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href="#Control_and_monitoring_of_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Control and monitoring of contamination</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Control_and_monitoring_of_contamination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Control and monitoring of contamination subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Control_and_monitoring_of_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Contamination_monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contamination_monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Contamination monitoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contamination_monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surface_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Surface contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exit_monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exit_monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Exit monitoring</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exit_monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Airborne_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Airborne_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Airborne contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Airborne_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_human_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_human_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Internal human contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_human_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decontamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decontamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Decontamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decontamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contamination_hazards" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contamination_hazards"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Contamination hazards</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contamination_hazards-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contamination hazards subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contamination_hazards-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Low-level_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-level_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Low-level contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-level_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High-level_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High-level_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>High-level contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-High-level_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_effects_of_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_effects_of_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Health effects of contamination</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Health_effects_of_contamination-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Health effects of contamination subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Health_effects_of_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biological_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Biological effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-External_irradiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_irradiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>External irradiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_irradiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_irradiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_irradiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Internal irradiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_irradiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_psychological_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_psychological_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Social and psychological effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_and_psychological_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Radioactive contamination</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">37 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB_%D8%A5%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تلوث إشعاعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تلوث إشعاعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktiv_%C3%A7irkl%C9%99nm%C9%99" title="Radioaktiv çirklənmə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Radioaktiv çirklənmə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="रेडियोएक्टिव प्रदूषण – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="रेडियोएक्टिव प्रदूषण" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%81%D1%8F%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Радиоактивно замърсяване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Радиоактивно замърсяване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminaci%C3%B3_radioactiva" title="Contaminació radioactiva – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Contaminació radioactiva" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktivn%C3%AD_kontaminace" title="Radioaktivní kontaminace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Radioaktivní kontaminace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kontamination_(Radioaktivit%C3%A4t)" title="Kontamination (Radioaktivität) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kontamination (Radioaktivität)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktiivne_reostus" title="Radioaktiivne reostus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Radioaktiivne reostus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminaci%C3%B3n_radiactiva" title="Contaminación radiactiva – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Contaminación radiactiva" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erradiazio-kutsadura" title="Erradiazio-kutsadura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erradiazio-kutsadura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C" title="آلایش هسته‌ای – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آلایش هسته‌ای" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamination_radioactive" title="Contamination radioactive – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Contamination radioactive" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%A9%EC%82%AC%EB%8A%A5_%EC%98%A4%EC%97%BC" title="방사능 오염 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="방사능 오염" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3" title="रेडियोधर्मी प्रदूषण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रेडियोधर्मी प्रदूषण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencemaran_radioaktif" title="Pencemaran radioaktif – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pencemaran radioaktif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminazione_radioattiva" title="Contaminazione radioattiva – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Contaminazione radioattiva" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ആണവമലിനീകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആണവമലിനീകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pencemaran_radioaktif" title="Pencemaran radioaktif – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pencemaran radioaktif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B2%D1%8D%D1%85%D1%82_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Цацраг идвэхт бохирдол – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цацраг идвэхт бохирдол" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%94%BE%E5%B0%84%E8%83%BD%E6%B1%9A%E6%9F%93" title="放射能汚染 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="放射能汚染" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%81_%DA%A9%DA%A9%DA%93%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A7_(%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%8A_%D9%88%DA%93%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AB%DB%90)" title="راديواکتيف ککړتيا (هستوي وړانګې) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="راديواکتيف ککړتيا (هستوي وړانګې)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ska%C5%BCenie_promieniotw%C3%B3rcze" title="Skażenie promieniotwórcze – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Skażenie promieniotwórcze" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contamina%C3%A7%C3%A3o_radioativa" title="Contaminação radioativa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Contaminação radioativa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contaminare_radioactiv%C4%83" title="Contaminare radioactivă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Contaminare radioactivă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Радиоактивное загрязнение – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Радиоактивное загрязнение" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="विकिरणीयप्रदूषणम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विकिरणीयप्रदूषणम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndotja_radioaktive" title="Ndotja radioaktive – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ndotja radioaktive" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Radioactive contamination" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1dioakt%C3%ADvne_zamorenie" title="Rádioaktívne zamorenie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rádioaktívne zamorenie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radioaktivno_onesna%C5%BEenje" title="Radioaktivno onesnaženje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Radioaktivno onesnaženje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%92%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Нуклеарно загађење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Нуклеарно загађење" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/300px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/450px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg/600px-Hanford_N_Reactor_adjusted.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2812" data-file-height="2092" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hanford_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanford site">Hanford site</a> represents two-thirds of the United States' <a href="/wiki/High-level_radioactive_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="High-level radioactive waste">high-level radioactive waste</a> by volume. <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a> line the riverbank at the Hanford Site along the <a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia River</a> in January 1960.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/300px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/450px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg/600px-Fukushima_I_by_Digital_Globe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="916" /></a><figcaption>As of 2013, the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a> site remains <a href="/wiki/Radiation_effects_from_Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation effects from Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">highly radioactive</a>, with some 160,000 evacuees still living in temporary housing, and some land will be unfarmable for centuries. The <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_disaster_cleanup" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima disaster cleanup">difficult cleanup job</a> will take 40 or more years, and cost tens of billions of dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0; background:#fadcc5; color:#fadcc5"><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/220px-Air_pollution3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/330px-Air_pollution3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Air_pollution3.jpg/440px-Air_pollution3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2250" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption">Air pollution from a factory</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">Acid rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Air quality index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling" title="Atmospheric dispersion modeling">Atmospheric dispersion modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">Chlorofluorocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">Combustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_gas" title="Exhaust gas">Exhaust gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">Haze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_dimming" title="Global dimming">Global dimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_distillation" title="Global distillation">Global distillation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">Persistent organic pollutant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smog" title="Smog">Smog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soot" title="Soot">Soot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">Illegal logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Digital</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Information_pollution" title="Information pollution">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_light_pollution" title="Ecological light pollution">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overillumination" class="mw-redirect" title="Overillumination">Overillumination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_spectrum_pollution" title="Radio spectrum pollution">Radio spectrum</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_from_noise" title="Health effects from noise">Health effects from noise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundproofing" title="Soundproofing">Soundproofing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiation</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depleted_uranium" title="Depleted uranium">Depleted uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_mining" title="Illegal mining">Illegal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Solid waste</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Space</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Space debris</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Advertising clutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">Nuclear famine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">Nuclear winter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosolids" title="Biosolids">Biosolids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_salinization" title="Freshwater salinization">Freshwater salinization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sludge" title="Sludge">Sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_environmental_pollution" title="History of environmental pollution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#fadcc5;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Misc</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lists</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM2.5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/16px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/24px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pollution_sidebar" title="Template talk:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pollution sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Radioactive contamination</b>, also called <b>radiological pollution</b>, is the deposition of, or presence of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive</a> substances on surfaces or within solids, liquids, or gases (including the human body), where their presence is unintended or undesirable (from the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA) definition).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such contamination presents a hazard because the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactive decay</a> of the contaminants produces <a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">ionizing radiation</a> (namely <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Free neutron">free neutrons</a>). The degree of hazard is determined by the concentration of the contaminants, the energy of the radiation being emitted, the type of radiation, and the proximity of the contamination to organs of the body. It is important to be clear that the contamination gives rise to the radiation hazard, and the terms "radiation" and "contamination" are not interchangeable. </p><p>The sources of radioactive pollution can be classified into two groups: natural and man-made. Following an atmospheric nuclear weapon discharge or a nuclear reactor <a href="/wiki/Containment_building" title="Containment building">containment</a> breach, the air, soil, people, plants, and animals in the <a href="/wiki/Vicinity" class="mw-redirect" title="Vicinity">vicinity</a> will become contaminated by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fission_product" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission product">fission products</a>. A spilled vial of <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive material">radioactive material</a> like <a href="/wiki/Uranyl_nitrate" title="Uranyl nitrate">uranyl nitrate</a> may contaminate the floor and any rags used to wipe up the spill. Cases of widespread radioactive contamination include the <a href="/wiki/Bikini_Atoll" title="Bikini Atoll">Bikini Atoll</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination_from_the_Rocky_Flats_Plant" title="Radioactive contamination from the Rocky Flats Plant">Rocky Flats Plant</a> in Colorado, the area near the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Daiichi_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster">Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster</a>, the area near the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>, and the area near the <a href="/wiki/Mayak_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Mayak disaster">Mayak disaster</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources_of_contamination">Sources of contamination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sources of contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/260px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/390px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg/520px-Radiocarbon_bomb_spike.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bomb_pulse" title="Bomb pulse">Bomb pulse</a>: the <b>global airborne contamination</b> by atmospheric nuclear weapon tests almost doubled the concentration of <sup>14</sup>C in the Northern Hemisphere. Plot of atmospheric <sup>14</sup>C, <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The New Zealand curve is representative for the Southern Hemisphere, the Austrian curve is representative for the Northern Hemisphere. .<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The sources of radioactive pollution can be natural or man-made. </p><p>Radioactive contamination can be due to a variety of causes. It may occur due to the release of radioactive gases, liquids or particles. For example, if a radionuclide used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> is spilled (accidentally or, as in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">Goiânia accident</a>, through ignorance), the material could be spread by people as they walk around. </p><p>Radioactive contamination may also be an inevitable result of certain processes, such as the release of radioactive <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">nuclear fuel reprocessing</a>. In cases that radioactive material cannot be contained, it may be diluted to safe concentrations. For a discussion of environmental contamination by <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha</a> emitters please see <a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">actinides in the environment</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> is the distribution of radioactive contamination by the 520 atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_explosion" title="Nuclear explosion">nuclear explosions</a> that took place from the 1950s to the 1980s. </p><p>In nuclear accidents, a measure of the type and amount of radioactivity released, such as from a reactor containment failure, is known as the source term. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission">United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission</a> defines this as "Types and amounts of radioactive or hazardous material released to the environment following an accident."<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contamination does not include residual <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive material">radioactive material</a> remaining at a site after the completion of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_decommissioning" title="Nuclear decommissioning">decommissioning</a>. Therefore, radioactive material in sealed and designated containers is not properly referred to as contamination, although the units of measurement might be the same. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Containment">Containment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Containment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NNSA-NSO-58.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NNSA-NSO-58.jpg/220px-NNSA-NSO-58.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NNSA-NSO-58.jpg/330px-NNSA-NSO-58.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NNSA-NSO-58.jpg/440px-NNSA-NSO-58.jpg 2x" data-file-width="443" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Large industrial glovebox in the nuclear industry</figcaption></figure> <p>Containment is the primary way of preventing contamination from being released into the environment or coming into contact with or being ingested by humans. </p><p>Being within the intended Containment differentiates radioactive <i>material</i> from radioactive <i>contamination</i>. When radioactive materials are concentrated to a detectable level outside a containment, the area affected is generally referred to as "contaminated". </p><p>There are a large number of techniques for containing radioactive materials so that it does not spread beyond the containment and become contaminated. In the case of liquids, this is by the use of high integrity tanks or containers, usually with a sump system so that leakage can be detected by radiometric or conventional instrumentation. </p><p>Where the material is likely to become airborne, then extensive use is made of the <a href="/wiki/Glovebox" title="Glovebox">glovebox</a>, which is a common technique in hazardous laboratory and process operations in many industries. The gloveboxes are kept under slight negative pressure and the vent gas is filtered in high-efficiency filters, which are monitored by radiological instrumentation to ensure they are functioning correctly. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naturally_occurring_radioactivity">Naturally occurring radioactivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Naturally occurring radioactivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Environmental radioactivity</a></div> <p>A variety of <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> occur naturally in the environment. Elements like <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium">thorium</a>, and their <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">decay products</a>, are present in rock and soil. <a href="/wiki/Potassium-40" title="Potassium-40">Potassium-40</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclide</a>, makes up a small percentage of all potassium and is present in the human body. Other nuclides, like <a href="/wiki/Carbon-14" title="Carbon-14">carbon-14</a>, which is present in all living organisms, are <a href="/wiki/Cosmogenic_nuclide" title="Cosmogenic nuclide">continuously created</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">cosmic rays</a>. </p><p>These levels of radioactivity pose little bit danger but can confuse measurement. A particular problem is encountered with naturally generated <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> gas which can affect instruments that are set to detect contamination close to normal background levels and can cause false alarms. Because of this skill is required by the operator of radiological survey equipment to differentiate between <a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">background radiation</a> and the radiation which emanates from contamination. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Naturally_occurring_radioactive_material" title="Naturally occurring radioactive material">Naturally occurring radioactive materials</a> (NORM) can be brought to the surface or concentrated by human activities such as mining, oil and gas extraction, and coal consumption. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Control_and_monitoring_of_contamination">Control and monitoring of contamination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Control and monitoring of contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg/220px-Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg/330px-Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg/440px-Cosmos_954_-_Recovery_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="452" /></a><figcaption>Geiger-Muller counters being used as gamma survey monitors, seeking radioactive satellite debris</figcaption></figure> <p>Radioactive contamination may exist on surfaces or in volumes of material or air, and specialized techniques are used to measure the levels of contamination by detection of the emitted radiation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contamination_monitoring">Contamination monitoring</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Contamination monitoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contamination monitoring depends entirely upon the correct and appropriate deployment and utilisation of radiation monitoring instruments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Surface_contamination">Surface contamination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Surface contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Surface contamination may either be fixed or "free". In the case of fixed contamination, the radioactive material cannot by definition be spread, but its radiation is still measurable. In the case of free contamination, there is the hazard of contamination spread to other surfaces such as skin or clothing, or entrainment in the air. A concrete surface contaminated by radioactivity can be shaved to a specific depth, removing the contaminated material for disposal. </p><p>For occupational workers, controlled areas are established where there may be a contamination hazard. Access to such areas is controlled by a variety of barrier techniques, sometimes involving changes of clothing and footwear as required. The contamination within a controlled area is normally regularly monitored. Radiological protection instrumentation (RPI) plays a key role in monitoring and detecting any potential contamination spread, and combinations of <a href="/wiki/Survey_meter" title="Survey meter">hand held survey instruments</a> and permanently installed area monitors such as <a href="/wiki/Airborne_particulate_radioactivity_monitoring" title="Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring">Airborne particulate monitors</a> and area gamma monitors are often installed. Detection and measurement of surface contamination of personnel and plant are normally by <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">scintillation counter</a> or <a href="/wiki/Proportional_counter" title="Proportional counter">proportional counter</a>. Proportional counters and dual phosphor scintillation counters can discriminate between alpha and beta contamination, but the Geiger counter cannot. Scintillation detectors are generally preferred for hand-held monitoring instruments and are designed with a large detection window to make monitoring of large areas faster. Geiger detectors tend to have small windows, which are more suited to small areas of contamination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Exit_monitoring">Exit monitoring</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Exit monitoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The spread of contamination by personnel exiting controlled areas in which nuclear material is used or processed is monitored by specialised installed exit control instruments such as frisk probes, hand contamination monitors and whole body exit monitors. These are used to check that persons exiting controlled areas do not carry contamination on their bodies or clothes. </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">HSE</a> has issued a user guidance note on selecting the correct portable radiation measurement instrument for the application concerned.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This covers all radiation instrument technologies and is a useful comparative guide for selecting the correct technology for the contamination type. </p><p>The UK <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory_(United_Kingdom)" title="National Physical Laboratory (United Kingdom)">NPL</a> publishes a guide on the alarm levels to be used with instruments for checking personnel exiting controlled areas in which contamination may be encountered.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Surface contamination is usually expressed in units of radioactivity per unit of area for alpha or beta emitters. For <a href="/wiki/SI" class="mw-redirect" title="SI">SI</a>, this is <a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerels</a> per <a href="/wiki/Square_meter" class="mw-redirect" title="Square meter">square meter</a> (or Bq/m<sup>2</sup>). Other units such as <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">picoCuries</a> per 100 cm<sup>2</sup> or <a href="/wiki/Counts_per_minute" title="Counts per minute">disintegrations per minute</a> per square <a href="/wiki/Centimeter" class="mw-redirect" title="Centimeter">centimeter</a> (1 dpm/cm<sup>2</sup> = 167 Bq/m<sup>2</sup>) may be used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Airborne_contamination">Airborne contamination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Airborne contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Airborne_particulate_radioactivity_monitoring" title="Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring">Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring</a></div> <p>The air can be contaminated with radioactive isotopes in particulate form, which poses a particular inhalation hazard. Respirators with suitable air filters or completely self-contained suits with their own air supply can mitigate these dangers. </p><p>Airborne contamination is measured by specialist radiological instruments that continuously pump the sampled air through a filter. Airborne particles accumulate on the filter and can be measured in a number of ways: </p> <ol><li>The filter paper is periodically manually removed to an instrument such as a "scaler" which measures any accumulated radioactivity.</li> <li>The filter paper is static and is measured in situ by a radiation detector.</li> <li>The filter is a slowly moving strip and is measured by a radiation detector. These are commonly called "moving filter" devices and automatically advance the filter to present a clean area for accumulation, and thereby allow a plot of airborne concentration over time.</li></ol> <p>Commonly a semiconductor radiation detection sensor is used that can also provide spectrographic information on the contamination being collected. </p><p>A particular problem with airborne contamination monitors designed to detect alpha particles is that naturally occurring <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a> can be quite prevalent and may appear as contamination when low contamination levels are being sought. Modern instruments consequently have "radon compensation" to overcome this effect. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_human_contamination">Internal human contamination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Internal human contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">Committed dose</a></div> <p>Radioactive contamination can enter the body through <a href="/wiki/Ingestion" title="Ingestion">ingestion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inhalation" title="Inhalation">inhalation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(skin)" title="Absorption (skin)">absorption</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)" title="Injection (medicine)">injection</a>. This will result in a <a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">committed dose</a>. </p><p>For this reason, it is important to use <a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">personal protective equipment</a> when working with radioactive materials. Radioactive contamination may also be ingested as the result of eating contaminated plants and animals or drinking contaminated water or milk from exposed animals. Following a major contamination incident, all potential pathways of internal exposure should be considered. </p><p>Successfully used on <a href="/wiki/Harold_McCluskey" title="Harold McCluskey">Harold McCluskey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chelation_therapy" title="Chelation therapy">chelation therapy</a> and other treatments exist for internal radionuclide contamination.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decontamination">Decontamination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Decontamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TMI_cleanup-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/TMI_cleanup-2.jpg/170px-TMI_cleanup-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/TMI_cleanup-2.jpg/255px-TMI_cleanup-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/TMI_cleanup-2.jpg/340px-TMI_cleanup-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="605" /></a><figcaption>A clean-up crew working to remove radioactive contamination after the <a href="/wiki/Three_Mile_Island_accident" title="Three Mile Island accident">Three Mile Island accident</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cleaning up contamination results in <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">radioactive waste</a> unless the radioactive material can be returned to commercial use by <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessing</a>. In some cases of large areas of contamination, the contamination may be mitigated by burying and covering the contaminated substances with concrete, soil, or rock to prevent further spread of the contamination to the environment. If a person's body is contaminated by ingestion or by injury and standard cleaning cannot reduce the contamination further, then the person may be permanently contaminated.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Contamination control products have been used by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the commercial nuclear industry for decades to minimize contamination on radioactive equipment and surfaces and fix contamination in place. "Contamination control products" is a broad term that includes fixatives, strippable coatings, and <a href="/wiki/DeconGel" title="DeconGel">decontamination gels</a>. A <i>fixative</i> product functions as a permanent coating to stabilize residual loose/transferable radioactive contamination by fixing it in place; this aids in preventing the spread of contamination and reduces the possibility of the contamination becoming airborne, reducing workforce exposure and facilitating future deactivation and decommissioning (D&D) activities. <i>Strippable coating</i> products are loosely adhered to paint-like films and are used for their decontamination abilities. They are applied to surfaces with loose/transferable radioactive contamination and then, once dried, are peeled off, which removes the loose/transferable contamination along with the product. The residual radioactive contamination on the surface is significantly reduced once the strippable coating is removed. Modern strippable coatings show high decontamination efficiency and can rival traditional mechanical and chemical decontamination methods. <i>Decontamination gels</i> work in much the same way as other strippable coatings. The results obtained through the use of contamination control products are variable and depend on the type of substrate, the selected contamination control product, the contaminants, and the environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, etc.).<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.dndkm.org/DOEKMDocuments/library/Contamination%20Control%20Fixatives%20List.pdf">[2]</a> </p><p>Some of the largest areas committed to be decontaminated are in the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_Prefecture" title="Fukushima Prefecture">Fukushima Prefecture</a>, Japan. The national government is under pressure to <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_disaster_cleanup" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima disaster cleanup">clean up radioactivity</a> due to the <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_accident" title="Fukushima nuclear accident">Fukushima nuclear</a> accident of March 2011 from as much land as possible so that some of the 110,000 displaced people can return. Stripping out the key radioisotope threatening health (<a href="/wiki/Caesium-137" title="Caesium-137">caesium-137</a>) from low-level waste could also dramatically decrease the volume of waste requiring special disposal. A goal is to find techniques that might be able to strip out 80 to 95% of the caesium from contaminated soil and other materials, efficiently and without destroying the organic content in the soil. One being investigated is termed hydrothermal blasting. The caesium is broken away from soil particles and then precipitated with ferric <a href="/wiki/Ferricyanide" title="Ferricyanide">ferricyanide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Prussian_blue" title="Prussian blue">Prussian blue</a>). It would be the only component of the waste requiring special burial sites.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aim is to get annual exposure from the contaminated environment down to one <a href="/wiki/Millisievert" class="mw-redirect" title="Millisievert">millisievert</a> (mSv) above background. The most contaminated area where radiation doses are greater than 50 mSv/year must remain off-limits, but some areas that are currently less than 5 mSv/year may be decontaminated allowing 22,000 residents to return. </p><p>To help protect people living in geographical areas which have been radioactively contaminated, the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> has published a guide: "Publication 111 – Application of the Commission's Recommendations to the Protection of People Living in Long-term Contaminated Areas after a Nuclear Accident or a Radiation Emergency".<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contamination_hazards">Contamination hazards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Contamination hazards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg/220px-Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg/330px-Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg/440px-Periodic_Table_Radioactivity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Periodic table with elements colored according to the half-life of their most stable isotope. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:cyan; color:black;"> </span> Elements which contain at least one stable isotope.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:lime; color:black;"> </span> Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope is very long-lived, with half-life of over four million years.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:yellow; color:black;"> </span> Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between 800 and 34.000 years.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:orange; color:black;"> </span> Radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between one day and 130 years.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:red; color:black;"> </span> Highly radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life between several minutes and one day.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:purple; color:white;"> </span> Extremely radioactive elements: the most stable isotope has half-life less than several minutes.</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Low-level_contamination">Low-level contamination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Low-level contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The hazards to people and the environment from radioactive contamination depend on the nature of the radioactive contaminant, the level of contamination, and the extent of the spread of contamination. Low levels of radioactive contamination pose little risk, but can still be detected by radiation instrumentation.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> If a survey or map is made of a contaminated area, random sampling locations may be labeled with their activity in <a href="/wiki/Becquerels" class="mw-redirect" title="Becquerels">becquerels</a> or <a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curies</a> on contact. Low levels may be reported in <a href="/wiki/Counts_per_minute" title="Counts per minute">counts per minute</a> using a <a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">scintillation counter</a>. </p><p>In the case of low-level contamination by isotopes with a short half-life, the best course of action may be to simply allow the material to naturally <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a>. Longer-lived isotopes should be cleaned up and properly disposed of because even a very low level of radiation can be life-threatening when in long exposure to it. </p><p>Facilities and physical locations that are deemed to be contaminated may be cordoned off by a <a href="/wiki/Health_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Health physicist">health physicist</a> and labeled "Contaminated area." Persons coming near such an area would typically require <a href="/wiki/Anti-contamination_clothing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-contamination clothing">anti-contamination clothing</a> ("anti-Cs"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="High-level_contamination">High-level contamination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: High-level contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High levels of contamination may pose major risks to people and the environment. People can be exposed to potentially lethal radiation levels, both externally and internally, from the spread of contamination following an <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear accident">accident</a> (or a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">deliberate initiation</a>) involving large quantities of radioactive material. The <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">biological effects of external exposure</a> to radioactive contamination are generally the same as those from an external radiation source not involving radioactive materials, such as <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-ray</a> machines, and are dependent on the <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">absorbed dose</a>. </p><p>When radioactive contamination is being measured or mapped <i><a href="/wiki/In_situ" title="In situ">in situ</a></i>, any location that appears to be a <a href="/wiki/Point_source" title="Point source">point source</a> of radiation is likely to be heavily contaminated. A highly contaminated location is colloquially referred to as a "hot spot." On a map of a contaminated place, hot spots may be labeled with their "on contact" dose rate in mSv/h. In a contaminated facility, hot spots may be marked with a sign, shielded with bags of <a href="/wiki/Lead_shot" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead shot">lead shot</a>, or cordoned off with warning tape containing the <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_trefoil_symbol" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive trefoil symbol">radioactive trefoil symbol</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Radiation_warning_symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Radiation_warning_symbol.svg/110px-Radiation_warning_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Radiation_warning_symbol.svg/165px-Radiation_warning_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Radiation_warning_symbol.svg/220px-Radiation_warning_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The radiation warning symbol (<i>trefoil</i>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/170px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/255px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg/340px-Alfa_beta_gamma_radiation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Alpha radiation consists of <a href="/wiki/Helium-4" title="Helium-4">helium-4</a> nucleus and is readily stopped by a sheet of paper. Beta radiation, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, is halted by an aluminium plate. Gamma radiation is eventually absorbed as it penetrates a dense material. <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> is good at absorbing gamma radiation, due to its density.</figcaption></figure> <p>The hazard from contamination is the emission of ionizing radiation. The principal radiations which will be encountered are alpha, beta and gamma, but these have quite different characteristics. They have widely differing penetrating powers and radiation effects, and the accompanying diagram shows the penetration of these radiations in simple terms. For an understanding of the different ionising effects of these radiations and the weighting factors applied, see the article on <a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">absorbed dose</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Radiation_monitoring" title="Radiation monitoring">Radiation monitoring</a> involves the measurement of radiation dose or radionuclide contamination for reasons related to the assessment or control of exposure to radiation or radioactive substances, and the interpretation of the results. The methodological and technical details of the design and operation of environmental radiation monitoring programmes and systems for different radionuclides, environmental media and types of facility are given in IAEA Safety Standards Series No. RS–G-1.8<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 64.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Health_effects_of_contamination">Health effects of contamination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Health effects of contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_effects">Biological effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Biological effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Sievert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">Radiation poisoning</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">committed dose</a></div> <p>Radioactive contamination by definition emits ionizing radiation, which can irradiate the human body from an external or internal origin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="External_irradiation">External irradiation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External irradiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is due to radiation from contamination located outside the human body. The source can be in the vicinity of the body or can be on the skin surface. The level of health risk is dependent on duration and the type and strength of irradiation. Penetrating radiation such as gamma rays, X-rays, neutrons or beta particles pose the greatest risk from an external source. Low penetrating radiation such as alpha particles have a low external risk due to the shielding effect of the top layers of skin. See the article on <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> for more information on how this is calculated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_irradiation">Internal irradiation</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Internal irradiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Radioactive contamination can be ingested into the human body if it is airborne or is taken in as contamination of food or drink, and will irradiate the body internally. The art and science of assessing internally generated radiation dose is <a href="/wiki/Internal_dosimetry" title="Internal dosimetry">Internal dosimetry</a>. </p><p>The biological effects of ingested <a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">radionuclides</a> depend greatly on the activity, the biodistribution, and the removal rates of the radionuclide, which in turn depends on its chemical form, the particle size, and route of entry. Effects may also depend on the chemical <a href="/wiki/Toxicity" title="Toxicity">toxicity</a> of the deposited material, independent of its radioactivity. Some radionuclides may be generally distributed throughout the body and rapidly removed, as is the case with <a href="/wiki/Tritiated_water" title="Tritiated water">tritiated water</a>. </p><p>Some organs concentrate certain elements and hence radionuclide variants of those elements. This action may lead to much lower removal rates. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">thyroid</a> gland takes up a large percentage of any <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a> that enters the body. Large quantities of inhaled or ingested <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_iodine" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive iodine">radioactive iodine</a> may impair or destroy the thyroid, while other tissues are affected to a lesser extent. Radioactive iodine-131 is a common <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">fission product</a>; it was a major component of the radioactivity released from the <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster" title="Chernobyl disaster">Chernobyl disaster</a>, leading to nine fatal cases of pediatric <a href="/wiki/Thyroid_cancer" title="Thyroid cancer">thyroid cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypothyroidism" title="Hypothyroidism">hypothyroidism</a>. On the other hand, radioactive iodine is used in the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases of the thyroid precisely because of the thyroid's selective uptake of iodine. </p><p>The radiation risk proposed by the <a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">International Commission on Radiological Protection</a> (ICRP) predicts that an effective dose of one <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a> (100 rem) carries a 5.5% chance of developing cancer. Such a risk is the sum of both internal and external radiation doses.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ICRP states "Radionuclides incorporated in the human body irradiate the tissues over time periods determined by their physical half-life and their biological retention within the body. Thus they may give rise to doses to body tissues for many months or years after the intake. The need to regulate exposures to radionuclides and the accumulation of radiation dose over extended periods of time has led to the definition of committed dose quantities".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ICRP further states "For internal exposure, committed effective doses are generally determined from an assessment of the intakes of radionuclides from bioassay measurements or other quantities (e.g., activity retained in the body or in daily excreta). The radiation dose is determined from the intake using recommended dose coefficients".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ICRP defines two dose quantities for individual committed dose: </p><p><b>Committed equivalent dose</b>, H <sub>T</sub>(<i>t</i>) is the time integral of the equivalent dose rate in a particular tissue or organ that will be received by an individual following intake of radioactive material into the body by a Reference Person, where <i>t</i> is the integration time in years.<sup id="cite_ref-ICRP_publication_103_-_Glossary_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICRP_publication_103_-_Glossary-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This refers specifically to the dose in a specific tissue or organ, in a similar way to external equivalent dose. </p><p><b>Committed effective dose,</b> E(<i>t</i>) is the sum of the products of the committed organ or tissue equivalent doses and the appropriate tissue weighting factors <i>W</i><sub>T</sub>, where <i>t</i> is the integration time in years following the intake. The commitment period is taken to be 50 years for adults, and to age 70 years for children.<sup id="cite_ref-ICRP_publication_103_-_Glossary_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICRP_publication_103_-_Glossary-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This refers specifically to the dose to the whole body, in a similar way to external effective dose. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_and_psychological_effects">Social and psychological effects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Social and psychological effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2015 report in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">Lancet</a></i> explained that serious impacts of nuclear accidents were often not directly attributable to radiation exposure, but rather social and psychological effects.<sup id="cite_ref-ari2015_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ari2015-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The consequences of low-level radiation are often more <a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a> than radiological. Because damage from very low-level radiation cannot be detected, people exposed to it are left in anguished uncertainty about what will happen to them. Many believe they have been fundamentally contaminated for life and may refuse to have children for fear of <a href="/wiki/Birth_defect" title="Birth defect">birth defects</a>. They may be shunned by others in their community who fear a sort of mysterious contagion.<sup id="cite_ref-riv12_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riv12-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forced evacuation from a radiological or nuclear accident may lead to social isolation, anxiety, depression, psychosomatic medical problems, reckless behavior, even suicide. Such was the outcome of the 1986 <a href="/wiki/Chernobyl_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Chernobyl nuclear disaster">Chernobyl nuclear disaster</a> in Ukraine. A comprehensive 2005 study concluded that "the mental health impact of Chernobyl is the largest public health problem unleashed by the accident to date".<sup id="cite_ref-riv12_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riv12-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frank_N._von_Hippel" title="Frank N. von Hippel">Frank N. von Hippel</a>, a U.S. scientist, commented on 2011 <a href="/wiki/Fukushima_nuclear_disaster" class="mw-redirect" title="Fukushima nuclear disaster">Fukushima nuclear disaster</a>, saying that "fear of ionizing radiation could have long-term psychological effects on a large portion of the population in the contaminated areas".<sup id="cite_ref-Frank_N._von_Hippel_27–36_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frank_N._von_Hippel_27–36-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evacuation and long-term displacement of affected populations create problems for many people, especially the elderly and hospital patients.<sup id="cite_ref-ari2015_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ari2015-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Such great psychological danger does not accompany other materials that put people at risk of cancer and other deadly illness. Visceral fear is not widely aroused by, for example, the daily emissions from coal burning, although, as a National Academy of Sciences study found, this causes 10,000 premature deaths a year in the <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">US population of 317,413,000</a>. <a href="/wiki/Medical_error#Impact" title="Medical error">Medical errors</a> leading to death in U.S. hospitals are estimated to be between 44,000 and 98,000. It is "only nuclear radiation that bears a huge psychological burden – for it carries a unique historical legacy".<sup id="cite_ref-riv12_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-riv12-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_hazard" title="Chemical hazard">Chemical hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticality_accident" title="Criticality accident">Criticality accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_decontamination" title="Human decontamination">Human decontamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_nuclear_disasters_and_radioactive_incidents" title="Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents">Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-background_steel" title="Low-background steel">Low-background steel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_and_radiation_accidents" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear and radiation accidents">Nuclear and radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_debate_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Nuclear debate (disambiguation)">Nuclear debate</a> (disambiguation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation biology">Radiation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Radiation exposure (disambiguation)">Radiation exposure (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiophobia" title="Radiophobia">Radiophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_biological_effectiveness" title="Relative biological effectiveness">Relative biological effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rongelap_Atoll" title="Rongelap Atoll">Rongelap Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_submarine_K-19" title="Soviet submarine K-19">Soviet submarine K-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washdown" title="Washdown">Washdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_by_acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Category:Deaths by acute radiation syndrome">Category:Deaths by acute radiation syndrome</a></li></ul> </div> <p><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/32px-Radioactive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/48px-Radioactive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Radioactive.svg/64px-Radioactive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="446" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Nuclear_technology" title="Portal:Nuclear technology">Nuclear technology portal</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-10-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hse.gov.uk%2Fpubns%2Firp7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadioactive+contamination" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Operational Monitoring Good Practice Guide "The Selection of Alarm Levels for Personnel Exit Monitors" Dec 2009 – National Physical Laboratory, Teddington UK <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/alarm_levels_personnel_exit_monitors.pdf">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130513191645/http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/alarm_levels_personnel_exit_monitors.pdf">Archived</a> 2013-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170125171315/https://ke.army.mil/bordeninstitute/published_volumes/nuclearwarfare/chapter4/chapter4.pdf">TREATMENT OF INTERNAL RADIONUCLIDE CONTAMINATION. 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Vienna: IAEA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+and+Source+Monitoring+for+Purposes+of+Radiation+Protection%2C+IAEA+Safety+Standards+Series+No.+RS%E2%80%93G-1.8&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pub=IAEA&rft.date=2005&rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2FMTCD%2Fpublications%2FPDF%2FPub1216_web.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadioactive+contamination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Atomic_Energy_Agency2010" class="citation book cs1">International Atomic Energy Agency (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/PubDetails.asp?pubId=8242"><i>Programmes and Systems for Source and Environmental Radiation Monitoring. Safety Reports Series No. 64</i></a>. Vienna: IAEA. p. 234. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-0-112409-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-0-112409-8"><bdi>978-92-0-112409-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Programmes+and+Systems+for+Source+and+Environmental+Radiation+Monitoring.+Safety+Reports+Series+No.+64.&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pages=234&rft.pub=IAEA&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-92-0-112409-8&rft.au=International+Atomic+Energy+Agency&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-pub.iaea.org%2Fmtcd%2Fpublications%2FPubDetails.asp%3FpubId%3D8242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadioactive+contamination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ICRP publication 103 – Paragraph 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ICRP Publication 103 paragraph 140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">ICRP publication 103 – Paragraph 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICRP_publication_103_-_Glossary-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ICRP_publication_103_-_Glossary_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICRP_publication_103_-_Glossary_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">ICRP publication 103 – Glossary.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ari2015-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ari2015_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ari2015_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Arifumi Hasegawa, Koichi Tanigawa, Akira Ohtsuru, Hirooki Yabe, Masaharu Maeda, Jun Shigemura, et al. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140-6736(15)61106-0.pdf">Health effects of radiation and other health problems in the aftermath of nuclear accidents, with an emphasis on Fukushima</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a></i>, 1 August 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-riv12-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-riv12_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-riv12_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-riv12_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_C._Revkin2012" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_C._Revkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew C. Revkin">Andrew C. Revkin</a> (March 10, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/03/10/nuclear-risk-and-fear-from-hiroshima-to-fukushima/">"Nuclear Risk and Fear, from Hiroshima to Fukushima"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Nuclear+Risk+and+Fear%2C+from+Hiroshima+to+Fukushima&rft.date=2012-03-10&rft.au=Andrew+C.+Revkin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdotearth.blogs.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F03%2F10%2Fnuclear-risk-and-fear-from-hiroshima-to-fukushima%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadioactive+contamination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frank_N._von_Hippel_27–36-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Frank_N._von_Hippel_27–36_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_N._von_Hippel2011" class="citation journal cs1">Frank N. von Hippel (September–October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bos.sagepub.com/content/67/5/27.full">"The radiological and psychological consequences of the Fukushima Daiichi accident"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</i>. <b>67</b> (5): 27–36. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011BuAtS..67e..27V">2011BuAtS..67e..27V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0096340211421588">10.1177/0096340211421588</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218769799">218769799</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Atomic+Scientists&rft.atitle=The+radiological+and+psychological+consequences+of+the+Fukushima+Daiichi+accident&rft.volume=67&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=27-36&rft.date=2011-09%2F2011-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218769799%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0096340211421588&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011BuAtS..67e..27V&rft.au=Frank+N.+von+Hippel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbos.sagepub.com%2Fcontent%2F67%2F5%2F27.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARadioactive+contamination" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <ul><li>Measurement Good Practice Guide No. 30 "Practical Radiation Monitoring" Oct 2002 – National Physical Laboratory, Teddington</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Radioactive_contamination&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/health-12722435">Q&A: Health effects of radiation exposure</a>, <i>BBC News</i>, 21 July 2011.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://a4nr.org/">Alliance for Nuclear Responsibility</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://training.bnl.gov/StudyGuides/RWT/rwt300.pdf">training guide</a> Brookhaven National Laboratory Training Guide.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ifaw.org/united-states/resource-centre/nuclear-accidents-and-impact-animals">International Fund for Animal Welfare report on impact of radiation on animals</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Radium_and_radon_in_the_environment" title="Radium and radon in the environment">Radium and radon in the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Noise_pollution" title="Noise pollution">Noise</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transportation</a> <ul><li>Land</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport" title="Rail transport">Rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammals_and_sonar" title="Marine mammals and sonar">Marine mammals and sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Industrial</li> <li>Military</li> <li>Abstract</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actinides_in_the_environment" title="Actinides in the environment">Actinides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation_of_radioactive_waste" title="Bioremediation of radioactive waste">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission_product" title="Nuclear fission product">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutonium_in_the_environment" title="Plutonium in the environment">Plutonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_radioactivity" title="Environmental radioactivity">Radioactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_in_the_environment" title="Uranium in the environment">Uranium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_waste" title="Radioactive waste">Radioactive waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">Soil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_pollution" title="Agricultural pollution">Agricultural pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">Herbicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manure_management" title="Manure management">Manure waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">Bioremediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistance_heating" title="Electrical resistance heating">Electrical resistance heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_guideline_value" title="Soil guideline value">Soil guideline values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoremediation" title="Phytoremediation">Phytoremediation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Solid waste</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_mail" title="Advertising mail">Advertising mail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodegradable_waste" title="Biodegradable waste">Biodegradable waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_waste" title="Brown waste">Brown waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battery_recycling" title="Battery recycling">Battery recycling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foam_food_container" title="Foam food container">Foam food container</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">Food waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_waste" title="Green waste">Green waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">Hazardous waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomedical_waste" title="Biomedical waste">Biomedical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_waste" title="Chemical waste">Chemical waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_waste" title="Construction waste">Construction waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_poisoning" title="Mercury poisoning">Mercury poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">Toxic waste</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_waste" title="Industrial waste">Industrial waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_smelting" title="Lead smelting">Lead smelting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">Litter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal_mining" title="Coal mining">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gold_mining" title="Gold mining">Gold mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_mining" title="Surface mining">Surface mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_mining" title="Deep sea mining">Deep sea mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tailings" title="Tailings">Mining waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining" title="Uranium mining">Uranium mining</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">Municipal solid waste</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Garbage" title="Garbage">Garbage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_from_nanomaterials" title="Pollution from nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_pollution" title="Plastic pollution">Plastic pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microplastics" title="Microplastics">Microplastics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaging_waste" title="Packaging waste">Packaging waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-consumer_waste" title="Post-consumer waste">Post-consumer waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">Landfill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_treatment" title="Thermal treatment">Thermal treatment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris"> Space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Visual_pollution" title="Visual pollution">Visual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_travel" title="Air travel">Air travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clutter_(advertising)" title="Clutter (advertising)">Clutter (advertising)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic signs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power lines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vandalism" title="Vandalism">Vandalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbicidal_warfare" title="Herbicidal warfare">Herbicidal warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Agent_Orange" title="Agent Orange">Agent Orange</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust" title="Nuclear holocaust">Nuclear holocaust</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">Nuclear fallout</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_famine" title="Nuclear famine">nuclear famine</a> - <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_winter" title="Nuclear winter">nuclear winter</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unexploded_ordnance" title="Unexploded ordnance">Unexploded ordnance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_and_environmental_law" title="War and environmental law">War and environmental law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_pollution" title="Biological pollution">Biological pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firewater_(fire_fighting)" title="Firewater (fire fighting)">Firewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">Groundwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_debris" title="Marine debris">debris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_monitoring" title="Environmental monitoring">Monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonpoint_source_pollution" title="Nonpoint source pollution">Nonpoint source pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">Nutrient pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploitation">Oil exploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil exploration">Oil exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pit_latrine" title="Pit latrine">Pit latrine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Shipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_stagnation" title="Water stagnation">Stagnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_water" title="Sulfur water">Sulfur water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Water quality</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant" title="Pollutant">Pollutants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paint" title="Paint">Paint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_health_and_pollution" title="Brain health and pollution">Brain health and pollution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Misc</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_source_pollution" title="Area source pollution">Area source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris" title="Debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garbology" title="Garbology">Garbology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legacy_pollution" title="Legacy pollution">Legacy pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midden" title="Midden">Midden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">Point source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register" title="Pollutant release and transfer register">Pollutant release and transfer register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">Polluter pays principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zero_waste" title="Zero waste">Zero waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#fadcc5;width:1%;line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution-related_lists" title="Category:Pollution-related lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pollution-related_diseases" title="List of pollution-related diseases">Diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_laws_by_country" title="List of environmental laws by country">Law by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most-polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" title="List of most-polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Most polluted cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_least_polluted_cities_by_particulate_matter_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="List of least polluted cities by particulate matter concentration">Least polluted cities by PM<sub>2.5</sub></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_air_pollution" title="List of countries by air pollution">Most polluted countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_international_environmental_agreements" title="List of international environmental agreements">Treaties</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#fadcc5"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution" title="Category:Pollution">Categories</a> (<a href="/wiki/Category:Pollution_by_country" title="Category:Pollution by country">by country</a>) <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:pollution" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:pollution">Commons</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Environment" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Environment">WikiProject Environment</a> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Ecology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Ecology">WikiProject Ecology</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation" title="Template:Radiation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation" title="Template talk:Radiation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_(physics_and_health)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a> (physics and health)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Non-ionizing_radiation" title="Non-ionizing radiation">Non-ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_radiation_force" title="Acoustic radiation force">Acoustic radiation force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starlight" title="Starlight">Starlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">Ultraviolet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Radioactive decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_decay" title="Cluster decay">Cluster decay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">Alpha particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">Beta particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">Gamma ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_radiation" title="Neutron radiation">Neutron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fission" title="Nuclear fission">Nuclear fission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">Nuclear fusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">Nuclear reactors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_accelerator" title="Particle accelerator">Particle accelerators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radionuclide" title="Radionuclide">Radioactive materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-ray</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">Electromagnetic radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchrotron_radiation" title="Synchrotron radiation">Synchrotron radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_radiation" title="Thermal radiation">Thermal radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-body_radiation" title="Black-body radiation">Black-body radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_radiation" title="Particle radiation">Particle radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravitational_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitational radiation">Gravitational radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_background_radiation" title="Cosmic background radiation">Cosmic background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherenkov_radiation" title="Cherenkov radiation">Cherenkov radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askaryan_radiation" title="Askaryan radiation">Askaryan radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bremsstrahlung" title="Bremsstrahlung">Bremsstrahlung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unruh_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unruh radiation">Unruh radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dark_radiation" title="Dark radiation">Dark radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_exposure" title="Radiation exposure">Radiation exposure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation <br />and health</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Radiation syndrome <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">acute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_radiation_syndrome" title="Chronic radiation syndrome">chronic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation_and_health" title="Electromagnetic radiation and health">Electromagnetic radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser_safety" title="Laser safety">Laser safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lasers_and_aviation_safety" title="Lasers and aviation safety">Lasers and aviation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_radiography" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical radiography">Medical radiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_damage" title="Radiation damage">Radiation damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactivity_in_the_life_sciences" title="Radioactivity in the life sciences">Radioactivity in the life sciences</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Biological dose units and quantities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_device_radiation_and_health" title="Wireless device radiation and health">Wireless device radiation and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wireless_electronic_devices_and_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless electronic devices and health">Wireless electronic devices and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Radiation heat-transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_energy_transfer" title="Linear energy transfer">Linear energy transfer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_civilian_radiation_accidents" title="List of civilian radiation accidents">List of civilian radiation accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1996_San_Juan_de_Dios_radiotherapy_accident" title="1996 San Juan de Dios radiotherapy accident">1996 Costa Rica accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goi%C3%A2nia_accident" title="Goiânia accident">1987 Goiânia accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1984_Moroccan_radiation_accident" title="1984 Moroccan radiation accident">1984 Moroccan accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1990_Clinic_of_Zaragoza_radiotherapy_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="1990 Clinic of Zaragoza radiotherapy accident">1990 Zaragoza accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">Half-life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_hardening" title="Radiation hardening">Radiation hardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Havana_syndrome" title="Havana syndrome">Havana syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Radiation_protection" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Radiation_protection" title="Template:Radiation protection"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Radiation_protection" title="Template talk:Radiation protection"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation_protection" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Radiation protection"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Radiation_protection" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Radiation_protection" title="Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Background_radiation" title="Background radiation">Background radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimetry" title="Dosimetry">Dosimetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_dosimetry" title="Internal dosimetry">Internal dosimetry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radioactive contamination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_source" title="Radioactive source">Radioactive sources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology" title="Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement <br />quantities and units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absorbed_dose" title="Absorbed dose">Absorbed dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">Becquerel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committed_dose" title="Committed dose">Committed dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_tomography_dose_index" title="Computed tomography dose index">Computed tomography dose index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counts_per_minute" title="Counts per minute">Counts per minute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_dose_(radiation)" title="Effective dose (radiation)">Effective dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_dose" title="Equivalent dose">Equivalent dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mean_glandular_dose" title="Mean glandular dose">Mean glandular dose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monitor_unit" title="Monitor unit">Monitor unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rad_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rad (unit)">Rad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">Roentgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roentgen_equivalent_man" title="Roentgen equivalent man">Rem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">Sievert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments and <br />measurement techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_particulate_radioactivity_monitoring" title="Airborne particulate radioactivity monitoring">Airborne radioactive particulate monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dosimeter" title="Dosimeter">Dosimeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion chamber">Ion chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillation_counter" title="Scintillation counter">Scintillation counter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proportional_counter" title="Proportional counter">Proportional counter</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_monitoring" title="Radiation monitoring">Radiation monitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_detector" title="Semiconductor detector">Semiconductor detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_meter" title="Survey meter">Survey meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-body_counting" title="Whole-body counting">Whole-body counting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protection techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead_shielding" title="Lead shielding">Lead shielding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glovebox" title="Glovebox">Glovebox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potassium_iodide" title="Potassium iodide">Potassium iodide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon_mitigation" title="Radon mitigation">Radon mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respirators" class="mw-redirect" title="Respirators">Respirators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Euratom" title="Euratom">Euratom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_Physics_Society" title="Health Physics Society">HPS (USA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">IAEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiation_Units_and_Measurements" title="International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements">ICRU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Radiological_Protection" title="International Commission on Radiological Protection">ICRP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Radiation_Protection_Association" title="International Radiation Protection Association">IRPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Radiological_Protection" title="Society for Radiological Protection">SRP (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Scientific_Committee_on_the_Effects_of_Atomic_Radiation" title="United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation">UNSCEAR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regulation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionising_Radiations_Regulations" title="Ionising Radiations Regulations">IRR (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Regulatory_Commission" title="Nuclear Regulatory Commission">NRC (USA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_for_Nuclear_Regulation" title="Office for Nuclear Regulation">ONR (UK)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_Protection_Convention,_1960" title="Radiation Protection Convention, 1960">Radiation Protection Convention, 1960</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiation effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute_radiation_syndrome" title="Acute radiation syndrome">Acute radiation syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation-induced_cancer" title="Radiation-induced cancer">Radiation-induced cancer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also the categories <a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_physics" title="Category:Medical physics">Medical physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_effects" title="Category:Radiation effects">Radiation effects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radioactivity" title="Category:Radioactivity">Radioactivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiobiology" title="Category:Radiobiology">Radiobiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Category:Radiation_protection" title="Category:Radiation protection">Radiation protection</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_science" title="Template:Environmental science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_science" title="Template talk:Environmental science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemistry" title="Biogeochemistry">Biogeochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_chemistry" title="Environmental chemistry">Environmental chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Geosciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_soil_science" title="Environmental soil science">Soil science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/100px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/150px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/200px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">Chemistry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_chemistry" title="Green chemistry">green</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">epidemiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_statistics" title="Environmental statistics">Environmental statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioecology" title="Radioecology">Radioecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">Sustainability science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollution control">Pollution control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport encouragement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_remediation" title="Environmental remediation">Remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">Road ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_purification" title="Water purification">Water purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_journals#Environmental_sciences" title="List of environmental journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_research_institutes" title="List of environmental research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_the_environment" title="List of years in the environment">Environment by year</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technogaianism" title="Technogaianism">Technogaianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_science" title="Category:Environmental science">Category</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_scientists" title="Category:Environmental scientists">scientists</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Environment" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Environment">WikiProject</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and<br />epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's <i>t</i>-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test"><i>Z</i>-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic<br />disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and<br />safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral<br />sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations,<br />education<br />and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" 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