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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Background before adoption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background_before_adoption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Judicial_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Judicial_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Judicial interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Judicial_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scholarly_interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholarly_interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Scholarly interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholarly_interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigo%C3%BEa_Geb%C4%93tung_%C3%BE%C3%A6re_Grundgesetnesse_%C3%BE%C4%81ra_Ge%C4%81nedra_R%C4%ABca_American" title="Nigoþa Gebētung þære Grundgesetnesse þāra Geānedra Rīca American – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Nigoþa Gebētung þære Grundgesetnesse þāra Geānedra Rīca American" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%B9_%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="التعديل التاسع لدستور الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التعديل التاسع لدستور الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%9E%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%B0_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%8B%D1%96_%D0%97%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Дзявятая папраўка да Канстытуцыі ЗША – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дзявятая папраўка да Канстытуцыі ЗША" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novena_esmena_de_la_Constituci%C3%B3_dels_Estats_Units" title="Novena esmena de la Constitució dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Novena esmena de la Constitució dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/9._Zusatzartikel_zur_Verfassung_der_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="9. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="9. Zusatzartikel zur Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameerika_%C3%9Chendriikide_p%C3%B5hiseaduse_%C3%BCheksas_parandus" title="Ameerika Ühendriikide põhiseaduse üheksas parandus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ameerika Ühendriikide põhiseaduse üheksas parandus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novena_Enmienda_a_la_Constituci%C3%B3n_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Novena Enmienda a la Constitución de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Novena Enmienda a la Constitución de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%85%D9%85_%D9%86%D9%87%D9%85_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="متمم نهم قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="متمم نهم قانون اساسی ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuvi%C3%A8me_amendement_de_la_Constitution_des_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Neuvième amendement de la Constitution des États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Neuvième amendement de la Constitution des États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD_%EC%88%98%EC%A0%95_%ED%97%8C%EB%B2%95_%EC%A0%9C9%EC%A1%B0" title="미국 수정 헌법 제9조 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국 수정 헌법 제9조" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/IX_emendamento_della_Costituzione_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="IX emendamento della Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="IX emendamento della Costituzione degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%9C%D7%97%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="התיקון התשיעי לחוקת ארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="התיקון התשיעי לחוקת ארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emendament_quell_de_noeuv_(Costituzzion_di_Stat_Unid)" title="Emendament quell de noeuv (Costituzzion di Stat Unid) – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Emendament quell de noeuv (Costituzzion di Stat Unid)" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E5%90%88%E8%A1%86%E5%9B%BD%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E4%BF%AE%E6%AD%A3%E7%AC%AC9%E6%9D%A1" title="アメリカ合衆国憲法修正第9条 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ合衆国憲法修正第9条" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88_%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A_%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%86%D9%87%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84" title="د متحده ایالاتو د اساسي قانون نهم تعدیل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د متحده ایالاتو د اساسي قانون نهم تعدیل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/9._poprawka_do_Konstytucji_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="9. poprawka do Konstytucji Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="9. poprawka do Konstytucji Stanów Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nona_Emenda_%C3%A0_Constitui%C3%A7%C3%A3o_dos_Estados_Unidos" title="Nona Emenda à Constituição dos Estados Unidos – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nona Emenda à Constituição dos Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_IX-lea_amendament_la_Constitu%C8%9Bia_Statelor_Unite_ale_Americii" title="Al IX-lea amendament la Constituția Statelor Unite ale Americii – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Al IX-lea amendament la Constituția Statelor Unite ale Americii" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BA_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Девятая поправка к Конституции США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Девятая поправка к Конституции США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerika_Birle%C5%9Fik_Devletleri_Anayasas%C4%B1_Dokuzuncu_De%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fikli%C4%9Fi" title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Anayasası Dokuzuncu Değişikliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Amerika Birleşik Devletleri Anayasası Dokuzuncu Değişikliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B2%27%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%83%D1%86%D1%96%D1%97_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Дев'ята поправка до Конституції США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дев'ята поправка до Конституції США" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E7%AC%AC%E4%B9%9D%E4%BF%AE%E6%AD%A3%E6%A1%88" title="美國憲法第九修正案 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="美國憲法第九修正案" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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href="/wiki/Category:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Constitution of the United States">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution<br />of the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/160px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/240px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg/320px-Greater_coat_of_arms_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="451" data-file-height="476" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States#Original_frame" title="Constitution of the United States">Preamble and Articles</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Ratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments to the Constitution</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">VIII</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XVIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XIX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">XXVII</a></li></ul> </div> <hr /> <b><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States#Unratified_amendments" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified Amendments</a></b>:<div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">D.C. Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism_in_the_United_States" title="Republicanism in the United States">Republicanism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:lavender;"> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Full text</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America" class="extiw" title="s:Constitution of the United States of America">Preamble and Articles I–VII</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" class="extiw" title="s:United States Bill of Rights">Amendments I–X</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Template talk:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:US_Constitution_article_series" title="Special:EditPage/Template:US Constitution article series"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/190px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/285px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg/380px-Bill_of_Rights_Pg1of1_AC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8636" data-file-height="9183" /></a><figcaption>The Bill of Rights in the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Ninth Amendment</b> (<b>Amendment IX</b>) to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a> addresses rights, retained by the people, that are <a href="/wiki/Unenumerated_rights" title="Unenumerated rights">not specifically enumerated</a> in the Constitution. It is part of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a>. The amendment was introduced during the drafting of the Bill of Rights when some of the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">American founders</a> became concerned that future generations might argue that, because a certain right was not listed in the Bill of Rights, it did not exist. However, the Ninth Amendment has rarely played any role in U.S. constitutional law, and until the 1980s was often considered "forgotten" or "irrelevant" by many legal academics.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/United_Public_Workers_v._Mitchell" title="United Public Workers v. Mitchell">United Public Workers v. Mitchell</a>,</i> the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> held that rights contained in the 9th or 10th amendments could not be used to challenge the exercise of <a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">enumerated powers</a> by the government: "If granted power is found, necessarily the objection of invasion of those rights, reserved by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, must fail."<sup id="cite_ref-Mitchell_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mitchell-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholars have taken a different position and challenged the Court's reasoning,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while other scholars have agreed with the Court’s reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Text">Text</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Text"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amendment, as proposed by Congress in 1789 and later ratified as the Ninth Amendment, reads as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="thumb tnone" style="margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:2007px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="overflow:auto"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Amendment_9.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The hand-written copy of the proposed Bill of Rights, 1789, cropped to just show the text that would later be ratified as the Ninth Amendment"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Amendment_9.jpg/1999px-Amendment_9.jpg" decoding="async" width="1999" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Amendment_9.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2416" data-file-height="125" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Amendment_9.jpg" title="File:Amendment 9.jpg"> </a></div>The hand-written copy of the proposed Bill of Rights, 1789, cropped to just show the text that would later be ratified as the Ninth Amendment</div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background_before_adoption">Background before adoption</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background before adoption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the U.S. Constitution was put to the states for <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratification</a> after being signed on September 17, 1787, the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalism" title="Anti-Federalism">Anti-Federalists</a> argued that a Bill of Rights should be added. One of the arguments the <a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalists</a> gave against the addition of a Bill of Rights, during the debates about ratification of the Constitution, was that a listing of rights could problematically enlarge the powers specified in <a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8:_Powers_of_Congress" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Article One, Section<span class="nowrap"> </span>8</a> of the new Constitution by implication. For example, in <a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">Federalist</a> <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers/No._84" class="extiw" title="s:The Federalist Papers/No. 84">84</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a> asked, "Why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?"<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, James Madison explained to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Thomas Jefferson</a>, "I conceive that in a certain degree<span class="nowrap"> </span>... the rights in question are reserved by the manner in which the federal powers are granted"<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by Article One, Section<span class="nowrap"> </span>8 of the Constitution. </p><p>The Anti-Federalists persisted in favor of a Bill of Rights during the ratification debates, but also were against ratification, and consequently several of the state ratification conventions gave their assent with accompanying resolutions proposing amendments to be added. In 1788, the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a> attempted to solve the problem that Hamilton and the Federalists had identified by proposing a constitutional amendment specifying:<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>That those clauses which declare that Congress shall not exercise certain powers be not interpreted in any manner whatsoever to extend the powers of Congress. But that they may be construed either as making exceptions to the specified powers where this shall be the case, or otherwise as inserted merely for greater caution.</p></blockquote> <p>This proposal ultimately led to the Ninth Amendment. In 1789, while introducing to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> nineteen<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> draft Amendments, <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> addressed what would become the Ninth Amendment as follows:<sup id="cite_ref-Introducing_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Introducing-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It has been objected also against a Bill of Rights, that, by enumerating particular exceptions to the grant of power, it would disparage those rights which were not placed in that enumeration; and it might follow by implication, that those rights which were not singled out, were intended to be assigned into the hands of the General Government, and were consequently insecure. This is one of the most plausible arguments I have ever heard against the admission of a bill of rights into this system; but, I conceive, that it may be guarded against. I have attempted it, as gentlemen may see by turning to the last clause of the fourth resolution.</p></blockquote> <p>Like Alexander Hamilton, Madison was concerned that enumerating various rights could "enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution".<sup id="cite_ref-Introducing_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Introducing-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To attempt to solve this problem, Madison submitted this draft to Congress: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution.<sup id="cite_ref-Introducing_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Introducing-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This was an intermediate form of the Ninth Amendment that borrowed from the Virginia proposal, while foreshadowing the final version. </p><p>The final text of the Ninth Amendment, like Madison's draft, speaks of other rights than those enumerated in the Constitution. The character of those other rights was indicated by Madison in his speech introducing the Bill of Rights (emphasis added): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It has been said, by way of objection to a bill of rights ... that in the Federal Government they are unnecessary, because the powers are enumerated, and it follows, that all that are not granted by the constitution are retained; that the constitution is a bill of powers, the great residuum being the rights of the people; and, therefore, a bill of rights cannot be so necessary as if the residuum was thrown into the hands of the Government. I admit that these arguments are not entirely without foundation, but they are not as conclusive to the extent it has been proposed. It is true the powers of the general government are circumscribed; they are directed to particular objects; but even if government keeps within those limits, it has certain discretionary powers with respect to the means, which may admit of abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-Introducing_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Introducing-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The First through Eighth Amendments address the means by which the federal government exercises its enumerated powers, while the Ninth Amendment addresses a "great residuum" of rights that have not been "thrown into the hands of the government", as Madison put it.<sup id="cite_ref-Introducing_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Introducing-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ninth Amendment became part of the Constitution on December 15, 1791, upon ratification by three-fourths of the states. </p><p>The final form of the amendment ratified by the states is as follows: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Judicial_interpretation">Judicial interpretation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Judicial interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The courts have generally not regarded the Ninth Amendment as either limiting governmental power, or justifying its expansion. As the U.S. Supreme Court put it in <i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Public_Workers_v._Mitchell" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Public Workers v. Mitchell">U.S. Public Workers v. Mitchell</a></i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_330" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 330">330</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/330/75/">75</a> (1947): "If granted power is found, necessarily the objection of invasion of those rights, reserved by the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, must fail." </p><p>The Supreme Court held in <i><a href="/wiki/Barron_v._Baltimore" title="Barron v. Baltimore">Barron v. Baltimore</a></i> (1833) that the Bill of Rights was enforceable by the federal courts only against the federal government, not against the states. Thus, the Ninth Amendment originally applied only to the federal government, which is a government of <a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Enumerated powers">enumerated powers</a>. </p><p>Some jurists have asserted that the Ninth Amendment is relevant to the interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourteenth Amendment</a>. Justice <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Goldberg" title="Arthur Goldberg">Arthur Goldberg</a> (joined by Chief Justice <a href="/wiki/Earl_Warren" title="Earl Warren">Earl Warren</a> and Justice <a href="/wiki/William_J._Brennan,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="William J. Brennan, Jr.">William Brennan</a>) expressed this view in a concurring opinion in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Griswold_v._Connecticut" title="Griswold v. Connecticut">Griswold v. Connecticut</a></i> (1965): </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Framers did not intend that the first eight amendments be construed to exhaust the basic and fundamental rights ... I do not mean to imply that the ... Ninth Amendment constitutes an independent source of rights protected from infringement by either the States or the Federal Government ... While the Ninth Amendment – and indeed the entire Bill of Rights – originally concerned restrictions upon federal power, the subsequently enacted Fourteenth Amendment prohibits the States as well from abridging fundamental personal liberties. And, the Ninth Amendment, in indicating that not all such liberties are specifically mentioned in the first eight amendments, is surely relevant in showing the existence of other fundamental personal rights, now protected from state, as well as federal, infringement. In sum, the Ninth Amendment simply lends strong support to the view that the "liberty" protected by the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments from infringement by the Federal Government or the States is not restricted to rights specifically mentioned in the first eight amendments. Cf. <i>United Public Workers v. Mitchell</i>, 330 U.S. 75, 94–95.</p></blockquote> <p>In support of his interpretation of the Ninth, Goldberg quoted from Madison's speech in the House of Representatives as well as from <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">Federalist Paper</a></i> No. 84: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I go further and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and in the extent in which they are contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed constitution, but would even be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to powers which are not granted, and, on this very account, would afford a colorable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? Why, for instance, should it be said that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed? I will not contend that such a provision would confer a regulating power; but it is evident that it would furnish, to men disposed to usurp, a plausible pretense for claiming that power.</p></blockquote> <p>But the two Justices who dissented in <i>Griswold</i> replied that Goldberg was mistaken to invoke the Ninth as authority. <a href="/wiki/Hugo_Black" title="Hugo Black">Hugo Black</a>'s dissent said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>My Brother GOLDBERG has adopted the recent discovery that the Ninth Amendment, as well as the Due Process Clause, can be used by this Court as authority to strike down all state legislation which this Court thinks violates "fundamental principles of liberty and justice", or is contrary to the "traditions and [collective] conscience of our people". ... [O]ne would certainly have to look far beyond the language of the Ninth Amendment to find that the Framers vested in this Court any such awesome veto powers over lawmaking, either by the States or by the Congress. Nor does anything in the history of the Amendment offer any support for such a shocking doctrine. The whole history of the adoption of the Constitution and Bill of Rights points the other way, and the very material quoted by my Brother GOLDBERG shows that the Ninth Amendment was intended to protect against the idea that, "by enumerating particular exceptions to the grant of power" to the Federal Government, "those rights which were not singled out were intended to be assigned into the hands of the General Government [the United States], and were consequently insecure." That Amendment was passed not to broaden the powers of this Court or any other department of "the General Government", but, as every student of history knows, to assure the people that the Constitution in all its provisions was intended to limit the Federal Government to the powers granted expressly or by necessary implication. ... [F]or a period of a century and a half, no serious suggestion was ever made that the Ninth Amendment, enacted to protect state powers against federal invasion, could be used as a weapon of federal power to prevent state legislatures from passing laws they consider appropriate to govern local affairs.</p></blockquote> <p>And <a href="/wiki/Potter_Stewart" title="Potter Stewart">Potter Stewart</a>'s dissent said: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[T]o say that the Ninth Amendment has anything to do with this case is to turn somersaults with history. The Ninth Amendment, like its companion, the Tenth, which this Court held "states but a truism that all is retained which has not been surrendered", <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Darby_Lumber_Co." title="United States v. Darby Lumber Co.">United States v. Darby</a></i>, 312 U.S. 100, 312 U.S. 124, was framed by James Madison and adopted by the States simply to make clear that the adoption of the Bill of Rights did not alter the plan that the <i>Federal</i> Government was to be a government of express and limited powers, and that all rights and powers not delegated to it were retained by the people and the individual States. Until today, no member of this Court has ever suggested that the Ninth Amendment meant anything else, and the idea that a federal court could ever use the Ninth Amendment to annul a law passed by the elected representatives of the people of the State of Connecticut would have caused James Madison no little wonder.</p></blockquote> <p>Since <i>Griswold</i>, some judges have tried to use the Ninth Amendment to justify judicially enforcing rights that are not enumerated. For example, the District Court that heard the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Roe_v._Wade" title="Roe v. Wade">Roe v. Wade</a></i> ruled in favor of a "Ninth Amendment right to choose to have an abortion," although it stressed that the right was "not unqualified or unfettered."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Justice <a href="/wiki/William_O._Douglas" title="William O. Douglas">William O. Douglas</a> rejected that view; Douglas wrote that "The Ninth Amendment obviously does not create federally enforceable rights." See <i><a href="/wiki/Doe_v._Bolton" title="Doe v. Bolton">Doe v. Bolton</a></i> (1973). Douglas joined the majority opinion of the U.S. Supreme Court in <i>Roe</i>, which stated that a federally enforceable right to privacy, "whether it be founded in the Fourteenth Amendment's concept of personal liberty and restrictions upon state action, as we feel it is, or, as the District Court determined, in the Ninth Amendment's reservation of rights to the people, is broad enough to encompass a woman's decision whether or not to terminate her pregnancy."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals stated in <i>Gibson v. Matthews</i>, 926 F.2d 532, 537 (6th Cir. 1991) that the Ninth Amendment was intended to vitiate the maxim of <i><a href="/wiki/Canons_of_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Canons of construction">expressio unius est exclusio alterius</a></i> according to which the express mention of one thing excludes all others:<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[T]he ninth amendment does not confer substantive rights in addition to those conferred by other portions of our governing law. The ninth amendment was added to the Bill of Rights to ensure that the maxim <i>expressio unius est exclusio alterius</i> would not be used at a later time to deny fundamental rights merely because they were not specifically enumerated in the Constitution.</p></blockquote> <p>Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> expressed the view, in the dissenting opinion of <i><a href="/wiki/Troxel_v._Granville" title="Troxel v. Granville">Troxel v. Granville</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_530" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 530">530</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/530/57/">57</a> (2000), that: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Declaration of Independence ... is not a legal prescription conferring powers upon the courts; and the Constitution's refusal to "deny or disparage" other rights is far removed from affirming any one of them, and even farther removed from authorizing judges to identify what they might be, and to enforce the judges' list against laws duly enacted by the people.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scholarly_interpretation">Scholarly interpretation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Scholarly interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Professor <a href="/wiki/Laurence_Tribe" title="Laurence Tribe">Laurence Tribe</a> shares the view that this amendment does not confer substantive rights: "It is a common error, but an error nonetheless, to talk of 'ninth amendment rights.' The ninth amendment is not a source of rights as such; it is simply a rule about how to read the Constitution."<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2000, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bailyn" title="Bernard Bailyn">Bernard Bailyn</a> gave a speech at the White House on the subject of the Ninth Amendment. He said that the Ninth Amendment refers to "a universe of rights, possessed by the people – latent rights, still to be evoked and enacted into law ... a reservoir of other, unenumerated rights that the people retain, which in time may be enacted into law".<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, journalist <a href="/wiki/Brian_Doherty_(journalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian Doherty (journalist)">Brian Doherty</a> has argued that the Ninth Amendment "specifically roots the Constitution in a <a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">natural rights</a> tradition that says we are born with more rights than any constitution could ever list or specify."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bork" title="Robert Bork">Robert Bork</a>, often considered an <a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">originalist</a>, stated during his Supreme Court confirmation hearing that a judge should not apply a constitutional provision like this one if he does not know what it means; the example Bork then gave was a clause covered by an inkblot. Upon further study, Bork later ascribed a meaning to the Ninth Amendment in his book <i>The Tempting of America</i>. In that book, Bork subscribed to the interpretation of constitutional historian Russell Caplan, who asserted that this Amendment was meant to ensure that the federal Bill of Rights would not affect provisions in state law that restrain state governments.<sup id="cite_ref-RandyBushTLR88-1_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RandyBushTLR88-1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A libertarian originalist, <a href="/wiki/Randy_Barnett#Ninth_Amendment" title="Randy Barnett">Randy Barnett</a> has argued that the Ninth Amendment requires what he calls a presumption of liberty. Barnett also argues that the Ninth Amendment prevents the government from invalidating a ruling by either a jury or lower court through strict interpretation of the Bill of Rights. According to Barnett, "The purpose of the Ninth Amendment was to ensure that all individual natural rights had the same stature and force after some of them were enumerated as they had before."<sup id="cite_ref-RandyBushTLR88-1_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RandyBushTLR88-1-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to professor and former Circuit Judge <a href="/wiki/Michael_W._McConnell" title="Michael W. McConnell">Michael W. McConnell</a>, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[T]he rights retained by the people are indeed individual natural rights, but those rights enjoy precisely the same status and are protected in the same way, as before the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. They are not relinquished, denied, or disparaged. Nor do natural rights become "constitutional rights." They are simply what all retained rights were before the enactment of the Bill of Rights: a guide to equitable interpretation and a rationale for the narrow construction of statutes that might be thought to infringe them, but not superior to explicit positive law. This understanding of the relation of unenumerated natural rights to a positive law closely resembles the relationship between common law and legislation: the common law governs in the absence of contrary legislation, and sometimes even guides or limits the interpretation of ambiguous or overbroad statutes, but does not prevail in the teeth of specific statutory overrides. This mode of interpretation offers a middle way between the two usual poles of unenumerated rights jurisprudence. One pole maintains that if a claimed right cannot be found in the Constitution, even applying a liberal construction to its terms, it is entitled to no protection at all ... The other pole maintains that there are unwritten natural rights whose content must inevitably be determined, finally and without the possibility of legislative override, by judges. These rights then receive full constitutional protection even when the representatives of the people have reached the contrary conclusion ... If I am correct about the meaning of the Ninth Amendment, neither of these approaches is entirely correct. Rather, an assertion of a natural right (generally founded on common law or other long-standing practice) will be judicially enforceable unless there is specific and explicit positive law to the contrary. This allows the representatives of the people, rather than members of the judiciary, to make the ultimate determination of when natural rights should yield to the peace, safety, and happiness of society.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Still others, such as Thomas B. McAffee, have argued that the Ninth Amendment protects the unenumerated "residuum" of rights which the federal government was never empowered to violate.<sup id="cite_ref-McAffee_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McAffee-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to lawyer and diplomat <a href="/wiki/Frederic_Jesup_Stimson" title="Frederic Jesup Stimson">Frederic Jesup Stimson</a>, the framers of the Constitution and the Ninth Amendment intended that no rights that they already held would be lost through omission. Law professor <a href="/wiki/Charles_Black_(professor)" title="Charles Black (professor)">Charles Lund Black</a> took a similar position, though Stimson and Black respectively acknowledged that their views differed from the modern view, and differed from the prevalent view in academic writing.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun rights</a> activists in recent decades have sometimes argued for a fundamental natural <a href="/wiki/Right_to_keep_and_bear_arms_in_the_United_States" title="Right to keep and bear arms in the United States">right to keep and bear arms in the United States</a> that both predates the U.S. Constitution and is covered by the Constitution's Ninth Amendment; according to this viewpoint, the <a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">Second Amendment</a> only enumerates a pre-existing right to keep and bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exception_that_proves_the_rule" title="Exception that proves the rule">Exception that proves the rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_liberty" title="Negative liberty">Negative liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBarnett2006" class="citation journal cs1">Barnett, Randy (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1850&context=facpub">"The Ninth Amendment: It Means What It Says"</a>. <i>Texas Law Review</i>. <b>85</b> (1): 1–82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Texas+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Ninth+Amendment%3A+It+Means+What+It+Says&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-82&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Randy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.georgetown.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1850%26context%3Dfacpub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLash2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lash, Kurt (2004). "The Lost Original Meaning of the Ninth Amendment". <i>Texas Law Review</i>. <b>83</b> (2): 331–429. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=613621">613621</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Texas+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Lost+Original+Meaning+of+the+Ninth+Amendment&rft.volume=83&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=331-429&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D613621%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Lash&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mitchell-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mitchell_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=330&page=75"><i>United Public Workers v. Mitchell</i>, 330 U.S. 75 (1947)</a>. See also <i>Jenkins v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://openjurist.org/483/f3d/90/jenkins-v-commissioner-of-internal-revenue">483 F.3d 90</a> (2d Cir 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Massey, Calvin. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.uchastings.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2889&context=hastings_law_journal">Federalism and Fundamental Rights: The Ninth Amendment</a></i>, 38 Hastings L.J. 305, 306-307 (1987).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kelly, James F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3509&context=uclrev">"Comment, The Uncertain Renaissance of the Ninth Amendment"</a>, 33 <i>University of Chicago Law Review</i> 814-836 (1966).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas B. McAffee, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325181202/http://www.stephankinsella.com/texts/mcaffee_federalism_ninth.pdf">"Federalism and the Protection of Rights: The Modern Ninth Amendment's Spreading Confusion"</a>, 1996 <i>B.Y.U. Law Rev.</i> 351 (via archive.org).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GPO-CONAN-2002/pdf/GPO-CONAN-2002-9-10.pdf">"Unenumerated Rights – Ninth Amendment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. gpo.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Unenumerated+Rights+%E2%80%93+Ninth+Amendment&rft.pub=gpo.gov&rft.au=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Ffdsys%2Fpkg%2FGPO-CONAN-2002%2Fpdf%2FGPO-CONAN-2002-9-10.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss7.html">Alexander Hamilton, Federalist, no. 84, 575–81</a> (28 May 1788).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Madison, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/v1ch14s47.html">Letter to Thomas Jefferson</a> (October 17, 1788). Madison often expressed this idea, for example in a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mjmtext:@field(DOCID+@lit(jm050127))">letter to George Washington</a> dated December 5, 1789 ("If a line can be drawn between the powers granted and the rights retained, it would seem to be the same thing, whether the latter be secured by declaring that they shall not be abridged, or that the former shall not be extended").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/const/ratva.htm">Virginia Ratification Resolution</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160830142351/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/const/ratva.htm">Archived</a> 2016-08-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (June 26, 1788).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/bor/amd_jmad.htm">"Amendments Offered in Congress by James Madison"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Amendments+Offered+in+Congress+by+James+Madison&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.constitution.org%2Fbor%2Famd_jmad.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Introducing-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Introducing_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Introducing_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Introducing_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Introducing_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Introducing_12-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">James Madison,<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss11.html">Speech Introducing Bill of Rights</a> (June 8, 1789).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html">"America's Founding Documents"</a>. 30 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=America%27s+Founding+Documents&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fcharters%2Fbill_of_rights_transcript.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Roe v. Wade</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hometown.aol.com/abtrbng/roedist.htm">314 F. Supp. 1217 at 1223</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200811012347/http://hometown.aol.com/abtrbng/roedist.htm">Archived</a> 2020-08-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (1970).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Roe v. Wade</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=410&page=113">410 U.S. 113</a> (1973). Findlaw.com. Retrieved 2007-06-04.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=11210400809639522467">Gibson v. Matthews</a></i>, 926 F.2d 532 (6th Cir. 1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurence H. Tribe, <i>American Constitutional Law</i> p. 776 n. 14 (2nd ed. 1998).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard Bailyn, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clinton2.nara.gov/Initiatives/Millennium/bbailyn.html">Remarks at White House Millennium Evening</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170204040411/https://clinton2.nara.gov/Initiatives/Millennium/bbailyn.html">Archived</a> 2017-02-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Brian_Doherty_(journalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brian Doherty (journalist)">Doherty, Brian</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Radicals_for_Capitalism" title="Radicals for Capitalism">Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement</a></i>, p. 28 (2007)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RandyBushTLR88-1-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RandyBushTLR88-1_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-RandyBushTLR88-1_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandy_E._Barnett2006" class="citation journal cs1">Randy E. Barnett (November 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1850&context=facpub">"The Ninth Amendment: It Means What It Says"</a>. <i>Texas Law Review</i>. <b>85</b> (1). UT Law School Publications: 1–82<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Texas+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Ninth+Amendment%3A+It+Means+What+It+Says&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-82&rft.date=2006-11&rft.au=Randy+E.+Barnett&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.georgetown.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1850%26context%3Dfacpub&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcConnell2017" class="citation journal cs1">McConnell, Michael (September 18, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/publication/259408/doc/slspublic/ssrn-id1678203.pdf">"The Ninth Amendment in Light of Text and History"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Cato Supreme Court Review</i>. <b>2009</b>: 13–28.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cato+Supreme+Court+Review&rft.atitle=The+Ninth+Amendment+in+Light+of+Text+and+History&rft.volume=2009&rft.pages=13-28&rft.date=2017-09-18&rft.aulast=McConnell&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.stanford.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fpublication%2F259408%2Fdoc%2Fslspublic%2Fssrn-id1678203.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McAffee-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McAffee_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1176897979">.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-title i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .bluebook-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFMcAffee1990">Thomas B. McAffee, <span class="bluebook-title bluebook-lock-none" title=""><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholars.law.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1536&context=facpub">The Original Meaning of the Ninth Amendment</a></span>, 90 Colum. L. Rev. 1215, 1245 (1990).</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederic Jesup Stimson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/federalstatecons00stim/federalstatecons00stim_djvu.txt"><i>The Law of the Federal and State Constitutions of the United States; Book One, Origin and Growth of the American Constitutions</i></a>, 2004, Introductory, Lawbook Exchange Ltd, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58477-369-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-58477-369-3">1-58477-369-3</a>. According to Stimson: <blockquote><p>It was at first believed by our greatest judges and jurists that the whole English Constitution was implied in the Federal Constitution; that there is, as it were, an unwritten Constitution which we inherited in America and which consisted, not only of the English Constitution where not expressly altered by our own but of all matters of natural right and justice. Doubtless, this is the intended meaning of the Ninth Amendment ... Such is not, perhaps, the modern view; but the question has become, in fact, academic, for the reason that in 120 years of interpretation our Supreme Court has ever found some clause in the Federal Constitution into which to read any English constitutional principle not therein expressly altered.</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Lund Black, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K7uApm5zoAEC&q=%22New+Birth+of+Freedom%22+lund"><i>A New Birth of Freedom</i></a>, 1999, p. 10, Yale University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-07734-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-07734-3">0-300-07734-3</a>. According to Black, "The Academic writing on this amendment seems to me in great part a multidirectional fluttering flight from the Amendment's rather plain meaning".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas Johnson, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.guncite.com/journals/nj9th.html"><i>Beyond the Second Amendment: An Individual Right to Arms Viewed Through The Ninth Amendment</i></a>, 24 <i>Rutgers L.J.</i> 1, 64–67 (1992).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Randy_Barnett" title="Randy Barnett">Barnett, Randy E.</a> (2005). <i>Restoring the Lost Constitution: The Presumption of Liberty</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-12376-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-12376-4"><bdi>0-691-12376-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Restoring+the+Lost+Constitution%3A+The+Presumption+of+Liberty&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-691-12376-4&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Randy+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarber2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_A._Farber" title="Daniel A. Farber">Farber, Daniel A.</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/retainedbypeople00farb"><i>Retained by the People: The "Silent" Ninth Amendment and the Constitutional Rights Americans Don't Know They Have</i></a></span>. Perseus Books Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02298-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-02298-4"><bdi>978-0-465-02298-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retained+by+the+People%3A+The+%22Silent%22+Ninth+Amendment+and+the+Constitutional+Rights+Americans+Don%27t+Know+They+Have&rft.pub=Perseus+Books+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-465-02298-4&rft.aulast=Farber&rft.aufirst=Daniel+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fretainedbypeople00farb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLash2009" class="citation book cs1">Lash, Kurt T. (2009). <i>The Lost History of the Ninth Amendment</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537261-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-537261-8"><bdi>978-0-19-537261-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+History+of+the+Ninth+Amendment&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-537261-8&rft.aulast=Lash&rft.aufirst=Kurt+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANinth+Amendment+to+the+United+States+Constitution" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Articles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barnett, Randy. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=789384">The Ninth Amendment: It Means What It Says</a>", <i>Texas Law Review</i>, Vol. 85, p. 1 (2006).</li> <li>Barnett, Randy. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1079104">Kurt Lash's Majoritarian Difficulty</a>", <i>Stanford Law Review</i>, Vol. 60 (2008).</li> <li>Lash, Kurt. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=613621">The Lost Original Meaning of the Ninth Amendment</a>", <i>Texas Law Review</i>, Vol. 83 (2004).</li> <li>Lash, Kurt. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=615701">The Lost Jurisprudence of the Ninth Amendment</a>", <i>Texas Law Review</i>, Vol. 83 (2005).</li> <li>Lash, Kurt. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=953008">A Textual-Historical Theory of the Ninth Amendment</a>", <i>Stanford Law Review</i>, Vol. 60, p. 906 (2008).</li> <li>McConnell, Michael. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cato.org/pubs/scr/2010/McConnell-Simon-Lecture.pdf">The Ninth Amendment in Light of Text and History</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120227185636/http://www.cato.org/pubs/scr/2010/McConnell-Simon-Lecture.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-02-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", <i>Cato Supreme Court Review</i> 13 (2009–2010).</li> <li>Williams, Ryan. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=1676530">The Ninth Amendment as a Rule of Construction</a>", <i>Columbia Law Review</i>, Vol. 111, p. 498 (2011).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ninth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/html/amdt9toc_user.html">CRS Annotated Constitution: 9th Amendment</a>" by the <a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> (2000)</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss11.html">Proposed Amendments to the Constitution</a>" by <a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a> (1789)</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130316073110/http://billofrightsinstitute.org/resources/educator-resources/americapedia/americapedia-bill-of-rights/ninth-amendment/">Bill of Rights Institute: Ninth Amendment</a>"</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Constitution of the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Constitution_of_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution of the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Preamble to the United States Constitution">Preamble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Five_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Five of the United States Constitution">V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Six_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Six of the United States Constitution">VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Seven_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Seven of the United States Constitution">VII</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Amendments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Second Amendment to the United States Constitution">2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Third Amendment to the United States Constitution">3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution">8</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">10</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1795–1804</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eleventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution">12</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sixteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seventeenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eighteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twentieth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-first_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-second_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution">22</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-third_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution">23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">25</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-sixth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution">26</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-seventh_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution">27</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Unratified</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Apportionment_Amendment" title="Congressional Apportionment Amendment">Congressional Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_Nobility_Amendment" title="Titles of Nobility Amendment">Titles of Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corwin_Amendment" title="Corwin Amendment">Corwin Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_Labor_Amendment" title="Child Labor Amendment">Child Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Rights_Amendment" title="Equal Rights Amendment">Equal Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Columbia_Voting_Rights_Amendment" title="District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment">District of Columbia Voting Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_proposed_amendments_to_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="List of proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States">Proposed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balanced_budget_amendment" title="Balanced budget amendment">Balanced budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaine_Amendment" title="Blaine Amendment">Blaine amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_finance_reform_amendment" title="Campaign finance reform amendment">Campaign finance reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_amendment" title="Christian amendment">Christian amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crittenden_Compromise" title="Crittenden Compromise">Crittenden Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_College_abolition_amendment" title="Electoral College abolition amendment">Electoral College abolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Opportunity_to_Govern_Amendment" title="Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment">Equal Opportunity to Govern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Marriage_Amendment" title="Federal Marriage Amendment">Federal Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Desecration_Amendment" title="Flag Desecration Amendment">Flag Desecration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Life_Amendment" title="Human Life Amendment">Human Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proposed_%22Liberty%22_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Proposed "Liberty" Amendment to the United States Constitution">"Liberty" amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludlow_Amendment" title="Ludlow Amendment">Ludlow amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_Rights_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Parental Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution">Parental Rights amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_Prayer_Amendment" title="School Prayer Amendment">School Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_subject_amendment" title="Single subject amendment">Single subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victims%27_Rights_Amendment" title="Victims' Rights Amendment">Victims' Rights</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convention_to_propose_amendments_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution">Convention to propose amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ratifying_conventions" title="State ratifying conventions">State ratifying conventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Formation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="History of the United States Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Conference" title="Mount Vernon Conference">Mount Vernon Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Convention_(1786)" title="Annapolis Convention (1786)">Annapolis Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Convention_(United_States)" title="Constitutional Convention (United States)">Philadelphia Convention</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Plan" title="Virginia Plan">Virginia Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_Plan" title="New Jersey Plan">New Jersey Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_Compromise" title="Connecticut Compromise">Connecticut Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Detail" title="Committee of Detail">Committee of Detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">List of Framers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Signing of the United States Constitution">Signing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Printing_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Printing of the United States Constitution">Printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Hall" title="Independence Hall">Independence Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syng_inkstand" title="Syng inkstand">Syng inkstand</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Federalist_Papers" title="The Federalist Papers">The Federalist Papers</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Federalist_Papers" title="Anti-Federalist Papers">Anti-Federalist Papers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Compromise" title="Massachusetts Compromise">Massachusetts Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Ratifying_Convention" title="Virginia Ratifying Convention">Virginia Ratifying Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Circular_Letter" title="New York Circular Letter">New York Circular Letter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillsborough_Convention" title="Hillsborough Convention">Hillsborough Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Convention" title="Fayetteville Convention">Fayetteville Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution_by_Rhode_Island" title="Ratification of the United States Constitution by Rhode Island">Rhode Island ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">Drafting and ratification timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_clauses_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="List of clauses of the United States Constitution">Clauses</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_Union" title="Admission to the Union">Admission to the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appointments_Clause" title="Appointments Clause">Appointments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appropriations_bill_(United_States)" title="Appropriations bill (United States)">Appropriations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_petition_in_the_United_States" title="Right to petition in the United States">Assemble and Petition Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assistance_of_Counsel_Clause" title="Assistance of Counsel Clause">Assistance of Counsel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">Case or Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship_Clause" title="Citizenship Clause">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_Process_Clause" title="Compulsory Process Clause">Compulsory Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confrontation_Clause" title="Confrontation Clause">Confrontation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_power_of_enforcement" title="Congressional power of enforcement">Congressional enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingent_election" title="Contingent election">Contingent Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contract_Clause" title="Contract Clause">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copyright_Clause" title="Copyright Clause">Copyright and Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Jeopardy_Clause" title="Double Jeopardy Clause">Double Jeopardy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Due_Process_Clause" title="Due Process Clause">Due Process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Elections clause">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engagements_Clause" title="Engagements Clause">Engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_Protection_Clause" title="Equal Protection Clause">Equal Protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Establishment_Clause" title="Establishment Clause">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Original_and_appellate_jurisdiction" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Exceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excessive_Bail_Clause" title="Excessive Bail Clause">Excessive Bail</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_post_facto_law#United_States" title="Ex post facto law">Ex Post Facto</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extradition_Clause" title="Extradition Clause">Extradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Exercise_Clause" title="Free Exercise Clause">Free Exercise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of the press in the United States">Freedom of the Press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech_in_the_United_States" title="Freedom of speech in the United States">Freedom of Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_Faith_and_Credit_Clause" title="Full Faith and Credit Clause">Full Faith and Credit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause#General_Welfare_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">General Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarantee_Clause" title="Guarantee Clause">Guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_congressional_apportionment" title="United States congressional apportionment">House Apportionment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_impeachment_in_the_United_States" title="Federal impeachment in the United States">Impeachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Import-Export_Clause" title="Import-Export Clause">Import-Export</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ineligibility_Clause" title="Ineligibility Clause">Ineligibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_8" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural-born-citizen_clause_(United_States)" title="Natural-born-citizen clause (United States)">Natural-born citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necessary_and_Proper_Clause" title="Necessary and Proper Clause">Necessary and Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_Religious_Test_Clause" title="No Religious Test Clause">No Religious Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath_of_office_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Oath of office of the president of the United States">Oath or Affirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_jurisdiction_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the United States">Original Jurisdiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origination_Clause" title="Origination Clause">Origination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_pardons_in_the_United_States" title="Federal pardons in the United States">Pardon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal_Clause" title="Postal Clause">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presentment_Clause" title="Presentment Clause">Presentment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Presidential Electors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_presidential_line_of_succession" title="United States presidential line of succession">Presidential succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_and_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges and Immunities Clause">Privileges and Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privileges_or_Immunities_Clause" title="Privileges or Immunities Clause">Privileges or Immunities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recess_appointment" title="Recess appointment">Recess appointment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_2:_Making_recommendations_to_Congress" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Recommendation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Self-incrimination" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Self-Incrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_or_Debate_Clause" title="Speech or Debate Clause">Speech or Debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speedy_Trial_Clause" title="Speedy Trial Clause">Speedy Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_1:_State_of_the_Union" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">State of the Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacy_Clause" title="Supremacy Clause">Supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_One_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Section_9" title="Article One of the United States Constitution">Suspension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Clause_5:_Caring_for_the_faithful_execution_of_the_law" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">Take Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution#Eminent_domain" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Takings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Taxing and Spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause" title="Article Four of the United States Constitution">Territorial</a></li> <li>Title of Nobility (<a href="/wiki/Foreign_Emoluments_Clause" title="Foreign Emoluments Clause">Foreign Emoluments</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury_trial#United_States" title="Jury trial">Trial by Jury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesting_Clauses" title="Vesting Clauses">Vesting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Legislative_Vesting_Clause" title="Legislative Vesting Clause">Legislative</a> / <a href="/wiki/Executive_Vesting_Clause" title="Executive Vesting Clause">Executive</a> / <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Vesting_Clause" title="Judicial Vesting Clause">Judicial</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicinage_Clause" title="Vicinage Clause">Vicinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Powers_Clause" title="War Powers Clause">War Powers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_power_(federalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balance of power (federalism)">Balance of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concurrent_powers" title="Concurrent powers">Concurrent powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_criminal_procedure" title="United States constitutional criminal procedure">Criminal procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_sentencing_law" title="United States constitutional sentencing law">Criminal sentencing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dormant_Commerce_Clause" title="Dormant Commerce Clause">Dormant Commerce Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enumerated_powers_(United_States)" title="Enumerated powers (United States)">Enumerated powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_footing" title="Equal footing">Equal footing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_privilege" title="Executive privilege">Executive privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Implied_powers" title="Implied powers">Implied powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_the_Bill_of_Rights" title="Incorporation of the Bill of Rights">Incorporation of the Bill of Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_review_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial review in the United States">Judicial review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine#United_States" title="Nondelegation doctrine">Nondelegation doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">Plenary power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">Preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserved_powers" title="Reserved powers">Reserved powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxbe_fix" title="Saxbe fix">Saxbe fix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric_federalism" title="Symmetric federalism">Symmetric federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_protester_constitutional_arguments" title="Tax protester constitutional arguments">Taxation power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitary_executive_theory" title="Unitary executive theory">Unitary executive theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Framers" class="mw-redirect" title="Framers">Signatories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention President</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Hampshire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)" title="John Langdon (politician)">John Langdon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman" title="Nicholas Gilman">Nicholas Gilman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Massachusetts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham" title="Nathaniel Gorham">Nathaniel Gorham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufus_King" title="Rufus King">Rufus King</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Connecticut</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Samuel_Johnson" title="William Samuel Johnson">William Samuel Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Sherman" title="Roger Sherman">Roger Sherman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New York</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton" title="Alexander Hamilton">Alexander Hamilton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">New Jersey</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Livingston" title="William Livingston">William Livingston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brearley" title="David Brearley">David Brearley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)" title="William Paterson (judge)">William Paterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton" title="Jonathan Dayton">Jonathan Dayton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pennsylvania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin" title="Thomas Mifflin">Thomas Mifflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)" title="Robert Morris (financier)">Robert Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Clymer" title="George Clymer">George Clymer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons" title="Thomas Fitzsimons">Thomas Fitzsimons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll" title="Jared Ingersoll">Jared Ingersoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(Founding_Father)" title="James Wilson (Founding Father)">James Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris" title="Gouverneur Morris">Gouverneur Morris</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delaware</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Read_(American_politician,_born_1733)" title="George Read (American politician, born 1733)">George Read</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunning_Bedford_Jr." title="Gunning Bedford Jr.">Gunning Bedford Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dickinson" title="John Dickinson">John Dickinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(Delaware_politician)" title="Richard Bassett (Delaware politician)">Richard Bassett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Broom" title="Jacob Broom">Jacob Broom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Maryland</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_McHenry" title="James McHenry">James McHenry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer" title="Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer">Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Carroll" title="Daniel Carroll">Daniel Carroll</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Virginia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Blair_Jr." title="John Blair Jr.">John Blair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison" title="James Madison">James Madison</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Blount" title="William Blount">William Blount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight" title="Richard Dobbs Spaight">Richard Dobbs Spaight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Williamson" title="Hugh Williamson">Hugh Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Carolina</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Rutledge" title="John Rutledge">John Rutledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney" title="Charles Cotesworth Pinckney">Charles Cotesworth Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)" title="Charles Pinckney (governor)">Charles Pinckney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierce_Butler_(American_politician)" title="Pierce Butler (American politician)">Pierce Butler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Georgia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Few" title="William Few">William Few</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin" title="Abraham Baldwin">Abraham Baldwin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Convention Secretary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Jackson_(secretary)" title="William Jackson (secretary)">William Jackson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Notes_of_Debates_in_the_Federal_Convention_of_1787" title="Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787">Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacob_Shallus" title="Jacob Shallus">Jacob Shallus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Bibliography of the United States Constitution">Bibliography of the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Display<br />and legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Archives_Building" title="National Archives Building">National Archives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charters_of_Freedom" title="Charters of Freedom">Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Mall_(Philadelphia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Independence Mall (Philadelphia)">Independence Mall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Day_and_Citizenship_Day" title="Constitution Day and Citizenship Day">Constitution Day and Citizenship Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Gardens" title="Constitution Gardens">Constitution Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_Week" title="Constitution Week">Constitution Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Constitution_Center" title="National Constitution Center">National Constitution Center</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States">Scene at the Signing of the Constitution</a></i> (painting)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_More_Perfect_Union_(film)" title="A More Perfect Union (film)">A More Perfect Union</a></i> (film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldwide_influence_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Worldwide influence of the Constitution of the United States">Worldwide influence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q275898#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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