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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classification of spore-producing organisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_of_spore-producing_organisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification of spore-producing organisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_spore-producing_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fungi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Fungi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_of_spores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_of_spores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification of spores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification_of_spores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>External anatomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_anatomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External anatomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Spore_tetrads_and_trilete_spores" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spore_tetrads_and_trilete_spores"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Spore tetrads and trilete spores</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spore_tetrads_and_trilete_spores-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dispersal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dispersal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Dispersal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dispersal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Spore</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 68 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-68" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">68 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%BA" title="بوغ – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بوغ" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espora" title="Espora – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Espora" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporlar" title="Sporlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sporlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%9C" title="অণুবীজ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অণুবীজ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Споры – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Споры" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Спора – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Спора" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espora" title="Espora – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Espora" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sb%C3%B4r" title="Sbôr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Sbôr" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore" title="Spore – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Spore" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eos" title="Eos – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Eos" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Σπόριο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Σπόριο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espora" title="Espora – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Espora" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporo" title="Sporo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sporo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espora" title="Espora – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Espora" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%A7%DA%AF" title="هاگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هاگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore" title="Spore – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Spore" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%B3r" title="Spór – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Spór" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Espora" title="Espora – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Espora" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EC%9E%90" title="포자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%BA%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Սպորներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սպորներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81" title="बीजाणु – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="बीजाणु" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporo" title="Sporo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sporo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C3%B3" title="Gró – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gró" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%91%D7%92" title="נבג – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="נבג" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="სპორა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სპორა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Спора – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Спора" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esp%C3%B2_(biyoloji)" title="Espò (biyoloji) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Espò (biyoloji)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Споралар – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Споралар" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporas" title="Sporas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sporas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%B3ra" title="Spóra – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Spóra" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Спора – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Спора" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore" title="Spore – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Spore" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%83%9E%E5%AD%90" title="胞子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="胞子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%B6%C3%B6ren" title="Spöören – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Spöören" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore_(formering)" title="Spore (formering) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Spore (formering)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore_til_formeiring" title="Spore til formeiring – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Spore til formeiring" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhukee" title="Dhukee – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Dhukee" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarodnik" title="Zarodnik – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zarodnik" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esporo" title="Esporo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Esporo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spor" title="Spor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Spor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murucha" title="Murucha – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Murucha" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Споры – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Споры" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spore" title="Spore – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Spore" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDtrus_(rozmno%C5%BEovacie_teliesko)" title="Výtrus (rozmnožovacie teliesko) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Výtrus (rozmnožovacie teliesko)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%BE%DB%86%DA%95" title="سپۆڕ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سپۆڕ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0)" title="Спора (биологија) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Спора (биологија)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spora" title="Spora – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Spora" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iti%C3%B6" title="Itiö – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Itiö" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spor" title="Spor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Spor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF" title="வித்தி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வித்தி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="สปอร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สปอร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A6%E1%8F%85%E1%8E%AA%E1%8F%AB%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%8D%E1%8E%A9_%E1%8E%AD%E1%8F%AB%E1%8F%82%E1%8F%97%E1%8F%9F_%E1%8F%84%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%9B%E1%8E%A2_%E1%8F%93%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B5_%E1%8E%A4%E1%8E%B5%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%9A%E1%8E%B2%E1%8E%A2" title="ᎦᏅᎪᏫᏍᏗᏍᎩ ᎭᏫᏂᏗᏟ ᏄᏍᏛᎢ ᏓᏬᎵ ᎤᎵᏍᏚᎲᎢ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎦᏅᎪᏫᏍᏗᏍᎩ ᎭᏫᏂᏗᏟ ᏄᏍᏛᎢ ᏓᏬᎵ ᎤᎵᏍᏚᎲᎢ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporla_%C3%BCreme" title="Sporla üreme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sporla üreme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Спора – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Спора" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A0o_t%E1%BB%AD" title="Bào tử – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bào tử" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sp%C3%B4re" title="Spôre – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Spôre" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" 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this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Unit of reproduction adapted for dispersal and survival in unfavorable conditions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about spores in eukaryotes. For bacterial spores, see <a href="/wiki/Endospore" title="Endospore">endospore</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Spore_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Spore (disambiguation)">Spore (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sporic_meiosis.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sporic_meiosis.svg/330px-Sporic_meiosis.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sporic_meiosis.svg/500px-Sporic_meiosis.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Sporic_meiosis.svg/600px-Sporic_meiosis.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="503" data-file-height="367" /></a><figcaption>Spores produced in a sporic life cycle.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brachythecium_rutabulum_on_Populus_x_canadensis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Brachythecium_rutabulum_on_Populus_x_canadensis.jpg/300px-Brachythecium_rutabulum_on_Populus_x_canadensis.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Brachythecium_rutabulum_on_Populus_x_canadensis.jpg/450px-Brachythecium_rutabulum_on_Populus_x_canadensis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Brachythecium_rutabulum_on_Populus_x_canadensis.jpg/600px-Brachythecium_rutabulum_on_Populus_x_canadensis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Fresh snow partially covers rough-stalked feather-moss <i>(<a href="/wiki/Bryopsida" title="Bryopsida">Brachythecium rutabulum</a>)</i>, growing on a <a href="/wiki/Thinning" title="Thinning">thinned</a> hybrid black poplar <i>(<a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">Populus x canadensis</a>)</i>. The last stage of the <a href="/wiki/Moss#Life_cycle" title="Moss">moss lifecycle</a> is shown, where the <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophytes</a> are visible before dispersion of their spores: the <a href="/wiki/Calyptra" class="mw-redirect" title="Calyptra">calyptra</a> (<b>1</b>) is still attached to the <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">capsule</a> (<b>3</b>). The tops of the <a href="/wiki/Gametophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametophytes">gametophytes</a> (<b>2</b>) can be discerned as well. Inset shows the surrounding, black poplars growing on sandy <a href="/wiki/Loam" title="Loam">loam</a> on the bank of a <a href="/wiki/Bog_pond" title="Bog pond">kolk</a>, with the detail area marked.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, a <b>spore</b> is a unit of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual</a> (in fungi) or <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> that may be adapted for <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal</a> and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spores form part of the <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycles</a> of many <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were thought to have appeared as early as the mid-late <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period as an adaptation of early land plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_spore" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial spore">Bacterial spores</a> are not part of a sexual cycle, but are resistant structures used for survival under unfavourable conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoan</a> spores release amoeboid infectious germs ("amoebulae") into their hosts for parasitic infection, but also reproduce within the hosts through the pairing of two nuclei within the plasmodium, which develops from the amoebula.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In plants, spores are usually <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">unicellular</a> and are produced by <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">sporangium</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> <a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">sporophyte</a>. In some rare cases, a diploid spore is also produced in some algae, or fungi.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under favourable conditions, the spore can develop into a new <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> using <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitotic</a> division, producing a <a href="/wiki/Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">multicellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a>, which eventually goes on to produce gametes. Two gametes fuse to form a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, which develops into a new sporophyte. This cycle is known as <a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">alternation of generations</a>. </p><p>The spores of <a href="/wiki/Seed_plant" title="Seed plant">seed plants</a> are produced internally, and the megaspores (formed within the ovules) and the microspores are involved in the formation of more complex structures that form the dispersal units, the <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">pollen</a> grains. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <i>spore</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> word σπορά <i>spora</i>, meaning "<a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a>, sowing", related to σπόρος <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">sporos</i></span></i>, "sowing", and σπείρειν <i><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">speirein</i></span></i>, "to sow". </p><p>In common parlance, the difference between a "spore" and a "<a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gamete</a>" is that a spore will germinate and develop into a <a href="/wiki/Sporeling" title="Sporeling">sporeling</a>, while a gamete needs to combine with another gamete to form a zygote before developing further. </p><p>The main difference between spores and seeds as <a href="/wiki/Biological_dispersal" title="Biological dispersal">dispersal units</a> is that spores are unicellular, the first cell of a gametophyte, while seeds contain within them a developing embryo (the multicellular sporophyte of the next generation), produced by the fusion of the male gamete of the pollen tube with the female gamete formed by the megagametophyte within the ovule. Spores germinate to give rise to haploid gametophytes, while seeds germinate to give rise to diploid sporophytes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_spore-producing_organisms">Classification of spore-producing organisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification of spore-producing organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="homosporous"></span><span class="anchor" id="heterosporous"></span> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a> spores are always <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a>. Vascular plants are either <b>homosporous (or isosporous)</b> or <b><a href="/wiki/Heterospory" title="Heterospory">heterosporous</a></b>. Plants that are homosporous produce spores of the same size and type. </p><p>Heterosporous plants, such as <a href="/wiki/Seed_plant" title="Seed plant">seed plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spikemoss" class="mw-redirect" title="Spikemoss">spikemosses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iso%C3%ABtes" class="mw-redirect" title="Isoëtes">quillworts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> of the order <a href="/wiki/Salviniales" title="Salviniales">Salviniales</a> produce spores of two different sizes: the larger spore (megaspore) in effect functioning as a "female" spore and the smaller (microspore) functioning as a "male". Such plants typically give rise to the two kind of spores from within separate sporangia, either a <b>megasporangium</b> that produces megaspores or a <b>microsporangium</b> that produces microspores. In flowering plants, these sporangia occur within the carpel and anthers, respectively. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi">Fungi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fungi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungi</a> commonly produce spores during sexual and asexual reproduction. Spores are usually <a href="/wiki/Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> and grow into mature haploid individuals through <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitotic</a> division of cells (<a href="/wiki/Urediniospore" title="Urediniospore">Urediniospores</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teliospore" title="Teliospore">Teliospores</a> among rusts are dikaryotic). <a href="/wiki/Dikaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Dikaryotic">Dikaryotic</a> cells result from the fusion of two haploid gamete cells. Among sporogenic dikaryotic cells, karyogamy (the fusion of the two haploid nuclei) occurs to produce a diploid cell. Diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_spores">Classification of spores</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification of spores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spores can be classified in several ways such as by their spore producing structure, function, origin during life cycle, and mobility. </p><p>Below is a table listing the mode of classification, name, identifying characteristic, examples, and images of different spore species. </p> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th>Mode of Classification </th> <th colspan="2">Name </th> <th>Identifying Characteristic </th> <th>Example Spore Containing Organism </th> <th>Image </th></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="10">Spore Producing Structure </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangiospore</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">sporangium</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycetes</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sporangium_of_fungi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Sporangium_of_fungi.jpg/220px-Sporangium_of_fungi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Sporangium_of_fungi.jpg/330px-Sporangium_of_fungi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Sporangium_of_fungi.jpg/440px-Sporangium_of_fungi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2925" data-file-height="2079" /></a><figcaption>Sporangium of Fungi</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Zygospore" title="Zygospore">Zygospores</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Zygosporangium" class="mw-redirect" title="Zygosporangium">zygosporangium</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycetes</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhizopus_zygospores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Rhizopus_zygospores.jpg/220px-Rhizopus_zygospores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Rhizopus_zygospores.jpg/330px-Rhizopus_zygospores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Rhizopus_zygospores.jpg/440px-Rhizopus_zygospores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Zygospores on <a href="/wiki/Rhizopus_oryzae" title="Rhizopus oryzae">Rhizopus</a></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">Ascospores</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">ascus</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycetes</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bitunicate_ascus_and_ascospores_of_Didymella_rabiei.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bitunicate_ascus_and_ascospores_of_Didymella_rabiei.png/250px-Bitunicate_ascus_and_ascospores_of_Didymella_rabiei.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bitunicate_ascus_and_ascospores_of_Didymella_rabiei.png/330px-Bitunicate_ascus_and_ascospores_of_Didymella_rabiei.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Bitunicate_ascus_and_ascospores_of_Didymella_rabiei.png/440px-Bitunicate_ascus_and_ascospores_of_Didymella_rabiei.png 2x" data-file-width="452" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption>Ascospores of <i><a href="/wiki/Didymella_rabiei" title="Didymella rabiei">Didymella Rabiei</a></i></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Basidiospore" title="Basidiospore">Basidiospores</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Basidium" title="Basidium">basidium</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycetes</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Basidium_schematic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Basidium_schematic.svg/250px-Basidium_schematic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Basidium_schematic.svg/330px-Basidium_schematic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Basidium_schematic.svg/500px-Basidium_schematic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="269" /></a><figcaption>Typical reproductive structure of a <a href="/wiki/Echigoshirayukidake_(Basidiomycetes-X)" title="Echigoshirayukidake (Basidiomycetes-X)">basidiomycete</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Basidiospore" title="Basidiospore">basidiospore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basidium" title="Basidium">basidium</a></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Aeciospore" title="Aeciospore">Aecispores</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Aecium" title="Aecium">aecium</a> </td> <td>Rusts and Smuts </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aecium_sp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aecium_sp.jpg/250px-Aecium_sp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aecium_sp.jpg/330px-Aecium_sp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Aecium_sp.jpg/500px-Aecium_sp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="994" data-file-height="745" /></a><figcaption>Aecia on foliage</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Urediniospore" title="Urediniospore">Urediniospores</a> </td> <td>Produced by uredinium </td> <td>Rusts and Smuts </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puccinia_thaliae_urediniospores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Puccinia_thaliae_urediniospores.jpg/250px-Puccinia_thaliae_urediniospores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Puccinia_thaliae_urediniospores.jpg/330px-Puccinia_thaliae_urediniospores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Puccinia_thaliae_urediniospores.jpg/500px-Puccinia_thaliae_urediniospores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="540" /></a><figcaption>Uredinospores</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Teliospore" title="Teliospore">Teliospores</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Telium" title="Telium">teilum</a> </td> <td>Rusts and Smuts </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puccinia_helianthi_(teliospores).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Puccinia_helianthi_%28teliospores%29.jpg/220px-Puccinia_helianthi_%28teliospores%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Puccinia_helianthi_%28teliospores%29.jpg/330px-Puccinia_helianthi_%28teliospores%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Puccinia_helianthi_%28teliospores%29.jpg/440px-Puccinia_helianthi_%28teliospores%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Microscopic image of teliospores</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Oospore" title="Oospore">Oospores</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Oogonium" title="Oogonium">oogonium</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Oomycete" title="Oomycete">Oomycetes</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10554_oospore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/10554_oospore.jpg" decoding="async" width="192" height="251" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="192" data-file-height="251" /></a><figcaption>Oospores of <i><a href="/wiki/Kauri_dieback" title="Kauri dieback">Phytophthora agathidicida</a></i></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Carpospore" title="Carpospore">Carpospores</a> </td> <td>Produced by carposophorophyte </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Red Algae</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhod1004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Rhod1004.jpg/220px-Rhod1004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Rhod1004.jpg/330px-Rhod1004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Rhod1004.jpg/440px-Rhod1004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="886" /></a><figcaption>Light microscopy of <i><a href="/wiki/Polysiphonia" title="Polysiphonia">Polysiphonia</a></i> showing a carpospores and carposporophyte inside</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tetraspore" title="Tetraspore">Tetraspores</a> </td> <td>Produced by <a href="/wiki/Tetrasporaphyte" title="Tetrasporaphyte">tetrasphorophyte</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">Red Algae</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polysiphonia_tetraspores_WM2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Polysiphonia_tetraspores_WM2.jpg/220px-Polysiphonia_tetraspores_WM2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Polysiphonia_tetraspores_WM2.jpg/330px-Polysiphonia_tetraspores_WM2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Polysiphonia_tetraspores_WM2.jpg/440px-Polysiphonia_tetraspores_WM2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Tetraspores of <i><a href="/wiki/Polysiphonia" title="Polysiphonia">Polysiphonia</a></i></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Function </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Chlamydospore" title="Chlamydospore">Chalmydospore</a> </td> <td>Thick-walled <a href="/wiki/Resting_spore" title="Resting spore">resting spores</a> of fungi produced to survive in unfavorable conditions </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Asomycota</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Candida_pseudohyphae,_chlamydospores,_blastospores.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Candida_pseudohyphae%2C_chlamydospores%2C_blastospores.png/220px-Candida_pseudohyphae%2C_chlamydospores%2C_blastospores.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Candida_pseudohyphae%2C_chlamydospores%2C_blastospores.png/330px-Candida_pseudohyphae%2C_chlamydospores%2C_blastospores.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Candida_pseudohyphae%2C_chlamydospores%2C_blastospores.png/440px-Candida_pseudohyphae%2C_chlamydospores%2C_blastospores.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="474" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">Pseudohyphae</a>, chlamydospores and <a href="/wiki/Blastospore" title="Blastospore">blastospores</a> of <a href="/wiki/Candida_(fungus)" title="Candida (fungus)"><i>Candida</i> yeast</a>.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">Parasitic Fungal Spore </td> <td>Internal Spores </td> <td>Germinate within a host </td> <td> </td> <td rowspan="2"><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pink_fungal_parasite_on_lichen_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1040204.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pink_fungal_parasite_on_lichen_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1040204.jpg/220px-Pink_fungal_parasite_on_lichen_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1040204.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pink_fungal_parasite_on_lichen_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1040204.jpg/330px-Pink_fungal_parasite_on_lichen_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1040204.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pink_fungal_parasite_on_lichen_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1040204.jpg/440px-Pink_fungal_parasite_on_lichen_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1040204.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>A parasitic pink fungi on a <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichen</a> tree</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td>External (Environmental) spores </td> <td>Spores released by the host to infest other hosts <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">Origin During Life Cycle </td> <td rowspan="2">Meiospores </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspores</a> </td> <td>Produced sexually through <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, and give rise to a male <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a> in seed plants </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microspore-formation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Microspore-formation.svg/220px-Microspore-formation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Microspore-formation.svg/330px-Microspore-formation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Microspore-formation.svg/440px-Microspore-formation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>In <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">microspores</a>, and in some cases megaspores, are formed from all four products of meiosis.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspores</a> (macrospores) </td> <td>Produced sexually through <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, and give rise to a female <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophyte</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a> in seed plants </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macrospore-formation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Macrospore-formation.svg/220px-Macrospore-formation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Macrospore-formation.svg/330px-Macrospore-formation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Macrospore-formation.svg/440px-Macrospore-formation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="767" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption>In contrast, in many <a href="/wiki/Seed_plant" title="Seed plant">seed plants</a> and heterosporous <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, only a single product of meiosis will become a <a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">megaspore</a> (macrospore), with the rest degenerating.</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">Mitospores</a> </td> <td>Produced asexually though <a href="/wiki/Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycetes</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Morchella_conica_1_beentree.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Morchella_conica_1_beentree.jpg/220px-Morchella_conica_1_beentree.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Morchella_conica_1_beentree.jpg/330px-Morchella_conica_1_beentree.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Morchella_conica_1_beentree.jpg/440px-Morchella_conica_1_beentree.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1712" data-file-height="2288" /></a><figcaption>Ascomycete containing mitospores</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="5">Mobility </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Zoospore" title="Zoospore">Zoospores</a> </td> <td>Mobile through <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagella</a> </td> <td>Some algae and fungi </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zoospores_-_Reproductive_Structure_of_the_Phytophthora.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Zoospores_-_Reproductive_Structure_of_the_Phytophthora.png/250px-Zoospores_-_Reproductive_Structure_of_the_Phytophthora.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Zoospores_-_Reproductive_Structure_of_the_Phytophthora.png/330px-Zoospores_-_Reproductive_Structure_of_the_Phytophthora.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Zoospores_-_Reproductive_Structure_of_the_Phytophthora.png/500px-Zoospores_-_Reproductive_Structure_of_the_Phytophthora.png 2x" data-file-width="1394" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption>Microscopic image of a Zoospore</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Aplanospores </td> <td>Immobile, however still produce flagella </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Autospore" title="Autospore">Autospores</a> </td> <td>Immobile spores that <b>do not</b> produce flagella </td> <td> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jenufa_SAG_2383.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Jenufa_SAG_2383.jpg/220px-Jenufa_SAG_2383.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/Jenufa_SAG_2383.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="266" data-file-height="199" /></a><figcaption>Autospores of a strain of <i>Jenufa aeroterrestrica</i></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Ballistospore" title="Ballistospore">Ballistospores</a> </td> <td>Forcibly discharged from the fungal <a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungus)" title="Sporocarp (fungus)">fruiting body</a> due to internal force (such as built up pressure) </td> <td>Basidiospores and/or part of the genus <i>Pilobus</i> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abb2.5_Fungi_Basidiomycota_basidium_basidiospore_ballistospore_Bullers_drop_catapult_mechanism_2021_(M._Piepenbring).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Abb2.5_Fungi_Basidiomycota_basidium_basidiospore_ballistospore_Bullers_drop_catapult_mechanism_2021_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png/220px-Abb2.5_Fungi_Basidiomycota_basidium_basidiospore_ballistospore_Bullers_drop_catapult_mechanism_2021_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Abb2.5_Fungi_Basidiomycota_basidium_basidiospore_ballistospore_Bullers_drop_catapult_mechanism_2021_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png/330px-Abb2.5_Fungi_Basidiomycota_basidium_basidiospore_ballistospore_Bullers_drop_catapult_mechanism_2021_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Abb2.5_Fungi_Basidiomycota_basidium_basidiospore_ballistospore_Bullers_drop_catapult_mechanism_2021_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png/440px-Abb2.5_Fungi_Basidiomycota_basidium_basidiospore_ballistospore_Bullers_drop_catapult_mechanism_2021_%28M._Piepenbring%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2250" /></a><figcaption>Ballistospore mechanism of dispersal from fungi</figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">Stratismospores </td> <td>Forcibly discharged from the fungal <a href="/wiki/Sporocarp_(fungus)" title="Sporocarp (fungus)">fruting body</a> due to external force (such as raindrops or passing animals) </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Puffball" title="Puffball">Puffballs</a> </td> <td><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Puff_Balls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_6255537.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Puff_Balls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_6255537.jpg/250px-Puff_Balls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_6255537.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Puff_Balls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_6255537.jpg/330px-Puff_Balls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_6255537.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Puff_Balls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_6255537.jpg/500px-Puff_Balls_-_geograph.org.uk_-_6255537.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption>Puff Balls containing Stratismospores</figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_anatomy">External anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: External anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="alete"></span><span class="anchor" id="monolete"></span><span class="anchor" id="trilete"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trilete_spores.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/220px-Trilete_spores.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/330px-Trilete_spores.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/440px-Trilete_spores.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="665" /></a><figcaption>Fossil trilete spores (blue) and a spore tetrad (green) of <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Late Silurian</a> origin</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollen_Ricinus_communis_sanguineus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Pollen_Ricinus_communis_sanguineus.jpg/220px-Pollen_Ricinus_communis_sanguineus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Pollen_Ricinus_communis_sanguineus.jpg/330px-Pollen_Ricinus_communis_sanguineus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Pollen_Ricinus_communis_sanguineus.jpg/440px-Pollen_Ricinus_communis_sanguineus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1228" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Tricolpate pollen of <i><a href="/wiki/Ricinus" title="Ricinus">Ricinus</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>Under high <a href="/wiki/Magnification" title="Magnification">magnification</a>, spores often have complex patterns or ornamentation on their exterior surfaces. A specialized terminology has been developed to describe features of such patterns. Some markings represent apertures, places where the tough outer coat of the spore can be penetrated when germination occurs. Spores can be categorized based on the position and number of these markings and apertures. <b>Alete spores</b> show no lines. In <b>monolete spores</b>, there is a single narrow line (laesura) on the spore.<sup id="cite_ref-PuntHoenBlacNils07_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PuntHoenBlacNils07-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indicating the prior contact of two spores that eventually separated.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <b>trilete spores</b>, each spore shows three narrow lines radiating from a center pole.<sup id="cite_ref-PuntHoenBlacNils07_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PuntHoenBlacNils07-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This shows that four spores shared a common origin and were initially in contact with each other forming a tetrahedron.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A wider aperture in the shape of a groove may be termed a <b>colpus</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-PuntHoenBlacNils07_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PuntHoenBlacNils07-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of colpi distinguishes major groups of plants. <a href="/wiki/Eudicots" title="Eudicots">Eudicots</a> have <b>tricolpate</b> spores (i.e. spores with three colpi).<sup id="cite_ref-JuddOlms04_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JuddOlms04-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spore_tetrads_and_trilete_spores">Spore tetrads and trilete spores</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Spore tetrads and trilete spores"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></div> <p>Envelope-enclosed spore tetrads are taken as the earliest evidence of plant life on land,<sup id="cite_ref-Gray1985_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray1985-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dating from the mid-Ordovician (early Llanvirn, ~<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=470">470</a> million years ago</span>), a period from which no macrofossils have yet been recovered.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman2000_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman2000-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual trilete spores resembling those of modern <a href="/wiki/Cryptogam" title="Cryptogam">cryptogamic</a> plants first appeared in the fossil record at the end of the Ordovician period.<sup id="cite_ref-SteemansHerisse2009_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SteemansHerisse2009-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dispersal">Dispersal</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Dispersal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv/220px--Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="165" data-durationhint="12" data-mwtitle="Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="320" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/23/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv/Fungus_spore_ejection.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="192" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>Spores being ejected by fungi.</figcaption></figure> <p>In fungi, both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Many fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobin" title="Hydrophobin">hydrophobins</a>, for spore ejection. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Osmolyte" title="Osmolyte">osmolytes</a> in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air.<sup id="cite_ref-Trail_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trail-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The forcible discharge of single spores termed <i>ballistospores</i> involves formation of a small drop of water (<a href="/wiki/Buller%27s_drop" class="mw-redirect" title="Buller's drop">Buller's drop</a>), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 <a href="/wiki/G-force" title="G-force">g</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pringle_et_al._14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pringle_et_al.-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other fungi rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces, exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Puffballs" class="mw-redirect" title="Puffballs">puffballs</a>. Attracting insects, such as flies, to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having lively colours and a putrid odour, for dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy, most prominently used by the <a href="/wiki/Stinkhorns" class="mw-redirect" title="Stinkhorns">stinkhorns</a>. </p><p>In Common Smoothcap moss (<i><a href="/wiki/Atrichum_undulatum" title="Atrichum undulatum">Atrichum undulatum</a></i>), the vibration of sporophyte has been shown to be an important mechanism for spore release.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the case of spore-shedding <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a> such as ferns, wind distribution of very light spores provides great capacity for dispersal. Also, spores are less subject to animal predation than seeds because they contain almost no food reserve; however they are more subject to fungal and bacterial predation. Their chief advantage is that, of all forms of progeny, spores require the least energy and materials to produce. </p><p>In the spikemoss <i><a href="/wiki/Selaginella_lepidophylla" title="Selaginella lepidophylla">Selaginella lepidophylla</a></i>, dispersal is achieved in part by an unusual type of <a href="/wiki/Diaspore_(botany)" title="Diaspore (botany)">diaspore</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Tumbleweed" title="Tumbleweed">tumbleweed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spores have been found in <a href="/wiki/Microfossil" title="Microfossil">microfossils</a> dating back to the mid-late <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two hypothesized initial functions of spores relate to whether they appeared before or after land plants. The heavily studied hypothesis is that spores were an adaptation of early land plant species, such as <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">embryophytes</a>, that allowed for plants to easily disperse while adapting to their non-aquatic environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norem-1958_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norem-1958-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is particularly supported by the observation of a thick spore wall in <a href="/wiki/Cryptospore" title="Cryptospore">cryptospores</a>. These spore walls would have protected potential offspring from novel weather elements.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second more recent hypothesis is that spores were an early predecessor of land plants and formed during errors in the <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>, a hypothesized early ancestor of land plants.<sup id="cite_ref-Strother-2021_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strother-2021-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whether spores arose before or after land plants, their contributions to topics in fields like <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">paleontology</a> and plant <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetics</a> have been useful.<sup id="cite_ref-Strother-2021_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strother-2021-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The spores found in microfossils, also known as cryptospores, are well preserved due to the fixed material they are in as well as how abundant and widespread they were during their respective time periods. These microfossils are especially helpful when studying the early periods of earth as macrofossils such as plants are not common nor well preserved.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both cryptospores and modern spores have diverse morphology that indicate possible environmental conditions of earlier periods of Earth and evolutionary relationships of plant species.<sup id="cite_ref-Wellman-2000b_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wellman-2000b-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Strother-2021_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strother-2021-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Norem-1958_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norem-1958-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bartramia_ithyphylla_sporen.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Spores of the moss Bartramia ithyphylla. (microscopic view, 400x)"><img alt="Spores of the moss Bartramia ithyphylla. (microscopic view, 400x)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bartramia_ithyphylla_sporen.jpeg/120px-Bartramia_ithyphylla_sporen.jpeg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bartramia_ithyphylla_sporen.jpeg/180px-Bartramia_ithyphylla_sporen.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bartramia_ithyphylla_sporen.jpeg/240px-Bartramia_ithyphylla_sporen.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Spores of the <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a> <i>Bartramia ithyphylla</i>. (microscopic view, 400x)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernspore1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dehisced fern sporangia. (microscopic view, no spores are visible)"><img alt="Dehisced fern sporangia. (microscopic view, no spores are visible)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Fernspore1.jpg/120px-Fernspore1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Fernspore1.jpg/250px-Fernspore1.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="956" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Dehisced fern sporangia. (microscopic view, no spores are visible)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Botbrush1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Spores and elaters from a horsetail. (Equisetum, microscopic view)"><img alt="Spores and elaters from a horsetail. (Equisetum, microscopic view)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Botbrush1.jpg/120px-Botbrush1.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Botbrush1.jpg/250px-Botbrush1.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Spores and elaters from a horsetail. (<i><a href="/wiki/Equisetum" title="Equisetum">Equisetum</a></i>, microscopic view)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Trilete_spores.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossil plant spores (Scylaspora) from Silurian deposits of Sweden."><img alt="Fossil plant spores (Scylaspora) from Silurian deposits of Sweden." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/119px-Trilete_spores.png" decoding="async" width="119" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/179px-Trilete_spores.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Trilete_spores.png/239px-Trilete_spores.png 2x" data-file-width="661" data-file-height="665" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fossil plant spores (<i><a href="/wiki/Scylaspora" title="Scylaspora">Scylaspora</a></i>) from Silurian deposits of Sweden.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Unknown_fruit_mold_with_spores_methylene_blue_x2000.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fruit mold with spores and distinguishable cellular growth. (2000x)"><img alt="Fruit mold with spores and distinguishable cellular growth. (2000x)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Unknown_fruit_mold_with_spores_methylene_blue_x2000.jpg/120px-Unknown_fruit_mold_with_spores_methylene_blue_x2000.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Unknown_fruit_mold_with_spores_methylene_blue_x2000.jpg/180px-Unknown_fruit_mold_with_spores_methylene_blue_x2000.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Unknown_fruit_mold_with_spores_methylene_blue_x2000.jpg/240px-Unknown_fruit_mold_with_spores_methylene_blue_x2000.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2886" data-file-height="2148" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fruit mold with spores and distinguishable cellular growth. (2000x)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Reticularia_olivacea-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Spore clusters, formed inside sporangia of the slime mold Reticularia olivacea, from pine forests of eastern Ukraine."><img alt="Spore clusters, formed inside sporangia of the slime mold Reticularia olivacea, from pine forests of eastern Ukraine." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Reticularia_olivacea-1.jpg/96px-Reticularia_olivacea-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Reticularia_olivacea-1.jpg/144px-Reticularia_olivacea-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Reticularia_olivacea-1.jpg/192px-Reticularia_olivacea-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2524" data-file-height="3150" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Spore clusters, formed inside sporangia of the slime mold <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Reticularia_olivacea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reticularia olivacea (page does not exist)">Reticularia olivacea</a></i>, from pine forests of eastern <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tubifera_dudkae-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Internal surface of the peridium of the slime mold Tubifera dudkae with spores."><img alt="Internal surface of the peridium of the slime mold Tubifera dudkae with spores." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tubifera_dudkae-4.jpg/81px-Tubifera_dudkae-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tubifera_dudkae-4.jpg/122px-Tubifera_dudkae-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Tubifera_dudkae-4.jpg/162px-Tubifera_dudkae-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2134" data-file-height="3150" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Internal surface of the <a href="/wiki/Peridium" title="Peridium">peridium</a> of the slime mold <i>Tubifera dudkae</i> with spores.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/25px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/38px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png/51px-Karl_Johanssvamp%2C_Iduns_kokbok.png 2x" data-file-width="1105" data-file-height="1215" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Fungi" title="Portal:Fungi">Fungi portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeroplankton" title="Aeroplankton">Aeroplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_cell" title="Auxiliary cell">Auxiliary cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptospore" title="Cryptospore">Cryptospore</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spore&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSetlowJohnson2014" class="citation cs2">Setlow, Peter; Johnson, Eric A. (30 April 2014), Doyle, Michael P.; Buchanan, Robert L. (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doi.wiley.com/10.1128/9781555818463.ch3">"Spores and Their Significance"</a>, <i>Food Microbiology</i>, Washington, DC, USA: ASM Press, pp. <span class="nowrap">45–</span>79, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2F9781555818463.ch3">10.1128/9781555818463.ch3</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68367-058-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-68367-058-2"><bdi>978-1-68367-058-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2023</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Spores+and+Their+Significance&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E45-%3C%2Fspan%3E79&rft.date=2014-04-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2F9781555818463.ch3&rft.isbn=978-1-68367-058-2&rft.aulast=Setlow&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Eric+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdoi.wiley.com%2F10.1128%2F9781555818463.ch3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180205184645/http://tolweb.org/tree/home.pages/searchresults.html?cx=009557456284541951685%3A50nf_5tpvuq&cof=FORID%3A9&ie=UTF-8&q=spore&sa=Search">"Tree of Life Web Project"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/tree/home.pages/searchresults.html?cx=009557456284541951685%3A50nf_5tpvuq&cof=FORID%3A9&ie=UTF-8&q=spore&sa=Search">the original</a> on 5 February 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 January</span> 2014</span>. <q>Myxospores consist of several cells, which are transformed to shell valves, nematocyst-like polar capsules with coiled extrudible polar filaments and amoeboid infective germs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Tree+of+Life+Web+Project&rft.atitle=Myxozoa&rft.date=2008-07-10&rft.au=Ivan+Fiala&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftolweb.org%2FMyxozoa%2F2460&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASpore" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/diploid-spore">"Diploid Spore - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>. <i>www.sciencedirect.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231213180708/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/diploid-spore">Archived</a> from the original on 13 December 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Botany862" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_botany" title="History of botany">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_botany" title="Outline of botany">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_botany" title="Branches of botany">Subdisciplines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeobotany" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeobotany">Archaeobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryology" title="Bryology">Bryology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobotany" title="Paleobotany">Paleobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemistry" title="Phytochemistry">Phytochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geobotanical_prospecting" title="Geobotanical prospecting">Geobotany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Plant ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_intelligence" title="Plant intelligence">Plant intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a> groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-vascular_plant" title="Non-vascular plant">Non-vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">Fern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">Lycophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spermatophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Spermatophyte">Spermatophytes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Angiosperm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_anatomy" title="Plant anatomy">Plant anatomy</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_morphology" title="Plant morphology">Plant morphology</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">glossary</a>)</span></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_cell" title="Plant cell">Plant cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmodesma" title="Plasmodesma">Plasmodesma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissues</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cork_cambium" title="Cork cambium">Cork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaf#Mesophyll" title="Leaf">Mesophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meristem" title="Meristem">Meristem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_organ" title="Storage organ">Storage organs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">Vascular bundle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">Wood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Vegetative</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulb" title="Bulb">Bulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizoid" title="Rhizoid">Rhizoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhizome" title="Rhizome">Rhizome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bud" title="Bud">Bud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaf" title="Leaf">Leaf</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataphyll" title="Cataphyll">Cataphyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petiole_(botany)" title="Petiole (botany)">Petiole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sessility_(botany)" title="Sessility (botany)">Sessility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Stem</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Reproductive</a><br />(incl. Flower)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archegonium" title="Archegonium">Archegonium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antheridium" title="Antheridium">Antheridium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Androecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollen" title="Pollen">Pollen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen" title="Stamen">Stamen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anther" class="mw-redirect" title="Anther">Anther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamen#Morphology_and_terminology" title="Stamen">Filament</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staminode" title="Staminode">Staminode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapetum_(botany)" title="Tapetum (botany)">Tapetum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aestivation_(botany)" title="Aestivation (botany)">Aestivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABC_model_of_flower_development" title="ABC model of flower development">Flower development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_diagram" title="Floral diagram">Floral diagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_formula" title="Floral formula">Floral formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floral_symmetry" title="Floral symmetry">Floral symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whorl_(botany)" title="Whorl (botany)">Whorl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">Fruit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fruit anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_(botany)" title="Berry (botany)">Berry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsule_(fruit)" title="Capsule (fruit)">Capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nut_(fruit)" title="Nut (fruit)">Nut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrena" title="Pyrena">Pyrena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">Seed</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_dispersal" title="Seed dispersal">Dispersal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosperm" title="Endosperm">Endosperm</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">Gametophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Column_(botany)" title="Column (botany)">Gynandrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynoecium" title="Gynoecium">Gynoecium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpel" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpel">Carpel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ovary_(botany)" title="Ovary (botany)">Ovary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Locule" title="Locule">Locule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovule" title="Ovule">Ovule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigma_(botany)" title="Stigma (botany)">Stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(botany)" title="Style (botany)">Style</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypanthium" title="Hypanthium">Hypanthium (Floral cup)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflorescence" title="Inflorescence">Inflorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bract" title="Bract">Bract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedicel_(botany)" title="Pedicel (botany)">Pedicellate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raceme" title="Raceme">Raceme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbel" title="Umbel">Umbel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perianth" title="Perianth">Perianth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepal" title="Tepal">Tepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petal" title="Petal">Petal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepal" title="Sepal">Sepal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embryo#Plant_embryos" title="Embryo">Plant embryo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptacle_(botany)" title="Receptacle (botany)">Receptacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyll" title="Sporophyll">Sporophyll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporophyte" title="Sporophyte">Sporophyte</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #D4EED4;;width:1%">Surface structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">Cuticle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicuticular_wax" title="Epicuticular wax">Epicuticular wax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectar" title="Nectar">Nectar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoma" title="Stoma">Stoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorns,_spines,_and_prickles" title="Thorns, spines, and prickles">Thorns, spines, and prickles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichome" title="Trichome">Trichome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_physiology" title="Plant physiology">Plant physiology</a><br />Materials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aleurone" title="Aleurone">Aleurone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apical_dominance" title="Apical dominance">Apical dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_movement" title="Bulk movement">Bulk flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellulose" title="Cellulose">Cellulose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_nutrition" title="Plant nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">Chlorophyll</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytomelanin" title="Phytomelanin">Phytomelanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_hormone" title="Plant hormone">Plant hormones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system#Plants" title="Respiratory system">Respiration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange#Plants" title="Gas exchange">Gas Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sap" title="Sap">Sap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Starch" title="Starch">Starch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar" title="Sugar">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpiration" title="Transpiration">Transpiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turgor_pressure" title="Turgor pressure">Turgor pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Plant growth<br />and habit</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habit_(biology)#Structure" title="Habit (biology)">Habit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cushion_plant" title="Cushion plant">Cushion plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosette_(botany)" title="Rosette (botany)">Rosettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">Shrubs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prostrate_shrub" title="Prostrate shrub">Prostrate shrubs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subshrub" title="Subshrub">Subshrubs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succulent_plant" title="Succulent plant">Succulent plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">Trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">Vines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liana" title="Liana">Lianas</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">Herbaceous plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_growth" title="Secondary growth">Secondary growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woody_plant" title="Woody plant">Woody plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Reproduction</a> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolution" title="Plant evolution">Evolution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_ecology" title="Plant ecology">Ecology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternation_of_generations" title="Alternation of generations">Alternation of generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_fertilization" title="Double fertilization">Double fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Plant evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_plant_evolution" title="Timeline of plant evolution">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">Germination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollination" title="Pollination">Pollination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_pollination" class="mw-redirect" title="Artificial pollination">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator" title="Pollinator">Pollinators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollen_tube" title="Pollen tube">Pollen tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">Self</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Sporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsporangia" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsporangia">Microsporangia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microspore" title="Microspore">Microspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporangium" title="Sporangium">Megasporangium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megaspore" title="Megaspore">Megaspore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Spore</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Plant_taxonomy" title="Plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Biological classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_nomenclature" title="Botanical nomenclature">Botanical nomenclature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_name" title="Botanical name">Botanical name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correct_name" title="Correct name">Correct name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)" title="Author citation (botany)">Author citation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_algae,_fungi,_and_plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants">International Code of Nomenclature (ICN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Code_of_Nomenclature_for_Cultivated_Plants" title="International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants">ICN for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivated_plant_taxonomy" title="Cultivated plant taxonomy">Cultivated plant taxonomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citrus_taxonomy" title="Citrus taxonomy">Citrus taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultigen" title="Cultigen">Cultigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar" title="Cultivar">Cultivar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultivar_group" title="Cultivar group">Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grex_(horticulture)" title="Grex (horticulture)">Grex</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_plant_systematics" title="History of plant systematics">History of plant systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbarium" title="Herbarium">Herbarium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Plant_Taxonomy" title="International Association for Plant Taxonomy">International Association for Plant Taxonomy</a> (IAPT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_systems_of_plant_taxonomy" title="List of systems of plant taxonomy">Plant taxonomy systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriculture" title="Floriculture">Floriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">Horticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytochemical" title="Phytochemical">Phytochemical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #C3EEC3;;width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Lists</li><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists" title="List of botanists">Botanists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(W%E2%80%93Z)" title="List of botanists by author abbreviation (W–Z)">by author abbreviation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botanical_expeditions" title="Botanical expeditions">Botanical expeditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_trees" title="List of individual trees">Individual trees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_plants" title="Lists of plants">Plants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #C3EEC3;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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