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id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-State_churches_in_British_North_America_prior_to_the_Revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_churches_in_British_North_America_prior_to_the_Revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>State churches in British North America prior to the Revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_churches_in_British_North_America_prior_to_the_Revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Catholic_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Catholic colonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protestant_colonies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_colonies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>Protestant colonies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_colonies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonies_without_established_churches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonies_without_established_churches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Colonies without established churches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonies_without_established_churches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tabular_summary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tabular_summary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.4</span> <span>Tabular summary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tabular_summary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial_views_on_establishment,_accommodationism,_and_separationism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial_views_on_establishment,_accommodationism,_and_separationism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Colonial views on establishment, accommodationism, and separationism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial_views_on_establishment,_accommodationism,_and_separationism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jefferson,_Madison,_and_the_"wall_of_separation"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jefferson,_Madison,_and_the_"wall_of_separation""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Jefferson, Madison, and the "wall of separation"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jefferson,_Madison,_and_the_"wall_of_separation"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patrick_Henry,_Massachusetts,_and_Connecticut" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patrick_Henry,_Massachusetts,_and_Connecticut"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Patrick Henry, Massachusetts, and Connecticut</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patrick_Henry,_Massachusetts,_and_Connecticut-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Test_acts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Test_acts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Test acts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Test_acts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_U.S._Constitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_U.S._Constitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>The U.S. Constitution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_U.S._Constitution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The U.S. Constitution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_U.S._Constitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Article_6" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Article_6"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Article 6</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Article_6-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_First_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_First_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>The First Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_First_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_14th_Amendment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_14th_Amendment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>The 14th Amendment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_14th_Amendment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supreme_Court_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supreme_Court_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Supreme Court cases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supreme_Court_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_treaties_and_court_decisions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_treaties_and_court_decisions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Early treaties and court 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id="toc-The_Treaty_of_Tripoli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_v._United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_v._United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span><i>Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_v._United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interpretive_controversies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretive_controversies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Interpretive controversies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interpretive_controversies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Interpretive controversies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Interpretive_controversies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Politics_and_religion_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Politics_and_religion_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Politics and religion in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Politics_and_religion_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-American_court_cases_regarding_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_court_cases_regarding_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>American court cases regarding separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_court_cases_regarding_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" 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.ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Separation of church and state in the United States">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Separation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States%22">"Separation of church and state in the United States"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Separation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Separation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Separation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Separation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Separation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>"<b>Separation of church and state</b>" is a metaphor paraphrased from <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> and used by others in discussions of the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>, which reads: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof". </p><p>The principle is paraphrased from Jefferson's "separation between Church & State". It has been used to express the understanding of the intent and function of this amendment, which allows <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">freedom of religion</a>. It is generally traced to a <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Letter_to_the_Danbury_Baptists_-_January_1,_1802" class="extiw" title="s:Letter to the Danbury Baptists - January 1, 1802">January 1, 1802, letter</a> by Jefferson, addressed to the <a href="/wiki/Danbury_Baptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Danbury Baptists">Danbury Baptist Association</a> in <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>, and published in a Massachusetts newspaper. </p><p>Jefferson wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between Man & his God, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, & not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their legislature should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," thus building a wall of separation between Church & State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties."<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Jefferson reflects other thinkers, including <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptist</a> <a href="/wiki/Dissenter" title="Dissenter">Dissenter</a> and founder of <a href="/wiki/Providence,_Rhode_Island" title="Providence, Rhode Island">Providence, Rhode Island</a>. He wrote: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>When they [the Church] have opened a gap in the hedge or wall of separation between the garden of the church and the wilderness of the world, God hath ever broke down the wall itself, removed the Candlestick, etc., and made His Garden a wilderness as it is this day. And that therefore if He will ever please to restore His garden and paradise again, it must of necessity be walled in peculiarly unto Himself from the world, and all that be saved out of the world are to be transplanted out of the wilderness of the World.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In keeping with the lack of an established state religion in the United States, unlike in many European nations at the time, <a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">Article Six of the United States Constitution</a> specifies that "<a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">no religious Test shall ever be required</a> as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States", meaning that no official state religion will be established. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> has repeatedly cited Jefferson's metaphor of a wall of separation. In <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a></i> (1879), the Court wrote that Jefferson's comments "may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the [First] Amendment." In <i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i> (1947), Justice <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a> wrote: "In the words of Thomas Jefferson, the clause against establishment of religion by law was intended to erect a wall of separation between church and state." </p><p>In contrast to this emphasis on separation, the Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/Zorach_v._Clauson" title="Zorach v. Clauson">Zorach v. Clauson</a></i> (1952) upheld <a href="/wiki/Accommodationism" title="Accommodationism">accommodationism</a>, holding that the nation's "institutions presuppose a Supreme Being" and governmental recognition of God does not constitute the establishment of a state church the Constitution's authors intended to prohibit.<sup id="cite_ref-WaldCalhoun-Brown2010_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaldCalhoun-Brown2010-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ABA_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ABA-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The extent of separation between government and religion in the U.S. continues to be debated.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many early <a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">immigrants traveled to North America</a> to avoid religious persecution in their homelands, whether based on a different denomination, religion or sect. Some immigrants came from England after the <a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">English Civil War</a> and the rise of Protestant dissenting sects in England. Others fled Protestant-Catholic religious conflicts in <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immigrants included <a href="/wiki/Nonconformist_(Protestantism)" title="Nonconformist (Protestantism)">nonconformists</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritans</a>, who were Protestant <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> fleeing <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a> from the Anglican King of England, and later <a href="/wiki/Dissenters" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissenters">Dissenters</a>, such as Baptists.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The groups had a variety of attitudes on <a href="/wiki/Religious_toleration" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious toleration">religious toleration</a>; the Puritans, for instance, initially wanted a totally Puritan society. While some leaders, such as <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams_(theologian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Williams (theologian)">Roger Williams</a> of <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> and Quaker <a href="/wiki/William_Penn" title="William Penn">William Penn</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a>, ensured the protection of religious minorities within their colonies, the <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Colony</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a> in New England established churches, initially Puritan. The Dutch colony of <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> established its state <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a> and outlawed all other worship, though enforcement was sparse in what was essentially a trading, mercantile colony. In some cases, jurisdictions wanted religious conformity for financial reasons: the established Church was responsible for <a href="/wiki/Poor_relief" title="Poor relief">poor relief</a>, putting dissenting churches at a significant disadvantage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_churches_in_British_North_America_prior_to_the_Revolution">State churches in British North America prior to the Revolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: State churches in British North America prior to the Revolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Catholic_colonies">Catholic colonies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Catholic colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Maryland">Colony of Maryland</a> was founded by a charter granted in 1632 to George Calvert, secretary of state to <a href="/wiki/Charles_I_of_England" title="Charles I of England">Charles I</a>, and his son Cecil, both recent converts to Catholicism. Under their leadership allowing the practice of this denomination, many English Catholic gentry families settled in Maryland. The colonial government was officially neutral in religious affairs, granting toleration to all Christian groups and enjoining them to avoid actions that antagonized the others. On several occasions, "low-church" dissenters among Protestants led insurrections that temporarily overthrew the Calvert rule. In 1689, when <a href="/wiki/William_III_of_England" title="William III of England">William</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mary_II_of_England" class="mw-redirect" title="Mary II of England">Mary</a> came to the English throne, they acceded to Protestant demands to revoke the original royal charter. In 1701 the Church of England was "established" as the state church in Maryland. Through the course of the eighteenth century, Protestants barred Catholics from public office in the colony, and then prohibited them from voting, disenfranchising them. Not all of the laws passed against Catholic (notably laws restricting property rights and imposing penalties for sending children to be educated in foreign Catholic institutions) were enforced, and some Catholics continued to hold public office.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>When <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> was transferred to <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in 1763 after it defeated France in the Seven Years' War, it practiced a policy of tolerating the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in the colony. No Catholic people in Quebec or other parts of New France were forced to convert to the Anglican Church. The British did open the colony to Protestant <a href="/wiki/Huguenot" class="mw-redirect" title="Huguenot">Huguenots</a>, who had been banned from settlement by previous French colonial authorities - a continuation of discrimination that existed in France.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a> was ceded to <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> in 1763, in exchange for it giving up other claims. The British divided Florida into two colonies, East and West Florida. Both colonies had a policy of toleration for Catholic residents, as Catholicism had been the established religion of the Spanish colonies, but established the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> as the state church.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protestant_colonies">Protestant colonies</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Protestant colonies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The colonies of <a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Colony" title="New Haven Colony">New Haven</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Hampshire" title="Province of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> were founded by <a href="/wiki/Puritan" class="mw-redirect" title="Puritan">Puritan</a> Calvinist Protestants, and had <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a> established churches.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Colony" title="Plymouth Colony">Plymouth Colony</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim_(Plymouth_Colony)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim (Plymouth Colony)">Pilgrims</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Dissenters" title="English Dissenters">English Dissenters</a> or Separatists, who were Calvinists.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Bay_Colony" title="Massachusetts Bay Colony">Massachusetts Bay Colony</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Haven_Colony" title="New Haven Colony">New Haven Colony</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Hampshire" title="Province of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a> were founded by Puritans, Anglican but Calvinist Protestants.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The colonies of <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_York" title="Province of New York">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Virginia" title="Colony of Virginia">Virginia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Georgia" title="Province of Georgia">Georgia</a> officially maintained the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a> as the established church,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> but the Anglican Church operated as an established church in the southern colonies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Absorbing the Dutch Calvinists and other Protestant immigrants, New York had a more diverse population.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>There were also two non-British Protestant-dominated colonies that were later incorporated into British North America:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="Yes but did they have a state church? (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Reformed">Dutch Reformed</a> Calvinists.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Sweden" title="New Sweden">New Sweden</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Sweden" title="Church of Sweden">Church of Sweden</a> Lutherans.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Colonies_without_established_churches">Colonies without established churches</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Colonies without established churches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Rhode_Island_and_Providence_Plantations" title="Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations">Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations</a> was founded by Baptist religious dissenters who were forced to flee the Massachusetts Bay colony. It is widely regarded as the first polity to grant religious freedom to all its citizens, although Catholics were barred intermittently. Baptists, Seekers / Quakers, and Jews made this colony their home. The <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Royal_Charter" title="Rhode Island Royal Charter">King Charles Charter</a> of 1663 guaranteed "full liberty in religious concernments".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Pennsylvania" title="Province of Pennsylvania">Province of Pennsylvania</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Religious_Society_of_Friends" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious Society of Friends">Quakers</a>, but the colony never had an established church.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Jersey" title="Province of New Jersey">Province of New Jersey</a>, without official religion, had a significant <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a> lobby, but Calvinists of all types also had a presence.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Jersey" title="West Jersey">West Jersey</a>, also founded by <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>, prohibited any establishment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_Colony" title="Delaware Colony">Delaware Colony</a> had no established church, but was contested between Catholics and Quakers.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tabular_summary">Tabular summary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Tabular summary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table lists all North American colonies administered by the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> at the commencement of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">U.S. revolution</a>, including states now incorporated in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">U.S.</a> and current provinces of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>. </p> <dl><dd><table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Colony</th> <th>Denomination</th> <th>Disestablished<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Disestablishment"><a href="#endnote_Disestablishment">*</a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Colony" title="Connecticut Colony">Connecticut</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a></td> <td>1818<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_CT"><a href="#endnote_CT">A</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Georgia" title="Province of Georgia">Georgia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1789<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_GA"><a href="#endnote_GA">B</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Catholic</a></td> <td>1701 (replaced by <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Maryland" title="Province of Maryland">Maryland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1776<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Disestablishment"><a href="#endnote_Disestablishment">*</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Province_of_Massachusetts_Bay" title="Province of Massachusetts Bay">Massachusetts</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a></td> <td>1780 (state funding suspended in 1833)<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_MA"><a href="#endnote_MA">C</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Brunswick" title="New Brunswick">New Brunswick</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">N/A</span></span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Disestablishment"><a href="#endnote_Disestablishment">*</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Province_of_New_Hampshire" title="Province of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a></td> <td>1790<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_NH"><a href="#endnote_NH">D</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Colony_of_Newfoundland" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony of Newfoundland">Newfoundland</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">N/A</span></span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Disestablishment"><a href="#endnote_Disestablishment">*</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina" title="Province of North Carolina">North Carolina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1776<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_NC"><a href="#endnote_NC">E</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1850<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island" title="Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">N/A</span></span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_Disestablishment"><a href="#endnote_Disestablishment">*</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Province_of_South_Carolina" title="Province of South Carolina">South Carolina</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1790<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Canada West">Canada West</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1854<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Florida" title="West Florida">West Florida</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">N/A</span></span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_WFL"><a href="#endnote_WFL">F</a></sup><sup>,</sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_EWFL"><a href="#endnote_EWFL">G</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/East_Florida" title="East Florida">East Florida</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">N/A</span></span><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_EFL"><a href="#endnote_EFL">F</a></sup><sup>,</sup><sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation"><a href="#endnote_EWFL">G</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Colony" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Colony">Virginia</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1786<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_VA"><a href="#endnote_VA">H</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1868 (excl. <a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a>)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Barbados" title="Barbados">Barbados</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a></td> <td>1969<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_Disestablishment"><b><a href="#ref_Disestablishment">^Note *:</a></b></span> In several colonies, the establishment ceased to exist in practice at the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">Revolution</a>, about 1776.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some states' laws treat 1776 as the presumptive date of permanent legal abolition; other states' constitutions and/or laws either explicitly disestablished the state's established church (e.g. North Carolina<sup class="plainlinks nourlexpansion citation" id="ref_NC"><a href="#endnote_NC">E</a></sup>) or forbade establishment of any religion. Some Canadian provinces (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>) have disestablished the Church of England, but some of the pre-U.S.-revolutionary provinces retain it.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_CT"><b><a href="#ref_CT">^Note A:</a></b></span> See <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Connecticut_Constitution" title="History of the Connecticut Constitution">History of the Connecticut Constitution</a>. </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_GA"><b><a href="#ref_GA">^Note B:</a></b></span> In 1789, the Georgia Constitution was amended as follows: "Article IV. Section 10. No person within this state shall, upon any pretense, be deprived of the inestimable privilege of worshipping God in any manner agreeable to his own conscience, nor be compelled to attend any place of worship contrary to his own faith and judgment; nor shall he ever be obliged to pay tithes, taxes, or any other rate, for the building or repairing any place of worship, or for the maintenance of any minister or ministry, contrary to what he believes to be right, or hath voluntarily engaged to do. No one religious society shall ever be established in this state, in preference to another; nor shall any person be denied the enjoyment of any civil right merely on account of his religious principles."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_MA"><b><a href="#ref_MA">^Note C:</a></b></span> From 1780 to 1824, Massachusetts required every resident to belong to and attend a <a href="/wiki/Parish_church" title="Parish church">parish church</a>, and permitted each church to tax its members, but forbade any law requiring that it be of any particular denomination. But in practice, the denomination of the local church was chosen by majority vote of town residents, which <i>de facto</i> established Congregationalism as the state religion. This was objected to, and was abolished in 1833. For details see <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Massachusetts#Declaration_of_Rights" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">Constitution of Massachusetts</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_NH"><b><a href="#ref_NH">^Note D:</a></b></span> Until 1877 the New Hampshire Constitution required members of the state legislature to be of the Protestant religion. Until 1968 the Constitution allowed for state funding of Protestant classrooms but not Catholic classrooms.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_NC"><b><a href="#ref_NC">^Note E:</a></b></span> The North Carolina Constitution of 1776 disestablished the Anglican church, but until 1835 it allowed only Protestants to hold public office. From 1835 to 1876 it allowed only Christians (including Catholics) to hold public office. Article VI, Section 8 of the current state constitution forbids only atheists ("any person who shall deny the being of Almighty God") from holding public office.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> held such clauses to be unenforceable in the 1961 case <i><a href="/wiki/Torcaso_v._Watkins" title="Torcaso v. Watkins">Torcaso v. Watkins</a></i>, when ruling unanimously that such clauses constitute a "religious test" forbidden by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> prohibiting federal religious tests and the protections in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>, which apply to the states as well as the federal government under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">incorporation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_WFL"><b><a href="#ref_WFL">^Note F:</a></b></span> Religious tolerance for Catholics with an established Church of England was the policy in the former Spanish Colonies of East and West Florida while under British rule.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_EWFL"><b><a href="#ref_EWFL">^Note G:</a></b></span> In the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris (1783)</a>, which ended the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>, the British ceded both East and West Florida back to Spain (see <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Florida" title="Spanish Florida">Spanish Florida</a>).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_VA"><b><a href="#ref_VA">^Note H:</a></b></span> Tithes for the support of the Anglican Church in Virginia were suspended in 1776 and never restored. 1786 is the date of the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Statute_of_Religious_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom">Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom</a>, which prohibited any coercion to support any religious body.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial_views_on_establishment,_accommodationism,_and_separationism"><span id="Colonial_views_on_establishment.2C_accommodationism.2C_and_separationism"></span>Colonial views on establishment, accommodationism, and separationism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Colonial views on establishment, accommodationism, and separationism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> states that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Many states were as explicit about the need for a thriving religion as Congress was in its thanksgiving and fast day proclamations. The Massachusetts Constitution of 1780 declared, for example, that "the happiness of a people, and the good order and preservation of civil government, essentially depend on piety, religion, and morality." The states were in a stronger position to act upon this conviction because they were considered to possess "general" powers as opposed to the limited, specifically enumerated powers of Congress. Congregationalists and Anglicans who, before 1776, had received public financial support, called their state benefactors "nursing fathers" (Isaiah 49:23).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_Royal_Charter" title="Rhode Island Royal Charter">Rhode Island Royal Charter</a> obtained in 1663 by <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Clarke_(Baptist_minister)" title="John Clarke (Baptist minister)">John Clarke</a> contains unique provisions which make it significantly different from the charters granted to the other colonies. It gave the colonists freedom to elect their own governor and write their own laws, within very broad guidelines, and also stipulated that no person residing in Rhode Island could be "molested, punished, disquieted, or called in question for any differences in opinion in matters of religion".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Flushing_Remonstrance" title="Flushing Remonstrance">Flushing Remonstrance</a> shows support for separation of church and state as early as the mid-17th century, stating their opposition to religious persecution of any sort: "The law of love, peace and liberty in the states extending to Jews, Turks and Egyptians, as they are considered sons of Adam, which is the glory of the outward state of Holland, so love, peace, and liberty, extending to all in Christ Jesus, condemns hatred, war, and bondage." The document was signed on December 27, 1657, by a group of English citizens in America who were affronted by <a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">persecution</a> of Quakers and the religious policies of the Governor of <a href="/wiki/New_Netherland" title="New Netherland">New Netherland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Stuyvesant" title="Peter Stuyvesant">Peter Stuyvesant</a>. Stuyvesant had formally banned all religions other than the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a> from being practiced in the colony, in accordance with the laws of the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a>. The signers indicated their "desire therefore in this case not to judge lest we are judged, neither to condemn least we are condemned, but rather let every man stand or fall to his own Master."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stuyvesant fined the petitioners and threw them in prison until they recanted. However, <a href="/wiki/John_Bowne" title="John Bowne">John Bowne</a> allowed the Quakers to meet in his home. Bowne was arrested, jailed, and sent to the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> for trial; the Dutch court exonerated Bowne.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/New_York_Historical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Historical Society">New York Historical Society</a> President and Columbia University Professor of History <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_T._Jackson" title="Kenneth T. Jackson">Kenneth T. Jackson</a> describes the Flushing Remonstrance as "the first thing that we have in writing in the United States where a group of citizens attests on paper and over their signature the right of the people to follow their own conscience with regard to God - and the inability of government, or the illegality of government, to interfere with that."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Given the wide diversity of opinion on Christian theological matters in the newly independent American States, the <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia_Convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Philadelphia Convention">Constitutional Convention</a> believed a government-sanctioned (<a href="/wiki/Establishment_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Establishment of religion">established</a>) religion would disrupt rather than bind the newly formed union together. <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a> wrote a letter in 1790 to the country's first <a href="/wiki/Jewish" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish">Jewish</a> congregation, the <a href="/wiki/Touro_Synagogue" title="Touro Synagogue">Touro Synagogue</a> in Newport, <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a> to state: </p> <blockquote><p>Allowing rights and immunities of citizenship. It is now no more that toleration is spoken of, as if it were by the indulgence of one class of people, that another enjoyed the exercise of their inherent natural rights. For happily the Government of the United States, which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance requires only that they who live under its protection should demean themselves as good citizens, in giving it on all occasions their effectual support.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>There were also opponents to the support of any established church even at the state level. In 1773, <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Backus" title="Isaac Backus">Isaac Backus</a>, a prominent Baptist minister in <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a>, wrote against a state-sanctioned religion, saying: "Now who can hear Christ declare, that his kingdom is, not of this world, and yet believe that this blending of church and state together can be pleasing to him?" He also observed that when "church and state are separate, the effects are happy, and they do not at all interfere with each other: but where they have been confounded together, no tongue nor pen can fully describe the mischiefs that have ensued." <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>'s influential <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Statute_for_Religious_Freedom" title="Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a> was enacted in 1786, five years before the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>. </p><p>Most Anglican ministers and many Anglicans were <a href="/wiki/Loyalist_(American_Revolution)" title="Loyalist (American Revolution)">Loyalists</a>. The Anglican establishment, where it had existed, largely ceased to function during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, though the new States did not formally abolish and replace it until some years after the Revolution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jefferson,_Madison,_and_the_"wall_of_separation""><span id="Jefferson.2C_Madison.2C_and_the_.22wall_of_separation.22"></span>Jefferson, Madison, and the "wall of separation"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jefferson, Madison, and the "wall of separation""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phrase "hedge or <i>wall of separation</i> between the garden of the church and the wilderness of the world" was first used by Baptist theologian <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams_(theologian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Williams (theologian)">Roger Williams</a>, the founder of the colony of <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island" title="Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a>, in his 1644 book <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bloody_Tenent_of_Persecution" class="mw-redirect" title="The Bloody Tenent of Persecution">The Bloody Tenent of Persecution</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a> later used the phrase as a description of the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment</a> and its restriction on the legislative branch of the federal government, in an 1802 letter<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the <a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Danbury Baptists</a> (a religious minority concerned about the dominant position of the <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalist church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>): </p> <blockquote><p>Believing with you that religion is a matter which lies solely between man and his god, that he owes account to none other for his faith or his worship, that the legitimate powers of government reach actions only, and not opinions, I contemplate with sovereign reverence that act of the whole American people which declared that their "legislature" should "make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," thus building a <i>wall of separation</i> between church and State. Adhering to this expression of the supreme will of the nation in behalf of the rights of conscience, I shall see with sincere satisfaction the progress of those sentiments which tend to restore to man all his natural rights, convinced he has no natural right in opposition to his social duties.</p></blockquote> <p>Jefferson's letter was in reply to a letter from the Danbury Baptist Association dated October 7, 1801.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In an 1808 letter to Virginia Baptists, Jefferson used the same theme: </p> <blockquote><p>We have solved, by fair experiment, the great and interesting question whether freedom of religion is compatible with order in government and obedience to the laws. And we have experienced the quiet as well as the comfort which results from leaving every one to profess freely and openly those principles of religion which are the inductions of his own reason and the serious convictions of his own inquiries.</p></blockquote> <p>Jefferson and <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a>'s conceptions of <i>separation</i> have long been debated. Jefferson refused to issue Proclamations of Thanksgiving sent to him by Congress during his presidency, though he did issue a Thanksgiving and Prayer proclamation as Governor of Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Madison issued four religious proclamations while president,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but vetoed two bills on the grounds they violated the first amendment.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, both Jefferson and Madison attended religious services at the Capitol.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Years before the ratification of the Constitution, Madison contended, "Because if Religion be exempt from the authority of the Society at large, still less can it be subject to that of the Legislative Body."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After retiring from the presidency, Madison wrote of "total separation of the church from the state."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jefferson's opponents said his position was the destruction and the governmental rejection of Christianity, but this was a caricature.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In setting up the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a>, Jefferson encouraged each sect to have its own preacher, though there was a constitutional ban on the State supporting a Professorship of Divinity, arising from his own <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Statute_for_Religious_Freedom" title="Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have argued that this arrangement was "fully compatible with Jefferson's views on the separation of church and state";<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others point to Jefferson's support for a scheme in which students at the university would attend religious worship each morning as evidence that his views were not consistent with strict separation.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still other scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Mark_David_Hall" title="Mark David Hall">Mark David Hall</a>, attempt to sidestep the issue by arguing that American jurisprudence focuses too narrowly on this one Jeffersonian letter while failing to account for other relevant history.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jefferson's letter entered American jurisprudence in the 1878 Mormon polygamy case <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._U.S." class="mw-redirect" title="Reynolds v. U.S.">Reynolds v. U.S.</a></i>, in which <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Johnson_Field" title="Stephen Johnson Field">Stephen Johnson Field</a> cited Jefferson's "Letter to the Danbury Baptists" to state that "Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order."<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Madison noted that <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Two_kingdoms_doctrine" title="Two kingdoms doctrine">doctrine of the two kingdoms</a> marked the beginning of the modern conception of separation of church and state.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patrick_Henry,_Massachusetts,_and_Connecticut"><span id="Patrick_Henry.2C_Massachusetts.2C_and_Connecticut"></span>Patrick Henry, Massachusetts, and Connecticut</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Patrick Henry, Massachusetts, and Connecticut"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jefferson's and Madison's approach was not the only one taken in the 18th century. Jefferson's <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Statute_for_Religious_Freedom" title="Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom">Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom</a> was drafted in opposition to a bill, chiefly supported by <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry" title="Patrick Henry">Patrick Henry</a>, that would permit any Virginian to belong to any denomination but require him to belong to some denomination and pay taxes to support it. Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Massachusetts" title="Constitution of Massachusetts">Constitution of Massachusetts</a> originally provided that "no subject shall be hurt, molested, or restrained, in his person, liberty, or estate, for worshipping God in the manner and season most agreeable to the dictates of his own conscience... provided he doth not disturb the public peace, or obstruct others in their religious worship" (Article II), but also that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The people of this commonwealth have a right to invest their legislature with power to authorize and require, and the legislature shall, from time to time, authorize and require, the several towns, parishes, precincts, and other bodies politic, or religious societies, to make suitable provision, at their own expense, for the institution of the public worship of God, and for the support and maintenance of public Protestant teachers of piety, religion, and morality, in all cases where such provision shall not be made voluntarily. And the people of this commonwealth have also a right to, and do, invest their legislature with authority to enjoin upon all the subjects an attendance upon the instructions of the public teachers aforesaid, at stated times and seasons, if there be any on whose instructions they can conscientiously and conveniently attend. (Article III)</p></blockquote> <p>Since, in practice, this meant that the decision of who was taxable for a particular religion rested in the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Selectmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Selectmen">selectmen</a>, usually Congregationalists, this system was open to abuse. It was abolished in 1833. The intervening period is sometimes called an "establishment of religion" in Massachusetts. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/James_II_of_England" title="James II of England">Duke of York</a> had required that every community in his new lands of New York and New Jersey support <i>some</i> church, but this was more often <a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch Reformed">Dutch Reformed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaker">Quaker</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a>, than <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a>. Some chose to support more than one church. He also ordained that taxpayers were free, having paid local taxes, to choose their church. The terms for the surrender of <a href="/wiki/New_Amsterdam" title="New Amsterdam">New Amsterdam</a> had provided that the Dutch would have the liberty of conscience, and the Duke, as an openly divine-right Catholic, was no friend of Anglicanism. The first Anglican minister in New Jersey arrived in 1698, though Anglicanism was more popular in New York.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a> had a real establishment of religion. Its citizens did not adopt a constitution at the Revolution but rather amended their Charter to remove all references to the British Government. As a result, the Congregational Church continued to be established, and <a href="/wiki/Yale_College" title="Yale College">Yale College</a>, at that time a Congregational institution, received grants from the State until Connecticut adopted a constitution in 1818 partly because of this issue.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Test_acts">Test acts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Test acts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The absence of establishment of religion did not necessarily imply that all men were free to hold office. Most colonies had a <a href="/wiki/Test_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Test Act">Test Act</a>, and several states retained them for a short time. This stood in contrast to the federal Constitution, which explicitly prohibits the employment of any religious test for federal office, and which through the Fourteenth Amendment extended this prohibition to the States.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For example, the <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Constitution_of_1776" class="mw-redirect" title="New Jersey Constitution of 1776">New Jersey Constitution of 1776</a> provides the liberty of conscience in much the same language as Massachusetts (similarly forbidding the payment of "taxes, tithes or other payments" contrary to conscience). It then provides: </p> <blockquote><p>That there shall be <i>no establishment</i> of any one religious sect in this Province, in preference to another; and that <i>no Protestant inhabitant</i> of this Colony shall be denied the enjoyment of any civil right, merely on account of his religious principles; but that all persons, professing a belief in the faith of <i>any Protestant sect</i>, who shall demean themselves peaceably under the government, as hereby established, shall be capable of being elected into any office of profit or trust, or being a member of either branch of the Legislature, and shall fully and freely enjoy every privilege and immunity, enjoyed by others their fellow-subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This would permit a Test Act but do not require one.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The original charter of the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_East_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of East Jersey">Province of East Jersey</a> had restricted membership in the Assembly to Christians; the Duke of York was fervently Catholic, and the proprietors of <a href="/wiki/Perth_Amboy,_New_Jersey" title="Perth Amboy, New Jersey">Perth Amboy, New Jersey</a> were Scottish Catholic peers. The <a href="/wiki/Province_of_West_Jersey" class="mw-redirect" title="Province of West Jersey">Province of West Jersey</a> had declared, in 1681, that there should be no religious test for office. An oath had also been imposed on the militia during the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> requiring them to abjure the pretensions of the Pope, which may or may not have been applied during the Revolution. That law was replaced by 1799.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_Constitution_of_1776" title="Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776">Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776</a> provided:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>And each member, before he takes his seat, shall make and subscribe the following declaration, viz: </p><p>I do believe in one God, the creator, and governor of the universe, the rewarder of the good and the punisher of the wicked. And I do acknowledge the Scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by Divine inspiration. </p><p> And no further or other religious tests shall ever hereafter be required of any civil officer or magistrate in this State.</p></blockquote> <p>Again, it provided in general that all tax-paying freemen and their sons shall be able to <i>vote</i>, and that no "man, <i>who acknowledges the being of a God</i>, be justly deprived or abridged of any civil right as a citizen, on account of his religious sentiments or peculiar mode of religious worship."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_U.S._Constitution">The U.S. Constitution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The U.S. Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Article_6">Article 6</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Article 6"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">Article Six of the United States Constitution</a> provides that "no <a href="/wiki/Religious_test" title="Religious test">religious test</a> shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States". Before the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, this was the only mention of religion in the Constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_First_Amendment">The First Amendment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The First Amendment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first amendment to the Constitution reads, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." The two parts, known as the "establishment clause" and the "free exercise clause" respectively, form the textual basis for the Supreme Court's interpretations of the "separation of church and state" doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three central concepts were derived from the 1st Amendment which became America's doctrine for church-state separation: no coercion in religious matters, no expectation to support a religion against one's will, and religious liberty encompasses all religions. In sum, citizens are free to embrace or reject a faith, and support for religion—financial or physical—must be voluntary, and all religions are equal in the eyes of the law with no special preference or favoritism.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The First Congress's deliberations show that its understanding of the separation of church and state differed sharply from that of their contemporaries in Europe.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As the 19th-century historian <a href="/wiki/Philip_Schaff" title="Philip Schaff">Philip Schaff</a> observed: </p> <blockquote><p>The American separation of church and state rests upon respect for the church; the [European anticlerical] separation, on indifference and hatred of the church, and of religion itself... The constitution did not create a nation, nor its religion and institutions. It found them already existing and was framed for the purpose of protecting them under a republican form of government, in a rule of the people, by the people, and for the people.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>An August 15, 1789, entry in Madison's papers indicates he intended for the establishment clause to prevent the government imposition of religious beliefs on individuals. The entry says: "Mr. Madison said he apprehended the meaning of the words to be, that Congress should not establish a religion, and enforce the legal observation of it by law, nor compel men to worship God in any manner contrary to their conscience."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some legal scholars, such as John Baker of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University" title="Louisiana State University">LSU</a>, theorize that Madison's initial proposed language—that Congress should make no law regarding the establishment of a "national religion"—was rejected by the House, in favor of the more general "religion" in an effort to appease the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Federalists">Anti-Federalists</a>. To both the Anti-Federalists and the <a href="/wiki/Federalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Federalists">Federalists</a>, the very word "national" was a cause for alarm because of the experience under the British crown.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the debate over the establishment clause, Rep. <a href="/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry" title="Elbridge Gerry">Elbridge Gerry</a> of Massachusetts took issue with Madison's language regarding whether the government was a national government, or a <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> (in which the states retained their individual sovereignty), which Baker suggests compelled Madison to withdraw his language from the debate. </p><p>Following the argument between Madison and Gerry, Representative <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Livermore" title="Samuel Livermore">Samuel Livermore</a> of New Hampshire proposed language stating that "Congress shall make no laws touching religion or the rights of conscience." This raised an uproar from members, such as Representative Benjamin Huntingdon of Connecticut and Representative Peter Sylvester of New York, who worried the language could be used to harm religious practice.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Others, such as Representative <a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a> of Connecticut, believed the clause was unnecessary because the original Constitution gave Congress only <a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Enumerated powers">stated powers</a>, which did not include establishing a national religion.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Anti-Federalists such as Representative <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Tudor_Tucker" title="Thomas Tudor Tucker">Thomas Tucker</a> of South Carolina moved to strike the Establishment Clause completely because it could preempt the religious clauses in the state constitutions, but did not persuade the House of Representatives to drop the clause from the First Amendment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Senate went through several more narrowly targeted versions before reaching the contemporary language. One version read, "Congress shall make no law establishing one religious sect or society in preference to others, nor shall freedom of conscience be infringed," while another read, "Congress shall make no law establishing one particular religious denomination in preference to others." Ultimately, the Senate rejected the more narrowly targeted language.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the time of the passage of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>, many states acted in ways that would now be held unconstitutional. All the early official state churches were disestablished by 1833 (Massachusetts), including the Congregationalist establishment in <a href="/wiki/Connecticut" title="Connecticut">Connecticut</a>. It is commonly accepted that under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Bill_of_Rights)" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporation (Bill of Rights)">Incorporation</a>—which uses the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process Clause</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> to hold the Bill of Rights applicable to the states—these state churches could not be reestablished today.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Yet the provisions of state constitutions protected religious liberty, particularly the so-called freedom of conscience. During the nineteenth century (and before the incorporation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution through the Fourteenth Amendment), litigants turned to these provisions to challenge Sunday laws (<a href="/wiki/Blue_law" title="Blue law">blue laws</a>), bible-reading in schools, and other ostensibly religious regulations.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Sehat" title="David Sehat">David Sehat</a>, professor of American Intellectual and Cultural History at <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_University" title="Georgia State University">Georgia State University</a>, writes that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>But when the First Amendment was ratified in 1791, it did not apply to the states and would not until well into the 20th century. As a result, the First Amendment did not prevent states from paying churches out of the public treasury, as Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, and South Carolina did when that amendment was written. And those states that did not fund churches still favored Christianity. Blasphemy was forbidden in Delaware in 1826, and officeholders in Pennsylvania had to swear that they believed in “the being of a God and a future state of rewards and punishments.” American federalism gave states enormous power to regulate the health, welfare and morals of their citizens. Because many thought religion was the foundation of American society, they used their power to imprint their moral ideals on state constitutions and judicial opinions for much of American history.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_14th_Amendment">The 14th Amendment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: The 14th Amendment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cantwell_v._Connecticut" title="Cantwell v. Connecticut">Cantwell v. Connecticut</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments intended to secure rights for former slaves. It includes the <a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">due process</a> and <a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">equal protection</a> clauses among others. The amendment introduces the concept of <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_(Bill_of_Rights)" class="mw-redirect" title="Incorporation (Bill of Rights)">incorporation</a> of all relevant federal rights against the states. While it has not been fully implemented, the doctrine of incorporation has been used to ensure, through the Due Process Clause and <a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities Clause</a>, the application of most of the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights to the states.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The incorporation of the First Amendment <a href="/wiki/Establishment_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Establishment clause">establishment clause</a> in the landmark case of <i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i> has affected the subsequent interpretation of the separation of church and state in regard to the state governments.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although upholding the state law in that case, which provided for public busing to private religious schools, the Supreme Court held that the First Amendment establishment clause was fully applicable to the state governments. A 1990s case involving the application of this principle against the states was <i><a href="/wiki/Board_of_Education_of_Kiryas_Joel_Village_School_District_v._Grumet" title="Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet">Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet</a></i> (1994).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supreme_Court_cases">Supreme Court cases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Supreme Court cases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Jefferson's concept of "separation of church and state" first became a part of Establishment Clause <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Reynolds_v._United_States" title="Reynolds v. United States">Reynolds v. United States</a></i>, 98 U.S. 145 (1878).<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that case, the court examined the history of religious liberty in the US, determining that while the constitution guarantees religious freedom, "The word 'religion' is not defined in the Constitution. We must go elsewhere, therefore, to ascertain its meaning, and nowhere more appropriately, we think, than to the history of the times in the midst of which the provision was adopted." The court found that the leaders in advocating and formulating the constitutional guarantee of religious liberty were Madison and Jefferson. Quoting the "separation" paragraph from Jefferson's letter to the Danbury Baptists, the court concluded that "coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The centrality of the "separation" concept to the Religion Clauses of the Constitution was made explicit in <i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i>, 330 U.S. 1 (1947), a case dealing with a New Jersey law that allowed government funds to pay for transportation of students to both public and Catholic schools. This was the first case in which the court applied the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> to the laws of a state, having interpreted the <a href="/wiki/Due_process" title="Due process">due process</a> clause of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a> as applying the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> to the states as well as the federal legislature. Citing Jefferson, the court concluded that "The First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state. That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>While the decision (with four dissents) upheld the state law allowing the funding of transportation of students to religious schools, the majority opinion (by Justice <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>) and the dissenting opinions (by Justices <a href="/wiki/Wiley_Blount_Rutledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Wiley Blount Rutledge">Wiley Blount Rutledge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Jackson" title="Robert H. Jackson">Robert H. Jackson</a>) each explicitly stated that the Constitution has erected a "wall between church and state" or a "separation of Church from State": their disagreement was limited to whether this case of state funding of transportation to religious schools breached that wall. Rutledge, on behalf of the four dissenting justices, took the position that the majority had indeed permitted a violation of the wall of separation in this case: "Neither so high nor so impregnable today as yesterday is the wall raised between church and state by Virginia's great statute of religious freedom and the First Amendment, now made applicable to all the states by the Fourteenth." Writing separately, Jackson argued that "there are no good grounds upon which to support the present legislation. In fact, the undertones of the opinion, advocating a complete and uncompromising separation of Church from State, seem utterly discordant with its conclusion yielding support to their commingling in educational matters."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 1962, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> addressed the issue of officially sponsored <a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayer</a> or religious recitations in public schools. In <i><a href="/wiki/Engel_v._Vitale" title="Engel v. Vitale">Engel v. Vitale</a></i>, 370 U.S. 421 (1962), the Court, by a vote of 6–1, determined it unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and require its recitation in public schools, even when the prayer is non-denominational and students may excuse themselves from participation. (The prayer required by the <a href="/wiki/New_York_State" class="mw-redirect" title="New York State">New York State</a> <a href="/wiki/Board_of_Regents" class="mw-redirect" title="Board of Regents">Board of Regents</a> before the Court's decision was: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. Amen.")<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> As the Court stated:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <blockquote><p>The petitioners contend, among other things, that the state laws requiring or permitting use of the Regents' prayer must be struck down as a violation of the Establishment Clause because that prayer was composed by governmental officials as a part of a governmental program to further religious beliefs. For this reason, petitioners argue, the State's use of the Regents' prayer in its public school system breaches the constitutional wall of separation between Church and State. We agree with that contention, since we think that the constitutional prohibition against laws respecting an establishment of religion must at least mean that, in this country, it is no part of the business of government to compose official prayers for any group of the American people to recite as a part of a religious program carried on by government.</p></blockquote> <p>The court noted that it "is a matter of history that this very practice of establishing governmentally composed prayers for religious services was one of the reasons which caused many of our early colonists to leave England and seek religious freedom in America."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lone dissenter, Justice <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a>, objected to the court's embrace of the "wall of separation" metaphor: "I think that the Court's task, in this as in all areas of constitutional adjudication, is not responsibly aided by the uncritical invocation of metaphors like the 'wall of separation,' a phrase nowhere to be found in the Constitution."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Epperson_v._Arkansas" title="Epperson v. Arkansas">Epperson v. Arkansas</a></i>, 393 U.S. 97 (1968), the Supreme Court considered an Arkansas law that made it a crime "to teach the theory or doctrine that mankind ascended or descended from a lower order of animals" or "to adopt or use in any such institution a textbook that teaches" this theory in any school or university that received public funds. The court's opinion, by Justice <a href="/wiki/Abe_Fortas" title="Abe Fortas">Abe Fortas</a>, ruled that the Arkansas law violated "the constitutional prohibition of state laws respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The overriding fact is that Arkansas' law selects from the body of knowledge a particular segment which it proscribes for the sole reason that it is deemed to conflict with a particular religious doctrine; that is, with a particular interpretation of the Book of Genesis by a particular religious group." The court held that the Establishment Clause prohibits the state from advancing any religion, and that "the state has no legitimate interest in protecting any or all religions from views distasteful to them."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg/200px-Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg/300px-Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg/400px-Sandra_Day_O%27Connor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="961" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption> Justice Sandra Day O'Connor</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:27%; ; padding:8px;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Those who would renegotiate the boundaries between church and state must, therefore, answer a difficult question: Why would we trade a system that has served us so well for one that has served others so poorly?' </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="left-aligned" style="">— <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court Justice">Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Sandra_Day_O%27Connor" title="Sandra Day O'Connor">Sandra Day O'Connor</a> in her opinion on the 2005 <a href="/wiki/McCreary_County_v._American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="McCreary County v. American Civil Liberties Union">Ten Commandments</a> ruling.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Lemon_v._Kurtzman" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman">Lemon v. Kurtzman</a></i>, 403 U.S. 602 (1971), the court determined that a Pennsylvania state policy of reimbursing the salaries and related costs of teachers of secular subjects in private religious schools violated the Establishment Clause. The court's decision argued that the separation of church and state could never be absolute: "Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense. Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable," the court wrote. "Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation, far from being a 'wall', is a blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Since that decision, the Supreme Court has applied a three-pronged test to determine whether government action comports with the Establishment Clause, known as the "<a href="/wiki/Lemon_Test" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemon Test">Lemon Test</a>". First, the law or policy must have been adopted with a neutral or non-religious purpose. Second, the principal or primary effect must be one that neither advances nor inhibits religion. Third, the statute or policy must not result in an "excessive entanglement" of government with religion.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The decision in <i>Lemon v. Kurtzman</i> hinged upon the conclusion that the government benefits were flowing disproportionately to Catholic schools, and that Catholic schools were an integral component of the Catholic Church's religious mission, thus the policy involved the state in an "excessive entanglement" with religion.) Failure to meet any of these criteria is a proof that the statute or policy in question violates the Establishment Clause.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 2002, a three-judge panel on the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Ninth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit">Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals</a> held that classroom recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in a California public school was unconstitutional, even when students were not compelled to recite it, due to the inclusion of the phrase "under God". In reaction to the case, <i><a href="/wiki/Elk_Grove_Unified_School_District_v._Newdow" title="Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow">Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow</a></i>, both houses of Congress passed measures reaffirming their support for the pledge and condemning the panel's ruling.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The case was appealed to the Supreme Court, which overturned the ruling in 2004 on procedural grounds not related to the substantive constitutional issue. Rather, a five-justice majority held that Newdow, a non-custodial parent suing on behalf of his daughter, lacked <a href="/wiki/Standing_(law)" title="Standing (law)">standing</a> to sue.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> state legislature passed a law requiring <a href="/wiki/Public_school_(government-funded)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public school (government-funded)">public school</a> biology teachers to give <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">Creationism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> equal time in the classroom, the Supreme Court ruled that the law was unconstitutional because it was intended to advance a particular religion, and did not serve the secular purpose of improved scientific education.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The display of the Ten Commandments as part of courthouse displays was considered in a group of cases decided in the summer of 2005, including <i><a href="/wiki/McCreary_County_v._ACLU_of_Kentucky" class="mw-redirect" title="McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky">McCreary County v. ACLU of Kentucky</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Van_Orden_v._Perry" title="Van Orden v. Perry">Van Orden v. Perry</a></i>. While parties on both sides hoped for a reformulation or clarification of the Lemon test, the two rulings ended with narrow 5–4 and opposing decisions,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (September 2012)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> with Justice <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Breyer" title="Stephen Breyer">Stephen Breyer</a> the swing vote.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On December 20, 2005, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Sixth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit">United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit</a> ruled in the case of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.belcherfoundation.org/aclu_v_mercer_county.htm">ACLU v. Mercer County</a> that the continued display of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> as part of a larger display on American legal traditions in a <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> courthouse was allowed, because the purpose of the display (educating the public on American legal traditions) was secular in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Soledad_Cross#Summary_of_key_legal_issues" title="Mount Soledad Cross">Mount Soledad Cross controversy</a> on May 3, 2006, however, a federal judge ruled that the cross on public property on <a href="/wiki/Mount_Soledad" title="Mount Soledad">Mount Soledad</a> must be removed.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Town_of_Greece_v._Galloway" title="Town of Greece v. Galloway">Town of Greece v. Galloway</a></i>, 12-696, the Supreme Court agreed to hear a case regarding whether prayers at town meetings, which are allowed, must allow various faiths to lead prayer, or whether the prayers can be predominantly Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On May 5, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5–4 in favor of the Town of Greece by holding that the U.S. Constitution not only allows for prayer at government meetings, but also for sectarian prayers like predominantly Christian prayers.<sup id="cite_ref-WP20140505_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP20140505-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair.jpg/170px-Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair.jpg/255px-Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair.jpg/340px-Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="381" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Madalyn_Murray_O%27Hair" title="Madalyn Murray O'Hair">Madalyn Murray O'Hair's</a> <a href="/wiki/Abington_School_District_v._Schempp" title="Abington School District v. Schempp">1963 lawsuit</a> led to an end of mandatory prayer in public schools after the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Supreme Court in <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Legion_v._American_Humanist_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Legion v. American Humanist Association">The American Legion v. American Humanist Association</a></i> 2019 reversed the Fourth Circuit's ruling in a 7–2 decision, determining that since the government-maintained <a href="/wiki/Peace_Cross" title="Peace Cross">Peace Cross</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bladensburg,_Maryland" title="Bladensburg, Maryland">Bladensburg, Maryland</a>, had stood for decades without controversy, it did not violate the Establishment Clause and could remain standing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>On June 21, 2022, the Supreme Court ruled in a 6–3 vote that the state program that provides tuition to schools should not exclude religious schools and reversed the ban imposed in the state of Maine. Chief Justice John Roberts Jr. said that the issue was the "discrimination against religion" and that the tuition program "promotes stricter separation of church and state than the federal Constitution requires".<sup id="cite_ref-nbcnews.com_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nbcnews.com-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three justices who dissented said that "the decision was another step in dismantling the wall of separation between church and state that the framers fought to build.”<sup id="cite_ref-nbcnews.com_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nbcnews.com-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_treaties_and_court_decisions">Early treaties and court decisions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Early treaties and court decisions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Treaty_of_Paris">The Treaty of Paris</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The Treaty of Paris"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris (1783)</a></div> <p>In 1783, the United States signed a treaty with <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> that was promulgated "in the name of the Most Holy and Undivided Trinity".<sup id="cite_ref-BrittkerIdlemanRavitch_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrittkerIdlemanRavitch-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It credited "'Divine Providence' with having disposed the two parties to 'forget all past misunderstandings,' and is dated 'in the year of our Lord' 1783."<sup id="cite_ref-BrittkerIdlemanRavitch_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrittkerIdlemanRavitch-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Treaty_of_Tripoli">The Treaty of Tripoli</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The Treaty of Tripoli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Tripoli" title="Treaty of Tripoli">Treaty of Tripoli</a></div> <p>In 1797, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> ratified a treaty with <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> that stated in Article 11: </p> <blockquote><p>As the Government of the United States of America is not, in any sense, founded on the Christian religion; as it has in itself no character of enmity against the laws, religion, or tranquillity, of Mussulmen; and, as the said States never entered into any war or act of hostility against any Mahometan nation, it is declared by the parties, that no pretext arising from religious opinions, shall ever produce an interruption of the harmony existing between the two countries.</p></blockquote> <p>Historian Anson Phelps Stokes noted in his 1950 history of this question that "those who wished to deny that the United States as a government has any special regard for the Christian religion...[have ] almost invariably failed to call attention to the fact that the treaty was superseded, less than a decade later, by another 'Treaty of Peace and Amity,' signed in Tripoli June 4, 1805, in which the clause in question...is omitted."<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_v._United_States"><i>Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_v._United_States#Christian_nation" title="Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States">Church of the Holy Trinity v. United_States § Christian_nation</a></div><p> In the 1892 case <i><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Trinity_v._United_States" title="Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States">Church of the Holy Trinity v. United States</a></i>, Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Justice_David_Brewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice David Brewer">David Brewer</a> wrote for a unanimous Court that "no purpose of action against religion can be imputed to any legislation, state or national, because this is a religious people. ... [T]his is a Christian nation."<sup id="cite_ref-Finkelman2003_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkelman2003-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legal historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Finkelman" title="Paul Finkelman">Paul Finkelman</a> writes that: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Brewer, the son of a Congregationalist missionary to Asia Minor, quoted several colonial charters, state constitutions, and court decisions that referred to the importance of Christian belief in the affairs of the American people; cited the practice of various legislative bodies of beginning their sessions with prayer, and noted the large number of churches and Christian charitable organizations that exist in every community in the country as evidence that this is a Christian nation. In doing so, Brewer expressed the prevailing nineteenth-century Protestant view that America is a Christian nation.<sup id="cite_ref-Finkelman2003_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Finkelman2003-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interpretive_controversies">Interpretive controversies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Interpretive controversies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-POV plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-POV" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">neutrality</a> of this section is <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NPOV_dispute" title="Wikipedia:NPOV dispute">disputed</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States##" title="Talk:Separation of church and state in the United States">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Accommodationism" title="Accommodationism">Accommodationism</a></div> <p>Since the late 20th century, some scholars and organizations disagree with the way the Supreme Court has interpreted the constitutional limitation on religious establishment.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such critics generally argue that many aspects of church and state were intermingled at the time the Constitution was ratified, and that the framers had a different intention than has developed in the more than 200 years since the constitution was written. These critics note that there were religious references in official contexts, and other founding documents, such as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">United States Declaration of Independence</a>, reference the idea of a "Creator" and "Nature's God."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Passage of the 14th Amendment in 1868 incorporated recognition that the First Amendment applied to actions by state governments.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many constitutional debates relate to competing interpretive theories of <a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">originalism</a> versus modern, <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">progressivist</a> theories such as the doctrine of the <a href="/wiki/Living_Constitution" title="Living Constitution">Living Constitution</a>. Other debates center on the principle of the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_land" title="Law of the land">law of the land</a> in America being defined not just by the Constitution's <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy Clause</a>, but also by legal <a href="/wiki/Precedents" class="mw-redirect" title="Precedents">precedents</a>. This says that interpretations of the Constitution are subject to the morals and values of a given era. It is not a question of <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">historical revisionism</a> when discussing the Constitution. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10commandmentsAustinMN.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/10commandmentsAustinMN.JPG/220px-10commandmentsAustinMN.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/10commandmentsAustinMN.JPG/330px-10commandmentsAustinMN.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/10commandmentsAustinMN.JPG/440px-10commandmentsAustinMN.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2532" data-file-height="1797" /></a><figcaption>The "<a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a>" monument at Mower County Courthouse, Austin, Minnesota</figcaption></figure> <p>The "religious test" clause has been interpreted to cover both elected and appointed federal officials, career <a href="/wiki/Civil_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil servant">civil servants</a> (a relatively recent innovation), and <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">political</a> appointees. Religious beliefs or the lack of them have not been permissible tests or qualifications with regard to federal employees since the ratification of the Constitution.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Seven states, however, included language in their Bill of Rights or Declaration of Rights, or in the body of their constitutions, that require state office-holders to have particular religious beliefs. Some of these have been successfully challenged in court. These states are Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the required beliefs is: a Supreme Being and a future state of rewards and punishments. (<a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennessee Constitution">Tennessee Constitution</a> Article IX, Section 2 is an example of this.) Some of these same states specify that the oath of office include the words "so help me God." In some cases, these oaths were historically required of jurors and witnesses in court. At one time, such restrictions were allowed under the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/States%27_rights" title="States' rights">states' rights</a>. In the early 21st century, they are deemed to be in violation of the federal First Amendment, as applied to the states via the 14th amendment. They are unconstitutional and unenforceable.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Relaxed zoning rules and special parking privileges for churches, the tax-free status of church property, the designation of <a href="/wiki/Christmas" title="Christmas">Christmas</a> as a federal holiday, etc., have also been questioned. These have continued while considered examples of the governmental prerogative in deciding practical and beneficial arrangements for the society. The national motto "<a href="/wiki/In_God_We_Trust" title="In God We Trust">In God We Trust</a>" has been challenged as a violation, but the Supreme Court has ruled that <a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_deism" title="Ceremonial deism">ceremonial deism</a> is not religious in nature. A circuit court ruling in 2001 affirmed <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>'s right to use as its motto a passage from the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>, "<a href="/wiki/With_God,_all_things_are_possible" title="With God, all things are possible">With God, all things are possible</a>", because it displayed no preference for a particular religion.<sup id="cite_ref-Peterson_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peterson-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jeffries and Ryan (2001) argue that the modern concept of separation of church and state dates from the mid-twentieth century rulings of the Supreme Court. The central point, they argue, was a constitutional ban against aid to religious schools, followed by a later ban on religious observance in public education. Jeffries and Ryan argue that these two propositions—that public aid should not go to religious schools and that public schools should not be religious—make up the separationist position of the modern Establishment Clause.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Jeffries and Ryan argue that the no-aid position drew support from a coalition of separationist opinion. Most important was "the pervasive secularism that came to dominate American public life," which sought to confine religion to a private sphere. The ban against government aid to religious schools was supported before 1970 by most Protestants (and most Jews), who opposed aid to religious schools, which were primarily Catholic at the time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Originalist critics of the modern concept of the "separation of church and state" argue that it is contrary to the conception of the phrase as the Founding Fathers understood it. But society and the law have changed. In the case of <i>Locke v. Davey</i> (2004), briefs before the Supreme Court, including by the U.S. government, argued that some state constitutional amendments relating to the modern conception of separation of church and state (<a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendments" class="mw-redirect" title="Blaine Amendments">Blaine Amendments</a>) were motivated by and intended to enact anti-Catholicism.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/J._Brent_Walker" title="J. Brent Walker">J. Brent Walker</a>, executive director of the Baptist Joint Committee, has said: </p> <blockquote><p>"The fact that the separation of church and state has been supported by some who exhibited an anti-Catholic animus or a secularist bent does not impugn the validity of the principle. Champions of religious liberty have argued for the separation of church and state for reasons having nothing to do with anti-Catholicism or desire for a secular culture. Of course, separationists have opposed the Catholic Church when it has sought to tap into the public till to support its parochial schools or to argue for on-campus released time in the public schools. But that principled debate on the issues does not support a charge of religious bigotry"<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Steven Waldman says, "The evangelicals [sic, Baptists and Methodists] provided the political muscle for the efforts of <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">Madison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a>, not merely because they wanted to block official churches but because they wanted to keep the spiritual and secular worlds apart." Frank Lambert wrote "Religious freedom resulted from an alliance of unlikely partners. New Light evangelicals such as Isaac Bachus and <a href="/wiki/John_Leland_(Baptist)" title="John Leland (Baptist)">John Leland</a> joined forces with Deists and skeptics such as James Madison and Thomas Jefferson to fight for a complete separation of church and state."<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>James Madison was influenced by the struggle of Baptists in Virginia before the Revolution, where young men were jailed for preaching without a license from the Anglican Church. As a young lawyer, Madison defended such men in court. Both Madison and Jefferson incorporated religious freedom into the state constitution of Virginia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Judge Charles C. Haynes wrote an OpEd in 2013 in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a>,</i> saying: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For James Madison, Thomas Jefferson and other early supporters of church-state separation, authentic religious liberty requires that government remain neutral toward religion while simultaneously upholding the right of religious people and institutions to participate fully in the public square of America. Ignoring the role of religion ... is hardly "neutral." On the contrary, such exclusion sends a message of government hostility to the religious. The First Amendment does not guarantee atheists or anyone else "freedom from religion." Frequent exposure to religious symbols and messages is inevitable in our religiously diverse society. The First Amendment does, however, guarantee “freedom from government-imposed religion” – a core condition of liberty of conscience.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Politics_and_religion_in_the_United_States">Politics and religion in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Politics and religion in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_US_with_display_of_In_God_we_trust.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Map_of_the_US_with_display_of_In_God_we_trust.svg/400px-Map_of_the_US_with_display_of_In_God_we_trust.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Map_of_the_US_with_display_of_In_God_we_trust.svg/600px-Map_of_the_US_with_display_of_In_God_we_trust.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Map_of_the_US_with_display_of_In_God_we_trust.svg/800px-Map_of_the_US_with_display_of_In_God_we_trust.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>A map of U.S. states with display of the national motto in public schools and government buildings as of August 2022 <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:black;"> </span> Display in schools mandated</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ff6600; color:black;"> </span> Display in at least some government buildings mandated</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#ffcc00; color:black;"> </span> Display in schools mandated if a copy of the motto is donated</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#66ff66; color:black;"> </span> Display in schools allowed</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#66ffff; color:black;"> </span> Display in government buildings allowed</div> </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_N._Bellah" title="Robert N. Bellah">Robert N. Bellah</a> has written that, although the separation of church and state is grounded firmly in the U.S. Constitution, this does not mean that there is no religious dimension in U.S. political society. He used the term "<a href="/wiki/Civil_Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Religion">civil religion</a>" to describe the specific relation between politics and religion in the U.S. His 1967 article analyzes <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a>'s inaugural speech: "Considering the separation of church and state, how is a president justified in using the word 'God' at all? The answer is that the separation of church and state has not denied the political realm a religious dimension."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, the House of Representatives voted overwhelmingly to retain "<a href="/wiki/In_God_We_Trust" title="In God We Trust">In God We Trust</a>" as the official motto of the United States. Only nine members of Congress, eight Democrats and a Republican, voted against the resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A May 2022 study found that the strongest support for declaring the U.S. a Christian nation comes from Republicans who identify as Evangelical or <a href="/wiki/Born-again" class="mw-redirect" title="Born-again">born-again</a> Christians.<sup id="cite_ref-politico-sept-21-poll_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politico-sept-21-poll-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-the-nation-poll-results_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-the-nation-poll-results-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Of this group, 78% favor formally declaring the U.S. a Christian nation, versus only 48% of Republicans overall. Age is also a factor, with over 70% of Republicans from the <a href="/wiki/Baby_Boomer" class="mw-redirect" title="Baby Boomer">Baby Boomer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silent_Generation" title="Silent Generation">Silent Generations</a> supporting the United States officially becoming a Christian nation. According to <i>Politico</i>, the polling also found that sentiments of <a href="/wiki/White_backlash" title="White backlash">white grievance</a> are highly correlated with Christian nationalism: "White respondents who say that members of their race have faced more discrimination than others are most likely to embrace a Christian America. Roughly 59% of all Americans who say white people have been discriminated against ... favor declaring the U.S. a Christian nation, compared to 38% of all Americans."<sup id="cite_ref-politico-sept-21-poll_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-politico-sept-21-poll-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Justice <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a> has disputed that the <a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment Clause</a> applies to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">States</a>, believing it constitutional for states to establish a <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> politicians proposed a bill that could have seen North Carolina establish an official religion for the state.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2013 YouGov poll found that 34% of people favored establishing Christianity as the official state religion in their own state, 47% opposed it, and 19% were undecided.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2022, Representative <a href="/wiki/Lauren_Boebert" title="Lauren Boebert">Lauren Boebert</a> told a church audience, "The church is supposed to direct the government. The government is not supposed to direct the church. That is not how our Founding Fathers intended it. And I am tired of this separation of church and state junk. It's not in the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2024, Louisiana Governor Jeff Landry signed into law <a href="/wiki/House_Bill_71" title="House Bill 71">Louisiana House Bill 71</a>, mandating schools that receive public funding to display a copy of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several organizations, such as the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a>, have sharply criticized this policy, and multiple lawsuits have been filed against the bill.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States.svg/400px-Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States.svg/600px-Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States.svg/800px-Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#002255; color:white;"> </span> States that have religious qualifications for public office written in their constitutions</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#D3D3D3; color:black;"> </span> States that do not have religious qualifications for public office written in their constitutions</div></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union" title="American Civil Liberties Union">American Civil Liberties Union</a> – Legal advocacy organization in the United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Humanist_Association" title="American Humanist Association">American Humanist Association</a> – US secularist advocacy organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans_United_for_Separation_of_Church_and_State" title="Americans United for Separation of Church and State">Americans United for Separation of Church and State</a> – American nonprofit organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a> – Opposition to religious authority</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ban_on_Sharia_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Ban on Sharia law">Ban on Sharia law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Faith_and_Opportunity_Initiatives" title="Center for Faith and Opportunity Initiatives">Center for Faith and Opportunity Initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_deism" title="Ceremonial deism">Ceremonial deism</a> – American ritual invocations of religion by government</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a> – Proposed U.S. Constitutional amendments</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_From_Religion_Foundation" title="Freedom From Religion Foundation">Freedom From Religion Foundation</a> – American nonprofit organization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of religion in the United States">Freedom of religion in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interfaith_Alliance" title="Interfaith Alliance">Interfaith Alliance</a> – American 501(c)4 advocacy organization<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Amendment" title="Johnson Amendment">Johnson Amendment</a> – U.S. tax code provision regarding non-profits, religious organizations and political campaigning</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Soledad_Cross" title="Mount Soledad Cross">Mount Soledad Cross</a> – Landmark in La Jolla, San Diego, California, U.S.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pledge_of_Allegiance_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pledge of Allegiance (United States)">Pledge of Allegiance (United States)</a> – Loyalty oath to the flag and republic of the U.S.<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Pledge_of_Allegiance" title="Criticism of the Pledge of Allegiance">Criticism of the Pledge of Allegiance</a> – Various criticisms of the American Salute to the Flag</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_menorah" title="Public menorah">Public menorah</a> – Public display during Hanukkah</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_qualifications_for_public_office_in_the_United_States" title="Religious qualifications for public office in the United States">Religious qualifications for public office in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Coalition_for_America" title="Secular Coalition for America">Secular Coalition for America</a> – American advocacy group</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a> – Principle to separate religious and civil institutions</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_religious_history" class="mw-redirect" title="United States religious history">United States religious history</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jefferson, Thomas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danpre.html">Jefferson's Letter to the Danbury Baptists: The Final Letter, as Sent</a>. The Library of Congress Information Bulletin: June 1998. Lib. of Cong., June 1998. Web. Aug 7, 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.churchstate.org/index.php?id=166">Church State Council</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WaldCalhoun-Brown2010-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WaldCalhoun-Brown2010_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWaldCalhoun-Brown2010" class="citation book cs1">Wald, Kenneth D.; Calhoun-Brown, Allison (August 16, 2010). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionpolitics00wald_041"><i>Religion and Politics in the United States</i></a></span>. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/religionpolitics00wald_041/page/n94">80</a>–85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442201538" title="Special:BookSources/9781442201538"><bdi>9781442201538</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Politics+in+the+United+States&rft.pages=80-85&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers&rft.date=2010-08-16&rft.isbn=9781442201538&rft.aulast=Wald&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+D.&rft.au=Calhoun-Brown%2C+Allison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Freligionpolitics00wald_041&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ABA-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ABA_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>ABA Journal Sep 1962</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ABA+Journal+Sep+1962&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/465/668/case.html">Lynch v. Donnelly</a></i>, 465 U.S. 668, 673 (1984)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://supreme.justia.com/us/413/756/case.html">Committee for Public Education & Religious Liberty v. Nyquist</a></i>, 413 U.S. 756, 760 (1973)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Zorach v. Clauson, 343 U.S. 306, 312 (U.S. 1952) ("The First Amendment, however, does not say that in every and all respects there shall be a separation of Church and State.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Lemon v. Kurtzman</i>, 403 U.S. 602 (1971) ("Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense.")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Phillips_(political_commentator)" title="Kevin Phillips (political commentator)">Kevin Phillips</a>, <i>The Cousins' Wars</i>, 1999</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040603161945/http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/rightsof/roots.htm">"Rights of the People: Individual freedom and the Bill of Rights"</a>. US State Department. December 2003. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/rightsof/roots.htm">the original</a> on June 3, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 6,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rights+of+the+People%3A+Individual+freedom+and+the+Bill+of+Rights&rft.pub=US+State+Department&rft.date=2003-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusinfo.state.gov%2Fproducts%2Fpubs%2Frightsof%2Froots.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090117062454/http://statelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us/NC/STGOVT/article_vi.htm">"Article VI of the North Carolina state constitution"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://statelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us/nc/stgovt/article_vi.htm">the original</a> on January 17, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 26,</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Article+VI+of+the+North+Carolina+state+constitution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fstatelibrary.dcr.state.nc.us%2Fnc%2Fstgovt%2Farticle_vi.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel05.html">"Religion and the Founding of the American Republic: Religion and the State Governments"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+Founding+of+the+American+Republic%3A+Religion+and+the+State+Governments&rft.pub=Library+of+Congress&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fexhibits%2Freligion%2Frel05.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sos.ri.gov/divisions/Civics-And-Education/teacher-resources/rhode-island-charter">"For Educators - Rhode Island - Nellie M. Gorbea"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=For+Educators+-+Rhode+Island+-+Nellie+M.+Gorbea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsos.ri.gov%2Fdivisions%2FCivics-And-Education%2Fteacher-resources%2Frhode-island-charter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nyym.org/flushing/remons.html">"Remonstrance of the Inhabitants of the Town of Flushing to Governor Stuyvesant"</a>, Dec 27, 1657.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbsnews.com/news/drawing-the-line-between-church-and-state/">"Drawing the Line Between Church and State"</a>, CBS News, Dec 23, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLibrary_of_Congress" class="citation web cs1">Library of Congress. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm006.html">"To Bigotry No Sanction"</a>. <i>American Treasures of the Library of Congress</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Treasures+of+the+Library+of+Congress&rft.atitle=To+Bigotry+No+Sanction&rft.au=Library+of+Congress&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fexhibits%2Ftreasures%2Ftrm006.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Mr. Cotton's Letter Lately Printed, Examined and Answered," <i>The Complete Writings of Roger Williams</i>, Volume 1, page 108 (1644).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Feldman, Noah (2005). <i>Divided by God</i>. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <i>To Messrs. Nehemiah Dodge and Others, a Committee of the Danbury Baptist Association, in the State of Connecticut</i>. January 1, 1802. Full text <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/jefferson_dba.html">available online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Danbury Baptist Association's letter to Thomas Jefferson</i>, October 7, 1801. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/dba_jefferson.html">Full text available online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Official Letters of the Governors of the State of Virginia</i> (Virginia State Library, 1928), Vol. II, pp. 64–66, November 11, 1779.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Lee_v._Weisman" title="Lee v. Weisman">Lee v. Weisman</a>, 505 U.S. 577 (1992) (Souter, J., concurring)("President Jefferson, for example, steadfastly refused to issue Thanksgiving proclamations of any kind, in part because he thought they violated the Religion Clauses.")</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/James_D._Richardson" title="James D. Richardson">James D. Richardson</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Compilation_of_the_Messages_and_Papers_of_the_Presidents" class="mw-redirect" title="A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents">A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents</a></i> (Washington: Bureau of National Literature, 1897), Vol. II, pp. 498, 517–518, 543, 545–546.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sunnetworks.net/~ggarman/madison.html">James Madison's veto messages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070203011234/http://www.sunnetworks.net/~ggarman/madison.html">Archived</a> February 3, 2007, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel06-2.html">Religion and the Founding of the American Republic</a>; <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> exhibit website. Retrieved 2007-02-07</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendI_religions43.html">James Madison, Memorial, and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(March 2, 1819 letter to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Walsh_(diplomat)" title="Robert Walsh (diplomat)">Robert Walsh</a>), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambert2003" class="citation book cs1">Lambert, Frank (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1qse4fZ6eQgC"><i>The founding fathers and the place of religion in America</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/foundin_lam_2003_00_2547/page/288">288</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08829-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-08829-7"><bdi>978-0-691-08829-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+founding+fathers+and+the+place+of+religion+in+America&rft.pages=288&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-08829-7&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1qse4fZ6eQgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Morison and Commager, vol I</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etext.virginia.edu/etcbin/ot2www-singleauthor?specfile=/web/data/jefferson/texts/jefall.o2w&act=text&offset=7021548&textreg=1&query=professorship+of+Divinity">Jefferson's letter to Thomas Cooper, November 2, 1822</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dumas Malone, <i>Jefferson and His Times</i>, 6, 393</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashley M. Bell, "God Save This Honorable Court": How Current Establishment Clause Jurisprudence can be Reconciled with the Secularization of Historical Religious Expressions, 50 <i>Am. U.L. Rev.</i> 1273, 1282 n.49 (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/50/bell.pdf?rd=1">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hall, Mark David. "Jeffersonian Walls and Madisonian Lines: The Supreme Court's Use of History in Religion Clause Cases." <i>Oregon Law Review</i> 85 (2006), 563–614</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=98&invol=145">Reynolds v. U.S.</a>, 98 U.S. 145 (1878)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadison1865" class="citation book cs1">Madison, James (1865). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=I6tLmjLqRfAC&q=madison+luther+%22led+the+way%22&pg=PA242"><i>Madison to Schaeffer, 1821</i></a>. pp. 242–43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Madison+to+Schaeffer%2C+1821&rft.pages=242-43&rft.date=1865&rft.aulast=Madison&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DI6tLmjLqRfAC%26q%3Dmadison%2Bluther%2B%2522led%2Bthe%2Bway%2522%26pg%3DPA242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Story of New Jersey</i>; ed., William Starr Myers (1945) Vol. II, chapter 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article XIX, italics added.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaschal1868" class="citation book cs1">Paschal, George (1868) [1868]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionuni02statgoog"><i>The Constitution of the United States Defined and Carefully Annotated</i></a>. W.H.& O.H. Morrison Law Booksellers. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/constitutionuni02statgoog/page/n284">254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Constitution+of+the+United+States+Defined+and+Carefully+Annotated&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=W.H.%26+O.H.+Morrison+Law+Booksellers&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Paschal&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconstitutionuni02statgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoston2012" class="citation journal cs1">Boston, Rob (2012). "A Delicate Balance". <i>Conscience</i>. <b>33</b> (2): 12–16. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/1039541028">1039541028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conscience&rft.atitle=A+Delicate+Balance&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=12-16&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Boston&rft.aufirst=Rob&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaff1888" class="citation book cs1">Schaff, Philip (1888). <i>Church and State in the United States: The American Idea of Religious Liberty and its Practical Effects</i> (Reprint 2017 ed.). Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55635-707-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55635-707-7"><bdi>978-1-55635-707-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+and+State+in+the+United+States%3A+The+American+Idea+of+Religious+Liberty+and+its+Practical+Effects&rft.edition=Reprint+2017&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=1888&rft.isbn=978-1-55635-707-7&rft.aulast=Schaff&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendI_religions53.html">The Founders' Constitution</a> Volume 5, Amendment I (Religion), Document 53. The University of Chicago Press. Retrieved 2007-08-09.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlenn1987" class="citation journal cs1">Glenn, Gary D. (1987). "Forgotten Purposes of the First Amendment Religion Clauses". <i>The Review of Politics</i>. <b>49</b> (3): 340–367. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0034670500034446">10.1017/s0034670500034446</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1407840">1407840</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144467451">144467451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Review+of+Politics&rft.atitle=Forgotten+Purposes+of+the+First+Amendment+Religion+Clauses&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=340-367&rft.date=1987&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144467451%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1407840%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0034670500034446&rft.aulast=Glenn&rft.aufirst=Gary+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kyle G. Volk, <i>Moral Minorities and the Making of American Democracy</i> (Oxford University Press, 2014)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSehat2011" class="citation news cs1">Sehat, David (April 22, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/five-myths-about-church-and-state-in-america/2011/04/21/AF2SlBQE_story.html">"Five myths about church and state in America"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Five+myths+about+church+and+state+in+America&rft.date=2011-04-22&rft.aulast=Sehat&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Ffive-myths-about-church-and-state-in-america%2F2011%2F04%2F21%2FAF2SlBQE_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Everson_v._Board_of_Education" title="Everson v. Board of Education">Everson v. Board of Education</a></i>, 330 U.S. 1 (1947).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=98&invol=145">REYNOLDS v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878) 98 U.S. 145</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=370&page=421#422">Engel v. Vitale</a></i>, 370 U.S. 421 (1962)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=393&page=97">EPPERSON v. ARKANSAS, 393 U.S. 97 (1968)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSandra_Day_O'Connor2005" class="citation web cs1">Sandra Day O'Connor (June 27, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/03-1693.ZC.html">"McCreary County vs. American Civil Liberties Union of Kentucky"</a>. Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law Department<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 13,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=McCreary+County+vs.+American+Civil+Liberties+Union+of+Kentucky&rft.pub=Legal+Information+Institute%2C+Cornell+University+Law+Department&rft.date=2005-06-27&rft.au=Sandra+Day+O%27Connor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fsupct%2Fhtml%2F03-1693.ZC.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Lemon_v._Kurtzman" title="Lemon v. Kurtzman">Lemon v. Kurtzman</a></i>, 403 U.S. 602, 612–613, 91 S.Ct. 2105, 2111, 29 L.Ed.2d 745 (1971).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_story/0,3566,56322,00.html">Senate Pledges Allegiance Under God</a>. Fox News, Thursday, June 27, 2002</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_482" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 482">482</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/482/578/">578</a> (Text of opinion in <a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Aguillard" title="Edwards v. Aguillard">Edwards v. Aguillard</a> from Findlaw.com)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See also: <a href="/wiki/Creation_and_evolution_in_public_education" title="Creation and evolution in public education">Creation and evolution in public education</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=41403">"US federal court rejects separation of church and state"</a>. <i>Catholic World News</i>. December 22, 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Catholic+World+News&rft.atitle=US+federal+court+rejects+separation+of+church+and+state&rft.date=2005-12-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cwnews.com%2Fnews%2Fviewstory.cfm%3Frecnum%3D41403&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Onell R. Soto, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/metro/20060504-9999-1n4soledad.html">City has 90 days to remove Mt. Soledad cross</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_San_Diego_Union-Tribune" title="The San Diego Union-Tribune">The San Diego Union-Tribune</a></i>, May 4, 2006, p. A1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jdjournal.com/2013/05/20/supreme-court-to-hear-case-about-public-prayers/">June, Daniel, "Supreme Court to Hear Case About Public Prayers"</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WP20140505-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WP20140505_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauren_Markoe_And_Cathy_Lynn_Grossman2014" class="citation news cs1">Lauren Markoe And Cathy Lynn Grossman (May 5, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/religion/supreme-court-approves-sectarian-prayer-at-public-meetings/2014/05/05/62c494da-d487-11e3-8f7d-7786660fff7c_story.html">"Supreme Court approves sectarian prayer at public meetings"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 8,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+approves+sectarian+prayer+at+public+meetings&rft.date=2014-05-05&rft.au=Lauren+Markoe+And+Cathy+Lynn+Grossman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnational%2Freligion%2Fsupreme-court-approves-sectarian-prayer-at-public-meetings%2F2014%2F05%2F05%2F62c494da-d487-11e3-8f7d-7786660fff7c_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nbcnews.com-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nbcnews.com_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nbcnews.com_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/supreme-court/supreme-court-oks-use-public-money-religious-education-rcna21627">"Supreme Court OKs use of public money for religious education"</a>. <i>NBC News</i>. June 21, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 6,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Supreme+Court+OKs+use+of+public+money+for+religious+education&rft.date=2022-06-21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fpolitics%2Fsupreme-court%2Fsupreme-court-oks-use-public-money-religious-education-rcna21627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BrittkerIdlemanRavitch-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BrittkerIdlemanRavitch_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BrittkerIdlemanRavitch_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBittkerIdlemanRavitch2015" class="citation book cs1">Bittker, Boris I.; Idleman, Scott C.; Ravitch, Frank S. (2015). <i>Religion and the State in American Law</i>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107071827" title="Special:BookSources/9781107071827"><bdi>9781107071827</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+the+State+in+American+Law&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781107071827&rft.aulast=Bittker&rft.aufirst=Boris+I.&rft.au=Idleman%2C+Scott+C.&rft.au=Ravitch%2C+Frank+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokes1950" class="citation book cs1">Stokes, Anson Phelps (1950). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/churchstateinuni0000stok"><i>Church and State in the United States</i></a></span>. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers. pp. 1:498.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Church+and+State+in+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1%3A498&rft.pub=Harper+and+Brothers+Publishers&rft.date=1950&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Anson+Phelps&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchurchstateinuni0000stok&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Finkelman2003-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Finkelman2003_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Finkelman2003_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinkelman2003" class="citation book cs1">Finkelman, Paul (2003). <i>Religion and American Law: An Encyclopedia</i>. Routledge. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781136919565" title="Special:BookSources/9781136919565"><bdi>9781136919565</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+American+Law%3A+An+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781136919565&rft.aulast=Finkelman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ed Whelan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bench.nationalreview.com/post/?q=Y2Y4ZmY0MzI1ZjRjNDg4NTQ0ZDc0NGE1MjdmYWRhMDA=">This Week in Liberal Judicial Activism—Week of February 5</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/National_Review" title="National Review">National Review Online</a></i>. February 5, 2007,</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_White2007" class="citation book cs1">Thomas White (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U4esKOiTWGQC"><i>First Freedom: The Baptist Perspective on Religious Liberty</i></a>. 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ReligiousTolerance.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 7,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Religious+discrimination+in+state+constitutions&rft.pub=ReligiousTolerance.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.religioustolerance.org%2Ftexas.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peterson-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peterson_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_Liberties_Union_of_Ohio_and_The_Rev._Matthew_Peterson_v._Capitol_Square_Review_%26_Advisory_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="American Civil Liberties Union of Ohio and The Rev. Matthew Peterson v. Capitol Square Review & Advisory Board">American Civil Liberties Union of Ohio and The Rev. Matthew Peterson v. 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DAVEY</i> 540 U.S. 712 (2004)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianethicstoday.com/Issue/043/Separation%20of%20Church%20and%20State%20Philip%20Hamburger%20Reviewed%20By%20J.%20Brent%20Walker_043_14_.htm">Book Review: Separation of Church and State</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frank Lambert, <i>The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steven Waldman <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2006/0604.waldman.html">The Framers and the Faithful: How modern evangelicals are ignoring their own history.</a> <i>Washington Monthly</i>, June 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaynes2013" class="citation news cs1">Haynes, Charles C. (April 7, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-faith/judge-atheist-group-takes-separation-of-church-and-state-too-far-on-ground-zero-cross/2013/04/07/9551c8be-9fb3-11e2-9c03-6952ff305f35_story.html">"Judge: Atheist group takes separation of church and state too far on 'Ground Zero Cross'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 27,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Judge%3A+Atheist+group+takes+separation+of+church+and+state+too+far+on+%27Ground+Zero+Cross%27&rft.date=2013-04-07&rft.aulast=Haynes&rft.aufirst=Charles+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnational%2Fon-faith%2Fjudge-atheist-group-takes-separation-of-church-and-state-too-far-on-ground-zero-cross%2F2013%2F04%2F07%2F9551c8be-9fb3-11e2-9c03-6952ff305f35_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellah1967" class="citation journal cs1">Bellah, Robert Neelly (Winter 1967). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050306124338/http://www.robertbellah.com/articles_5.htm">"Civil Religion in America"</a>. <i>Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences</i>. <b>96</b> (1): 1–21. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.robertbellah.com/articles_5.htm">the original</a> on March 6, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Academy+of+Arts+and+Sciences&rft.atitle=Civil+Religion+in+America&rft.ssn=winter&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-21&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Bellah&rft.aufirst=Robert+Neelly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.robertbellah.com%2Farticles_5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> From the issue entitled <i>Religion in America.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Mich. Rep defends vote against 'In God We Trust'". Lansing State Journal. November 3, 2011. p. 1. Archived from the original on February 28, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-politico-sept-21-poll-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-politico-sept-21-poll_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-politico-sept-21-poll_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRouseTelhami2022" class="citation web cs1">Rouse, Stella; Telhami, Shibley (September 21, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/09/21/most-republicans-support-declaring-the-united-states-a-christian-nation-00057736">"Most Republicans Support Declaring the United States a Christian Nation"</a>. <i>Politico</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220927001816/https://www.politico.com/news/magazine/2022/09/21/most-republicans-support-declaring-the-united-states-a-christian-nation-00057736">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 27,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Nation&rft.atitle=Republicans+Are+Ready+to+Declare+the+United+States+a+Christian+Nation&rft.date=2022-09-23&rft.aulast=Nichols&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenation.com%2Farticle%2Fpolitics%2Frepublicans-christian-nation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmietana2022" class="citation web cs1">Smietana, Bob (September 23, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2022/09/23/78-republican-evangelicals-want/">"78% of Republican evangelicals want U.S. declared a Christian nation"</a>. <i>The Salt Lake Tribune</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220927024609/https://www.sltrib.com/religion/2022/09/23/78-republican-evangelicals-want/">Archived</a> from the original on September 27, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 27,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Salt+Lake+Tribune&rft.atitle=78%25+of+Republican+evangelicals+want+U.S.+declared+a+Christian+nation&rft.date=2022-09-23&rft.aulast=Smietana&rft.aufirst=Bob&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sltrib.com%2Freligion%2F2022%2F09%2F23%2F78-republican-evangelicals-want%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBravin2014" class="citation news cs1">Bravin, Jess (May 9, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-LB-47999">"State Churches? Justice Clarence Thomas Hears the Call"</a>. <i>Wall Street Journal</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wall+Street+Journal&rft.atitle=State+Churches%3F+Justice+Clarence+Thomas+Hears+the+Call&rft.date=2014-05-09&rft.aulast=Bravin&rft.aufirst=Jess&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wsj.com%2Farticles%2FBL-LB-47999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/opinion/opinion-la/la-ol-supreme-court-prayer-thomas-20140505-story.html">"Opinion: In prayer case, Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas proves critics wrong"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a></i>. 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April 3, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Next+stage+in+the+culture+war%3A+official+state+religions&rft.date=2013-04-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fnext-stage-culture-war-official-state-religions-flna1C9201993&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/christianity-state-religion_n_3022255">"Poll: Huge Number of Americans Want Christianity as State Religion"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Denver+Post&rft.atitle=Lauren+Boebert+told+congregation+she%27s+%27tired+of+this+separation+of+church+and+state+junk%27&rft.date=2022-06-27&rft.aulast=Swanson&rft.aufirst=Conrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.denverpost.com%2F2022%2F06%2F27%2Flauren-boebert-church-state-colorado%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCercone2022" class="citation web cs1">Cercone, Jeff (June 30, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2022/jun/30/lauren-boebert/lauren-boebert-wrong-founding-fathers-intent-exper/">"PolitiFact - Lauren Boebert wrong on Founding Fathers' intent, experts say"</a>. <i>Politifact</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220706172520/https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2022/jun/30/lauren-boebert/lauren-boebert-wrong-founding-fathers-intent-exper/">Archived</a> from the original on July 6, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Politifact&rft.atitle=PolitiFact+-+Lauren+Boebert+wrong+on+Founding+Fathers%27+intent%2C+experts+say&rft.date=2022-06-30&rft.aulast=Cercone&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.politifact.com%2Ffactchecks%2F2022%2Fjun%2F30%2Flauren-boebert%2Flauren-boebert-wrong-founding-fathers-intent-exper%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChen2022" class="citation web cs1">Chen, Shawna (June 29, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.axios.com/2022/06/29/lauren-boebert-church-state-christianity">"GOP Rep. Lauren Boebert's call to collapse separation of church and state spurs alarm"</a>. <i>Axios</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220629104208/https://www.axios.com/2022/06/29/lauren-boebert-church-state-christianity">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Axios&rft.atitle=GOP+Rep.+Lauren+Boebert%27s+call+to+collapse+separation+of+church+and+state+spurs+alarm&rft.date=2022-06-29&rft.aulast=Chen&rft.aufirst=Shawna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.axios.com%2F2022%2F06%2F29%2Flauren-boebert-church-state-christianity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSulimanBella2022" class="citation news cs1">Suliman, Adela; Bella, Timothy (June 28, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/06/28/lauren-boebert-church-state-colorado/">"GOP Rep. Boebert: 'I'm tired of this separation of church and state junk'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220629133219/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/06/28/lauren-boebert-church-state-colorado/">Archived</a> from the original on June 29, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 19,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=GOP+Rep.+Boebert%3A+%27I%27m+tired+of+this+separation+of+church+and+state+junk%27&rft.date=2022-06-28&rft.aulast=Suliman&rft.aufirst=Adela&rft.au=Bella%2C+Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fpolitics%2F2022%2F06%2F28%2Flauren-boebert-church-state-colorado%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legiscan.com/LA/text/HB71/id/2978627">"Louisiana HB71 | 2024 | Regular Session"</a>. <i>LegiScan</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LegiScan&rft.atitle=Louisiana+HB71+%7C+2024+%7C+Regular+Session&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flegiscan.com%2FLA%2Ftext%2FHB71%2Fid%2F2978627&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aclu.org/press-releases/clergy-public-school-parents-sue-to-block-louisiana-law-requiring-public-schools-to-display-the-ten-commandments#:~:text=The%20complaint%20further%20alleges%20that,afoul%20of%20the%20First%20Amendment's">"Clergy, Public-School Parents Sue to Block Louisiana Law Requiring Public Schools to Display the Ten Commandments"</a>. <i>American Civil Liberties Union</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Civil+Liberties+Union&rft.atitle=Clergy%2C+Public-School+Parents+Sue+to+Block+Louisiana+Law+Requiring+Public+Schools+to+Display+the+Ten+Commandments&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aclu.org%2Fpress-releases%2Fclergy-public-school-parents-sue-to-block-louisiana-law-requiring-public-schools-to-display-the-ten-commandments%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520complaint%2520further%2520alleges%2520that%2Cafoul%2520of%2520the%2520First%2520Amendment%27s&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.laaclu.org/en/press-releases/civil-liberties-groups-will-file-lawsuit-against-louisiana-law-requiring-public">"Civil Liberties Groups Will File Lawsuit Against Louisiana Law Requiring Public Schools to Display the Ten Commandments | ACLU of Louisiana"</a>. <i>www.laaclu.org</i>. June 19, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 10,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.laaclu.org&rft.atitle=Civil+Liberties+Groups+Will+File+Lawsuit+Against+Louisiana+Law+Requiring+Public+Schools+to+Display+the+Ten+Commandments+%7C+ACLU+of+Louisiana&rft.date=2024-06-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.laaclu.org%2Fen%2Fpress-releases%2Fcivil-liberties-groups-will-file-lawsuit-against-louisiana-law-requiring-public&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.aclu.org/live/uploads/2024/06/3-24-cv-517-Roake-v.-Brumley.pdf">"Civil Action No. 3:24-cv-517-JWD-SDJ"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_Middle_District_of_Louisiana" title="United States District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana">United States District Court for the Middle District of Louisiana</a>. June 24, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Civil+Action+No.+3%3A24-cv-517-JWD-SDJ&rft.pub=United+States+District+Court+for+the+Middle+District+of+Louisiana&rft.date=2024-06-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.aclu.org%2Flive%2Fuploads%2F2024%2F06%2F3-24-cv-517-Roake-v.-Brumley.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barry McGowan, <i>How to Separate Church & State: A Manual from the Trenches</i> Hufton Mueller, LLC, 2012 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-615-63802-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-615-63802-7">978-0-615-63802-7</a></li> <li>Philip Hamburger, <i>Separation of Church and State</i> Harvard University Press, 2002. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00734-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00734-4">0-674-00734-4</a> OCLC: 48958015</li> <li>Marci A. Hamilton, <i>God vs. the Gavel: Religion and the Rule of Law</i>, Cambridge University Press, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-85304-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-85304-4">0-521-85304-4</a></li> <li>Mark DeWolfe Howe. <i>The Garden and the Wilderness: Religion and Government in American Constitutional History</i>(U. of Chicago Press, 1965)</li> <li>Daniel L. Dreisbach. <i>Thomas Jefferson and the Wall of Separation Between Church and State</i> (New York University Press, 2003)</li> <li>Daniel L. Dreisbach and Mark David Hall. <i>The Sacred Rights of Conscience: Selected Readings on Religious Liberty and Church-State Relations in the American Founding</i> (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund Press, 2009)</li> <li>Daniel L. Dreisbach, Mark David Hall, and Jeffry Morrison. <i>The Forgotten Founders on Religion and Public Life</i> (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2009)</li> <li>John C. Jeffries Jr. and James E. Ryan, "A Political History of the Establishment Clause," 100 <i>Michigan Law Rev</i>. (2001) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=267786">online version</a></li> <li>Mark David Hall, "Jeffersonian Walls and Madisonian Lines: The Supreme Court's Use of History in Religion Clause Cases," 85 <i>Oregon Law Review</i> (2006), 563–614. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/olr/archives/85/852hall.pdf">http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/olr/archives/85/852hall.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080527192535/http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/olr/archives/85/852hall.pdf">Archived</a> May 27, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Isaac Kramnick and R. Laurence Moore, <i>The Godless Constitution: The Case Against Religious Correctness</i> (Norton, 1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_B._Kurland" title="Philip B. Kurland">Philip B. Kurland</a>, ed., <i>Church and State: The Supreme Court and the First Amendment</i> (U. of Chicago Press, 1975)</li> <li>Adam M. Samaha; "Separation of Church and State." <i>Constitutional Commentary</i>. 19#3 2002. pp 713+. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5002059531">online version</a></li> <li>Anson P. Stokes and Leo Pfeffer, <i>Church and State in the United States</i> (reprint, 1964)</li> <li>Kyle G. Volk, <i>Moral Minorities and the Making of American Democracy</i> (Oxford University Press, 2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wexler" title="Jay Wexler">Jay Wexler</a>, <i>Holy Hullabaloos: A Road Trip to the Battlegrounds of the Church/State Wars</i> (Beacon Press, 2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807000441" title="Special:BookSources/9780807000441">9780807000441</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wexler" title="Jay Wexler">Jay Wexler</a>, <i>Our Non-Christian Nation: How Wiccans, Satanists, Atheists, and Others Are Demanding Their Rightful Place in Public Life</i> (Stanford Univ. Press, 2019) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780804798990" title="Special:BookSources/9780804798990">9780804798990</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state in the United States</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_court_cases_regarding_separation">American court cases regarding separation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: American court cases regarding separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=330&page=1">1947</a>, first case concerning separation of church and state; supporting bussing for children to private religious schools and declaring that states were required to provide the same guarantees of religious freedom as the federal government</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=333&invol=203">1948</a>, banning religious instruction in public schools</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=343&invol=306">1952</a>, allowing religious instruction off school property during regular school hours</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=370&page=421#422">1962</a>, banning teacher-led prayer from public schools</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=374&invol=203">1963</a>, banning Bible-reading and the recital of the Lord's Prayer in public schools</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=411&invol=192">1973</a>, allowing state funding for textbooks and teachers' salaries in religious schools; creating the Lemon test</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=482&page=578#593">1987</a>, declared the Creation Act invalid, which had mandated the teaching of Creation if Evolution was taught</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=492&invol=573">1989</a>, banning religious displays depicting only one religion</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&court=us&vol=505&page=577#581">1992</a>, banning prayers given by clergy as a part of an official public school graduation ceremony.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040603161945/http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/rightsof/roots.htm">"Rights of the People - The Roots of Religious Liberty"</a>. U.S. Department of State, International Information Programs. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/rightsof/roots.htm">the original</a> on June 3, 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 7,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rights+of+the+People+-+The+Roots+of+Religious+Liberty&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+State%2C+International+Information+Programs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusinfo.state.gov%2Fproducts%2Fpubs%2Frightsof%2Froots.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/rightsof/modern.htm">"Rights of the People - Religious liberty in the Modern era"</a>. U.S. Department of State, International Information Programs<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 7,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rights+of+the+People+-+Religious+liberty+in+the+Modern+era&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+State%2C+International+Information+Programs&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusinfo.state.gov%2Fproducts%2Fpubs%2Frightsof%2Fmodern.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASeparation+of+church+and+state+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0915/p12s01-lire.html">Christian Science Monitor</a> analysis of George Washington's letter and its implications</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080625032915/http://www.undergodprocon.org/pdf/feldman.pdf">"The Intellectual Origins of the Establishment Clause"</a> by Noah Feldman, Asst. Professor of Law, New York University, 2002.</li> <li>Royal C. Gilkey, "The Problem of Church and State in Terms of the Nonestablishment and Free Exercise of Religion", <i>William & Mary Law Review</i>, Vol. 9, Issue I, 1967, 149–165</li> <li>Robert Struble Jr., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tell-usa.org/totl/"><i>Treatise on Twelve Lights: To Restore America the Beautiful under God and the Written Constitution</i></a>, 2007–08 edition.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bjcpa.org/">Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty </a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theocracywatch.org/separation_church_state2.htm">Separation of Church and State</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://federalistblog.us/2010/11/_defending_jeffersons_wall_of_separation_metaphor.html">Misunderstanding Jefferson's "wall of separation" metaphor</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/danbury.html">'A Wall of Separation': FBI Helps Restore Jefferson's Obliterated Draft</a>, Library of Congress information Bulletin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9806/">June 1998 – Vol. 57, No. 6</a>, by James H. Hutson, Chief, Manuscript Division, Library of Congress.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of 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