of Kongo and Nkondo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_VII_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro VII of Kongo">Álvaro VII of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_VIII_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro VIII of Kongo">Álvaro VIII of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_III_of_Kongo" title="Pedro III of Kongo">Pedro III of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_IX_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro IX of Kongo">Álvaro IX of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rafael_I_of_Kongo" title="Rafael I of Kongo">Rafael I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afonso_III_of_Kongo" title="Afonso III of Kongo">Afonso III of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_I_of_Kongo" title="Daniel I of Kongo">Daniel I of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Post-Civil War states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garcia_III_of_Kibangu" title="Garcia III of Kibangu">Garcia III of Kibangu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_I_of_Kibangu" title="André I of Kibangu">André I of Kibangu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_I_of_Kibangu" title="Manuel I of Kibangu">Manuel I of Kibangu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_X_of_Kibangu" title="Álvaro X of Kibangu">Álvaro X of Kibangu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_IV_of_Kongo" title="Pedro IV of Kongo">Pedro IV of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_III_of_Kongo" title="Pedro III of Kongo">Pedro III of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_II_of_Lemba" title="João II of Lemba">João II of Lemba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_of_Kongo" title="Manuel II of Kongo">Manuel II of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Awenekongo after <br /> the recapture of São Salvador (1709–1891)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_IV_of_Kongo" title="Pedro IV of Kongo">Pedro IV of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_II_of_Kongo" title="Manuel II of Kongo">Manuel II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcia_IV_of_Kongo" title="Garcia IV of Kongo">Garcia IV of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolau_I_of_Kongo" title="Nicolau I of Kongo">Nicolau I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Afonso_IV_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Afonso IV of Kongo (page does not exist)">Afonso IV of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ant%C3%B3nio_II_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="António II of Kongo (page does not exist)">António II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sebasti%C3%A3o_I_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sebastião I of Kongo (page does not exist)">Sebastião I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_V_of_Kongo_(Usurper)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro V of Kongo (Usurper)">"Pedro V"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_XI_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro XI of Kongo">Álvaro XI of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_I_of_Kongo" title="José I of Kongo">José I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afonso_V_of_Kongo" title="Afonso V of Kongo">Afonso V of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%C3%81lvaro_XII_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Álvaro XII of Kongo (page does not exist)">Álvaro XII of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aleixo_I_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aleixo I of Kongo (page does not exist)">Aleixo I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joaquim_I_of_Kongo" title="Joaquim I of Kongo">Joaquim I of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrique_II_of_Kongo" title="Henrique II of Kongo">Henrique II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garcia_V_of_Kongo" title="Garcia V of Kongo">Garcia V of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_II_of_Kongo" title="André II of Kongo">André II of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrique_III_of_Kongo" title="Henrique III of Kongo">Henrique III of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_XIII_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro XIII of Kongo">Álvaro XIII of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_V_of_Kongo" title="Pedro V of Kongo">Pedro V of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Awenekongo after <br /> 1881 vassalage treaty with Portugal (1891–1914)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_XIV_of_Kongo" title="Álvaro XIV of Kongo">Álvaro XIV of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henrique_IV_of_Kongo" title="Henrique IV of Kongo">Henrique IV of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_VI_of_Kongo" title="Pedro VI of Kongo">Pedro VI of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Nkomba_of_Kongo" title="Manuel Nkomba of Kongo">Manuel Nkomba of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_III_of_Kongo" title="Manuel III of Kongo">Manuel III of Kongo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#e1bae7;width:1%">Pretenders to the Kongo throne since 1914</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alvaro_XV_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alvaro XV of Kongo (page does not exist)">Alvaro XV of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_VII_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pedro VII of Kongo (page does not exist)">Pedro VII of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ant%C3%B3nio_III_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="António III of Kongo (page does not exist)">António III of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isabel_Maria_da_Gama,_Q_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isabel Maria da Gama, Q of Kongo (page does not exist)">Isabel Maria da Gama, Q of Kongo</a> (regent)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pedro_VIII_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pedro VIII of Kongo (page does not exist)">Pedro VIII of Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Isabel_Maria_da_Gama_of_Kongo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isabel Maria da Gama of Kongo (page does not exist)">Isabel Maria da Gama of Kongo</a> (regent)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q796583#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q796583#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q796583#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, 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rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ge1063782&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007562219005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027230740">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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