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Constructivism and sciences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Constructivism_and_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_constructivism_in_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_constructivism_in_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Social constructivism in sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_constructivism_in_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivism_in_philosophy_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivism_in_philosophy_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Constructivism in philosophy of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivism_in_philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivism_and_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivism_and_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Constructivism and psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivism_and_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivism_and_education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivism_and_education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Constructivism and education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constructivism_and_education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constructivist_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constructivist_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Constructivist approaches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Constructivist_approaches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Constructivist approaches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Constructivist_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Critical_constructivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Critical_constructivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Critical constructivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Critical_constructivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_constructivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_constructivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cultural constructivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_constructivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Genetic epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radical_constructivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radical_constructivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Radical constructivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radical_constructivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relational_constructivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relational_constructivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Relational constructivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relational_constructivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_Constructivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_Constructivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Social Constructivism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_Constructivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span 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Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9_(%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85)" title="بنائية (فلسفة العلوم) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بنائية (فلسفة العلوم)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivisme_(filosofia)" title="Constructivisme (filosofia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Constructivisme (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktivisme_(filosofi)" title="Konstruktivisme (filosofi) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Konstruktivisme (filosofi)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktivismus_(Philosophie)" title="Konstruktivismus (Philosophie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konstruktivismus (Philosophie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktivism_(filosoofia)" title="Konstruktivism (filosoofia) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Konstruktivism (filosoofia)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivismo_(filosof%C3%ADa)" title="Constructivismo (filosofía) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Constructivismo (filosofía)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktibismoaren_epistemologia" title="Konstruktibismoaren epistemologia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Konstruktibismoaren epistemologia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7" title="شناخت‌شناسی ساخت‌گرا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شناخت‌شناسی ساخت‌گرا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivisme_(%C3%A9pist%C3%A9mologie)" title="Constructivisme (épistémologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Constructivisme (épistémologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemologi_konstruktivis" title="Epistemologi konstruktivis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Epistemologi konstruktivis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costruttivismo_(filosofia)" title="Costruttivismo (filosofia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Costruttivismo (filosofia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivisme_(filosofie)" title="Constructivisme (filosofie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Constructivisme (filosofie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construcionismo" title="Construcionismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Construcionismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_(%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Конструктивизм (философия) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Конструктивизм (философия)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktionism_(filosofi)" title="Konstruktionism (filosofi) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Konstruktionism (filosofi)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstruktivisme" title="Konstruktivisme – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Konstruktivisme" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Research_sidebar" title="Template talk:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Constructivism</b> is a view in the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> that maintains that <a href="/wiki/Scientific_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific knowledge">scientific knowledge</a> is constructed by the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a>, which seeks to measure and construct <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_model" title="Conceptual model">models</a> of the natural world. According to constructivists, <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> consists of mental constructs that aim to explain sensory experiences and measurements, and that there is no single valid <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> in science but rather a diversity of useful methods.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also hold that the world is independent of human minds, but knowledge of the world is always a human and <a href="/wiki/Social_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social construction">social construction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constructivism opposes the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)#Objectivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objectivism</a>, embracing the belief that human beings can come to know the truth about the natural world not mediated by scientific approximations with different degrees of <a href="/wiki/Validity_(statistics)" title="Validity (statistics)">validity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accuracy" class="mw-redirect" title="Accuracy">accuracy</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constructivism_and_sciences">Constructivism and sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Constructivism and sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_constructivism_in_sociology">Social constructivism in sociology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Social constructivism in sociology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></div> <p>One version of <i>social constructivism</i> contends that categories of knowledge and reality are actively created by social relationships and interactions. These interactions also alter the way in which scientific episteme is organized. </p><p>Social activity presupposes human interaction, and in the case of social construction, utilizing <a href="/wiki/Semiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiotic">semiotic</a> resources (<a href="/wiki/Meaning-making" title="Meaning-making">meaning-making</a> and signifying) with reference to social structures and institutions. Several traditions use the term <i>Social Constructivism</i>: <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> (after <a href="/wiki/Lev_Vygotsky" title="Lev Vygotsky">Lev Vygotsky</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> (after <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter Berger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Luckmann" title="Thomas Luckmann">Thomas Luckmann</a>, themselves influenced by <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Sch%C3%BCtz" title="Alfred Schütz">Alfred Schütz</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">sociology of knowledge</a> (<a href="/wiki/David_Bloor" title="David Bloor">David Bloor</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sal_Restivo" title="Sal Restivo">Sal Restivo</a>), <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paul_Ernest" title="Paul Ernest">Paul Ernest</a>). <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>'s later philosophy can be seen as a foundation for <i>social constructivism</i>, with its key theoretical concepts of <i>language games</i> embedded in <i>forms of life</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructivism_in_philosophy_of_science">Constructivism in philosophy of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Constructivism in philosophy of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a> argued that changes in scientists' views of reality not only contain subjective elements but result from group dynamics, "revolutions" in scientific practice, and changes in <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">"paradigms"</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuhn2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuhn2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an example, Kuhn suggested that the Sun-centric <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican "revolution"</a> replaced the Earth-centric views of Ptolemy not because of empirical failures but because of a new "paradigm" that exerted control over what scientists felt to be the more fruitful way to pursue their goals. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>But paradigm debates are not really about relative problem-solving ability, though for good reasons they are usually couched in those terms. Instead, the issue is which paradigm should in future guide research on problems many of which neither competitor can yet claim to resolve completely. A decision between alternate ways of practicing science is called for, and in the circumstances that decision must be based less on past achievement than on future promise. ... A decision of that kind can only be made on faith.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Thomas Kuhn, <i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i>, pp 157–8</cite></div></blockquote> <p>The view of reality as accessible only through models was called <a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">model-dependent realism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Mlodinow" title="Leonard Mlodinow">Leonard Mlodinow</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Koonin_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koonin-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While not rejecting an independent reality, model-dependent realism says that we can know only an approximation of it provided by the intermediary of models.<sup id="cite_ref-Mlodinow_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mlodinow-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These models evolve over time as guided by scientific inspiration and experiments. </p><p>In the field of the social sciences, constructivism as an epistemology urges that researchers reflect upon the paradigms that may be underpinning their research, and in the light of this that they become more open to considering other ways of interpreting any results of the research. Furthermore, the focus is on presenting results as negotiable constructs rather than as models that aim to "represent" social realities more or less accurately. Norma Romm, in her book Accountability in Social Research (2001), argues that social researchers can earn trust from participants and wider audiences insofar as they adopt this orientation and invite inputs from others regarding their inquiry practices and the results thereof. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructivism_and_psychology">Constructivism and psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Constructivism and psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(psychological_school)" title="Constructivism (psychological school)">Constructivism (psychological school)</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, constructivism refers to many schools of thought that, though extraordinarily different in their techniques (applied in fields such as <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a>), are all connected by a common critique of previous standard objectivist approaches. Constructivist psychology schools share assumptions about the active constructive nature of human knowledge. In particular, the critique is aimed at the "associationist" postulate of empiricism, "by which the mind is conceived as a passive system that gathers its contents from its environment and, through the act of knowing, produces a copy of the order of reality."<sup id="cite_ref-Balbi_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balbi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup> </p><p>In contrast, "constructivism is an epistemological premise grounded on the assertion that, in the act of knowing, it is the human mind that actively gives meaning and order to that reality to which it is responding".<sup id="cite_ref-Balbi_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Balbi-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 16">: 16 </span></sup> The constructivist psychologies theorize about and investigate how human beings create systems for meaningfully understanding their worlds and experiences.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constructivism_and_education">Constructivism and education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Constructivism and education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_education)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of education)">Constructivism (philosophy of education)</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Joe_L._Kincheloe" title="Joe L. Kincheloe">Joe L. Kincheloe</a> has published numerous social and educational books on critical constructivism (2001, 2005, 2008), a version of constructivist epistemology that places emphasis on the exaggerated influence of political and cultural power in the construction of knowledge, consciousness, and views of reality. In the contemporary mediated electronic era, Kincheloe argues, dominant modes of power have never exerted such influence on human affairs. Coming from a <a href="/wiki/Critical_pedagogy" title="Critical pedagogy">critical pedagogical</a> perspective, Kincheloe argues that understanding a critical constructivist epistemology is central to becoming an educated person and to the institution of just social change. </p><p>Kincheloe's characteristics of critical constructivism: </p> <ul><li>Knowledge is socially constructed: World and information co-construct one another</li> <li>Consciousness is a social construction</li> <li>Political struggles: Power plays an exaggerated role in the production of knowledge and consciousness</li> <li>The necessity of understanding consciousness—even though it does not lend itself to traditional reductionistic modes of measurability</li> <li>The importance of uniting logic and emotion in the process of knowledge and producing knowledge</li> <li>The inseparability of the knower and the known</li> <li>The centrality of the perspectives of oppressed peoples—the value of the insights of those who have suffered as the result of existing social arrangements</li> <li>The existence of multiple realities: Making sense of a world far more complex than we originally imagined</li> <li>Becoming humble knowledge workers: Understanding our location in the tangled web of reality</li> <li>Standpoint epistemology: Locating ourselves in the web of reality, we are better equipped to produce our own knowledge</li> <li>Constructing practical knowledge for critical social action</li> <li>Complexity: Overcoming reductionism</li> <li>Knowledge is always entrenched in a larger process</li> <li>The centrality of interpretation: Critical hermeneutics</li> <li>The new frontier of classroom knowledge: Personal experiences intersecting with pluriversal information</li> <li>Constructing new ways of being human: Critical ontology</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constructivist_approaches">Constructivist approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Constructivist approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Critical_constructivism">Critical constructivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Critical constructivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A series of articles published in the journal <i>Critical Inquiry</i> (1991) served as a manifesto for the movement of critical constructivism in various disciplines, including the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>. Not only truth and reality, but also "<a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Document" title="Document">document</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>", "<a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a>", "proof", and other central categories of empirical research (in <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, etc.) reveal their contingent character as a social and ideological construction. Thus, a "realist" or "rationalist" interpretation is subjected to criticism. Kincheloe's political and pedagogical notion (above) has emerged as a central articulation of the concept. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cultural_constructivism">Cultural constructivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cultural constructivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cultural constructivism asserts that knowledge and reality are a product of their cultural context, meaning that two independent cultures will likely form different observational methodologies. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_epistemology">Genetic epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Genetic epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_epistemology" title="Genetic epistemology">Genetic epistemology</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/James_Mark_Baldwin" title="James Mark Baldwin">James Mark Baldwin</a> invented this expression, which was later popularized by <a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a>. From 1955 to 1980, Piaget was Director of the International Centre for Genetic Epistemology in Geneva. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radical_constructivism">Radical constructivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Radical constructivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Radical_constructivism" title="Radical constructivism">Radical constructivism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a> was a prominent proponent of radical constructivism. This claims that knowledge is not a commodity that is transported from one mind into another. Rather, it is up to the individual to "link up" specific interpretations of experiences and ideas with their own reference of what is possible and viable. That is, the process of constructing knowledge, of understanding, is dependent on the individual's subjective interpretation of their active experience, not what "actually" occurs. Understanding and acting are seen by radical constructivists not as dualistic processes but "circularly conjoined".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radical constructivism is closely related to <a href="/wiki/Second-order_cybernetics" title="Second-order cybernetics">second-order cybernetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_Foundations" title="Constructivist Foundations">Constructivist Foundations</a></i> is a free online journal publishing peer-reviewed articles on radical constructivism by researchers from multiple domains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relational_constructivism">Relational constructivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Relational constructivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Relational_constructivism" title="Relational constructivism">Relational constructivism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Relational_constructivism" title="Relational constructivism">Relational constructivism</a> can be perceived as a relational consequence of radical constructivism. In contrary to social constructivism, it picks up the epistemological threads. It maintains the radical constructivist idea that humans cannot overcome their limited conditions of reception (i.e., <i>self-referentially operating cognition</i>). Therefore, humans are not able to come to objective conclusions about the world. </p><p>In spite of the subjectivity of human constructions of reality, relational constructivism focuses on the relational conditions applying to human perceptional processes. <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Kraus" title="Björn Kraus">Björn Kraus</a> puts it in a nutshell: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is substantial for relational constructivism that it basically originates from an epistemological point of view, thus from the subject and its construction processes. Coming from this perspective it then focusses on the (not only social, but also material) relations under which these cognitive construction processes are performed. Consequently, it's not only about social construction processes, but about cognitive construction processes performed under certain relational conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_Constructivism">Social Constructivism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Social Constructivism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Numerous criticisms have been levelled at Constructivism. The most common one is that it either explicitly advocates or implicitly reduces to <a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>. </p><p>Another criticism of constructivism is that it holds that the concepts of two different social formations be entirely different and incommensurate. This being the case, it is impossible to make comparative judgments about statements made according to each worldview. This is because the criteria of judgment will themselves have to be based on some worldview or other. If this is the case, then it brings into question how communication between them about the truth or falsity of any given statement could be established. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Wittgenstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Gavin_Kitching" title="Gavin Kitching">Gavin Kitching</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argues that constructivists usually implicitly presuppose a <a href="/wiki/Deterministic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">deterministic</a> view of language, which severely constrains the minds and use of words by members of societies: they are not just "constructed" by language on this view but are literally "determined" by it. Kitching notes the contradiction here: somehow, the advocate of constructivism is not similarly constrained. While other individuals are controlled by the dominant concepts of society, the advocate of constructivism can transcend these concepts and see through them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autopoiesis" title="Autopoiesis">Autopoiesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_reality" title="Consensus reality">Consensus reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivism in international relations">Constructivism in international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">Epistemological pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinkerbell_effect" title="Tinkerbell effect">Tinkerbell effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map%E2%80%93territory_relation" title="Map–territory relation">Map–territory relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning making">Meaning making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacognition" title="Metacognition">Metacognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontological_pluralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological pluralism">Ontological pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_construct_psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal construct psychology">Personal construct psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Schofield, n.d.) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ihrcs.ch/?p=92">Critical Theory and Constructivism</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222335/http://www.ihrcs.ch/?p=92">Archived</a> 2016-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Crotty, M. 1998. <i>The Foundations of Social Research: Meaning and Perspective in the Research Process</i>, Sage.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuhn2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kuhn2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThomas_S_Kuhn1970" class="citation book cs1">Thomas S Kuhn (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://turkpsikiyatri.org/arsiv/kuhn-ssr-2nded.pdf"><i>The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226458121" title="Special:BookSources/0226458121"><bdi>0226458121</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130328173641/http://turkpsikiyatri.org/arsiv/kuhn-ssr-2nded.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2013-03-28. <q>A paradigm governs, in the first instance, not a subject matter but rather a group of practitioners. Any study ... must begin by locating the responsible group or groups.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Scientific+Revolutions&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=0226458121&rft.au=Thomas+S+Kuhn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fturkpsikiyatri.org%2Farsiv%2Fkuhn-ssr-2nded.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructivism+%28philosophy+of+science%29" class="Z3988"></span> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Koonin-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Koonin_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEugene_V._Koonin2011" class="citation book cs1">Eugene V. Koonin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fvmv2kU6PrYC&pg=PA427"><i>The Logic of Chance: The Nature and Origin of Biological Evolution</i></a>. FT Press Science, a division of Pearson Education, Inc. p. 427. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0132623179" title="Special:BookSources/978-0132623179"><bdi>978-0132623179</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Logic+of+Chance%3A+The+Nature+and+Origin+of+Biological+Evolution&rft.pages=427&rft.pub=FT+Press+Science%2C+a+division+of+Pearson+Education%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0132623179&rft.au=Eugene+V.+Koonin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfvmv2kU6PrYC%26pg%3DPA427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructivism+%28philosophy+of+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mlodinow-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mlodinow_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephen_HawkingLeonard_Mlodinow2011" class="citation book cs1">Stephen Hawking; Leonard Mlodinow (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RoO9jkV-yzIC&pg=PA8"><i>The Grand Design</i></a>. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0553907070" title="Special:BookSources/978-0553907070"><bdi>978-0553907070</bdi></a>. <q>We shall adopt an approach that we call model-dependent realism. It is based on the idea that our brains interpret the input from our sensory organs by making a model of the world. When such a model is successful at explaining events, we tend to attribute to it, and to the elements and concepts that constitute it, the quality of reality or absolute truth. But there may be different ways in which one could model the same physical situation, with each employing different fundamental elements and concepts. If two such ...theories or models accurately predict the same events, one cannot be said to be more real than the other; rather we are free to use whichever model is the most convenient.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Design&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Random+House+Digital%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0553907070&rft.au=Stephen+Hawking&rft.au=Leonard+Mlodinow&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRoO9jkV-yzIC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructivism+%28philosophy+of+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balbi-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Balbi_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Balbi_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBalbi2008" class="citation journal cs1">Balbi, Juan (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crossingdialogues.com/Ms-A08-01-6.pdf">"Epistemological and theoretical foundations of constructivist cognitive therapies: post-rationalist developments"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Dialogues in Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences</i>. <b>1</b> (1): 15–27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110708205138/http://www.crossingdialogues.com/Ms-A08-01-6.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2011-07-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-10-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dialogues+in+Philosophy%2C+Mental+and+Neuro+Sciences&rft.atitle=Epistemological+and+theoretical+foundations+of+constructivist+cognitive+therapies%3A+post-rationalist+developments&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15-27&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Balbi&rft.aufirst=Juan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crossingdialogues.com%2FMs-A08-01-6.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructivism+%28philosophy+of+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaskin2002" class="citation journal cs1">Raskin, Jonathan D. (Spring 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ac-journal.org/journal/vol5/iss3/special/raskin.pdf">"Constructivism in psychology: personal construct psychology, radical constructivism, and social constructionism"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>American Communication Journal</i>. <b>5</b> (3). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20090209035603/http://ac-journal.org/journal/vol5/iss3/special/raskin.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2009-02-09<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-02-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Communication+Journal&rft.atitle=Constructivism+in+psychology%3A+personal+construct+psychology%2C+radical+constructivism%2C+and+social+constructionism&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Raskin&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fac-journal.org%2Fjournal%2Fvol5%2Fiss3%2Fspecial%2Fraskin.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructivism+%28philosophy+of+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.radicalconstructivism.com">"Radical Constructivism"</a>. <i>www.radicalconstructivism.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180419043612/http://radicalconstructivism.com/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.radicalconstructivism.com&rft.atitle=Radical+Constructivism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.radicalconstructivism.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructivism+%28philosophy+of+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Glanville, R. (2013). Radical constructivism = second order cybernetics. Cybernetics and Human Knowing, 19(4), 27-42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Björn Kraus: Plädoyer für den Relationalen Konstruktivismus und eine Relationale Soziale Arbeit. in Forum Sozial (2017) 1 pp. 29-35, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/51948">"Plädoyer für den Relationalen Konstruktivismus und eine Relationale Soziale Arbeit"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171015044520/http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/51948">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-10-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pl%C3%A4doyer+f%C3%BCr+den+Relationalen+Konstruktivismus+und+eine+Relationale+Soziale+Arbeit&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ssoar.info%2Fssoar%2Fhandle%2Fdocument%2F51948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConstructivism+%28philosophy+of+science%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kitching, G. 2008. <i>The Trouble with Theory: The Educational Costs of Postmodernism</i>. Penn State University Press.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Devitt, M. 1997. <i>Realism and Truth</i>, Princeton University Press.</li> <li>Gillett, E. 1998. "Relativism and the Social-constructivist Paradigm", <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy,_Psychiatry,_%26_Psychology" title="Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology">Philosophy, Psychiatry, & Psychology</a></i>, Vol.5, No.1, pp. 37–48</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a> 1987. <i>The construction of knowledge, Contributions to conceptual semantics</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_von_Glasersfeld" title="Ernst von Glasersfeld">Ernst von Glasersfeld</a> 1995. <i>Radical constructivism: A way of knowing and learning</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_L._Kincheloe" title="Joe L. Kincheloe">Joe L. Kincheloe</a> 2001. <i>Getting beyond the Facts: Teaching Social Studies/Social Science in the Twenty-First Century</i>, NY: Peter Lang.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_L._Kincheloe" title="Joe L. Kincheloe">Joe L. Kincheloe</a> 2005. <i>Critical Constructivism Primer</i>, NY: Peter Lang.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_L._Kincheloe" title="Joe L. Kincheloe">Joe L. Kincheloe</a> 2008. <i>Knowledge and Critical Pedagogy</i>, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer.</li> <li>Kitching, G. 2008. <i>The Trouble with Theory: The Educational Costs of Postmodernism</i>, Penn State University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Kraus" title="Björn Kraus">Björn Kraus</a> 2014: Introducing a model for analyzing the possibilities of power, help and control. In: Social Work and Society. International Online Journal. Retrieved 3 April 2019.(<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/393">http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/393</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Kraus" title="Björn Kraus">Björn Kraus</a> 2015: The Life We Live and the Life We Experience: Introducing the Epistemological Difference between "Lifeworld" (Lebenswelt) and "Life Conditions" (Lebenslage). In: Social Work and Society. International Online Journal. Retrieved 27 August 2018.(<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/438">http://www.socwork.net/sws/article/view/438</a>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Kraus" title="Björn Kraus">Björn Kraus</a> 2019: Relational constructivism and relational social work. In: Webb, Stephen, A. (edt.) The Routledge Handbook of Critical Social Work. Routledge international Handbooks. London and New York: Taylor & Francis Ltd.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Kratochwil" title="Friedrich Kratochwil">Friedrich Kratochwil</a>: Constructivism: what it is (not) and how it matters, in <a href="/wiki/Donatella_della_Porta" title="Donatella della Porta">Donatella della Porta</a> & <a href="/wiki/Michael_Keating_(political_scientist)" title="Michael Keating (political scientist)">Michael Keating</a> (eds.) 2008, <i>Approaches and Methodologies in the Social Sciences: A Pluralist Perspective</i>, Cambridge University Press, 80–98.</li> <li>Mariyani-Squire, E. 1999. "Social Constructivism: A flawed Debate over Conceptual Foundations", <i><a href="/wiki/Capitalism,_Nature,_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalism, Nature, Socialism">Capitalism, Nature, Socialism</a></i>, vol.10, no.4, pp. 97–125</li> <li>Matthews, M.R. (ed.) 1998. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iQtlWBBXKIoC">Constructivism in Science Education: A Philosophical Examination</a></i>, Kluwer Academic Publishers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Morin" title="Edgar Morin">Edgar Morin</a> 1986, <i>La Méthode, Tome 3, La Connaissance de la connaissance</i>.</li> <li>Nola, R. 1997. "Constructivism in Science and in Science Education: A Philosophical Critique", <i><a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Education" title="Science & Education">Science & Education</a></i>, Vol.6, no.1-2, pp. 55–83.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a> (ed.) 1967. <i>Logique et connaissance scientifique</i>, Encyclopédie de la Pléiade, vol. 22. Editions Gallimard.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_A._Simon" title="Herbert A. Simon">Herbert A. Simon</a> 1969. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Sciences_of_the_Artificial" title="The Sciences of the Artificial">The Sciences of the Artificial</a></i> (3rd Edition MIT Press 1996).</li> <li>Slezak, P. 2000. "A Critique of Radical Social Constructivism", in D.C. Philips, (ed.) 2000, <i>Constructivism in Education: Opinions and Second Opinions on Controversial Issues</i>, The University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Suchting, W.A. 1992. "Constructivism Deconstructed", <i><a href="/wiki/Science_%26_Education" title="Science & Education">Science & Education</a></i>, vol.1, no.3, pp. 223–254</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Watzlawick" title="Paul Watzlawick">Paul Watzlawick</a> 1984. <i>The Invented Reality: How Do We Know What We Believe We Know? (Contributions to Constructivism)</i>, W W. Norton.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Rockmore" title="Tom Rockmore">Tom Rockmore</a> 2008. <i>On Constructivist Epistemology</i>.</li> <li>Romm, N.R.A. 2001. <i>Accountability in Social Research</i>, Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.springer.com/social+sciences/book/978-0-306-46564-2">https://www.springer.com/social+sciences/book/978-0-306-46564-2</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Epistemology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">Epistemologists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Alston" title="William Alston">William Alston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laurence_BonJour" title="Laurence BonJour">Laurence BonJour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_DeRose" title="Keith DeRose">Keith DeRose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Alvin Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anil_Gupta_(philosopher)" title="Anil Gupta (philosopher)">Anil Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_D._Klein" title="Peter D. Klein">Peter Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Kornblith" title="Hilary Kornblith">Hilary Kornblith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duncan_Pritchard" title="Duncan Pritchard">Duncan Pritchard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Pryor" title="James Pryor">James Pryor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Thomas Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Siegel" title="Susanna Siegel">Susanna Siegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemological_theories" title="Category:Epistemological theories">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Feminist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_holism" title="Semantic holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">Innatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalized epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Direct_and_indirect_realism" title="Direct and indirect realism">Representational realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A posteriori</i> knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive knowledge">Descriptive knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_thought" title="Exploratory thought">Exploratory thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_injustice" title="Epistemic injustice">Epistemic injustice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_virtue" title="Epistemic virtue">Epistemic virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettier_problem" title="Gettier problem">Gettier problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileged_access" class="mw-redirect" title="Privileged access">Privileged access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedural_knowledge" title="Procedural knowledge">Procedural knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">Proposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regress_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Regress argument">Regress argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline of epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Epistemology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Epistemology">Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_stubs" title="Category:Philosophy stubs">Stubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Philosophy">Discussion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Truth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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title="Truth-bearer">Truth-bearer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truth-maker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherence_theory_of_truth" title="Coherence theory of truth">Coherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">Consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">Correspondence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth" title="Deflationary theory of truth">Deflationary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_theories_of_truth" title="Epistemic theories of truth">Epistemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_theories_of_truth" title="Pluralist theories of truth">Pluralist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth" title="Pragmatic theory of truth">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_theory_of_truth" title="Redundancy theory of truth">Redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_theory_of_truth" title="Semantic theory of truth">Semantic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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