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Wilson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Edward_O._Wilson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Consilience</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%82_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AF%D9%84%D8%A9" title="توافق الأدلة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="توافق الأدلة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consili%C3%A8ncia" title="Consiliència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Consiliència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consiliencia" title="Consiliencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Consiliencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsilienco" title="Konsilienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konsilienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Consilience" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%B5%EC%84%AD" title="통섭 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="통섭" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consilienza" title="Consilienza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Consilienza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsyliencja" title="Konsyliencja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konsyliencja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consili%C3%AAncia" title="Consiliência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Consiliência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Совпадение индуктивных обобщений – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Совпадение индуктивных обобщений" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konsilienssi" title="Konsilienssi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Konsilienssi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AD%89%E6%93%9A%E4%B8%80%E8%87%B4" title="證據一致 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="證據一致" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1068761#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit 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searchaux" style="display:none">Principle that evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Consilience_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Consilience (disambiguation)">Consilience (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>In science and history, <b>consilience</b> (also <b>convergence of evidence</b> or <b>concordance of evidence</b>) is the principle that <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions. That is, when multiple sources of evidence are in agreement, the conclusion can be very strong even when none of the individual sources of evidence is significantly so on its own. Most established scientific knowledge is supported by a convergence of evidence: if not, the evidence is comparatively weak, and there will probably not be a strong <a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a>. </p><p>The principle is based on <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity of knowledge">unity of knowledge</a>; measuring the same result by several different methods should lead to the same answer. For example, it should not matter whether one measures distances within the <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Giza pyramid complex</a> by <a href="/wiki/Laser_rangefinder" title="Laser rangefinder">laser rangefinding</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Satellite_imaging" class="mw-redirect" title="Satellite imaging">satellite imaging</a>, or with a <a href="/wiki/Meter_stick" class="mw-redirect" title="Meter stick">meter stick</a> – in all three cases, the answer should be approximately the same. For the same reason, different dating methods in <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a> should concur, a result in <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a> should not contradict a result in geology, etc. </p><p>The word <i>consilience</i> was originally coined as the phrase "consilience of inductions" by <a href="/wiki/William_Whewell" title="William Whewell">William Whewell</a> (<i>consilience</i> refers to a "jumping together" of knowledge).<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word comes from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>com-</i> "together" and <i>-siliens</i> "jumping" (as in resilience).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consilience requires the use of independent methods of measurement, meaning that the methods have few shared characteristics. That is, the mechanism by which the measurement is made is different; each method is dependent on an unrelated natural phenomenon. For example, the accuracy of laser range-finding measurements is based on the scientific understanding of <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">lasers</a>, while satellite pictures and meter (yard-)sticks rely on different phenomena. Because the methods are independent, when one of several methods is in error, it is very unlikely to be in error in the <i>same way</i> as any of the other methods, and a difference between the measurements will be observed.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the scientific understanding of the properties of lasers was inaccurate, then the laser measurement would be inaccurate but the others would not. </p><p>As a result, when several different methods agree, this is strong evidence that <i>none</i> of the methods are in error and the conclusion is correct. This is because of a greatly reduced likelihood of errors: for a consensus estimate from multiple measurements to be wrong, the errors would have to be similar for all samples and all methods of measurement, which is extremely unlikely. <a href="/wiki/Random_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Random errors">Random errors</a> will tend to cancel out as more measurements are made, due to <a href="/wiki/Regression_to_the_mean" class="mw-redirect" title="Regression to the mean">regression to the mean</a>; <a href="/wiki/Systematic_errors" class="mw-redirect" title="Systematic errors">systematic errors</a> will be detected by differences between the measurements and will also tend to cancel out since the direction of the error will still be random. This is how <a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific theories</a> reach high confidence—over time, they build up a large degree of evidence which converges on the same conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When results from different strong methods do appear to conflict, this is treated as a serious problem to be reconciled. For example, in the 19th century, the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> appeared to be no more than 20 million years old, but the Earth appeared to be no less than 300 million years (resolved by the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>, and the theory of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>);<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or current attempts to resolve theoretical differences between quantum mechanics and <a href="/wiki/General_relativity" title="General relativity">general relativity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weinberg_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weinberg-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Significance">Significance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Significance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of consilience, the <a href="/wiki/Strength_of_evidence" title="Strength of evidence">strength of evidence</a> for any particular conclusion is related to how many independent methods are supporting the conclusion, as well as how different these methods are. Those techniques with the fewest (or no) shared characteristics provide the strongest consilience and result in the strongest conclusions. This also means that confidence is usually strongest when considering evidence from different fields because the techniques are usually very different. </p><p>For example, the theory of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> is supported by a convergence of evidence from <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">molecular biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a>, geology, <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">biogeography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_anatomy" title="Comparative anatomy">comparative anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comparative_physiology" title="Comparative physiology">comparative physiology</a>, and many other fields.<sup id="cite_ref-SciAm_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SciAm-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, the evidence within each of these fields is itself a convergence providing evidence for the theory. As a result, to disprove evolution, most or all of these independent lines of evidence would have to be found to be in error.<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The strength of the evidence, considered together as a whole, results in the strong scientific consensus that the theory is correct.<sup id="cite_ref-SciAm_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SciAm-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a similar way, evidence about the <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_universe" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the universe">history of the universe</a> is drawn from astronomy, astrophysics, planetary geology, and physics.<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Finding similar conclusions from multiple independent methods is also evidence for the reliability of the methods themselves, because consilience eliminates the possibility of all potential errors that do not affect all the methods equally. This is also used for the validation of new techniques through comparison with the consilient ones. If only partial consilience is observed, this allows for the detection of errors in methodology; any weaknesses in one technique can be compensated for by the strengths of the others. Alternatively, if using more than one or two techniques for every experiment is infeasible, some of the benefits of consilience may still be obtained if it is well-established that these techniques usually give the same result. </p><p>Consilience is important across all of science, including the social sciences,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is often used as an argument for <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">scientific realism</a> by philosophers of science. Each branch of science studies a subset of reality that depends on factors studied in other branches. <a href="/wiki/Atomic_physics" title="Atomic physics">Atomic physics</a> underlies the workings of <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, which studies <a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">emergent</a> properties that in turn are the basis of <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> is not separate from the study of properties emergent from the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapses</a>. Sociology, economics, and <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> are each, in turn, studies of properties emergent from the interaction of countless individual humans. The concept that all the different areas of research are studying one real, existing universe is an apparent explanation of why scientific knowledge determined in one field of inquiry has often helped in understanding other fields. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deviations">Deviations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Deviations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consilience does not forbid deviations: in fact, since not all experiments are perfect, some deviations from established knowledge are expected. However, when the convergence is strong enough, then new evidence inconsistent with the previous conclusion is not usually enough to outweigh that convergence. Without an equally strong convergence on the new result, the weight of evidence will still favor the established result. This means that the new evidence is most likely to be wrong. </p><p>Science <a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">denialism</a> (for example, <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_denialism" title="HIV/AIDS denialism">AIDS denialism</a>) is often based on a misunderstanding of this property of consilience. A denier may promote small gaps not yet accounted for by the consilient evidence, or small amounts of evidence contradicting a conclusion without accounting for the pre-existing strength resulting from consilience. More generally, to insist that all evidence converge precisely with no deviations would be naïve falsificationism,<sup id="cite_ref-Lakatos_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakatos-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> equivalent to considering a single contrary result to <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsify</a> a theory when another explanation, such as equipment malfunction or misinterpretation of results, is much more likely.<sup id="cite_ref-Lakatos_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakatos-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_history">In history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: In history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historical evidence also converges in an analogous way. For example: if five ancient historians, none of whom knew each other, all claim that <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> seized power in Rome in 49 BCE, this is strong evidence in favor of that event occurring even if each individual historian is only partially reliable. By contrast, if the same historian had made the same claim five times in five different places (and no other types of evidence were available), the claim is much weaker because it originates from a single source. The evidence from the ancient historians could also converge with evidence from other fields, such as archaeology: for example, evidence that many senators fled Rome at the time, that the battles of <a href="/wiki/Caesar%E2%80%99s_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar’s civil war">Caesar’s civil war</a> occurred, and so forth. </p><p>Consilience has also been discussed in reference to <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a>. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"We [have now discussed] eighteen proofs all converging on one conclusion...the deniers shift the burden of proof to historians by demanding that <i>each</i> piece of evidence, independently and without corroboration between them, prove the Holocaust. Yet no historian has ever claimed that one piece of evidence proves the Holocaust. We must examine the collective whole."<sup id="cite_ref-Shermer_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>That is, individually the evidence may underdetermine the conclusion, but together they overdetermine it. A similar way to state this is that to ask for one <i>particular</i> piece of evidence in favor of a conclusion is a flawed question.<sup id="cite_ref-SciAm_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SciAm-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shermer2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shermer2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outside_the_sciences">Outside the sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Outside the sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the sciences, consilience can be important to <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a>, ethics and religion. Both artists and scientists have identified the importance of biology in the process of artistic innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_concept">History of the concept</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History of the concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Consilience has its roots in the ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek concept</a> of an <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_and_extrinsic_properties" title="Intrinsic and extrinsic properties">intrinsic</a> orderliness that governs our <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>, inherently comprehensible by logical process, a vision at odds with <a href="/wiki/Mystical" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical">mystical</a> views in many cultures that surrounded the Hellenes. The <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> view was recovered during the high <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, separated from theology during the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and found its apogee in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whewell's definition was that:<sup id="cite_ref-Whewell_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whewell-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Consilience of Inductions takes place when an <a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a>, obtained from one class of facts, coincides with an Induction obtained from another different class. Thus Consilience is a test of the truth of the Theory in which it occurs.</p></blockquote> <p>More recent descriptions include: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Where there is a convergence of evidence, where the same explanation is implied, there is increased confidence in the explanation. Where there is divergence, then either the explanation is at fault or one or more of the sources of information is in error or requires reinterpretation."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Proof is derived through a convergence of evidence from numerous lines of inquiry--multiple, independent inductions, all of which point to an unmistakable conclusion."<sup id="cite_ref-SciAm_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SciAm-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Edward_O._Wilson">Edward O. Wilson</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Edward O. Wilson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the concept of consilience in Whewell's sense was widely discussed by philosophers of science, the term was unfamiliar to the broader public until the end of the 20th century, when it was revived in <i><a href="/wiki/Consilience_(book)" title="Consilience (book)">Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge</a>,</i> a 1998 book by the author and biologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Osborne_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward Osborne Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>, as an attempt to bridge the cultural gap between the sciences and the humanities that was the subject of <a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution</a></i> (1959).<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Wilson believed that "the humanities, ranging from philosophy and history to moral reasoning, comparative religion, and interpretation of the arts, will draw closer to the sciences and partly fuse with them" with the result that science and the scientific method, from within this fusion, would not only explain the physical phenomenon but also provide moral guidance and be the ultimate source of all truths.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wilson held that with the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern sciences</a>, the sense of unity gradually was lost in the increasing fragmentation and specialization of knowledge in the last two centuries. He asserted that the sciences, humanities, and arts have a common goal: to give a purpose to understand the details, to lend to all inquirers "a conviction, far deeper than a mere working proposition, that the world is orderly and can be explained by a small number of natural laws." An important point made by Wilson is that hereditary human nature and evolution itself profoundly affect the evolution of culture, in essence, a sociobiological concept. Wilson's concept is a much broader notion of consilience than that of Whewell, who was merely pointing out that generalizations invented to account for one set of phenomena often account for others as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A parallel view lies in the term <a href="/wiki/Universology" title="Universology">universology</a>, which literally means "the science of the universe." Universology was first promoted for the study of the interconnecting principles and truths of all domains of knowledge by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pearl_Andrews" title="Stephen Pearl Andrews">Stephen Pearl Andrews</a>, a 19th-century utopian futurist and anarchist.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_authority" title="Argument from authority">Appeal to authority</a> – A fallacious argument that rationalizes the conclusion via an appeal to authority</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeal_to_tradition" title="Appeal to tradition">Appeal to tradition</a> – Logical fallacy in which a thesis is deemed correct on the basis of tradition</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science#Coherentism" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science#Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equifinality" title="Equifinality">Equifinality</a> – Principle in systems theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a> – Interplay between observation, experiment, and theory in science</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a> – Combination of beliefs and traditions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_knowledge_system" title="Tree of knowledge system">Tree of knowledge system</a> – Map of history from Big Bang to present</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Science" title="Unified Science">Unified Science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note that this is not the same as performing the same measurement several times. While repetition does provide evidence because it shows that the measurement is being performed consistently, it would not be consilience and would be more vulnerable to error.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Statistically, if three different tests are each 90% reliable when they give a positive result, a positive result from all three tests would be 99.9% reliable; five such tests would be 99.999% reliable, and so forth. This requires the tests to be <a href="/wiki/Statistically_independent" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistically independent">statistically independent</a>, analogous to the requirement for independence in the methods of measurement.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">More generally, anything which results in a false positive or false negative.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Wilson-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilson1998" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Edward O (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/consilienceunity00wils"><i>Consilience: the unity of knowledge</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_A._Knopf" title="Alfred A. Knopf">Knopf</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45077-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-45077-1"><bdi>978-0-679-45077-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36528112">36528112</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consilience%3A+the+unity+of+knowledge&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Knopf&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36528112&rft.isbn=978-0-679-45077-1&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Edward+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconsilienceunity00wils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsilience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shermer-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Shermer_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermer2000" class="citation book cs1">Shermer, Michael (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/denyinghistorywh00sher_1"><i>Denying History: Who says the Holocaust never happened and why do they say it?</i></a></span>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520216129" title="Special:BookSources/9780520216129"><bdi>9780520216129</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Denying+History%3A+Who+says+the+Holocaust+never+happened+and+why+do+they+say+it%3F&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9780520216129&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdenyinghistorywh00sher_1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsilience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=consilience">consilience</a> <i>Online etymology dictionary</i>. Retrieved 17 October 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBahcall2000" class="citation web cs1">Bahcall, John N. (29 June 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/how-the-sun-shines">"How the sun shines"</a>. <i>NobelPrize.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NobelPrize.org&rft.atitle=How+the+sun+shines&rft.date=2000-06-29&rft.aulast=Bahcall&rft.aufirst=John+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fthemes%2Fhow-the-sun-shines&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsilience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weinberg-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Weinberg_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeinberg1993" class="citation book cs1">Weinberg, S (1993). <i>Dreams of a Final Theory: The Scientist's Search for the Ultimate Laws of Nature</i>. Vintage Books, New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dreams+of+a+Final+Theory%3A+The+Scientist%27s+Search+for+the+Ultimate+Laws+of+Nature&rft.pub=Vintage+Books%2C+New+York&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Weinberg&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsilience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SciAm-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SciAm_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SciAm_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SciAm_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SciAm_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Scientific American</i>, March 2005. "The Fossil Fallacy." <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-fossil-fallacy">Link.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, in linguistics: see <i>Converging Evidence: Methodological and theoretical issues for linguistic research, edited by Doris Schonefeld.</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nGKT-2VwO0UC&dq=Converging+Evidence&pg=PT92">Link.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lakatos-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lakatos_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lakatos_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.inf.fu-berlin.de/lehre/pmo/eng/Lakatos-Falsification.pdf">Imre Lakatos.</a>, in <i>Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge</i> (1970).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shermer2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Shermer2_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermer2002" class="citation book cs1">Shermer, Michael (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indarwinsshadowl0000sher"><i>In Darwin's Shadow: The Life and Science of Alfred Russel Wallace</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indarwinsshadowl0000sher/page/319">319</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514830-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514830-5"><bdi>978-0-19-514830-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Darwin%27s+Shadow%3A+The+Life+and+Science+of+Alfred+Russel+Wallace&rft.pages=319&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514830-5&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findarwinsshadowl0000sher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsilience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whewell-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Whewell_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhewell1840" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Whewell, William (1840). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosofindu01whewrich/philosofindu01whewrich/page/n45/mode/2up?q=xxxix"><i>The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon Their History</i></a>. Vol. 2 vols. London: John W. Parker. p. xxxix.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+the+Inductive+Sciences%2C+Founded+Upon+Their+History&rft.pages=xxxix&rft.pub=London%3A+John+W.+Parker&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Whewell&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosofindu01whewrich%2Fphilosofindu01whewrich%2Fpage%2Fn45%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fq%3Dxxxix&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsilience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography</i>, section 28. Aviezer Tucker (editor).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorgan" class="citation web cs1">Horgan, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/science-should-not-try-to-absorb-religion-and-other-ways-of-knowing/">"Science Should Not Try to Absorb Religion and Other Ways of Knowing"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Science+Should+Not+Try+to+Absorb+Religion+and+Other+Ways+of+Knowing&rft.aulast=Horgan&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fscience-should-not-try-to-absorb-religion-and-other-ways-of-knowing%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConsilience" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Consilience&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/consilience" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:consilience">consilience</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/bookauth/ba980318.htm">A conversation with Edward O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/whewell/">William Whewell in the <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/36px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consilience&oldid=1258827972">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consilience&oldid=1258827972</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_epistemology" title="Category:Concepts in epistemology">Concepts in epistemology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Concepts_in_the_philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Concepts in the philosophy of science">Concepts in the philosophy of science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Evidence" title="Category:Evidence">Evidence</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_studies" title="Category:Science studies">Science studies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_method" title="Category:Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_December_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from December 2022">Use dmy dates from December 2022</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 21 November 2024, at 21:20<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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