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<span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Signaling in chemical synapses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Signaling_in_chemical_synapses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Signaling in chemical synapses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Signaling_in_chemical_synapses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Overview" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Overview"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Overview</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Overview-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurotransmitter_release" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurotransmitter_release"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Neurotransmitter release</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neurotransmitter_release-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Receptor_binding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Receptor_binding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Receptor binding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Receptor_binding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Termination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Termination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Termination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Termination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synaptic_strength" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synaptic_strength"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Synaptic strength</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synaptic_strength-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Receptor_desensitization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Receptor_desensitization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Receptor desensitization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Receptor_desensitization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Synaptic_plasticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synaptic_plasticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Synaptic plasticity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Synaptic_plasticity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Synaptic plasticity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Synaptic_plasticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Homosynaptic_plasticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Homosynaptic_plasticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Homosynaptic plasticity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Homosynaptic_plasticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heterosynaptic_plasticity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heterosynaptic_plasticity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Heterosynaptic plasticity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heterosynaptic_plasticity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Integration_of_synaptic_inputs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Integration_of_synaptic_inputs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Integration of synaptic inputs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Integration_of_synaptic_inputs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Volume_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volume_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Volume transmission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volume_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_electrical_synapses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_electrical_synapses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Relationship to electrical synapses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_electrical_synapses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_drugs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_drugs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Effects of drugs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_drugs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_and_etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_and_etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>History and etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_and_etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 17 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-17" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">17 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemiese_sinaps" title="Chemiese sinaps – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Chemiese sinaps" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%D8%A8%D9%83_%D9%83%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A" title="مشبك كيميائي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مشبك كيميائي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapsi_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Sinapsi química – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sinapsi química" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapsis_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Sinapsis química – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sinapsis química" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%B3_%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="سیناپس شیمیایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سیناپس شیمیایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinapse_qu%C3%ADmica" title="Sinapse química – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sinapse química" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%94%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81_%EC%8B%9C%EB%83%85%EC%8A%A4" title="화학적 시냅스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="화학적 시냅스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geh%C3%AEnkeya_k%C3%AEmyay%C3%AE" title="Gehînkeya kîmyayî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Gehînkeya kîmyayî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapsis_chemica" title="Synapsis chemica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Synapsis chemica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinaps%C4%83_chimic%C4%83" title="Sinapsă chimică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sinapsă chimică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81" title="Химический синапс – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Химический синапс" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_synapse" title="Chemical synapse – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Chemical synapse" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemi%C4%8Dna_sinapsa" title="Kemična sinapsa – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kemična sinapsa" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%8E%D8%B1%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%DA%B5%DB%8C_%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95" title="تێرمیناڵی تەوەرە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تێرمیناڵی تەوەرە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Хемијска синапса – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Хемијска синапса" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%81" title="Хімічний синапс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хімічний синапс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synap_h%C3%B3a_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Synap hóa học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Synap hóa học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/30px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/40px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Biological junctions through which neurons' signals can be sent</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about chemical synapses of the nervous system. For general information, see <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Synapse_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Synapse (disambiguation)">synapse (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/220px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/330px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg/440px-Chemical_synapse_schema_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="678" /></a><figcaption>Artistic interpretation of the major elements in chemical synaptic transmission. An electrochemical wave called an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> travels along the <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axon</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuron</a>. When the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it provokes the release of a synaptic vesicle, secreting its quanta of <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> molecules. The neurotransmitter binds to chemical receptor molecules located in the membrane of another neuron, the postsynaptic neuron, on the opposite side of the synaptic cleft.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Chemical synapses</b> are biological junctions through which <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>' signals can be sent to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">muscles</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gland" title="Gland">glands</a>. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form <a href="/wiki/Biological_neural_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological neural network">circuits</a> within the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. They are crucial to the <a href="/wiki/Biological_computation" title="Biological computation">biological computations</a> that underlie <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a>. They allow the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous system</a> to connect to and control other systems of the body. </p><p>At a chemical synapse, one neuron releases <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> into a small space (the <a href="#Structure">synaptic cleft</a>) that is adjacent to another neuron. The neurotransmitters are contained within small sacs called <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">synaptic vesicles</a>, and are released into the synaptic cleft by <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a>. These molecules then bind to <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_receptor" title="Neurotransmitter receptor">neurotransmitter receptors</a> on the postsynaptic cell. Finally, the neurotransmitters are cleared from the synapse through one of several <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">potential mechanisms</a> including enzymatic degradation or <a href="/wiki/Reuptake" title="Reuptake">re-uptake</a> by <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter_transporter" title="Neurotransmitter transporter">specific transporters</a> either on the presynaptic cell or on some other <a href="/wiki/Neuroglia" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroglia">neuroglia</a> to terminate the action of the neurotransmitter. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Adult" title="Adult">adult</a> <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> is estimated to contain from 10<sup>14</sup> to 5 × 10<sup>14</sup> (100–500 trillion) synapses.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every cubic millimeter of <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> contains roughly a billion (<a href="/wiki/Long_and_short_scales" title="Long and short scales">short scale</a>, i.e. 10<sup>9</sup>) of them.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of synapses in the human <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a> has separately been estimated at 0.15 quadrillion (150 trillion)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word "synapse" was introduced by Sir <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> in 1897.<sup id="cite_ref-Cowan_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cowan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical synapses are not the only type of biological <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a>: <a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">electrical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunological_synapse" title="Immunological synapse">immunological synapses</a> also exist. Without a qualifier, however, "synapse" commonly refers to chemical synapses. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Synapse_figure.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Synapse_figure.png/400px-Synapse_figure.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Synapse_figure.png/600px-Synapse_figure.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Synapse_figure.png/800px-Synapse_figure.png 2x" data-file-width="1861" data-file-height="1126" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a chemical synaptic connection</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on formation of synapses: <a href="/wiki/Synaptogenesis" title="Synaptogenesis">Synaptogenesis</a></div> <p>Synapses are functional connections between neurons, or between neurons and other types of cells.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses, although there are some types that make far fewer.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most synapses connect <a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">axons</a> to <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lytton_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lytton-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but there are also other types of connections, including axon-to-cell-body,<sup id="cite_ref-Garber_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garber-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weiss_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiss-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> axon-to-axon,<sup id="cite_ref-Garber_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garber-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Weiss_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weiss-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Dendrodendritic_synapse" title="Dendrodendritic synapse">dendrite-to-dendrite</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lytton_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lytton-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Synapses are generally too small to be recognizable using a <a href="/wiki/Light_microscope" class="mw-redirect" title="Light microscope">light microscope</a> except as points where the membranes of two cells appear to touch, but their cellular elements can be visualized clearly using an <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">electron microscope</a>. </p><p>Chemical synapses pass information directionally from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell and are therefore asymmetric in structure and function. The presynaptic <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminal</a>, or synaptic <span class="anchor" id="bouton"></span>bouton, is a specialized area within the axon of the presynaptic cell that contains <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitters</a> enclosed in small membrane-bound spheres called <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">synaptic vesicles</a> (as well as a number of other supporting structures and organelles, such as <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a>). Synaptic vesicles are docked at the presynaptic <a href="/wiki/Plasma_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma membrane">plasma membrane</a> at regions called <a href="/wiki/Active_zone" title="Active zone">active zones</a>. </p><p>Immediately opposite is a region of the postsynaptic cell containing neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Receptor_(biochemistry)" title="Receptor (biochemistry)">receptors</a>; for synapses between two neurons the postsynaptic region may be found on the dendrites or cell body. Immediately behind the postsynaptic membrane is an elaborate complex of interlinked proteins called the <a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">postsynaptic density</a> (PSD). </p><p>Proteins in the PSD are involved in anchoring and trafficking neurotransmitter receptors and modulating the activity of these receptors. The receptors and PSDs are often found in specialized protrusions from the main dendritic shaft called <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">dendritic spines</a>. </p><p>Synapses may be described as symmetric or asymmetric. When examined under an electron microscope, asymmetric synapses are characterized by rounded vesicles in the presynaptic cell, and a prominent postsynaptic density. Asymmetric synapses are typically excitatory. Symmetric synapses in contrast have flattened or elongated vesicles, and do not contain a prominent postsynaptic density. Symmetric synapses are typically inhibitory. </p><p>The <b>synaptic cleft</b>—also called <b>synaptic gap</b>—is a gap between the pre- and postsynaptic cells that is about 20 nm (0.02 μ) wide.<sup id="cite_ref-Widrow_Kim_Park_Perin_2019_pp._1–30_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Widrow_Kim_Park_Perin_2019_pp._1–30-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The small volume of the cleft allows neurotransmitter concentration to be raised and lowered rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelPrin_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelPrin-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">autapse</a> is a chemical (or electrical) synapse formed when the axon of one neuron synapses with its own dendrites. </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signaling_in_chemical_synapses">Signaling in chemical synapses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Signaling in chemical synapses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Overview">Overview</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Here is a summary of the sequence of events that take place in synaptic transmission from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic cell. Each step is explained in more detail below. Note that with the exception of the final step, the entire process may run only a few hundred microseconds, in the fastest synapses.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Synapse.theora.ogv/200px--Synapse.theora.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="200" height="150" data-durationhint="61" data-mwtitle="Synapse.theora.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/52/Synapse.theora.ogv/Synapse.theora.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="200" data-height="150" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Synapse.theora.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="200" data-height="150" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/52/Synapse.theora.ogv/Synapse.theora.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="200" data-height="150" /></video></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ol><li>The process begins with a wave of electrochemical excitation called an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> traveling along the membrane of the presynaptic cell, until it reaches the synapse.</li> <li>The electrical <a href="/wiki/Depolarization" title="Depolarization">depolarization</a> of the membrane at the synapse causes channels to open that are permeable to calcium ions.</li> <li>Calcium ions flow through the presynaptic membrane, rapidly increasing the calcium concentration in the interior.</li> <li>The high calcium concentration activates a set of calcium-sensitive proteins attached to <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">vesicles</a> that contain a <a href="/wiki/Neurotransmitter" title="Neurotransmitter">neurotransmitter</a> chemical.</li> <li>These proteins change shape, causing the membranes of some "docked" vesicles to fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic cell, thereby opening the vesicles and dumping their neurotransmitter contents into the synaptic cleft, the narrow space between the membranes of the pre- and postsynaptic cells.</li> <li>The neurotransmitter diffuses within the cleft. Some of it escapes, but some of it binds to <a href="/wiki/Chemical_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical receptor">chemical receptor</a> molecules located on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell.</li> <li>The binding of neurotransmitter causes the receptor molecule to be <i>activated</i> in some way. Several types of activation are possible, as described in more detail below. In any case, this is the key step by which the synaptic process affects the behavior of the postsynaptic cell.</li> <li>Due to <a href="/wiki/Johnson%E2%80%93Nyquist_noise" title="Johnson–Nyquist noise">thermal vibration</a>, the motion of atoms, vibrating about their equilibrium positions in a crystalline solid, neurotransmitter molecules eventually break loose from the receptors and drift away.</li> <li>The neurotransmitter is either reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell, and then repackaged for future release, or else it is broken down metabolically.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neurotransmitter_release">Neurotransmitter release</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Neurotransmitter release"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png/220px-Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png/330px-Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png/440px-Neuro_Muscular_Junction.png 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="3112" /></a><figcaption>Release of neurotransmitter occurs at the end of axonal branches.</figcaption></figure> <p>The release of a neurotransmitter is triggered by the arrival of a nerve impulse (or <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a>) and occurs through an unusually rapid process of cellular secretion (<a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a>). Within the presynaptic nerve terminal, <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicles</a> containing neurotransmitter are localized near the synaptic membrane. The arriving action potential produces an influx of <a href="/wiki/Second_messenger" class="mw-redirect" title="Second messenger">calcium ions</a> through <a href="/wiki/Voltage-dependent_calcium_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Voltage-dependent calcium channel">voltage-dependent, calcium-selective ion channels</a> at the down stroke of the action potential (tail current).<sup id="cite_ref-Llinás81_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Llinás81-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Calcium ions then bind to <a href="/wiki/Synaptotagmin" title="Synaptotagmin">synaptotagmin</a> proteins found within the membranes of the synaptic vesicles, allowing the vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fusion of a vesicle is a <a href="/wiki/Stochastic" title="Stochastic">stochastic</a> process, leading to frequent failure of synaptic transmission at the very small synapses that are typical for the <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>. Large chemical synapses (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">neuromuscular junction</a>), on the other hand, have a synaptic release probability, in effect, of 1. <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_fusion" title="Vesicle fusion">Vesicle fusion</a> is driven by the action of a set of proteins in the presynaptic terminal known as <a href="/wiki/SNARE_(protein)" class="mw-redirect" title="SNARE (protein)">SNAREs</a>. As a whole, the protein complex or structure that mediates the docking and fusion of presynaptic vesicles is called the active zone.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The membrane added by the fusion process is later retrieved by <a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">endocytosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endocytic_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Endocytic cycle">recycled</a> for the formation of fresh neurotransmitter-filled vesicles. </p><p>An exception to the general trend of neurotransmitter release by vesicular fusion is found in the type II receptor cells of mammalian <a href="/wiki/Taste_bud" title="Taste bud">taste buds</a>. Here the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a> is released directly from the cytoplasm into the synaptic cleft via voltage gated channels.<sup id="cite_ref-RomanovLasher2018_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RomanovLasher2018-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Receptor_binding">Receptor binding</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Receptor binding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Receptors on the opposite side of the synaptic gap bind neurotransmitter molecules. Receptors can respond in either of two general ways. First, the receptors may directly open <a href="/wiki/Ligand-gated_ion_channel" title="Ligand-gated ion channel">ligand-gated ion channels</a> in the postsynaptic cell membrane, causing ions to enter or exit the cell and changing the local <a href="/wiki/Transmembrane_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmembrane potential">transmembrane potential</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resulting change in <a href="/wiki/Voltage" title="Voltage">voltage</a> is called a <a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_potential" title="Postsynaptic potential">postsynaptic potential</a>. In general, the result is <i>excitatory</i> in the case of <a href="/wiki/Depolarization" title="Depolarization">depolarizing</a> currents, and <i>inhibitory</i> in the case of <a href="/wiki/Hyperpolarization_(biology)" title="Hyperpolarization (biology)">hyperpolarizing</a> currents. Whether a synapse is excitatory or inhibitory depends on what type(s) of ion channel conduct the postsynaptic current(s), which in turn is a function of the type of receptors and neurotransmitter employed at the synapse. The second way a receptor can affect membrane potential is by modulating the production of <a href="/wiki/Second_messenger_system" title="Second messenger system">chemical messengers</a> inside the postsynaptic neuron. These second messengers can then amplify the inhibitory or excitatory response to neurotransmitters.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Termination">Termination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Termination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After a neurotransmitter molecule binds to a receptor molecule, it must be removed to allow for the postsynaptic membrane to continue to relay subsequent <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">EPSPs</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/IPSP" class="mw-redirect" title="IPSP">IPSPs</a>. This removal can happen through one or more processes: </p> <ul><li>The neurotransmitter may diffuse away due to thermally-induced oscillations of both it and the receptor, making it available to be broken down metabolically outside the neuron or to be reabsorbed.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherwood_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherwood-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Enzymes within the subsynaptic membrane may inactivate/metabolize the neurotransmitter.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reuptake" title="Reuptake">Reuptake</a> pumps may actively pump the neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic <a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">axon terminal</a> for reprocessing and re-release following a later action potential.<sup id="cite_ref-Sherwood_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sherwood-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Synaptic_strength">Synaptic strength</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Synaptic strength"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The strength of a synapse has been defined by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> as the product of (presynaptic) release probability <i>pr</i>, quantal size <i>q</i> (the postsynaptic response to the release of a single neurotransmitter vesicle, a 'quantum'), and <i>n</i>, the number of release sites. "Unitary connection" usually refers to an unknown number of individual synapses connecting a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron. The amplitude of postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) can be as low as 0.4 mV to as high as 20 mV.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amplitude of a PSP can be modulated by <a href="/wiki/Neuromodulators" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuromodulators">neuromodulators</a> or can change as a result of previous activity. Changes in the synaptic strength can be short-term, lasting seconds to minutes, or long-term (<a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a>, or LTP), lasting hours. Learning and memory are believed to result from long-term changes in synaptic strength, via a mechanism known as <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Receptor_desensitization">Receptor desensitization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Receptor desensitization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Desensitization of the postsynaptic receptors is a decrease in response to the same neurotransmitter stimulus. It means that the strength of a synapse may in effect diminish as a train of action potentials arrive in rapid succession – a phenomenon that gives rise to the so-called frequency dependence of synapses. The nervous system exploits this property for computational purposes, and can tune its synapses through such means as <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a> of the proteins involved. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Synaptic_plasticity">Synaptic plasticity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Synaptic plasticity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">Synaptic plasticity</a></div> <p>Synaptic transmission can be changed by previous activity. These changes are called synaptic plasticity and may result in either a decrease in the efficacy of the synapse, called depression, or an increase in efficacy, called potentiation. These changes can either be long-term or short-term. Forms of <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity#Short-term_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">short-term plasticity</a> include <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_fatigue" title="Synaptic fatigue">synaptic fatigue</a> or depression and <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity#Synaptic_enhancement" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic augmentation</a>. Forms of <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity#Long-term_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">long-term plasticity</a> include <a href="/wiki/Long-term_depression" title="Long-term depression">long-term depression</a> and <a href="/wiki/Long-term_potentiation" title="Long-term potentiation">long-term potentiation</a>. Synaptic plasticity can be either homosynaptic (occurring at a single synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring at multiple synapses). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Homosynaptic_plasticity">Homosynaptic plasticity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Homosynaptic plasticity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Homosynaptic_plasticity" title="Homosynaptic plasticity">Homosynaptic plasticity</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Homosynaptic_plasticity" title="Homosynaptic plasticity">Homosynaptic plasticity</a> (or also homotropic modulation) is a change in the synaptic strength that results from the history of activity at a particular synapse. This can result from changes in presynaptic calcium as well as feedback onto presynaptic receptors, i.e. a form of <a href="/wiki/Autocrine_signaling" title="Autocrine signaling">autocrine signaling</a>. Homosynaptic plasticity can affect the number and replenishment rate of vesicles or it can affect the relationship between calcium and vesicle release. Homosynaptic plasticity can also be postsynaptic in nature. It can result in either an increase or decrease in synaptic strength. </p><p>One example is neurons of the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a> (SNS), which release <a href="/wiki/Noradrenaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Noradrenaline">noradrenaline</a>, which, besides affecting postsynaptic receptors, also affects presynaptic <a href="/wiki/%CE%912-adrenergic_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Α2-adrenergic receptors">α2-adrenergic receptors</a>, inhibiting further release of noradrenaline.<sup id="cite_ref-Rang_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rang-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This effect is utilized with <a href="/wiki/Clonidine" title="Clonidine">clonidine</a> to perform inhibitory effects on the SNS. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heterosynaptic_plasticity">Heterosynaptic plasticity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Heterosynaptic plasticity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Heterosynaptic_plasticity" title="Heterosynaptic plasticity">Heterosynaptic plasticity</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Heterosynaptic_plasticity" title="Heterosynaptic plasticity">Heterosynaptic plasticity</a> (or also heterotropic modulation) is a change in synaptic strength that results from the activity of other neurons. Again, the plasticity can alter the number of vesicles or their replenishment rate or the relationship between calcium and vesicle release. Additionally, it could directly affect calcium influx. Heterosynaptic plasticity can also be postsynaptic in nature, affecting receptor sensitivity. </p><p>One example is again neurons of the <a href="/wiki/Sympathetic_nervous_system" title="Sympathetic nervous system">sympathetic nervous system</a>, which release <a href="/wiki/Noradrenaline" class="mw-redirect" title="Noradrenaline">noradrenaline</a>, which, in addition, generates an inhibitory effect on presynaptic terminals of neurons of the <a href="/wiki/Parasympathetic_nervous_system" title="Parasympathetic nervous system">parasympathetic nervous system</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Rang_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rang-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Integration_of_synaptic_inputs">Integration of synaptic inputs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Integration of synaptic inputs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Summation_(neurophysiology)" title="Summation (neurophysiology)">Summation (neurophysiology)</a></div> <p>In general, if an <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_synapse" title="Excitatory synapse">excitatory synapse</a> is strong enough, an <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">action potential</a> in the presynaptic neuron will trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic cell. In many cases the <a href="/wiki/Excitatory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Excitatory postsynaptic potential">excitatory postsynaptic potential</a> (EPSP) will not reach the <a href="/wiki/Action_potential" title="Action potential">threshold</a> for eliciting an action potential. When action potentials from multiple presynaptic neurons fire simultaneously, or if a single presynaptic neuron fires at a high enough frequency, the EPSPs can overlap and summate. If enough EPSPs overlap, the summated EPSP can reach the threshold for initiating an action potential. This process is known as summation, and can serve as a high pass filter for neurons.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, a presynaptic neuron releasing an inhibitory neurotransmitter, such as <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a>, can cause an <a href="/wiki/Inhibitory_postsynaptic_potential" title="Inhibitory postsynaptic potential">inhibitory postsynaptic potential</a> (IPSP) in the postsynaptic neuron, bringing the <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">membrane potential</a> farther away from the threshold, decreasing its excitability and making it more difficult for the neuron to initiate an action potential. If an IPSP overlaps with an EPSP, the IPSP can in many cases prevent the neuron from firing an action potential. In this way, the output of a neuron may depend on the input of many different neurons, each of which may have a different degree of influence, depending on the strength and type of synapse with that neuron. <a href="/wiki/John_Carew_Eccles" class="mw-redirect" title="John Carew Eccles">John Carew Eccles</a> performed some of the important early experiments on synaptic integration, for which he received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_for_Physiology_or_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1963. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Volume_transmission">Volume transmission</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Volume transmission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a neurotransmitter is released at a synapse, it reaches its highest concentration inside the narrow space of the synaptic cleft, but some of it is certain to diffuse away before being reabsorbed or broken down. If it diffuses away, it has the potential to activate receptors that are located either at other synapses or on the membrane away from any synapse. The extrasynaptic activity of a neurotransmitter is known as <i>volume transmission</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is well established that such effects occur to some degree, but their functional importance has long been a matter of controversy.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent work indicates that volume transmission may be the predominant mode of interaction for some special types of neurons. In the mammalian cerebral cortex, a class of neurons called <a href="/wiki/Neurogliaform_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurogliaform cells">neurogliaform cells</a> can inhibit other nearby cortical neurons by releasing the neurotransmitter GABA into the extracellular space.<sup id="cite_ref-Olah2009_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olah2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Along the same vein, GABA released from neurogliaform cells into the extracellular space also acts on surrounding <a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">astrocytes</a>, assigning a role for volume transmission in the control of ionic and neurotransmitter homeostasis.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 78% of neurogliaform cell boutons do not form classical synapses. This may be the first definitive example of neurons communicating chemically where classical synapses are not present.<sup id="cite_ref-Olah2009_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olah2009-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_electrical_synapses">Relationship to electrical synapses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Relationship to electrical synapses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">electrical synapse</a> is an electrically <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductor" title="Electrical conductor">conductive</a> link between two abutting <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> that is formed at a narrow gap between the pre- and postsynaptic <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, known as a <a href="/wiki/Gap_junction" title="Gap junction">gap junction</a>. At gap junctions, cells approach within about 3.5 <a href="/wiki/Nanometre" title="Nanometre">nm</a> of each other, rather than the 20 to 40 nm distance that separates cells at chemical synapses.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As opposed to chemical synapses, the postsynaptic potential in electrical synapses is not caused by the opening of ion channels by chemical transmitters, but rather by direct electrical coupling between both neurons. Electrical synapses are faster than chemical synapses.<sup id="cite_ref-KandelPrin_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KandelPrin-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electrical synapses are found throughout the nervous system, including in the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Reticular_nucleus_of_the_thalamus" class="mw-redirect" title="Reticular nucleus of the thalamus">reticular nucleus of the thalamus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While chemical synapses are found between both excitatory and inhibitory neurons, electrical synapses are most commonly found between smaller local inhibitory neurons. Electrical synapses can exist between two axons, two dendrites, or between an axon and a dendrite.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>, electrical synapses can be found within the same terminal of a chemical synapse, as in <a href="/wiki/Mauthner_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Mauthner cells">Mauthner cells</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_drugs">Effects of drugs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Effects of drugs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neuropharmacology" title="Neuropharmacology">Neuropharmacology</a></div> <p>One of the most important features of chemical synapses is that they are the site of action for the majority of <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoactive drugs">psychoactive drugs</a>. Synapses are affected by drugs, such as curare, strychnine, cocaine, morphine, alcohol, LSD, and countless others. These drugs have different effects on synaptic function, and often are restricted to synapses that use a specific neurotransmitter. For example, <a href="/wiki/Curare" title="Curare">curare</a> is a poison that stops <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholine" title="Acetylcholine">acetylcholine</a> from depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane, causing <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">Strychnine</a> blocks the inhibitory effects of the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Glycine" title="Glycine">glycine</a>, which causes the body to pick up and react to weaker and previously ignored stimuli, resulting in uncontrollable <a href="/wiki/Muscle_spasms" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscle spasms">muscle spasms</a>. <a href="/wiki/Morphine" title="Morphine">Morphine</a> acts on synapses that use <a href="/wiki/Endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endorphin">endorphin</a> neurotransmitters, and <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> increases the inhibitory effects of the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/GABA" title="GABA">GABA</a>. <a href="/wiki/LSD" title="LSD">LSD</a> interferes with synapses that use the neurotransmitter <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">Cocaine</a> blocks reuptake of <a href="/wiki/Dopamine" title="Dopamine">dopamine</a> and therefore increases its effects. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_and_etymology">History and etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History and etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1950s, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Katz" title="Bernard Katz">Bernard Katz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Fatt" title="Paul Fatt">Paul Fatt</a> observed spontaneous miniature synaptic currents at the frog <a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">neuromuscular junction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on these observations, they developed the 'quantal hypothesis' that is the basis for our current understanding of neurotransmitter release as <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a> and for which Katz received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1960s, <a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Miledi" title="Ricardo Miledi">Ricardo Miledi</a> and Katz advanced the hypothesis that depolarization-induced influx of calcium ions triggers <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Sir Charles Scott Sherringtonin</a> coined the word 'synapse' and the history of the word was given by Sherrington in a letter he wrote to John Fulton: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>'I felt the need of some name to call the junction between nerve-cell and nerve-cell... I suggested using "syndesm"... He [ <a href="/wiki/Michael_Foster_(physiologist)" title="Michael Foster (physiologist)">Sir Michael Foster</a> ] consulted his Trinity friend <a href="/wiki/A._W._Verrall" title="A. W. Verrall">Verrall</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Euripides" title="Euripides">Euripidean</a> scholar, about it, and Verrall suggested "synapse" (from the Greek "clasp").'–Charles Scott Sherrington<sup id="cite_ref-Cowan_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cowan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acclimatisation_(neurons)" title="Acclimatisation (neurons)">Acclimatisation (neurons)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurexin" title="Neurexin">Neurexin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_synapse" title="Ribbon synapse">Ribbon synapse</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDrachman_D2005" class="citation journal cs1">Drachman D (2005). "Do we have brain to spare?". <i>Neurology</i>. <b>64</b> (12): 2004–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1212%2F01.WNL.0000166914.38327.BB">10.1212/01.WNL.0000166914.38327.BB</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15985565">15985565</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38482114">38482114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurology&rft.atitle=Do+we+have+brain+to+spare%3F&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2004-5&rft.date=2005&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38482114%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15985565&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1212%2F01.WNL.0000166914.38327.BB&rft.au=Drachman+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlonso-NanclaresGonzalez-SorianoRodriguezDeFelipe2008" class="citation journal cs1">Alonso-Nanclares L, Gonzalez-Soriano J, Rodriguez JR, DeFelipe J (September 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2567215">"Gender differences in human cortical synaptic density"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</i>. <b>105</b> (38): 14615–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..10514615A">2008PNAS..10514615A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0803652105">10.1073/pnas.0803652105</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2567215">2567215</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18779570">18779570</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Gender+differences+in+human+cortical+synaptic+density&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=38&rft.pages=14615-9&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2567215%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18779570&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0803652105&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..10514615A&rft.aulast=Alonso-Nanclares&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Gonzalez-Soriano%2C+J&rft.au=Rodriguez%2C+JR&rft.au=DeFelipe%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2567215&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/facts.html">Brain Facts and Figures</a> Washington University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cowan-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cowan_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cowan_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowanSüdhofStevens2003" class="citation book cs1">Cowan, W. Maxwell; Südhof, Thomas C.; Stevens, Charles F. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FO5efrKGVQoC&q=Sherrington"><i>Synapses</i></a>. JHU Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801871184" title="Special:BookSources/9780801871184"><bdi>9780801871184</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Synapses&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780801871184&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=W.+Maxwell&rft.au=S%C3%BCdhof%2C+Thomas+C.&rft.au=Stevens%2C+Charles+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFO5efrKGVQoC%26q%3DSherrington&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRapport2005" class="citation book cs1">Rapport, Richard L. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fWBBIUhoLzMC&q=Synapse"><i>Nerve Endings: The Discovery of the Synapse</i></a>. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 1–37. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06019-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06019-5"><bdi>978-0-393-06019-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nerve+Endings%3A+The+Discovery+of+the+Synapse&rft.pages=1-37&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-393-06019-5&rft.aulast=Rapport&rft.aufirst=Richard+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfWBBIUhoLzMC%26q%3DSynapse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSquireFloyd_BloomNicholas_Spitzer2008" class="citation book cs1">Squire, Larry R.; Floyd Bloom; Nicholas Spitzer (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GOxrtYzmixcC"><i>Fundamental Neuroscience</i></a>. Academic Press. pp. 425–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374019-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-374019-9"><bdi>978-0-12-374019-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamental+Neuroscience&rft.pages=425-6&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-12-374019-9&rft.aulast=Squire&rft.aufirst=Larry+R.&rft.au=Floyd+Bloom&rft.au=Nicholas+Spitzer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGOxrtYzmixcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymanEric_Jonathan_Nestler1993" class="citation book cs1">Hyman, Steven E.; Eric Jonathan Nestler (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pI4ayEWvcQkC&q=neuron+gives+rise+to+several+thousand+synapses&pg=PA24"><i>The Molecular Foundations of Psychiatry</i></a>. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 425–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88048-353-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88048-353-7"><bdi>978-0-88048-353-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Molecular+Foundations+of+Psychiatry&rft.pages=425-6&rft.pub=American+Psychiatric+Pub&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-88048-353-7&rft.aulast=Hyman&rft.aufirst=Steven+E.&rft.au=Eric+Jonathan+Nestler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpI4ayEWvcQkC%26q%3Dneuron%2Bgives%2Brise%2Bto%2Bseveral%2Bthousand%2Bsynapses%26pg%3DPA24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmilkstein2003" class="citation book cs1">Smilkstein, Rita (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6ZHELyI9XEIC&q=synapses+connect+axons+to+dendrites&pg=PA56"><i>We're Born to Learn: Using the Brain's Natural Learning Process to Create Today's Curriculum</i></a>. Corwin Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-4642-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-4642-7"><bdi>978-0-7619-4642-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=We%27re+Born+to+Learn%3A+Using+the+Brain%27s+Natural+Learning+Process+to+Create+Today%27s+Curriculum&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Corwin+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-4642-7&rft.aulast=Smilkstein&rft.aufirst=Rita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6ZHELyI9XEIC%26q%3Dsynapses%2Bconnect%2Baxons%2Bto%2Bdendrites%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lytton-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lytton_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lytton_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLytton2002" class="citation book cs1">Lytton, William W. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfL4uxiWZ9YC&q=synapses+connect+dendrites+to+dendrites&pg=PA28"><i>From Computer to Brain: Foundations of Computational Neuroscience</i></a>. Springer. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95526-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-95526-1"><bdi>978-0-387-95526-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Computer+to+Brain%3A+Foundations+of+Computational+Neuroscience&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-387-95526-1&rft.aulast=Lytton&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvfL4uxiWZ9YC%26q%3Dsynapses%2Bconnect%2Bdendrites%2Bto%2Bdendrites%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span> Axons connecting dendrite to dendrite are dendrodendritic synapses. Axons which connect axon to dendrite are called axodendritic synapses</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garber-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Garber_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garber_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarber2002" class="citation book cs1">Garber, Steven D. (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyselfteach00garb"><i>Biology: A Self-Teaching Guide</i></a></span>. John Wiley and Sons. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biologyselfteach00garb/page/175">175</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-22330-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-22330-6"><bdi>978-0-471-22330-6</bdi></a>. <q>synapses connect axons to cell body.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology%3A+A+Self-Teaching+Guide&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-471-22330-6&rft.aulast=Garber&rft.aufirst=Steven+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbiologyselfteach00garb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weiss-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weiss_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weiss_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeissDr_Steven_M._MirinDr_Roxanne_Bartel1994" class="citation book cs1">Weiss, Mirin; Dr Steven M. Mirin; Dr Roxanne Bartel (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=efqxJ5jhOaEC&q=synapses+connect+axons+to+cell+body&pg=PA52"><i>Cocaine</i></a>. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58562-138-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58562-138-5"><bdi>978-1-58562-138-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-12-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cocaine&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=American+Psychiatric+Pub&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-58562-138-5&rft.aulast=Weiss&rft.aufirst=Mirin&rft.au=Dr+Steven+M.+Mirin&rft.au=Dr+Roxanne+Bartel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DefqxJ5jhOaEC%26q%3Dsynapses%2Bconnect%2Baxons%2Bto%2Bcell%2Bbody%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span> Axons terminating on the postsynaptic cell body are axosomatic synapses. Axons that terminate on axons are axoaxonic synapses</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Widrow_Kim_Park_Perin_2019_pp._1–30-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Widrow_Kim_Park_Perin_2019_pp._1–30_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWidrowKimParkPerin2019" class="citation book cs1">Widrow, Bernard; Kim, Youngsik; Park, Dookun; Perin, Jose Krause (2019). "Nature's Learning Rule". <i>Artificial Intelligence in the Age of Neural Networks and Brain Computing</i>. Elsevier. pp. 1–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-815480-9.00001-3">10.1016/b978-0-12-815480-9.00001-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-815480-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-815480-9"><bdi>978-0-12-815480-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125516633">125516633</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nature%27s+Learning+Rule&rft.btitle=Artificial+Intelligence+in+the+Age+of+Neural+Networks+and+Brain+Computing&rft.pages=1-30&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A125516633%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fb978-0-12-815480-9.00001-3&rft.isbn=978-0-12-815480-9&rft.aulast=Widrow&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft.au=Kim%2C+Youngsik&rft.au=Park%2C+Dookun&rft.au=Perin%2C+Jose+Krause&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KandelPrin-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KandelPrin_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-KandelPrin_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessell2000">Kandel, Schwartz & Jessell 2000</a>, p. 182</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBear,_Mark_FConnors,_Barry_WParadiso,_Michael_A2007" class="citation book cs1">Bear, Mark F; Connors, Barry W; Paradiso, Michael A (2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00bear_099"><i>Neuroscience: exploring the brain</i></a></span>. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/neuroscienceexpl00bear_099/page/n146">113</a>–118.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+exploring+the+brain&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=113-118&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Bear%2C+Mark+F&rft.au=Connors%2C+Barry+W&rft.au=Paradiso%2C+Michael+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fneuroscienceexpl00bear_099&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Llinás81-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Llinás81_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlinásSteinbergWalton1981" class="citation journal cs1">Llinás R, Steinberg IZ, Walton K (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1327434">"Relationship between presynaptic calcium current and postsynaptic potential in squid giant synapse"</a>. <i>Biophysical Journal</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 323–351. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981BpJ....33..323L">1981BpJ....33..323L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2881%2984899-0">10.1016/S0006-3495(81)84899-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1327434">1327434</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6261850">6261850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Relationship+between+presynaptic+calcium+current+and+postsynaptic+potential+in+squid+giant+synapse&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=323-351&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1327434%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6261850&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2881%2984899-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981BpJ....33..323L&rft.aulast=Llin%C3%A1s&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+IZ&rft.au=Walton%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1327434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChapman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Chapman, Edwin R. 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Garner and Kang Shen. Structure and Function of Vertebrate and Invertebrate Active Zones. Structure and Functional Organization of the Synapse. Ed: Johannes Hell and Michael Ehlers. Springer, 2008.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RomanovLasher2018-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RomanovLasher2018_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomanovLasherHighSavidge2018" class="citation journal cs1">Romanov, Roman A.; Lasher, Robert S.; High, Brigit; Savidge, Logan E.; Lawson, Adam; Rogachevskaja, Olga A.; Zhao, Haitian; Rogachevsky, Vadim V.; Bystrova, Marina F.; Churbanov, Gleb D.; Adameyko, Igor; Harkany, Tibor; Yang, Ruibiao; Kidd, Grahame J.; Marambaud, Philippe; Kinnamon, John C.; Kolesnikov, Stanislav S.; Finger, Thomas E. 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Kasai, Haruo (2007-02-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2151334">"Bernard Katz, quantal transmitter release and the foundations of presynaptic physiology"</a>. <i>The Journal of Physiology</i>. <b>578</b> (Pt 3): 623–625. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1113%2Fjphysiol.2006.123224">10.1113/jphysiol.2006.123224</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2151334">2151334</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17068096">17068096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Physiology&rft.atitle=Bernard+Katz%2C+quantal+transmitter+release+and+the+foundations+of+presynaptic+physiology&rft.volume=578&rft.issue=Pt+3&rft.pages=623-625&rft.date=2007-02-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2151334%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17068096&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1113%2Fjphysiol.2006.123224&rft.aulast=Augustine&rft.aufirst=George+J.&rft.au=Kasai%2C+Haruo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2151334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1819734">"Nobel prize"</a>. <i>British Medical Journal</i>. <b>4</b> (5729): 190. 1970-10-24. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.4.5729.190">10.1136/bmj.4.5729.190</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1819734">1819734</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4320287">4320287</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Nobel+prize.&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=5729&rft.pages=190&rft.date=1970-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1819734%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4320287&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.4.5729.190&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1819734&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neil_R._Carlson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neil R. Carlson (page does not exist)">Carlson, Neil R.</a> (2007). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Physiology_of_Behavior&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Physiology of Behavior (page does not exist)"><i>Physiology of Behavior</i></a> (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-59389-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-59389-7"><bdi>978-0-205-59389-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physiology+of+Behavior&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-205-59389-7&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Neil+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKandelSchwartzJessell2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eric_R._Kandel" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric R. Kandel">Kandel, Eric R.</a>; Schwartz, James H.; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000). <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Neural_Science" title="Principles of Neural Science"><i>Principles of Neural Science</i></a> (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8385-7701-1"><bdi>978-0-8385-7701-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Neural+Science&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-8385-7701-1&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=Eric+R.&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+James+H.&rft.au=Jessell%2C+Thomas+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlinásSugimoriSimon1982" class="citation journal cs1">Llinás R, Sugimori M, Simon SM (April 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC346205">"Transmission by presynaptic spike-like depolarization in the squid giant synapse"</a>. <i>Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A</i>. <b>79</b> (7): 2415–9. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982PNAS...79.2415L">1982PNAS...79.2415L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.79.7.2415">10.1073/pnas.79.7.2415</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC346205">346205</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6954549">6954549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Transmission+by+presynaptic+spike-like+depolarization+in+the+squid+giant+synapse&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=2415-9&rft.date=1982-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC346205%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6954549&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.79.7.2415&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982PNAS...79.2415L&rft.aulast=Llin%C3%A1s&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Sugimori%2C+M&rft.au=Simon%2C+SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC346205&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLlinásSteinbergWalton1981" class="citation journal cs1">Llinás R, Steinberg IZ, Walton K (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1327434">"Relationship between presynaptic calcium current and postsynaptic potential in squid giant synapse"</a>. <i>Biophysical Journal</i>. <b>33</b> (3): 323–352. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981BpJ....33..323L">1981BpJ....33..323L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2881%2984899-0">10.1016/S0006-3495(81)84899-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1327434">1327434</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6261850">6261850</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Relationship+between+presynaptic+calcium+current+and+postsynaptic+potential+in+squid+giant+synapse&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=323-352&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1327434%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6261850&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0006-3495%2881%2984899-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981BpJ....33..323L&rft.aulast=Llin%C3%A1s&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Steinberg%2C+IZ&rft.au=Walton%2C+K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1327434&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBearConnorsParadiso2001" class="citation book cs1">Bear, Mark F.; Connors, Barry W.; Paradiso, Michael A. (2001). <i>Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain</i>. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-3944-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-3944-3"><bdi>978-0-7817-3944-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain&rft.place=Hagerstown%2C+MD&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-3944-3&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=Mark+F.&rft.au=Connors%2C+Barry+W.&rft.au=Paradiso%2C+Michael+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHormuzdiFilippovMitropoulouMonyer2004" class="citation journal cs1">Hormuzdi, SG; Filippov, MA; Mitropoulou, G; Monyer, H; Bruzzone, R (March 2004). "Electrical synapses: a dynamic signaling system that shapes the activity of neuronal networks". <i>Biochim Biophys Acta</i>. <b>1662</b> (1–2): 113–137. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bbamem.2003.10.023">10.1016/j.bbamem.2003.10.023</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15033583">15033583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochim+Biophys+Acta&rft.atitle=Electrical+synapses%3A+a+dynamic+signaling+system+that+shapes+the+activity+of+neuronal+networks&rft.volume=1662&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=113-137&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bbamem.2003.10.023&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15033583&rft.aulast=Hormuzdi&rft.aufirst=SG&rft.au=Filippov%2C+MA&rft.au=Mitropoulou%2C+G&rft.au=Monyer%2C+H&rft.au=Bruzzone%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarp2005" class="citation book cs1">Karp, Gerald (2005). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cellmolecularbio04edkarp"><i>Cell and Molecular Biology: concepts and experiments</i></a></span> (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-46580-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-46580-5"><bdi>978-0-471-46580-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cell+and+Molecular+Biology%3A+concepts+and+experiments&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-471-46580-5&rft.aulast=Karp&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcellmolecularbio04edkarp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichollsMartinWallaceFuchs2001" class="citation book cs1">Nicholls, J.G.; Martin, A.R.; Wallace, B.G.; Fuchs, P.A. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromneurontobrai00arob"><i>From Neuron to Brain</i></a> (4th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-439-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-439-3"><bdi>978-0-87893-439-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Neuron+to+Brain&rft.place=Sunderland%2C+MA&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Sinauer+Associates&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-87893-439-3&rft.aulast=Nicholls&rft.aufirst=J.G.&rft.au=Martin%2C+A.R.&rft.au=Wallace%2C+B.G.&rft.au=Fuchs%2C+P.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromneurontobrai00arob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChemical+synapse" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint 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articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/synapse.html">Synapse Review for Kids</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ccdb.ucsd.edu/sand/main?stype=lite&keyword=synapse&Submit=Go&event=display&start=1">Synapse – Cell Centered Database</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://synapseweb.clm.utexas.edu/atlas/">Atlas of Ultrastructure Neurocytology</a> An electron microscope picture gallery assembled by Kristen Harris' lab of synapses and other neuronal structures.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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style="width:1%">Tissue Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">Grey matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">White matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Projection_fiber" title="Projection fiber">Projection fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_fiber" title="Association fiber">Association fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commissural_fiber" title="Commissural fiber">Commissural fiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemniscus_(anatomy)" title="Lemniscus (anatomy)">Lemniscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_tract" title="Nerve tract">Nerve tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decussation" title="Decussation">Decussation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropil" title="Neuropil">Neuropil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">Meninges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cell Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neuronal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyramidal_cell" title="Pyramidal cell">Pyramidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purkinje_cell" title="Purkinje cell">Purkinje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_cell" title="Granule cell">Granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Von_Economo_neuron" title="Von Economo neuron">Von Economo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_spiny_neuron" title="Medium spiny neuron">Medium spiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Glial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrocyte" title="Astrocyte">Astrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ependyma" title="Ependyma">Ependymal cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tanycyte" title="Tanycyte">Tanycyte</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte_progenitor_cell" title="Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell">Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligodendrocyte" title="Oligodendrocyte">Oligodendrocyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microglia" title="Microglia">Microglia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system" title="Peripheral nervous system">PNS</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Dorsal</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion" title="Dorsal root ganglion">Ganglion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorsal_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Dorsal ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Ventral</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_root_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral root of spinal nerve">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventral_ramus_of_spinal_nerve" title="Ventral ramus of spinal nerve">Ramus</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ramus_communicans" title="Ramus communicans">Ramus communicans</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gray_ramus_communicans" title="Gray ramus communicans">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_ramus_communicans" title="White ramus communicans">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomic_ganglion" title="Autonomic ganglion">Autonomic ganglion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Preganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Preganglionic nerve fibers">Preganglionic nerve fibers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postganglionic_nerve_fibers" title="Postganglionic nerve fibers">Postganglionic nerve fibers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fascicle" title="Nerve fascicle">Nerve fascicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funiculus_(neuroanatomy)" title="Funiculus (neuroanatomy)">Funiculus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">Connective tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epineurium" title="Epineurium">Epineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perineurium" title="Perineurium">Perineurium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoneurium" title="Endoneurium">Endoneurium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glia" title="Glia">Neuroglia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelination</a>: <a href="/wiki/Schwann_cell" title="Schwann cell">Schwann cell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurilemma" title="Neurilemma">Neurilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelin_incisure" title="Myelin incisure">Myelin incisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Node of Ranvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internodal_segment" title="Internodal segment">Internodal segment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_glial_cell" title="Satellite glial cell">Satellite glial cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">Neurons</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Nerve_fiber" class="mw-redirect" title="Nerve fiber">nerve fibers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Parts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Soma_(biology)" title="Soma (biology)">Soma</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axon_hillock" title="Axon hillock">Axon hillock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Axon" title="Axon">Axon</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telodendron" class="mw-redirect" title="Telodendron">Telodendron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon_terminal" title="Axon terminal">Axon terminals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axoplasm" title="Axoplasm">Axoplasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axolemma" title="Axolemma">Axolemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurofilament" title="Neurofilament">Neurofibril/neurofilament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">Dendrite</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nissl_body" title="Nissl body">Nissl body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendritic_spine" title="Dendritic spine">Dendritic spine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dendrite" title="Apical dendrite">Apical dendrite</a>/<a href="/wiki/Basal_dendrite" title="Basal dendrite">Basal dendrite</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_neuron" title="Bipolar neuron">Bipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unipolar_neuron" title="Unipolar neuron">Unipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudounipolar_neuron" title="Pseudounipolar neuron">Pseudounipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multipolar_neuron" title="Multipolar neuron">Multipolar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interneuron" title="Interneuron">Interneuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renshaw_cell" title="Renshaw cell">Renshaw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afferent_nerve_fiber" title="Afferent nerve fiber">Afferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Sensory_neuron" title="Sensory neuron">Sensory neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic afferent fibers">GSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_afferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral afferent fibers">GVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_somatic_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special somatic afferent">SSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_afferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral afferent">SVA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axon#types" title="Axon">fibers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_Ia_sensory_fiber" title="Type Ia sensory fiber">Ia or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ" title="Golgi tendon organ">Ib or Golgi or Aα</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_II_sensory_fiber" title="Type II sensory fiber">II or Aβ and Aγ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_A_nerve_fiber" title="Group A nerve fiber">III or Aδ or fast pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_C_nerve_fiber" title="Group C nerve fiber">IV or C or slow pain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Efferent_nerve_fiber" title="Efferent nerve fiber">Efferent nerve fiber</a>/<br /><a href="/wiki/Motor_neuron" title="Motor neuron">Motor neuron</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_somatic_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General somatic efferent fibers">GSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_visceral_efferent_fibers" class="mw-redirect" title="General visceral efferent fibers">GVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_visceral_efferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Special visceral efferent">SVE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_motor_neuron" title="Upper motor neuron">Upper motor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_motor_neuron" title="Lower motor neuron">Lower motor neuron</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_motor_neuron" title="Alpha motor neuron">α motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_motor_neuron" title="Beta motor neuron">β motorneuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_motor_neuron" title="Gamma motor neuron">γ motorneuron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Termination</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">Synapse</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_synapse" title="Electrical synapse">Electrical synapse</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gap_junction" title="Gap junction">Gap junction</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Chemical synapse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synaptic_vesicle" title="Synaptic vesicle">Synaptic vesicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_zone" title="Active zone">Active zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">Postsynaptic density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autapse" title="Autapse">Autapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribbon_synapse" title="Ribbon synapse">Ribbon synapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuromuscular_junction" title="Neuromuscular junction">Neuromuscular junction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sensory_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory receptor">Sensory receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle" title="Tactile corpuscle">Meissner's corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending" title="Merkel nerve ending">Merkel nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacinian_corpuscle" title="Pacinian corpuscle">Pacinian corpuscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle" title="Bulbous corpuscle">Ruffini ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_spindle" title="Muscle spindle">Muscle spindle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_nerve_ending" title="Free nerve ending">Free nerve ending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">Nociceptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olfactory_receptor_neuron" title="Olfactory receptor neuron">Olfactory receptor neuron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoreceptor_cell" title="Photoreceptor cell">Photoreceptor cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair_cell" title="Hair cell">Hair cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste_receptor" title="Taste receptor">Taste receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&oldid=1228826730">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chemical_synapse&oldid=1228826730</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" 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