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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Anatomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Anatomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Anatomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Axonal_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Axonal_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Axonal region</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Axonal_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Axon_hillock" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Axon_hillock"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Axon hillock</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Axon_hillock-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Axonal_initial_segment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Axonal_initial_segment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Axonal initial segment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Axonal_initial_segment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Axonal_transport" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Axonal_transport"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Axonal transport</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Axonal_transport-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myelination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myelination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Myelination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myelination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nodes_of_Ranvier" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nodes_of_Ranvier"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Nodes of Ranvier</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nodes_of_Ranvier-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Axon_terminals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Axon_terminals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Axon terminals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Axon_terminals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Axonal_varicosities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Axonal_varicosities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5.1</span> <span>Axonal varicosities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Axonal_varicosities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Action_potentials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Action_potentials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Action potentials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Action_potentials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_and_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_and_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development and growth</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development_and_growth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development and growth subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development_and_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Extracellular_signaling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extracellular_signaling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Extracellular signaling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extracellular_signaling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intracellular_signaling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intracellular_signaling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Intracellular signaling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intracellular_signaling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cytoskeletal_dynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cytoskeletal_dynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Cytoskeletal dynamics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cytoskeletal_dynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Length_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Length_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Length regulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Length_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Motor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Motor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sensory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sensory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span><span><span>Sensory</span></span></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sensory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autonomic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autonomic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Autonomic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autonomic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clinical_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clinical_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Clinical significance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clinical_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Other animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Additional images</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Axon</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 66 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-66" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">66 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D9%8A" title="محور عصبي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="محور عصبي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%C3%B3n" title="Axón – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Axón" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A8" title="অ্যাক্সন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যাক্সন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Аксон – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Аксон" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Аксон – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Аксон" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%C3%B3" title="Axó – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Axó" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Axon" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Axon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9D%CE%B5%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BE%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Νευράξονας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Νευράξονας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%C3%B3n" title="Axón – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Axón" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axoi" title="Axoi – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Axoi" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86" title="آکسون – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آکسون" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axone" title="Axone – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Axone" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%C3%B3n" title="Axón – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Axón" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B6%95%EC%82%AD%EB%8F%8C%EA%B8%B0" title="축삭돌기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="축삭돌기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%B8%D5%B6" title="Աքսոն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աքսոն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7" title="तंत्रिकाक्ष – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तंत्रिकाक्ष" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADmi_(l%C3%ADffr%C3%A6%C3%B0i)" title="Sími (líffræði) – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sími (líffræði)" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assone" title="Assone – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Assone" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F_(%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%91_%D7%A2%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%99)" title="אקסון (סיב עצבי) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אקסון (סיב עצבי)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Аксон – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Аксон" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aks%C3%B2n" title="Aksòn – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Aksòn" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tewere" title="Tewere – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Tewere" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Аксон – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Аксон" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Axon" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksonas" title="Aksonas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Aksonas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon_(sz%C3%B6vettan)" title="Axon (szövettan) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Axon (szövettan)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Нервно влакно – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Нервно влакно" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="აქსონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="აქსონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Axon" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E7%B9%8A%E7%B6%AD" title="神経繊維 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="神経繊維" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%C3%B2n" title="Axòn – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Axòn" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%C3%B3nio" title="Axónio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Axónio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Axon" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Аксон – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Аксон" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Axon" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevrit" title="Nevrit – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Nevrit" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95" title="تەوەرە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تەوەرە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viej%C3%A4haarake" title="Viejähaarake – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Viejähaarake" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon" title="Axon – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Axon" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81" title="แกนประสาทนำออก – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แกนประสาทนำออก" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Аксон – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Аксон" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Аксон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Аксон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AD%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="محوار – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="محوار" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%E1%BB%A3i_tr%E1%BB%A5c" title="Sợi trục – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sợi trục" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akson" title="Akson – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Akson" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BD%B4%E7%AA%81" title="轴突 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="轴突" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BB%B8%E7%AA%81" title="軸突 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="軸突" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Long projection on a neuron that conducts signals to other neurons</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Axon_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Axon (disambiguation)">Axon (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:dimgray; color: white">Axon</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png/250px-Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png/375px-Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png/500px-Blausen_0657_MultipolarNeuron.png 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1612" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">An axon of a multipolar neuron</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Identifiers</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D001369">D001369</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Foundational_Model_of_Anatomy" title="Foundational Model of Anatomy">FMA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bioportal.bioontology.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.org%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma67308">67308</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_terminology" title="Anatomical terminology">Anatomical terminology</a><div style="text-align: right;"><small class="noprint">[<a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178999" class="extiw" title="d:Q178999">edit on Wikidata</a>]</small></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>axon</b> (from Greek ἄξων <i>áxōn</i>, axis) or <b>nerve fiber</b> (or <b>nerve</b> <b>fibre</b>: see <a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences#-re,_-er" title="American and British English spelling differences">spelling differences</a>) is a long, slender projection of a nerve cell, or <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, that typically conducts electrical impulses known as <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a> away from the <a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">nerve cell body</a>. The function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons, muscles, and glands. In certain <a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">sensory neurons</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pseudounipolar_neuron" title="Pseudounipolar neuron">pseudounipolar neurons</a>), such as those for touch and warmth, the axons are called <a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">afferent nerve fibers</a> and the electrical impulse travels along these from the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">periphery</a> to the cell body and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon. Axon dysfunction can be the cause of many inherited and acquired <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorders</a> that affect both the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central neurons</a>. Nerve fibers are <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Classification">classed</a> into three types – <a href="/wiki/Group_A_nerve_fiber" title="Group A nerve fiber">group A nerve fibers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Group_B_nerve_fiber" title="Group B nerve fiber">group B nerve fibers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">group C nerve fibers</a>. Groups A and B are <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelinated</a>, and group C are unmyelinated. These groups include both sensory fibers and motor fibers. Another classification groups only the sensory fibers as Type I, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. </p><p>An axon is one of two types of <a href="/wiki/Cellular_extensions" title="Cellular extensions">cytoplasmic protrusions</a> from the cell body of a neuron; the other type is a <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrite</a>. Axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features, including shape (dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius), length (dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer), and function (dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them). Some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites. In some species, axons can emanate from dendrites known as axon-carrying dendrites.<sup id="cite_ref-Triarhou_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Triarhou-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No neuron ever has more than one axon; however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Axons are covered by a membrane known as an <a href="/wiki/Axolemma" title="Axolemma">axolemma</a>; the cytoplasm of an axon is called <a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">axoplasm</a>. Most axons branch, in some cases very profusely. The end branches of an axon are called <a href="/wiki/Telodendria" class="mw-redirect" title="Telodendria">telodendria</a>. The swollen end of a telodendron is known as the <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminal</a> or end-foot which joins the dendrite or cell body of another neuron forming a <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synaptic</a> connection. Axons usually make contact with other neurons at junctions called <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a> but can also make contact with muscle or gland cells. In some circumstances, the axon of one neuron may form a synapse with the dendrites of the same neuron, resulting in an <a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">autapse</a>. At a synapse, the <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">membrane</a> of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell, and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called <i>en passant boutons</i> ("in passing boutons") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon.<sup id="cite_ref-LS_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches. </p><p>A single axon, with all its branches taken together, can target multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals. A bundle of axons make a <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">nerve tract</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Luders_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luders-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">fascicle</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Placentalia" title="Placentalia">placental mammals</a> the largest <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a> tract in the brain is the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">corpus callosum</a>, formed of some 200 million axons in the <a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">human brain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Luders_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luders-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy">Anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="thumb tright" style=""><div class="thumbinner" style="width:-moz-fit-content; width:fit-content;"><div class="thumbimage noresize" style="width:auto;"> <div style="position: relative;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="At one end of an elongated structure is a branching mass. At the centre of this mass is the nucleus and the branches are dendrites. A thick axon trails away from the mass, ending with further branching which are labeled as axon terminals. Along the axon are a number of protuberances labeled as myelin sheaths." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg/400px-Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg/600px-Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg/800px-Neuron_Hand-tuned2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1179" data-file-height="634" /></a></span> <div style="position:absolute; left:50px; top:2px"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:135px; top:60px"><a href="/wiki/Perikaryon" class="mw-redirect" title="Perikaryon">Soma</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:189px; top:116px"><b>Axon</b></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:149px; top:82px"><a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">Axon hillock</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:13px; top:197px"><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">Nucleus</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:226px; top:38px"><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of<br />Ranvier</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:319px; top:0px"><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminal</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:306px; top:161px"><a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; left:220px; top:187px"><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelin sheath</a></div></div></div><div class="thumbcaption">Structure of a typical neuron</div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG/220px-Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG/330px-Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG/440px-Human_brain_right_dissected_lateral_view_description.JPG 2x" data-file-width="653" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption>A dissected human brain, showing <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Axons are the primary transmission lines of the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a>, and as bundles they form <a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">nerves</a>. Some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter. The longest axons in the human body are those of the <a href="/wiki/Sciatic_nerve" title="Sciatic nerve">sciatic nerve</a>, which run from the base of the <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a> to the big toe of each foot. The diameter of axons is also variable. Most individual axons are microscopic in diameter (typically about one <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometer</a> (μm) across). The largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 μm. The <a href="/wiki/Squid_giant_axon" title="Squid giant axon">squid giant axon</a>, which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly, is close to 1 millimeter in diameter, the size of a small pencil lead. The numbers of axonal telodendria (the branching structures at the end of the axon) can also differ from one nerve fiber to the next. Axons in the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a> (CNS) typically show multiple telodendria, with many synaptic end points. In comparison, the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellar_granule_cell" title="Cerebellar granule cell">cerebellar granule cell</a> axon is characterized by a single T-shaped branch node from which two <a href="/wiki/Parallel_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Parallel fiber">parallel fibers</a> extend. Elaborate branching allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> within a single region of the brain. </p><p>There are two types of axons in the nervous system: <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelinated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unmyelinated" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmyelinated">unmyelinated</a> axons.<sup id="cite_ref-Debanne_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debanne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelin</a> is a layer of a fatty insulating substance, which is formed by two types of <a href="/wiki/Neuroglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroglia">glial cells</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">oligodendrocytes</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> Schwann cells form the myelin sheath of a myelinated axon. Oligodendrocytes form the insulating myelin in the CNS. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the myelin sheath known as <a href="/wiki/Myelin_sheath_gap" class="mw-redirect" title="Myelin sheath gap">nodes of Ranvier</a> occur at evenly spaced intervals. The myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called <a href="/wiki/Saltatory_conduction" title="Saltatory conduction">saltatory conduction</a>. </p><p>The myelinated axons from the <a href="/wiki/Cortical_neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical neurons">cortical neurons</a> form the bulk of the neural tissue called <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a> in the brain. The myelin gives the white appearance to the <a href="/wiki/Neural_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Neural tissue">tissue</a> in contrast to the <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> of the cerebral cortex which contains the neuronal cell bodies. A similar arrangement is seen in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>. Bundles of myelinated axons make up the <a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">nerve tracts</a> in the CNS. Where these tracts cross the midline of the brain to connect opposite regions they are called <i>commissures</i>. The largest of these is the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_callosum" title="Corpus callosum">corpus callosum</a> that connects the two <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_hemisphere" title="Cerebral hemisphere">cerebral hemispheres</a>, and this has around 20 million axons.<sup id="cite_ref-Luders_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luders-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structure of a neuron is seen to consist of two separate functional regions, or compartments – the cell body together with the dendrites as one region, and the axonal region as the other. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Axonal_region">Axonal region</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Axonal region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The axonal region or compartment, includes the axon hillock, the initial segment, the rest of the axon, and the axon telodendria, and axon terminals. It also includes the myelin sheath. The <a href="/wiki/Nissl_bodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Nissl bodies">Nissl bodies</a> that produce the neuronal proteins are absent in the axonal region.<sup id="cite_ref-LS_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proteins needed for the growth of the axon, and the removal of waste materials, need a framework for transport. This <a href="/wiki/Axonal_transport" title="Axonal transport">axonal transport</a> is provided for in the axoplasm by arrangements of <a href="/wiki/Microtubule" title="Microtubule">microtubules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intermediate_filaments#Type_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Intermediate filaments">type IV intermediate filaments</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Neurofilament" title="Neurofilament">neurofilaments</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Axon_hillock">Axon hillock</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Axon hillock"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuron_Cell_Body.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Neuron_Cell_Body.png/390px-Neuron_Cell_Body.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Neuron_Cell_Body.png/585px-Neuron_Cell_Body.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Neuron_Cell_Body.png/780px-Neuron_Cell_Body.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Detail showing microtubules at axon hillock and initial segment.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">axon hillock</a> is the area formed from the cell body of the neuron as it extends to become the axon. It precedes the initial segment. The received <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potentials</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Summation_(neurophysiology)" title="Summation (neurophysiology)">summed</a> in the neuron are transmitted to the axon hillock for the generation of an action potential from the initial segment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Axonal_initial_segment">Axonal initial segment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Axonal initial segment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>axonal initial segment</b> (AIS) is a structurally and functionally separate microdomain of the axon.<sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One function of the initial segment is to separate the main part of an axon from the rest of the neuron; another function is to help initiate action potentials.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both of these functions support neuron <a href="/wiki/Cell_polarity" title="Cell polarity">cell polarity</a>, in which dendrites (and, in some cases the <a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">soma</a>) of a neuron receive input signals at the basal region, and at the apical region the neuron's axon provides output signals.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The axon initial segment is unmyelinated and contains a specialized complex of proteins. It is between approximately 20 and 60 μm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the position on the axon and the length of the AIS can change showing a degree of plasticity that can fine-tune the neuronal output.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Yamada_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamada-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A longer AIS is associated with a greater excitability.<sup id="cite_ref-Yamada_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yamada-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plasticity is also seen in the ability of the AIS to change its distribution and to maintain the activity of neural circuitry at a constant level.<sup id="cite_ref-Susuki_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susuki-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The AIS is highly specialized for the fast conduction of <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">nerve impulses</a>. This is achieved by a high concentration of <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_sodium_channel" title="Voltage-gated sodium channel">voltage-gated sodium channels</a> in the initial segment where the action potential is initiated.<sup id="cite_ref-Susuki_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Susuki-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ion channels are accompanied by a high number of <a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion_molecule" title="Cell adhesion molecule">cell adhesion molecules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scaffold_protein" title="Scaffold protein">scaffold proteins</a> that anchor them to the cytoskeleton.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interactions with <a href="/wiki/Ankyrin-3" title="Ankyrin-3">ankyrin-G</a> are important as it is the major organizer in the AIS.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Axonal_transport">Axonal transport</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Axonal transport"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Axonal_transport" title="Axonal transport">Axonal transport</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">axoplasm</a> is the equivalent of <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> in the cell. Microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock. They are arranged along the length of the axon, in overlapping sections, and all point in the same direction – towards the axon terminals.<sup id="cite_ref-Essential_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Essential-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules. This overlapping arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body.<sup id="cite_ref-Essential_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Essential-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies on the axoplasm has shown the movement of numerous vesicles of all sizes to be seen along cytoskeletal filaments – the microtubules, and <a href="/wiki/Neurofilament" title="Neurofilament">neurofilaments</a>, in both directions between the axon and its terminals and the cell body. </p><p>Outgoing <a href="/wiki/Axonal_transport#Anterograde_transport" title="Axonal transport">anterograde transport</a> from the cell body along the axon, carries <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Membrane_protein" title="Membrane protein">membrane proteins</a> needed for growth to the axon terminal. Ingoing <a href="/wiki/Axonal_transport#Retrograde_transport" title="Axonal transport">retrograde transport</a> carries cell waste materials from the axon terminal to the cell body.<sup id="cite_ref-MBC_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MBC-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outgoing and ingoing tracks use different sets of <a href="/wiki/Motor_protein" title="Motor protein">motor proteins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Essential_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Essential-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outgoing transport is provided by <a href="/wiki/Kinesin" title="Kinesin">kinesin</a>, and ingoing return traffic is provided by <a href="/wiki/Dynein" title="Dynein">dynein</a>. Dynein is minus-end directed.<sup id="cite_ref-MBC_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MBC-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are many forms of kinesin and dynein motor proteins, and each is thought to carry a different cargo.<sup id="cite_ref-Essential_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Essential-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The studies on transport in the axon led to the naming of kinesin.<sup id="cite_ref-Essential_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Essential-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Myelination">Myelination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Myelination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myelinated_neuron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Myelinated_neuron.jpg/220px-Myelinated_neuron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Myelinated_neuron.jpg/330px-Myelinated_neuron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Myelinated_neuron.jpg/440px-Myelinated_neuron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Transmission_electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission electron micrograph">TEM</a> of a myelinated axon in cross-section.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myelin_sheath_(1).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Myelin_sheath_%281%29.svg/170px-Myelin_sheath_%281%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="233" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Myelin_sheath_%281%29.svg/255px-Myelin_sheath_%281%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Myelin_sheath_%281%29.svg/340px-Myelin_sheath_%281%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="703" /></a><figcaption>Cross section of an axon: (1) Axon (2) Nucleus (3) <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a> (4) <a href="/wiki/Myelin_sheath" class="mw-redirect" title="Myelin sheath">Myelin sheath</a> (5) <a href="/wiki/Neurilemma" title="Neurilemma">Neurilemma</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the nervous system, axons may be <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelinated</a>, or unmyelinated. This is the provision of an insulating layer, called a myelin sheath. The myelin membrane is unique in its relatively high lipid to protein ratio.<sup id="cite_ref-Ozgen_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ozgen-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the peripheral nervous system axons are myelinated by <a href="/wiki/Neuroglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroglia">glial cells</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cells</a>. In the central nervous system the myelin sheath is provided by another type of glial cell, the <a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">oligodendrocyte</a>. Schwann cells myelinate a single axon. An oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons.<sup id="cite_ref-Sadler_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sadler-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The composition of myelin is different in the two types. In the CNS the major myelin protein is <a href="/wiki/Proteolipid_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteolipid protein">proteolipid protein</a>, and in the PNS it is <a href="/wiki/Myelin_basic_protein" title="Myelin basic protein">myelin basic protein</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nodes_of_Ranvier">Nodes of Ranvier</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nodes of Ranvier"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of Ranvier</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Nodes of Ranvier</a> (also known as <i>myelin sheath gaps</i>) are short unmyelinated segments of a <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelinated axon</a>, which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath. Therefore, at the point of the node of Ranvier, the axon is reduced in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated. In <a href="/wiki/Saltatory_conduction" title="Saltatory conduction">saltatory conduction</a>, electrical currents produced at each node of Ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line, where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential. Thus in a myelinated axon, action potentials effectively "jump" from node to node, bypassing the myelinated stretches in between, resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Axon_terminals">Axon terminals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Axon terminals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminal</a></div> <p>An axon can divide into many branches called telodendria (Greek for 'end of tree'). At the end of each <b>telodendron</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminal</a> (also called a terminal bouton or synaptic bouton, or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/end-foot" class="extiw" title="wikt:end-foot">end-foot</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-MW_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MW-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axon terminals contain <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">synaptic vesicles</a> that store the <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> for release at the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">synapse</a>. This makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible. Sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron, when it is known as an <a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">autapse</a>. Some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends; these are called <b>en passant boutons</b> ("in passing boutons") and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon.<sup id="cite_ref-LS_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Axonal_varicosities">Axonal varicosities</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Axonal varicosities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the normally developed brain, along the shaft of some axons are located pre-synaptic boutons also known as <b>axonal varicosities</b> and these have been found in regions of the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a> that function in the release of neurotransmitters.<sup id="cite_ref-Gu_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gu-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, axonal varicosities are also present in neurodegenerative diseases where they interfere with the conduction of an action potential. Axonal varicosities are also the hallmark of <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injuries" class="mw-redirect" title="Traumatic brain injuries">traumatic brain injuries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gu_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gu-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weber_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axonal damage is usually to the axon cytoskeleton disrupting transport. As a consequence protein accumulations such as <a href="/wiki/Amyloid-beta_precursor_protein" title="Amyloid-beta precursor protein">amyloid-beta precursor protein</a> can build up in a swelling resulting in a number of varicosities along the axon.<sup id="cite_ref-Gu_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gu-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weber_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Action_potentials">Action potentials</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Action potentials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">Action potential</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Neural_coding" title="Neural coding">Neural coding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Active_zone" title="Active zone">Active zone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/260px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/390px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/520px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">Synaptic connections from an axon</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SynapseSchematic_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The pre- and post-synaptic axons are separated by a short distance known as the synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitter released by pre-synaptic axons diffuse through the synaptic cleft to bind to and open ion channels in post-synaptic axons." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/SynapseSchematic_en.svg/260px-SynapseSchematic_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/SynapseSchematic_en.svg/390px-SynapseSchematic_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/SynapseSchematic_en.svg/520px-SynapseSchematic_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1064" /></a><figcaption>Neurotransmitter released from presynaptic axon terminal, and transported across synaptic cleft to receptors on postsynaptic neuron</figcaption></figure> <p>Most axons carry signals in the form of action potentials, which are discrete electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon, starting at the cell body and terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells. The defining characteristic of an action potential is that it is "all-or-nothing" – every action potential that an axon generates has essentially the same size and shape. This <a href="/wiki/All-or-none_law" title="All-or-none law">all-or-nothing</a> characteristic allows action potentials to be transmitted from one end of a long axon to the other without any reduction in size. There are, however, some types of neurons with short axons that carry graded electrochemical signals, of variable amplitude. </p><p>When an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal, it activates the synaptic transmission process. The first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the membrane of the axon, allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane. The resulting increase in intracellular calcium concentration causes <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">synaptic vesicles</a> (tiny containers enclosed by a lipid membrane) filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axon's membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space. The neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a>. The neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane of the target cell. The neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them. Depending on the type of receptors that are activated, the effect on the target cell can be to excite the target cell, inhibit it, or alter its metabolism in some way. This entire sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second. Afterward, inside the presynaptic terminal, a new set of vesicles is moved into position next to the membrane, ready to be released when the next action potential arrives. The action potential is the final electrical step in the integration of synaptic messages at the scale of the neuron.<sup id="cite_ref-Debanne_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debanne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Extracellular recordings of action potential propagation in axons has been demonstrated in freely moving animals. While extracellular somatic action potentials have been used to study cellular activity in freely moving animals such as <a href="/wiki/Place_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Place cells">place cells</a>, axonal activity in both <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">gray matter</a> can also be recorded. Extracellular recordings of axon action potential propagation is distinct from somatic action potentials in three ways: 1. The signal has a shorter peak-trough duration (~150μs) than of <a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">pyramidal cells</a> (~500μs) or <a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">interneurons</a> (~250μs). 2. The voltage change is triphasic. 3. Activity recorded on a tetrode is seen on only one of the four recording wires. In recordings from freely moving rats, axonal signals have been isolated in white matter tracts including the alveus and the corpus callosum as well hippocampal gray matter.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In fact, the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature, and these sequential spikes constitute the <a href="/wiki/Neural_coding" title="Neural coding">digital codes</a> in the neurons. Although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by short-term pulses, physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals, the axon is able to amplify the action potentials, which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal. In terms of molecular mechanisms, <a href="/wiki/Voltage-gated_sodium_channel" title="Voltage-gated sodium channel">voltage-gated sodium channels</a> in the axons possess lower <a href="/wiki/Threshold_potential" title="Threshold potential">threshold</a> and shorter <a href="/wiki/Refractory_period_(physiology)" title="Refractory period (physiology)">refractory period</a> in response to short-term pulses.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_and_growth">Development and growth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Development and growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development">Development</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of the axon to its target, is one of the six major stages in the overall <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_nervous_system" title="Development of the nervous system">development of the nervous system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolpert_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolpert-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies done on cultured <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampal</a> neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple <a href="/wiki/Neurite" title="Neurite">neurites</a> that are equivalent, yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although recent evidence points to the latter. If an axon that is not fully developed is cut, the polarity can change and other neurites can potentially become the axon. This alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites. After the incision is made, the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites, including the original axon, will turn into dendrites.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Imposing an external force on a neurite, causing it to elongate, will make it become an axon.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling, intracellular signaling and <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeletal</a> dynamics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Extracellular_signaling">Extracellular signaling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Extracellular signaling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The extracellular signals that propagate through the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17311006_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17311006-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These signaling molecules include proteins, <a href="/wiki/Neurotrophic_factors" title="Neurotrophic factors">neurotrophic factors</a>, and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules. <a href="/wiki/Netrin" title="Netrin">Netrin</a> (also known as UNC-6) a secreted protein, functions in axon formation. When the <a href="/wiki/UNC-5" title="UNC-5">UNC-5</a> netrin receptor is mutated, several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly.<sup id="cite_ref-A_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The neurotrophic factors – <a href="/wiki/Nerve_growth_factor" title="Nerve growth factor">nerve growth factor</a> (NGF), <a href="/wiki/Brain-derived_neurotrophic_factor" title="Brain-derived neurotrophic factor">brain-derived neurotrophic factor</a> (BDNF) and <a href="/wiki/Neurotrophin-3" title="Neurotrophin-3">neurotrophin-3</a> (NTF3) are also involved in axon development and bind to <a href="/wiki/Trk_receptor" title="Trk receptor">Trk receptors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ganglioside" title="Ganglioside">ganglioside</a>-converting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside <a href="/wiki/Sialidase" class="mw-redirect" title="Sialidase">sialidase</a> (PMGS), which is involved in the activation of <a href="/wiki/TrkA" class="mw-redirect" title="TrkA">TrkA</a> at the tip of neutrites, is required for the elongation of axons. PMGS asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15834419_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15834419-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intracellular_signaling">Intracellular signaling</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Intracellular signaling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During axonal development, the activity of <a href="/wiki/PI3K" class="mw-redirect" title="PI3K">PI3K</a> is increased at the tip of destined axon. Disrupting the activity of PI3K inhibits axonal development. Activation of PI3K results in the production of <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol_(3,4,5)-trisphosphate" title="Phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate">phosphatidylinositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate</a> (PtdIns) which can cause significant elongation of a neurite, converting it into an axon. As such, the overexpression of <a href="/wiki/Phosphatase" title="Phosphatase">phosphatases</a> that dephosphorylate PtdIns leads into the failure of polarization.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17311006_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17311006-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cytoskeletal_dynamics">Cytoskeletal dynamics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cytoskeletal dynamics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The neurite with the lowest <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a> filament content will become the axon. PGMS concentration and <a href="/wiki/Actin#F-Actin" title="Actin">f-actin</a> content are inversely correlated; when PGMS becomes enriched at the tip of a neurite, its f-actin content is substantially decreased.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15834419_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15834419-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, exposure to actin-depolimerizing drugs and toxin B (which inactivates <a href="/wiki/Rho_family_of_GTPases" title="Rho family of GTPases">Rho-signaling</a>) causes the formation of multiple axons. Consequently, the interruption of the actin network in a growth cone will promote its neurite to become the axon.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth">Growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Axon_guidance" title="Axon guidance">Axon guidance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Axon_two_photon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Axon_two_photon.jpg/170px-Axon_two_photon.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Axon_two_photon.jpg/255px-Axon_two_photon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Axon_two_photon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="472" /></a><figcaption>Axon of nine-day-old mouse with growth cone visible</figcaption></figure> <p>Growing axons move through their environment via the <a href="/wiki/Growth_cone" title="Growth cone">growth cone</a>, which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet-like extension called a <a href="/wiki/Lamellipodium" title="Lamellipodium">lamellipodium</a> which contain protrusions called <a href="/wiki/Filopodia" title="Filopodia">filopodia</a>. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. Actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system. Environments with high levels of <a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion_molecule" title="Cell adhesion molecule">cell adhesion molecules</a> (CAMs) create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a "sticky" surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAMs specific to neural systems include <a href="/wiki/Neural_cell_adhesion_molecule" title="Neural cell adhesion molecule">N-CAM</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contactin_2" title="Contactin 2">TAG-1</a> – an axonal <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoprotein</a><sup id="cite_ref-Furley_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furley-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – and <a href="/wiki/Myelin-associated_glycoprotein" title="Myelin-associated glycoprotein">MAG</a>, all of which are part of the <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoglobulin">immunoglobulin</a> superfamily. Another set of molecules called <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a>-<a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion_molecule" title="Cell adhesion molecule">adhesion molecules</a> also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include <a href="/wiki/Laminin" title="Laminin">laminin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fibronectin" title="Fibronectin">fibronectin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tenascin" title="Tenascin">tenascin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Perlecan" title="Perlecan">perlecan</a>. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects. </p><p>Cells called <a href="/wiki/Guidepost_cells" title="Guidepost cells">guidepost cells</a> assist in the <a href="/wiki/Axon_guidance" title="Axon guidance">guidance</a> of neuronal axon growth. These cells that help <a href="/wiki/Axon_guidance" title="Axon guidance">axon guidance</a>, are typically other neurons that are sometimes immature. When the axon has completed its growth at its connection to the target, the diameter of the axon can increase by up to five times, depending on the <a href="/wiki/Nerve_conduction_velocity" title="Nerve conduction velocity">speed of conduction</a> required.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged, as long as the soma (the cell body of a neuron) is not damaged, the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of <a href="/wiki/Guidepost_cells" title="Guidepost cells">guidepost cells</a>. This is also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Neuroregeneration" title="Neuroregeneration">neuroregeneration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Reticulon_4" title="Reticulon 4">Nogo-A</a> is a type of neurite outgrowth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes (found in an axon). It has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system. In recent studies, if Nogo-A is blocked and neutralized, it is possible to induce long-distance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord. This has yet to be done on humans.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A recent study has also found that <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the <a href="/wiki/CLEC7A" title="CLEC7A">Dectin-1</a> receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery, also however causing <a href="/wiki/Neurotoxicity" title="Neurotoxicity">neurotoxicity</a> in the neuron.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Length_regulation">Length regulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Length regulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Axons vary largely in length from a few micrometers up to meters in some animals. This emphasizes that there must be a cellular length regulation mechanism allowing the neurons both to sense the length of their axons and to control their growth accordingly. It was discovered that <a href="/wiki/Motor_proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor proteins">motor proteins</a> play an important role in regulating the length of axons.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on this observation, researchers developed an explicit model for axonal growth describing how motor proteins could affect the axon length on the molecular level.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These studies suggest that motor proteins carry signaling molecules from the soma to the growth cone and vice versa whose concentration oscillates in time with a length-dependent frequency. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Nerve_conduction_velocity" title="Nerve conduction velocity">Nerve conduction velocity</a></div> <p>The axons of neurons in the human <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">peripheral nervous system</a> can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties. Axons were known to have different thicknesses (from 0.1 to 20 μm)<sup id="cite_ref-LS_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and these differences were thought to relate to the speed at which an action potential could travel along the axon – its <i>conductance velocity</i>. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Erlanger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer_Gasser" title="Herbert Spencer Gasser">Gasser</a> proved this hypothesis, and identified several types of nerve fiber, establishing a relationship between the diameter of an axon and its nerve conduction velocity. They published their findings in 1941 giving the first classification of axons. </p><p>Axons are classified in two systems. The first one introduced by Erlanger and Gasser, grouped the fibers into three main groups using the letters A, B, and C. These groups, <a href="/wiki/Group_A_nerve_fiber" title="Group A nerve fiber">group A</a>, <a href="/wiki/Group_B_nerve_fibres" class="mw-redirect" title="Group B nerve fibres">group B</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">group C</a> include both the sensory fibers (<a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">afferents</a>) and the motor fibers (<a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">efferents</a>). The first group A, was subdivided into alpha, beta, gamma, and delta fibers – Aα, Aβ, Aγ, and Aδ. The <a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">motor neurons</a> of the different motor fibers, were the <a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">lower motor neurons</a> – <a href="/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron" title="Alpha motor neuron">alpha motor neuron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_motor_neuron" title="Beta motor neuron">beta motor neuron</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gamma_motor_neuron" title="Gamma motor neuron">gamma motor neuron</a> having the Aα, Aβ, and Aγ nerve fibers, respectively. </p><p>Later findings by other researchers identified two groups of Aa fibers that were sensory fibers. These were then introduced into a system (Lloyd classification) that only included sensory fibers (though some of these were mixed nerves and were also motor fibers). This system refers to the sensory groups as Types and uses Roman numerals: Type Ia, Type Ib, Type II, Type III, and Type IV. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motor">Motor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Motor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lower motor neurons have two kind of fibers: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Motor fiber types </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Erlanger-Gasser<br />Classification</th> <th>Diameter<br />(μm)</th> <th>Myelin</th> <th>Conduction velocity<br />(meters/second)</th> <th>Associated <a href="/wiki/Muscle_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle fiber">muscle fibers</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron" title="Alpha motor neuron">Alpha (α) motor neuron</a> </th> <td>Aα</td> <td>13–20</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>80–120</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Extrafusal_muscle_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrafusal muscle fibers">Extrafusal muscle fibers</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Beta_motor_neuron" title="Beta motor neuron">Beta (β) motor neuron</a> </th> <td>Aβ</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Gamma_motor_neuron" title="Gamma motor neuron">Gamma (γ) motor neuron</a> </th> <td>Aγ</td> <td>5-8</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>4–24<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Intrafusal_muscle_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrafusal muscle fibers">Intrafusal muscle fibers</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sensory"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Sensory"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Sensory</span></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sensory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Different <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptors">sensory receptors</a> are innervated by different types of nerve fibers. <a href="/wiki/Proprioceptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Proprioceptor">Proprioceptors</a> are innervated by type Ia, Ib and II sensory fibers, <a href="/wiki/Mechanoreceptor" title="Mechanoreceptor">mechanoreceptors</a> by type II and III sensory fibers and <a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">nociceptors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thermoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoreceptors">thermoreceptors</a> by type III and IV sensory fibers. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Sensory fiber types </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Erlanger-Gasser<br />Classification</th> <th>Diameter<br />(μm)</th> <th>Myelin</th> <th>Conduction<br />velocity (m/s)</th> <th>Associated <a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">sensory receptors</a></th> <th>Proprioceptors</th> <th>Mechanoceptors</th> <th>Nociceptors and<br />thermoreceptors </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_sensory_fiber" title="Type Ia sensory fiber">Ia</a> </th> <td>Aα</td> <td>13–20</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>80–120</td> <td>Primary receptors of <a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">muscle spindle</a> (annulospiral ending)</td> <td rowspan="3" align="center">✔</td> <td rowspan="2"></td> <td rowspan="3"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ib </th> <td>Aα</td> <td>13–20</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>80–120</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Golgi tendon organ</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Type_II_sensory_fiber" title="Type II sensory fiber">II</a> </th> <td>Aβ</td> <td>6–12</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>33–75</td> <td>Secondary receptors of <a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">muscle spindle</a> (flower-spray ending).<br />All <a href="/wiki/Cutaneous_mechanoreceptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Cutaneous mechanoreceptor">cutaneous mechanoreceptors</a></td> <td rowspan="2" align="center">✔ </td></tr> <tr> <th>III </th> <td><a href="/wiki/A_delta_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="A delta fiber">Aδ</a></td> <td>1–5</td> <td>Thin</td> <td>3–30</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Free_nerve_ending" title="Free nerve ending">Free nerve endings</a> of touch and pressure<br /><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lateral_spinothalamic_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral spinothalamic tract">lateral spinothalamic tract</a><br />Cold <a href="/wiki/Thermoreceptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermoreceptors">thermoreceptors</a></td> <td rowspan="2"></td> <td rowspan="2" align="center">✔ </td></tr> <tr> <th>IV </th> <td><a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">C</a></td> <td>0.2–1.5</td> <td>No</td> <td>0.5–2.0</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptors</a> of <a href="/wiki/Anterior_spinothalamic_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Anterior spinothalamic tract">anterior spinothalamic tract</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Warmth_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Warmth receptors">Warmth receptors</a></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autonomic">Autonomic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Autonomic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" title="Autonomic nervous system">autonomic nervous system</a> has two kinds of peripheral fibers: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Fiber types </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type</th> <th>Erlanger-Gasser<br />Classification</th> <th>Diameter<br />(μm)</th> <th>Myelin<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th> <th>Conduction<br />velocity (m/s) </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Preganglionic_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Preganglionic fibers">preganglionic fibers</a> </th> <td>B</td> <td>1–5</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>3–15 </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Postganglionic_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="Postganglionic fibers">postganglionic fibers</a> </th> <td>C</td> <td>0.2–1.5</td> <td>No</td> <td>0.5–2.0 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Clinical significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Nerve_injury" title="Nerve injury">Nerve injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy" title="Peripheral neuropathy">Peripheral neuropathy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Demyelinating_disease" title="Demyelinating disease">Demyelinating disease</a></div> <p>In order of degree of severity, injury to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system can be described as <a href="/wiki/Neurapraxia" title="Neurapraxia">neurapraxia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axonotmesis" title="Axonotmesis">axonotmesis</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Neurotmesis" title="Neurotmesis">neurotmesis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Concussion" title="Concussion">Concussion</a> is considered a mild form of <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_axonal_injury" title="Diffuse axonal injury">diffuse axonal injury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axonal injury can also cause <a href="/wiki/Central_chromatolysis" title="Central chromatolysis">central chromatolysis</a>. The dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited and acquired <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorder" title="Neurological disorder">neurological disorders</a> that affect both peripheral and central neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-Debanne_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debanne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When an axon is crushed, an active process of <a href="/wiki/Wallerian_degeneration#Axonal_degeneration" title="Wallerian degeneration">axonal degeneration</a> takes place at the part of the axon furthest from the cell body. This degeneration takes place quickly following the injury, with the part of the axon being sealed off at the membranes and broken down by macrophages. This is known as <a href="/wiki/Wallerian_degeneration" title="Wallerian degeneration">Wallerian degeneration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UCSF_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UCSF-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dying back of an axon can also take place in many <a href="/wiki/Neurodegenerative_disease" title="Neurodegenerative disease">neurodegenerative diseases</a>, particularly when axonal transport is impaired, this is known as Wallerian-like degeneration.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid20345246_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid20345246-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies suggest that the degeneration happens as a result of the axonal protein <a href="/wiki/NMNAT2" title="NMNAT2">NMNAT2</a>, being prevented from reaching all of the axon.<sup id="cite_ref-Gilley_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gilley-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Demyelinating_disease" title="Demyelinating disease">Demyelination of axons</a> causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease <a href="/wiki/Multiple_sclerosis" title="Multiple sclerosis">multiple sclerosis</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Myelin#Dysmyelination" title="Myelin">Dysmyelination</a> is the abnormal formation of the myelin sheath. This is implicated in several <a href="/wiki/Leukodystrophy" title="Leukodystrophy">leukodystrophies</a>, and also in <a href="/wiki/Schizophrenia" title="Schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A severe <a href="/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury" title="Traumatic brain injury">traumatic brain injury</a> can result in widespread lesions to nerve tracts damaging the axons in a condition known as <a href="/wiki/Diffuse_axonal_injury" title="Diffuse axonal injury">diffuse axonal injury</a>. This can lead to a <a href="/wiki/Persistent_vegetative_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent vegetative state">persistent vegetative state</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Healthcare_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Healthcare-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been shown in studies on the <a href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">rat</a> that axonal damage from a single mild traumatic brain injury, can leave a susceptibility to further damage, after repeated mild traumatic brain injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Nerve_guidance_conduit" title="Nerve guidance conduit">nerve guidance conduit</a> is an artificial means of guiding axon growth to enable <a href="/wiki/Neuroregeneration" title="Neuroregeneration">neuroregeneration</a>, and is one of the many treatments used for different kinds of <a href="/wiki/Nerve_injury" title="Nerve injury">nerve injury</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some general dictionaries define "nerve fiber" as any <a href="/wiki/Neurite" title="Neurite">neuronal process</a>, including both axons and <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, medical sources generally use "nerve fiber" to refer to the axon only.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>German anatomist <a href="/wiki/Otto_Friedrich_Karl_Deiters" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters">Otto Friedrich Karl Deiters</a> is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites.<sup id="cite_ref-Debanne_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debanne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Swiss <a href="/wiki/Albert_von_K%C3%B6lliker" title="Albert von Kölliker">Rüdolf Albert von Kölliker</a> and German <a href="/wiki/Robert_Remak" title="Robert Remak">Robert Remak</a> were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment. Kölliker named the axon in 1896.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Louis-Antoine_Ranvier" title="Louis-Antoine Ranvier">Louis-Antoine Ranvier</a> was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">nodes of Ranvier</a>. <a href="/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal" title="Santiago Ramón y Cajal">Santiago Ramón y Cajal</a>, a Spanish anatomist, proposed that axons were the output components of neurons, describing their functionality.<sup id="cite_ref-Debanne_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Debanne-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Erlanger" title="Joseph Erlanger">Joseph Erlanger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Gasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbert Gasser">Herbert Gasser</a> earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on axonal conduction velocity, <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelination</a>, fiber size etc. <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hodgkin" title="Alan Hodgkin">Alan Hodgkin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> also employed the squid giant axon (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential, leading to the formulation of the <a href="/wiki/Hodgkin%E2%80%93Huxley_model" title="Hodgkin–Huxley model">Hodgkin–Huxley model</a>. Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize</a> for this work in 1963. The formulae detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the Frankenhaeuser–Huxley equations. The understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced further, and includes many details about individual <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">ion channels</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_animals">Other animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Other animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The axons in <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> have been extensively studied. The <a href="/wiki/Longfin_inshore_squid" title="Longfin inshore squid">longfin inshore squid</a>, often used as a <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a> has the longest known axon.<sup id="cite_ref-Hellier_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hellier-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Giant_squid" title="Giant squid">giant squid</a> has the largest axon known. Its size ranges from 0.5 (typically) to 1 mm in diameter and is used in the control of its <a href="/wiki/Jet_propulsion" title="Jet propulsion">jet propulsion</a> system. The fastest recorded conduction speed of 210 m/s, is found in the ensheathed axons of some pelagic <a href="/wiki/Penaeidae" title="Penaeidae">Penaeid shrimps</a><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the usual range is between 90 and 200 meters/s<sup id="cite_ref-Salzer_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Salzer-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Cf." title="Cf.">cf</a> 100–120 m/s for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon.) </p><p>In other cases as seen in rat studies an axon originates from a dendrite; such axons are said to have "dendritic origin". Some axons with dendritic origin similarly have a "proximal" initial segment that starts directly at the axon origin, while others have a "distal" initial segment, discernibly separated from the axon origin.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many species some of the neurons have axons that emanate from the dendrite and not from the cell body, and these are known as axon-carrying dendrites.<sup id="cite_ref-Triarhou_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Triarhou-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many cases, an axon originates at an axon hillock on the soma; such axons are said to have "somatic origin". Some axons with somatic origin have a "proximal" initial segment adjacent the axon hillock, while others have a "distal" initial segment, separated from the soma by an extended axon hillock.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_images">Additional images</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Additional images"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Example_of_Waveforms_from_Extracellular_Tetrode_Recordings_in_the_Hippocampus_from_Different_Cell_Types_and_Axons.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Recordings in the hippocampus from different cell types and axons"><img alt="Recordings in the hippocampus from different cell types and axons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Example_of_Waveforms_from_Extracellular_Tetrode_Recordings_in_the_Hippocampus_from_Different_Cell_Types_and_Axons.tif/lossy-page1-93px-Example_of_Waveforms_from_Extracellular_Tetrode_Recordings_in_the_Hippocampus_from_Different_Cell_Types_and_Axons.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Example_of_Waveforms_from_Extracellular_Tetrode_Recordings_in_the_Hippocampus_from_Different_Cell_Types_and_Axons.tif/lossy-page1-140px-Example_of_Waveforms_from_Extracellular_Tetrode_Recordings_in_the_Hippocampus_from_Different_Cell_Types_and_Axons.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Example_of_Waveforms_from_Extracellular_Tetrode_Recordings_in_the_Hippocampus_from_Different_Cell_Types_and_Axons.tif/lossy-page1-186px-Example_of_Waveforms_from_Extracellular_Tetrode_Recordings_in_the_Hippocampus_from_Different_Cell_Types_and_Axons.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1673" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Recordings in the hippocampus from different cell types and axons</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrophysiology" title="Electrophysiology">Electrophysiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganglionic_eminence" title="Ganglionic eminence">Ganglionic eminence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_axonal_neuropathy" title="Giant axonal neuropathy">Giant axonal neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuronal_tracing" title="Neuronal tracing">Neuronal tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pioneer_axon" title="Pioneer axon">Pioneer axon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-unit_recording" title="Single-unit recording">Single-unit recording</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Triarhou-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Triarhou_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Triarhou_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFTriarhou2014" class="citation journal cs1">Triarhou LC (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4235383">"Axons emanating from dendrites: phylogenetic repercussions with Cajalian hues"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Neuroanatomy</i>. <b>8</b>: 133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffnana.2014.00133">10.3389/fnana.2014.00133</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060502020349/http://missinglink.ucsf.edu/lm/ids_104_cns_injury/Response%20_to_Injury/WallerianDegeneration.htm">Archived</a> 2 May 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco" title="University of California, San Francisco">University of California, San Francisco</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid20345246-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-pmid20345246_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColemanFreeman2010" class="citation journal cs1">Coleman MP, Freeman MR (1 June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5223592">"Wallerian degeneration, wld(s), and nmnat"</a>. <i>Annual Review of Neuroscience</i>. <b>33</b> (1): 245–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Wallerian+degeneration%2C+wld%28s%29%2C+and+nmnat&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=245-67&rft.date=2010-06-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5223592%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20345246&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev-neuro-060909-153248&rft.aulast=Coleman&rft.aufirst=MP&rft.au=Freeman%2C+MR&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5223592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAxon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gilley-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gilley_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilleyColeman2010" class="citation journal cs1">Gilley J, Coleman MP (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2811159">"Endogenous Nmnat2 is an essential survival factor for maintenance of healthy axons"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>8</b> (1): e1000300. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000300">10.1371/journal.pbio.1000300</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2811159">2811159</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20126265">20126265</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Endogenous+Nmnat2+is+an+essential+survival+factor+for+maintenance+of+healthy+axons&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e1000300&rft.date=2010-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2811159%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20126265&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000300&rft.aulast=Gilley&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Coleman%2C+MP&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2811159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAxon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrämer-AlbersGehrig-BurgerThieleTrotter2006" class="citation journal cs1">Krämer-Albers EM, Gehrig-Burger K, Thiele C, Trotter J, Nave KA (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6674790">"Perturbed interactions of mutant proteolipid protein/DM20 with cholesterol and lipid rafts in oligodendroglia: implications for dysmyelination in spastic paraplegia"</a>. <i>The Journal of Neuroscience</i>. <b>26</b> (45): 11743–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.3581-06.2006">10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3581-06.2006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6674790">6674790</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17093095">17093095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Perturbed+interactions+of+mutant+proteolipid+protein%2FDM20+with+cholesterol+and+lipid+rafts+in+oligodendroglia%3A+implications+for+dysmyelination+in+spastic+paraplegia&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=45&rft.pages=11743-52&rft.date=2006-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6674790%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17093095&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1523%2FJNEUROSCI.3581-06.2006&rft.aulast=Kr%C3%A4mer-Albers&rft.aufirst=EM&rft.au=Gehrig-Burger%2C+K&rft.au=Thiele%2C+C&rft.au=Trotter%2C+J&rft.au=Nave%2C+KA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6674790&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAxon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> 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Oxford University Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195146943" title="Special:BookSources/9780195146943"><bdi>9780195146943</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27151391">27151391</a>. <q>Kölliker would give the "axon" its name in 1896.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+neuroscience%3A+a+history+of+explorations+into+brain+function&rft.pages=47&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27151391&rft.isbn=9780195146943&rft.aulast=Finger&rft.aufirst=Stanley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAxon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrant2006" class="citation journal cs1">Grant G (December 2006). 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(2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5684645">"Heterogeneity of the Axon Initial Segment in Interneurons and Pyramidal Cells of Rodent Visual Cortex"</a>. <i>Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience</i>. <b>11</b>: 332. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffncel.2017.00332">10.3389/fncel.2017.00332</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5684645">5684645</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29170630">29170630</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Cellular+Neuroscience&rft.atitle=Heterogeneity+of+the+Axon+Initial+Segment+in+Interneurons+and+Pyramidal+Cells+of+Rodent+Visual+Cortex&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=332&rft.date=2017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5684645%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29170630&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffncel.2017.00332&rft.aulast=H%C3%B6fflin&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Jack%2C+A&rft.au=Riedel%2C+C&rft.au=Mack-Bucher%2C+J&rft.au=Roos%2C+J&rft.au=Corcelli%2C+C&rft.au=Schultz%2C+C&rft.au=Wahle%2C+P&rft.au=Engelhardt%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5684645&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAxon" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Axon&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ouhsc.edu/histology/Glass%20slides/3_09.jpg">Histology image: 3_09</a> at the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center – "Slide 3 <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a>"</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Projection_fiber" title="Projection fiber">Projection fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fiber" title="Association fiber">Association fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">Commissural fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemniscus_(anatomy)" title="Lemniscus (anatomy)">Lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">Nerve tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">Decussation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">Neuropil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neuronal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">Pyramidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_cell" title="Granule cell">Granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Economo_neuron" title="Von Economo neuron">Von Economo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">Medium spiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Glial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">Astrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ependyma" title="Ependyma">Ependymal cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanycyte" title="Tanycyte">Tanycyte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte_progenitor_cell" title="Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell">Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">Oligodendrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">Microglia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Dorsal</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">Ganglion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Ventral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramus_communicans" title="Ramus communicans">Ramus communicans</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_ramus_communicans" title="Gray ramus communicans">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ramus_communicans" title="White ramus communicans">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_ganglion" title="Autonomic ganglion">Autonomic ganglion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Preganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Preganglionic nerve fibers">Preganglionic nerve fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Postganglionic nerve fibers">Postganglionic nerve fibers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">Nerve fascicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funiculus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Funiculus (neuroanatomy)">Funiculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epineurium" title="Epineurium">Epineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perineurium" title="Perineurium">Perineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoneurium" title="Endoneurium">Endoneurium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Neuroglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelination</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurilemma" title="Neurilemma">Neurilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelin_incisure" title="Myelin incisure">Myelin incisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of Ranvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internodal_segment" title="Internodal segment">Internodal segment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_glial_cell" title="Satellite glial cell">Satellite glial cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neurons</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve fiber">nerve fibers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">Soma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">Axon hillock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Axon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telodendron" class="mw-redirect" title="Telodendron">Telodendron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">Axoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axolemma" title="Axolemma">Axolemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurofilament" title="Neurofilament">Neurofibril/neurofilament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nissl_body" title="Nissl body">Nissl body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">Dendritic spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dendrite" title="Apical dendrite">Apical dendrite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basal_dendrite" title="Basal dendrite">Basal dendrite</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_neuron" title="Bipolar neuron">Bipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unipolar_neuron" title="Unipolar neuron">Unipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudounipolar_neuron" title="Pseudounipolar neuron">Pseudounipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multipolar_neuron" title="Multipolar neuron">Multipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renshaw_cell" title="Renshaw cell">Renshaw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">Afferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic afferent fibers">GSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral afferent fibers">GVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_somatic_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special somatic afferent">SSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral afferent">SVA</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#types">fibers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_sensory_fiber" title="Type Ia sensory fiber">Ia or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Ib or Golgi or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_sensory_fiber" title="Type II sensory fiber">II or Aβ and Aγ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_A_nerve_fiber" title="Group A nerve fiber">III or Aδ or fast pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">IV or C or slow pain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">Efferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">Motor neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic efferent fibers">GSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral efferent fibers">GVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_efferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral efferent">SVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron" title="Upper motor neuron">Upper motor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">Lower motor neuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron" title="Alpha motor neuron">α motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_motor_neuron" title="Beta motor neuron">β motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_motor_neuron" title="Gamma motor neuron">γ motorneuron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Termination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">Synapse</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">Electrical synapse</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gap_junction" title="Gap junction">Gap junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse">Chemical synapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">Synaptic vesicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_zone" title="Active zone">Active zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">Postsynaptic density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">Autapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_synapse" title="Ribbon synapse">Ribbon synapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">Neuromuscular junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">Sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Meissner's corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacinian_corpuscle" title="Pacinian corpuscle">Pacinian corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Ruffini ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">Muscle spindle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_nerve_ending" title="Free nerve ending">Free nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">Olfactory receptor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">Hair cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q178999#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4200576-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Axons"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85010598">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007282443905171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axon&oldid=1254838684">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Axon&oldid=1254838684</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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