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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Before_1900" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Before_1900"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Before 1900</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Before_1900-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Since_1900" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_1900"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Since 1900</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_1900-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Prehistory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Ancient</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Medieval</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Modern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Museums" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Museums"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Museums</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Museums-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benefits_of_Natural_History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits_of_Natural_History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Benefits of Natural History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benefits_of_Natural_History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural history</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 61 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-61" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">61 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurgeskiedenis" title="Natuurgeskiedenis – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Natuurgeskiedenis" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تاريخ طبيعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ طبيعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natural" title="Historia natural – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia natural" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99bi%C9%99t%C5%9F%C3%BCnasl%C4%B1q" title="Təbiətşünaslıq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təbiətşünaslıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="প্রাকৃতিক ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাকৃতিক ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phok-bu%CC%8Dt-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Phok-bu̍t-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Phok-bu̍t-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Естествознание – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Естествознание" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_natural" title="Història natural – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història natural" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87%D1%83%D1%82%C3%A7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%C4%83%D0%BA_%D0%BF%C4%95%D0%BB%C4%95%D0%B2%C4%95" title="Çутçанталăк пĕлĕвĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Çутçанталăк пĕлĕвĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C5%99%C3%ADrodopis" title="Přírodopis – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Přírodopis" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorie" title="Naturhistorie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturhistorie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturgeschichte" title="Naturgeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Naturgeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φυσική ιστορία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσική ιστορία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natural" title="Historia natural – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia natural" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natura_historio" title="Natura historio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Natura historio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natural" title="Historia natural – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Historia natural" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="تاریخ طبیعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ طبیعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_naturelle" title="Histoire naturelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire naturelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natural" title="Historia natural – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia natural" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B0%95%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99" title="박물학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="박물학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բնագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բնագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="प्राकृतिक इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्राकृतिक इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_alam" title="Sejarah alam – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah alam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natural" title="Historia natural – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia natural" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_naturale" title="Storia naturale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia naturale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%98%D7%91%D7%A2" title="ידיעת הטבע – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ידיעת הטבע" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%87%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8" title="ನೈಸರ್ಗಿಕ ಇತಿಹಾಸ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ನೈಸರ್ಗಿಕ ಇತಿಹಾಸ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_naturalis_(scientia)" title="Historia naturalis (scientia) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia naturalis (scientia)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturl%C3%A9ier" title="Naturléier – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Naturléier" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term%C3%A9szetrajz" title="Természetrajz – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Természetrajz" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Природонаука – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Природонаука" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%89" title="تاريخ طبيعى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تاريخ طبيعى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_semula_jadi" title="Sejarah semula jadi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah semula jadi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natuurlijke_historie" title="Natuurlijke historie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Natuurlijke historie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%9A%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6" title="博物学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="博物学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorie" title="Naturhistorie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Naturhistorie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistorie" title="Naturhistorie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Naturhistorie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabiatshunoslik" title="Tabiatshunoslik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tabiatshunoslik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_naturalna" title="Historia naturalna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia naturalna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_natural" title="História natural – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História natural" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1biyattan%C4%B1w" title="Tábiyattanıw – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Tábiyattanıw" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorie_natural%C4%83" title="Istorie naturală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istorie naturală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Естествознание – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Естествознание" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_natyrore" title="Historia natyrore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia natyrore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="ස්වභාවික ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ස්වභාවික ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history" title="Natural history – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Natural history" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prirodopis" title="Prirodopis – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prirodopis" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="مێژووی سروشتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی سروشتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Природна историја – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Природна историја" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luonnonhistoria" title="Luonnonhistoria – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Luonnonhistoria" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturhistoria" title="Naturhistoria – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Naturhistoria" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likas_na_kasaysayan" title="Likas na kasaysayan – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Likas na kasaysayan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="இயற்கை வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இயற்கை வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="ธรรมชาติวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ธรรมชาติวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D1%8A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8%D1%8A%D3%A3" title="Таърихи табиъӣ – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Таърихи табиъӣ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Do%C4%9Fa_tarihi" title="Doğa tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Doğa tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B0_%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Природнича історія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Природнича історія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="فطری تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فطری تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_t%E1%BB%B1_nhi%C3%AAn" title="Lịch sử tự nhiên – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử tự nhiên" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" title="自然歷史 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="自然歷史" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="自然历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study of organisms including plants or animals in their environment</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Natural_history_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Natural history (disambiguation)">Natural history (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Naturalist" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Naturalist_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Naturalist (disambiguation)">Naturalist (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Table_of_Natural_History,_Cyclopaedia,_Volume_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/200px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/300px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg/400px-Table_of_Natural_History%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1602" data-file-height="2580" /></a><figcaption>Black and white tables of natural history, from <a href="/wiki/Ephraim_Chambers" title="Ephraim Chambers">Ephraim Chambers</a>'s 1728 <i><a href="/wiki/Cyclopaedia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopaedia</a></i>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Natural history</b> is a domain of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Scientific_inquiry" title="Scientific method">inquiry</a> involving <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, in their <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environment</a>, leaning more towards <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observational</a> than <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> methods of study. A person who studies natural history is called a <b>naturalist</b> or <b>natural historian</b>. </p><p>Natural history encompasses <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific research</a> but is not limited to it.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involves the systematic study of any category of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural</a> objects or organisms,<sup id="cite_ref-isbn0-19-861271-0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-19-861271-0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> so while it dates from studies in the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">ancient</a> <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_world" title="Greco-Roman world">Greco-Roman world</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Agricultural_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Agricultural Revolution">mediaeval Arabic world</a>, through to European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> naturalists working in near isolation, today's natural history is a <a href="/wiki/Cross_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross discipline">cross-discipline</a> umbrella of many specialty sciences; e.g., <a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">geobiology</a> has a strong multidisciplinary nature. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Before_1900">Before 1900</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Before 1900"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:342px;max-width:342px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:209px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_vitry_sur_seine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_vitry_sur_seine.jpg/167px-Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_vitry_sur_seine.jpg" decoding="async" width="167" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_vitry_sur_seine.jpg/251px-Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_vitry_sur_seine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_vitry_sur_seine.jpg/334px-Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_vitry_sur_seine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="894" /></a></span></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:169px;max-width:169px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:209px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_complete.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_complete.JPG/167px-Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_complete.JPG" decoding="async" width="167" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_complete.JPG/251px-Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_complete.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_complete.JPG/334px-Palaeotherium_magnum_skeleton_complete.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2202" data-file-height="2758" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">1888 illustration (left) and photograph (right) of a <i><a href="/wiki/Palaeotherium" title="Palaeotherium">Palaeotherium</a> magnum</i> skeleton at the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History,_France" title="National Museum of Natural History, France">National Museum of Natural History, France</a></div></div></div></div> <p>The meaning of the English term "natural history" (a <a href="/wiki/Calque" title="Calque">calque</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>historia naturalis</i>) has narrowed progressively with time, while, by contrast, the meaning of the related term "nature" has widened (see also <a href="#History">History</a> below). </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">antiquity</a>, "natural history" covered essentially anything connected with <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">nature</a>, or used materials drawn from nature, such as <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">encyclopedia of this title</a>, published <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 77 to 79 AD</span>, which covers <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, humans and their <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a>, as well as animals and plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleischner-2025_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleischner-2025-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Medieval</a> European academics considered knowledge to have two main divisions: the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a> (primarily what is now known as <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Divinity_(academic_discipline)" title="Divinity (academic discipline)">divinity</a>, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. The study of nature revived in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, and quickly became a third branch of academic knowledge, itself divided into descriptive natural history and <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, the analytical study of nature. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, while natural history included the <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> sciences. The two were strongly associated. During the heyday of the <a href="/wiki/Gentleman_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentleman scientist">gentleman scientists</a>, many people contributed to both fields, and early papers in both were commonly read at professional <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Academy of Sciences">science society</a> meetings such as the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a>—both founded during the 17th century. </p><p>Natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus' aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> prompted the development of geology to help find useful <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">mineral</a> deposits.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Since_1900">Since 1900</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Since 1900"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lycee_Michelet_Vanves_bibliotheque_collection_histoire_naturelle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Lycee_Michelet_Vanves_bibliotheque_collection_histoire_naturelle.jpg/220px-Lycee_Michelet_Vanves_bibliotheque_collection_histoire_naturelle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Lycee_Michelet_Vanves_bibliotheque_collection_histoire_naturelle.jpg/330px-Lycee_Michelet_Vanves_bibliotheque_collection_histoire_naturelle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Lycee_Michelet_Vanves_bibliotheque_collection_histoire_naturelle.jpg/440px-Lycee_Michelet_Vanves_bibliotheque_collection_histoire_naturelle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4114" data-file-height="2743" /></a><figcaption>A natural history collection in a French public secondary school</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern definitions of natural history come from a variety of fields and sources, and many of the modern definitions emphasize a particular aspect of the field, creating a plurality of definitions with a number of common themes among them. For example, while natural history is most often defined as a type of observation and a subject of study, it can also be defined as a body of knowledge, and as a craft or a practice, in which the emphasis is placed more on the observer than on the observed.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Definitions from biologists often focus on the scientific study of individual organisms in their environment, as seen in this definition by Marston Bates: "Natural history is the study of animals and Plants—of organisms. ... I like to think, then, of natural history as the study of life at the level of the individual—of what plants and animals do, how they react to each other and their environment, how they are organized into larger groupings like populations and communities"<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this more recent definition by D.S. Wilcove and T. Eisner: "The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior, and their relationships with other species".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This focus on organisms in their environment is also echoed by H.W. Greene and J.B. Losos: "Natural history focuses on where organisms are and what they do in their environment, including interactions with other organisms. It encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some definitions go further, focusing on direct observation of organisms in their environments, both past and present, such as this one by G.A. Bartholomew: "A student of natural history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants and animals directly. Because organisms are functionally inseparable from the environment in which they live and because their structure and function cannot be adequately interpreted without knowing some of their evolutionary history, the study of natural history embraces the study of fossils as well as physiographic and other aspects of the physical environment".<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a descriptive component, as seen in a recent definition by H.W. Greene: "Descriptive ecology and ethology".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several authors have argued for a more expansive view of natural history, including S. Herman, who defines the field as "the scientific study of plants and animals in their natural environments. It is concerned with levels of organization from the individual organism to the ecosystem, and stresses identification, life history, distribution, abundance, and inter-relationships. It often and appropriately includes an esthetic component",<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and T. Fleischner, who defines the field even more broadly, as "A practice of intentional, focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These definitions explicitly include the arts in the field of natural history, and are aligned with the broad definition outlined by B. Lopez, who defines the field as the "Patient interrogation of a landscape" while referring to the natural history knowledge of the Eskimo (<a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A slightly different framework for natural history, covering a similar range of themes, is also implied in the scope of work encompassed by many leading <a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">natural history museums</a>, which often include elements of anthropology, geology, paleontology, and astronomy along with botany and zoology,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or include both cultural and natural components of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The plurality of definitions for this field has been recognized as both a weakness and a strength, and a range of definitions has recently been offered by practitioners in a recent collection of views on natural history.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Prior to the advent of <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">Western science</a> humans were engaged and highly competent in indigenous ways of understanding the more-than-human world that are now referred to as <a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">traditional ecological knowledge</a>. 21st century definitions of natural history are inclusive of this understanding, such as this by Thomas Fleischner of the Natural History Institute (Prescott, Arizona):</p><blockquote><p> Natural history – a practice of intentional focused attentiveness and receptivity to the more-than-human world, guided by honesty and accuracy – is the oldest continuous human endeavor. In the evolutionary past of our species, the practice of natural history was essential for our survival, imparting critical information on habits and chronologies of plants and animals that we could eat or that could eat us. Natural history continues to be critical to human survival and thriving. It contributes to our fundamental understanding of how the world works by providing the empirical foundation of natural sciences, and it contributes directly and indirectly to human emotional and physical health, thereby fostering healthier human communities. It also serves as the basis for all conservation efforts, with natural history both informing the science and inspiring the values that drive these.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleischner-2025_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleischner-2025-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ancient"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg/170px-ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg/255px-ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg/340px-ViennaDioscoridesPlant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="639" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Blackberry" title="Blackberry">Blackberry</a> from the sixth-century <i><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Dioscurides" title="Vienna Dioscurides">Vienna Dioscurides</a></i> manuscript</figcaption></figure> <p>As a precursor to <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">Western science</a>, natural history began with <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and other ancient philosophers who analyzed the diversity of the natural world. Natural history was understood by <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> to cover anything that could be found in the world, including living things, geology, astronomy, technology, art, and humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-Pliny_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pliny-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica_(Dioscorides)" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica (Dioscorides)">De Materia Medica</a></i></span> was written between 50 and 70 AD by <a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Pedanius Dioscorides</a>, a Roman physician of Greek origin. It was widely read for more than 1,500 years until supplanted in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, making it one of the longest-lasting of all natural history books. </p><p>From the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greeks</a> until the work of <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> and other 18th-century naturalists, a major concept of natural history was the <i>scala naturae</i> or <a href="/wiki/Great_Chain_of_Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Chain of Being">Great Chain of Being</a>, an arrangement of minerals, vegetables, more primitive forms of animals, and more complex life forms on a linear scale of supposedly increasing perfection, culminating in our species.<sup id="cite_ref-Lovejoy1964_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lovejoy1964-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Medieval"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Natural history was basically static through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> in Europe—although in the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oriental" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental">Oriental</a> world, it proceeded at a much brisker pace. From the 13th century, the work of Aristotle was adapted rather rigidly into <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophy</a>, particularly by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, forming the basis for <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a>. During the Renaissance, scholars (herbalists and humanists, particularly) returned to direct observation of plants and animals for natural history, and many began to accumulate large collections of exotic specimens and unusual <a href="/wiki/Monster" title="Monster">monsters</a>. <a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a> was one of the three founding fathers of botany, along with <a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a>. Other important contributors to the field were <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Gesner" class="mw-redirect" title="Konrad Gesner">Konrad Gesner</a> (<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Historiae_animalium_(Gesner)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiae animalium (Gesner)">Historiae animalium</a></i></span>), <a href="/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch" title="Frederik Ruysch">Frederik Ruysch</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-natural_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natural-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rapid increase in the number of known organisms prompted many attempts at classifying and organizing species into <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomic groups</a>, culminating in the system of the Swedish naturalist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-natural_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natural-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British historian of Chinese science <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Needham" title="Joseph Needham">Joseph Needham</a> calls <a href="/wiki/Li_Shizhen" title="Li Shizhen">Li Shizhen</a> "the 'uncrowned king' of Chinese naturalists",<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and his <i><a href="/wiki/Bencao_gangmu" class="mw-redirect" title="Bencao gangmu">Bencao gangmu</a></i> "undoubtedly the greatest scientific achievement of the Ming".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Inline_citation#When_you_must_use_inline_citations" title="Wikipedia:Inline citation"><span title="The text near this tag needs a citation. (October 2021)">This quote needs a citation</span></a></i>]</sup> His works translated to many languages direct or influence many scholars and researchers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern">Modern</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Modern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buffon_1707-1788.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/170px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/255px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Buffon_1707-1788.jpg/340px-Buffon_1707-1788.jpg 2x" data-file-width="765" data-file-height="1134" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Georges Buffon</a> is best remembered for his <i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_naturelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Histoire naturelle">Histoire naturelle</a></i>, a 44-volume encyclopedia describing quadrupeds, birds, minerals, and some science and technology. Reptiles and fish were covered in supplements by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de" title="Bernard Germain de Lacépède">Bernard Germain de Lacépède</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>A significant contribution to English natural history was made by <a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">parson-naturalists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Kirby_(entomologist)" title="William Kirby (entomologist)">William Kirby</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_George_Wood" title="John George Wood">John George Wood</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a>, who wrote about plants, animals, and other aspects of nature. Many of these men wrote about nature to make the <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a> argument for the existence or goodness of God.<sup id="cite_ref-Armstrong2000_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armstrong2000-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since early modern times, however, a great number of women made contributions to natural history, particularly in the field of botany, be it as authors, collectors, or illustrators.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern Europe, professional disciplines such as botany, geology, <a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">physiology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a> were formed. <i>Natural history</i>, formerly the main subject taught by college science professors, was increasingly scorned by scientists of a more specialized manner and relegated to an "amateur" activity, rather than a part of science proper. In Victorian Scotland, the study of natural history was believed to contribute to good mental health.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Particularly in Britain and the United States, this grew into specialist hobbies such as the <a href="/wiki/Ornithology" title="Ornithology">study of birds</a>, butterflies, seashells (<a href="/wiki/Malacology" title="Malacology">malacology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Conchology" title="Conchology">conchology</a>), beetles, and wildflowers; meanwhile, scientists tried to define a unified discipline of biology (though with only partial success, at least until the <a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">modern evolutionary synthesis</a>). Still, the traditions of natural history continue to play a part in the study of biology, especially ecology (the study of natural systems involving living organisms and the inorganic components of the Earth's biosphere that support them), <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethology</a> (the scientific study of animal behavior), and <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">evolutionary biology</a> (the study of the relationships between life forms over very long periods of time), and re-emerges today as integrative organismal biology. </p><p>Amateur collectors and natural history entrepreneurs played an important role in building the world's large natural history collections, such as the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_London" title="Natural History Museum, London">Natural History Museum, London</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="National Museum of Natural History">National Museum of Natural History</a> in Washington, DC. </p><p>Three of the greatest English naturalists of the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>—who knew each other—each made natural history travels that took years, collected thousands of specimens, many of them new to science, and by their writings both advanced knowledge of "remote" parts of the world—the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon basin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gal%C3%A1pagos_Islands" title="Galápagos Islands">Galápagos Islands</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Indonesia" title="List of islands of Indonesia">Indonesian Archipelago</a>, among others—and in so doing helped to transform biology from a descriptive to a theory-based science. </p><p>The understanding of "Nature" as "an organism and not as a mechanism" can be traced to the writings of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (Prussia, 1769–1859). Humboldt's copious writings and research were seminal influences for Charles Darwin, <a href="/wiki/Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Simón Bolívar">Simón Bolívar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Muir" title="John Muir">John Muir</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Museums">Museums</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Museums"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">List of natural history museums</a></div> <p>Natural history <a href="/wiki/Museum" title="Museum">museums</a>, which evolved from <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_curiosities" title="Cabinet of curiosities">cabinets of curiosities</a>, played an important role in the emergence of professional biological disciplines and research programs. Particularly in the 19th century, scientists began to use their natural history collections as teaching tools for advanced students and the basis for their own <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(biology)" title="Morphology (biology)">morphological</a> research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Societies">Societies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Szczecin_pomnik_Jana_Czekanowskiego.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Szczecin_pomnik_Jana_Czekanowskiego.jpg/220px-Szczecin_pomnik_Jana_Czekanowskiego.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Szczecin_pomnik_Jana_Czekanowskiego.jpg/330px-Szczecin_pomnik_Jana_Czekanowskiego.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Szczecin_pomnik_Jana_Czekanowskiego.jpg/440px-Szczecin_pomnik_Jana_Czekanowskiego.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The monument of <a href="/wiki/Jan_Czekanowski" title="Jan Czekanowski">Jan Czekanowski</a>, a president of <a href="/wiki/Polish_Copernicus_Society_of_Naturalists" title="Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists">Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists</a> (1923–1924), in <a href="/wiki/Szczecin" title="Szczecin">Szczecin</a>, Poland</figcaption></figure> <p>The term "natural history" alone, or sometimes together with archaeology, forms the name of many national, regional, and local natural history societies that maintain records for <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a> (ornithology), <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> (<a href="/wiki/Entomology" title="Entomology">entomology</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> (mammalogy)), <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a>), plants (botany), and other organisms. They may also have <a href="/wiki/Geological" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological">geological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscopical</a> sections. </p><p>Examples of these societies in Britain include the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Society_of_Northumbria" title="Natural History Society of Northumbria">Natural History Society of Northumbria</a> founded in 1829, London Natural History Society (1858), <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Natural_History_Society" title="Birmingham Natural History Society">Birmingham Natural History Society</a> (1859), <a href="/wiki/British_Entomological_and_Natural_History_Society" title="British Entomological and Natural History Society">British Entomological and Natural History Society</a> founded in 1872, <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> Natural History Society, <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a> Microscopical and Natural History Society established in 1880, Whitby Naturalists' Club founded in 1913,<sup id="cite_ref-whitbynaturalistsclub_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-whitbynaturalistsclub-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scarborough Field Naturalists' Society and the Sorby Natural History Society, <a href="/wiki/Sheffield" title="Sheffield">Sheffield</a>, founded in 1918.<sup id="cite_ref-WMBC-Oldest_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WMBC-Oldest-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth of natural history societies was also spurred due to the growth of British colonies in tropical regions with numerous new species to be discovered. Many <a href="/wiki/Civil_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil servants">civil servants</a> took an interest in their new surroundings, sending specimens back to museums in the <a href="/wiki/UK" class="mw-redirect" title="UK">Britain</a>. (See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_natural_history" title="Indian natural history">Indian natural history</a>) </p><p>Societies in other countries include the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Naturalists" title="American Society of Naturalists">American Society of Naturalists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polish_Copernicus_Society_of_Naturalists" title="Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists">Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists</a>. </p><p>Professional societies have recognized the importance of natural history and have initiated new sections in their journals specifically for natural history observations to support the discipline. These include "Natural History Field Notes" of <i><a href="/wiki/Biotropica" title="Biotropica">Biotropica</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The Scientific Naturalist" of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esa.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/ESA-Scientific-Naturalist-Guidelines.pdf"><i>Ecology</i></a>, "From the Field" of <a href="/wiki/Waterbirds_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterbirds (journal)"><i>Waterbirds</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the "Natural History Miscellany section" of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amnat.org/announcements/CallNHM.html"><i>American Naturalist</i></a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benefits_of_Natural_History">Benefits of Natural History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Benefits of Natural History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Natural history observations have contributed to scientific questioning and theory formation. In recent times such observations contribute to how conservation priorities are determined. Mental health benefits can ensue, as well, from regular and active observation of chosen components of nature, and these reach beyond the benefits derived from passively walking through natural areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Fleischner-2025_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fleischner-2025-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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href="/wiki/Timeline_of_natural_history" title="Timeline of natural history">Timeline of natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">Natural science</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">With "natural history" articles more often published today in <a href="/wiki/List_of_science_magazines" title="List of science magazines">science magazines</a> than in <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">academic journals</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history">Natural History WordNet Search, princeton.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120303173506/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=natural+history">Archived</a> 2012-03-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isbn0-19-861271-0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isbn0-19-861271-0_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrown,_Lesley1993" class="citation cs2">Brown, Lesley (1993), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newshorteroxford00lesl"><i>The New shorter Oxford English dictionary on historical principles</i></a>, Oxford [Eng.]: Clarendon, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-861271-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-861271-0"><bdi>0-19-861271-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+shorter+Oxford+English+dictionary+on+historical+principles&rft.place=Oxford+%5BEng.%5D&rft.pub=Clarendon&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-19-861271-0&rft.au=Brown%2C+Lesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewshorteroxford00lesl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleischner-2025-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fleischner-2025_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleischner-2025_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fleischner-2025_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleischner2025" class="citation journal cs1">Fleischner, Thomas Lowe (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ecologicalcitizen.net/pdfs/epub-115.pdf">"The enduring and elemental importance of natural history"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The Ecological Citizen</i>. <b>8</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Ecological+Citizen&rft.atitle=The+enduring+and+elemental+importance+of+natural+history&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2025&rft.aulast=Fleischner&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Lowe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecologicalcitizen.net%2Fpdfs%2Fepub-115.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoerner1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lisbet_Rausing" title="Lisbet Rausing">Koerner, Lisbet</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/linnaeusnaturena00koer_0"><i>Linnaeus: Nature and Nation</i></a>. Harvard: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-09745-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-09745-2"><bdi>978-0-674-09745-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linnaeus%3A+Nature+and+Nation&rft.place=Harvard&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-674-09745-2&rft.aulast=Koerner&rft.aufirst=Lisbet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flinnaeusnaturena00koer_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barry Barnes and Steven Shapin, "Natural order: historical studies of scientific culture", Sage, 1979.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleischner2011" class="citation book cs1">Fleischner, Thomas Lowe (2011-05-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8iPrCAAAQBAJ"><i>The Way of Natural History</i></a>. Trinity University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59534-074-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59534-074-0"><bdi>978-1-59534-074-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+of+Natural+History&rft.pub=Trinity+University+Press&rft.date=2011-05-01&rft.isbn=978-1-59534-074-0&rft.aulast=Fleischner&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Lowe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8iPrCAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marston Bates, <i>The nature of natural history</i>, Scribners, 1954.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. S Wilcove and T. Eisner, "The impending extinction of natural history," Chronicle of Higher Education 15 (2000): B24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreeneLosos1988" class="citation journal cs1">Greene, Harry W.; Losos, Jonathan B. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1310949">"Systematics, Natural History, and Conservation: Field Biologists Must Fight a Public-Image Problem"</a>. <i>BioScience</i>. <b>38</b> (7): 458–462. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1310949">10.2307/1310949</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3568">0006-3568</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1310949">1310949</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Systematics%2C+Natural+History%2C+and+Conservation%3A+Field+Biologists+Must+Fight+a+Public-Image+Problem&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=458-462&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0006-3568&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1310949%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1310949&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Harry+W.&rft.au=Losos%2C+Jonathan+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1310949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBartholomew1986" class="citation journal cs1">Bartholomew, George A. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1310237">"The Role of Natural History in Contemporary Biology"</a>. <i>BioScience</i>. <b>36</b> (5): 324–329. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1310237">10.2307/1310237</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3568">0006-3568</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1310237">1310237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Natural+History+in+Contemporary+Biology&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=324-329&rft.date=1986&rft.issn=0006-3568&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1310237%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1310237&rft.aulast=Bartholomew&rft.aufirst=George+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1310237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreene2005" class="citation journal cs1">Greene, Harry W. (2005-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534704003350">"Organisms in nature as a central focus for biology"</a>. <i>Trends in Ecology & Evolution</i>. <b>20</b> (1): 23–27. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2004.11.005">10.1016/j.tree.2004.11.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0169-5347">0169-5347</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701336">16701336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+%26+Evolution&rft.atitle=Organisms+in+nature+as+a+central+focus+for+biology&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=23-27&rft.date=2005-01-01&rft.issn=0169-5347&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16701336&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2004.11.005&rft.aulast=Greene&rft.aufirst=Harry+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fpii%2FS0169534704003350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHerman2002" class="citation journal cs1">Herman, Steven G. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3802927">"Wildlife Biology and Natural History: Time for a Reunion"</a>. <i>The Journal of Wildlife Management</i>. <b>66</b> (4): 933–946. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3802927">10.2307/3802927</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-541X">0022-541X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3802927">3802927</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Wildlife+Management&rft.atitle=Wildlife+Biology+and+Natural+History%3A+Time+for+a+Reunion&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=933-946&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0022-541X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3802927%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3802927&rft.aulast=Herman&rft.aufirst=Steven+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3802927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">T. L. Fleischner, "Natural history and the spiral of offering", Wild Earth 11, no. 3/4 (2002): 10–13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barry Lopez, <i>Arctic Dreams</i>, Vintage, 1986.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">American Museum of Natural History, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amnh.org/about/">Mission Statement</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110604145807/http://www.amnh.org/about/">Archived</a> 2011-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Field Museum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fieldmuseum.org/about/mission">Mission Statement</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120103185243/http://fieldmuseum.org/about/mission">Archived</a> 2012-01-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Natural History Museum, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/index.html">Mission Statement</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141227181412/http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/index.html">Archived</a> 2014-12-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120710211403/http://declinetorebirth.org/conversations/an-accepted-way-of-viewing-art">An Accepted Way of Viewing Art</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pliny-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Pliny_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPliny_the_Elder2004" class="citation book cs1">Pliny the Elder (2004). <i>Natural History: A Selection</i>. Penguin Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044413-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-044413-1"><bdi>978-0-14-044413-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+History%3A+A+Selection&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-14-044413-1&rft.au=Pliny+the+Elder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lovejoy1964-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lovejoy1964_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_O._Lovejoy1964" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Arthur O. Lovejoy</a> (1964) [1936], <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5u3HZjTpkTgC"><i>The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea</i></a>, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-36153-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-36153-9"><bdi>0-674-36153-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Chain+of+Being%3A+A+Study+of+the+History+of+an+Idea&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=0-674-36153-9&rft.au=Arthur+O.+Lovejoy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5u3HZjTpkTgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-natural-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-natural_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-natural_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?category=Natural+History">Natural History Timeline</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101231172609/http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?category=Natural+History">Archived</a> 2010-12-31 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>". HistoryofScience.com.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Needham, J., & Ling, W. (1976). <i>Science and civilization in China</i> (Vol. 5, part.3, p. 216). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Armstrong2000-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Armstrong2000_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Armstrong2000" class="citation book cs1">Patrick Armstrong (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hB0hEc4CN3wC"><i>The English Parson-naturalist: A Companionship Between Science and Religion</i></a>. Gracewing Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85244-516-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85244-516-7"><bdi>978-0-85244-516-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+English+Parson-naturalist%3A+A+Companionship+Between+Science+and+Religion&rft.pub=Gracewing+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-85244-516-7&rft.au=Patrick+Armstrong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhB0hEc4CN3wC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://womeninbotany.ur.de/">"Women in Botany"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190903110914/https://womeninbotany.ur.de/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-09-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Women+in+Botany&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwomeninbotany.ur.de%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinnegan,_Diarmid_A.2008" class="citation cs2">Finnegan, Diarmid A. (2008), "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'An aid to mental health': natural history, alienists and therapeutics in Victorian Scotland", <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences</i>, <b>39</b> (3): 326–337, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.2008.06.006">10.1016/j.shpsc.2008.06.006</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18761284">18761284</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studies+in+History+and+Philosophy+of+Biological+and+Biomedical+Sciences&rft.atitle=%27An+aid+to+mental+health%27%3A+natural+history%2C+alienists+and+therapeutics+in+Victorian+Scotland&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=326-337&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.shpsc.2008.06.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18761284&rft.au=Finnegan%2C+Diarmid+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Wulf" title="Andrea Wulf">Andrea Wulf</a> (2015),<i><a href="/wiki/The_Invention_of_Nature" title="The Invention of Nature">The Invention of Nature</a></i>, Knopf <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-whitbynaturalistsclub-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-whitbynaturalistsclub_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whitbynaturalists.co.uk/">"Whitby Naturalists' Club"</a>. whitbynaturalists.co.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180124070550/http://www.whitbynaturalists.co.uk/">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 23,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Whitby+Naturalists%27+Club&rft.pub=whitbynaturalists.co.uk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitbynaturalists.co.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WMBC-Oldest-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WMBC-Oldest_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMabbett2010" class="citation web cs1">Mabbett, Andy (20 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130523040849/http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/club/older">"Older Organisations"</a>. <a href="/wiki/West_Midland_Bird_Club" title="West Midland Bird Club">West Midland Bird Club</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Older+Organisations&rft.pub=West+Midland+Bird+Club&rft.date=2010-11-20&rft.aulast=Mabbett&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.westmidlandbirdclub.com%2Fclub%2Folder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: unfit URL (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_unfit_URL" title="Category:CS1 maint: unfit URL">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowersCarloSladeSlik2021" class="citation journal cs1">Powers, Jennifer S.; Carlo, Tomás A.; Slade, Eleanor M.; Slik, Ferry (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/btp.12944">"Biotropica announces a new paper category: Natural History Field Notes"</a>. <i>Biotropica</i>. <b>53</b> (2): 352–353. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021Biotr..53..352P">2021Biotr..53..352P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fbtp.12944">10.1111/btp.12944</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3606">0006-3606</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biotropica&rft.atitle=Biotropica+announces+a+new+paper+category%3A+Natural+History+Field+Notes&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=352-353&rft.date=2021&rft.issn=0006-3606&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fbtp.12944&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021Biotr..53..352P&rft.aulast=Powers&rft.aufirst=Jennifer+S.&rft.au=Carlo%2C+Tom%C3%A1s+A.&rft.au=Slade%2C+Eleanor+M.&rft.au=Slik%2C+Ferry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fbtp.12944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSundar2022" class="citation journal cs1">Sundar, K. S. Gopi (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1675/063.045.0101">"Editorial: Transitioning Editorial Boards Through a Global Pandemic"</a>. <i>Waterbirds</i>. <b>45</b> (1): i–iii. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1675%2F063.045.0101">10.1675/063.045.0101</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1524-4695">1524-4695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Waterbirds&rft.atitle=Editorial%3A+Transitioning+Editorial+Boards+Through+a+Global+Pandemic&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=i-iii&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1675%2F063.045.0101&rft.issn=1524-4695&rft.aulast=Sundar&rft.aufirst=K.+S.+Gopi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1675%2F063.045.0101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>Natural history</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Natural+history">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllen1994" class="citation cs2">Allen, David Elliston (1994), <i>The Naturalist in Britain: a social history</i>, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, p. 270, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03632-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03632-2"><bdi>0-691-03632-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naturalist+in+Britain%3A+a+social+history&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=270&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-691-03632-2&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=David+Elliston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2012" class="citation cs2">Liu, Huajie (2012), <i>Living as a Naturalist</i>, Beijing: Peking University Press, p. 363, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-7-301-19788-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-7-301-19788-2"><bdi>978-7-301-19788-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+as+a+Naturalist&rft.place=Beijing&rft.pages=363&rft.pub=Peking+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-7-301-19788-2&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Huajie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Peter Anstey (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/2011/01/two-forms-of-natural-history/"><i>Two Forms of Natural History</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110809125036/https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/2011/01/two-forms-of-natural-history/">Archived</a> 2011-08-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/"></a></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/">Early Modern Experimental Philosophy<i></i></a><i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110721051523/https://blogs.otago.ac.nz/emxphi/">Archived</a> 2011-07-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtran1990" class="citation cs2">Atran, Scott (1990), <i>Cognitive Foundations of Natural History: Towards an Anthropology of Science</i>, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 376, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43871-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-43871-1"><bdi>978-0-521-43871-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Foundations+of+Natural+History%3A+Towards+an+Anthropology+of+Science&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=376&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-43871-1&rft.aulast=Atran&rft.aufirst=Scott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANatural+history" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Farber, Paul Lawrence (2000), <i>Finding Order in Nature: The Naturalist Tradition from Linnaeus to E. O. Wilson</i>. Johns Hopkins University Press: Baltimore.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Kohler" title="Robert E. Kohler">Kohler, Robert E.</a> (2002), <i>Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology</i>. University of Chicago Press: Chicago.</li> <li>Mayr, Ernst. (1982), <i>The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance</i>. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Massachusetts.</li> <li>Rainger, Ronald; Keith R. Benson; and Jane Maienschein (eds) (1988), <i>The American Development of Biology</i>. University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Natural_history&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Natural_history" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Natural history">Natural history</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has original works on the topic: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Natural_History_and_Biology" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Natural History and Biology">Natural History and Biology</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_links_list.htm"><i>A History of the Ecological Sciences</i></a> by Frank N. Egerton</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/73702">The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 07 (of 10)</a></i>, London: Macmillan and Co., 1904</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Natural history</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneering<br />naturalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical<br />antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Theophrastus_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Historia Plantarum (Theophrastus book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a> (<i>De Natura Animalium</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)" title="Natural History (Pliny)">Natural History</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/De_Materia_Medica" class="mw-redirect" title="De Materia Medica">De Materia Medica</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ulisse_Aldrovandi" title="Ulisse Aldrovandi">Ulisse Aldrovandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaspard_Bauhin" title="Gaspard Bauhin">Gaspard Bauhin</a> (<i>Pinax theatri botanici</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Brunfels" title="Otto Brunfels">Otto Brunfels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieronymus_Bock" title="Hieronymus Bock">Hieronymus Bock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrea_Cesalpino" title="Andrea Cesalpino">Andrea Cesalpino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Cordus" title="Valerius Cordus">Valerius Cordus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonhart_Fuchs" title="Leonhart Fuchs">Leonhart Fuchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Gessner" title="Conrad Gessner">Conrad Gessner</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_animalium_(Gessner_book)" title="Historia animalium (Gessner book)">Historia animalium</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederik_Ruysch" title="Frederik Ruysch">Frederik Ruysch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Turner_(naturalist)" title="William Turner (naturalist)">William Turner</a> (<i>Avium Praecipuarum</i>, <i>New Herball</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Gerard" title="John Gerard">John Gerard</a> (<i>Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Micrographia" title="Micrographia">Micrographia</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Derham" title="William Derham">William Derham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Swammerdam" title="Jan Swammerdam">Jan Swammerdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnier_de_Graaf" title="Regnier de Graaf">Regnier de Graaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Steller" title="Georg Wilhelm Steller">Georg Steller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johan_Christian_Fabricius" title="Johan Christian Fabricius">Johan Christian Fabricius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ray" title="John Ray">John Ray</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Plantarum_(Ray_book)" title="Historia Plantarum (Ray book)">Historia Plantarum</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges-Louis_Leclerc,_Comte_de_Buffon" title="Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon">Comte de Buffon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Histoire_Naturelle" title="Histoire Naturelle">Histoire Naturelle</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Germain_de_Lac%C3%A9p%C3%A8de" title="Bernard Germain de Lacépède">Bernard Germain de Lacépède</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_White" title="Gilbert White">Gilbert White</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Natural_History_and_Antiquities_of_Selborne" title="The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne">The Natural History of Selborne</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Bewick" title="Thomas Bewick">Thomas Bewick</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_British_Birds" title="A History of British Birds">A History of British Birds</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck" title="Jean-Baptiste Lamarck">Jean-Baptiste Lamarck</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Philosophie_zoologique" title="Philosophie zoologique">Philosophie zoologique</a></i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Montagu_(naturalist)" title="George Montagu (naturalist)">George Montagu</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Ornithological_Dictionary" title="Ornithological Dictionary">Ornithological Dictionary</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Le_R%C3%A8gne_Animal" title="Le Règne Animal">Le Règne Animal</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(geologist)" title="William Smith (geologist)">William Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Malay_Archipelago" title="The Malay Archipelago">The Malay Archipelago</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Walter_Bates" title="Henry Walter Bates">Henry Walter Bates</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons" title="The Naturalist on the River Amazons">The Naturalist on the River Amazons</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_James_Audubon" title="John James Audubon">John James Audubon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Birds_of_America" title="The Birds of America">The Birds of America</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Buckland" title="William Buckland">William Buckland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lyell" title="Charles Lyell">Charles Lyell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Anning" title="Mary Anning">Mary Anning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Henri_Fabre" title="Jean-Henri Fabre">Jean-Henri Fabre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Henry_Gosse" title="Philip Henry Gosse">Philip Henry Gosse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asa_Gray" title="Asa Gray">Asa Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_Hooker" title="William Jackson Hooker">William Jackson Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Jardine,_7th_Baronet" title="Sir William Jardine, 7th Baronet">William Jardine</a> (<i>The Naturalist's Library</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Haeckel" title="Ernst Haeckel">Ernst Haeckel</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kunstformen_der_Natur" title="Kunstformen der Natur">Kunstformen der Natur</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lydekker" title="Richard Lydekker">Richard Lydekker</a> (<i>The Royal Natural History</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martinus_Beijerinck" title="Martinus Beijerinck">Martinus Beijerinck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbott_Handerson_Thayer" title="Abbott Handerson Thayer">Abbott Thayer</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Concealing-Coloration_in_the_Animal_Kingdom" title="Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom">Concealing-Coloration in the Animal Kingdom</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_B._Cott" title="Hugh B. Cott">Hugh B. Cott</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_Coloration_in_Animals" title="Adaptive Coloration in Animals">Adaptive Coloration in Animals</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolaas_Tinbergen" title="Nikolaas Tinbergen">Niko Tinbergen</a> (<i>The Study of Instinct</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/On_Aggression" title="On Aggression">On Aggression</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Frisch" title="Karl von Frisch">Karl von Frisch</a> (<i>The Dancing Bees</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Lockley" title="Ronald Lockley">Ronald Lockley</a> (<i>Shearwaters</i>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="2" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Sceliphron wasp building nest"><img alt="Sceliphron wasp building nest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/85px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/128px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png/170px-Naturalist_on_the_River_Amazons_figure_17.png 2x" data-file-width="887" data-file-height="1280" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_museum" title="Natural history museum">Natural history museums</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parson-naturalist" title="Parson-naturalist">Parson-naturalists</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_parson-naturalists" title="List of parson-naturalists">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Natural_history_societies" title="Category:Natural history societies">Natural History Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_dealers" title="List of natural history dealers">List of natural history dealers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_biology" title="Template:History of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_biology" title="Template talk:History of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_biology_(timeline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">timeline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields,<br />disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biochemistry" title="History of biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">Botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ecology" title="History of ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_immunology" title="Timeline of immunology">Immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_model_organisms" title="History of model organisms">Model organisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_biology" title="History of molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_phycology" title="History of phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">Plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_RNA_biology" title="History of RNA biology">RNA biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_through_1859" title="History of zoology through 1859">Zoology (through 1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_zoology_since_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="History of zoology since 1859">Zoology (since 1859)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories,<br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology" title="Central dogma of molecular biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_chain_of_being" title="Great chain of being">Great chain of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_gene%E2%80%93one_enzyme_hypothesis" title="One gene–one enzyme hypothesis">One gene–one enzyme hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sequence_hypothesis" title="Sequence hypothesis">Sequence hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">Spontaneous generation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_creation%E2%80%93evolution_controversy" title="History of the creation–evolution controversy">History of the creation-evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldtian_science" title="Humboldtian science">Humboldtian science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">Natural theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_biology" title="Category:History of biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_humanities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_humanities" title="Template:Environmental humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_humanities" title="Template talk:Environmental humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_humanities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crop_art" title="Crop art">Crop art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Environmental art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sculpture" title="Environmental sculpture">Environmental sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_art" title="Land art">Land art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_painting" title="Landscape painting">Landscape painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">wildlife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture_trail" title="Sculpture trail">Sculpture trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-specific_art" title="Site-specific art">Site-specific art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_art" title="Sustainable art">Sustainable art</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG/100px-CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG/150px-CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG/200px-CHINTREUIL_-_Le_Boulot_blanc.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1078" data-file-height="1646" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">Cultural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecolinguistics" title="Ecolinguistics">Ecolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosemiotics" title="Ecosemiotics">Ecosemiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">Ethnoecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">Traditional ecological knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecocomposition" title="Ecocomposition">Ecocomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocriticism" title="Ecocriticism">Ecocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopoetry" title="Ecopoetry">Ecopoetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocriticism" title="Geocriticism">Geocriticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_writing" title="Nature writing">Nature writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outdoor_literature" title="Outdoor literature">Outdoor literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics_of_nature" title="Aesthetics of nature">Aesthetics of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)" title="Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty#Ecophenomenology" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Ecophenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environmental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation_problem" title="Predation problem">Predation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">Social ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecotheology" title="Ecotheology">Ecotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_theology" title="Environmental theology">Environmental theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion and environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_ecology" title="Spiritual ecology">Spiritual ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomusicology" title="Ecomusicology">Ecomusicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Environmental education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_adult_education" title="Environmental adult education">adult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arts-based_environmental_education" title="Arts-based environmental education">arts-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heritage_interpretation" title="Heritage interpretation">Environmental interpretation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_journalism" title="Environmental journalism">Environmental journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outdoor_education" title="Outdoor education">Outdoor education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thematic_interpretation" title="Thematic interpretation">Thematic interpretation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_studies" title="Animal studies">Animal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis" title="Biophilia hypothesis">Biophilia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Do_it_yourself" title="Do it yourself">Do it yourself</a> (<a href="/wiki/DIY_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="DIY ethic">ethic</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Natural history</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_history_museums" title="List of natural history museums">museums</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_science" title="Popular science">Popular science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">Property theory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">common property</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">science studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_Food" title="Slow Food">Slow food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_of_place" title="Spirit of place">Spirit of place</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">Sustainability studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_arts" title="Applied arts">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_movement" title="Arts and Crafts movement">Arts and Crafts movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">Ecological design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomuseum" title="Ecomuseum">Ecomuseum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_trail" title="Educational trail">Educational trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_assessment" title="Landscape assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_planning" title="Landscape planning">planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_center" title="Nature center">Nature center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Urbanism" title="New Urbanism">New Urbanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fashion" title="Sustainable fashion">Sustainable fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themed_walk" title="Themed walk">Themed walk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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