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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Western_Yiddish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_Yiddish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Western Yiddish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_Yiddish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Yiddish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Yiddish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Eastern Yiddish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Yiddish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transitional_Yiddish_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transitional_Yiddish_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Transitional Yiddish dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transitional_Yiddish_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Differences_between_dialects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Differences_between_dialects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Differences between dialects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Differences_between_dialects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Comparison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_"neutral"_form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_"neutral"_form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development of "neutral" form</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_"neutral"_form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standardization_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standardization_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Standardization controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standardization_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Documentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span 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Available in 8 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-8" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">8 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddische_Dialektna" title="Jiddische Dialektna – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Jiddische Dialektna" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddisch#Merkmale_jiddischer_Dialekte" title="Jiddisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Jiddisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidis#Ramas_dialectales_del_yidis" title="Yidis – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Yidis" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9#ניבים" title="יידיש – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יידיש" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%8B_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88" title="Диалекты языка идиш – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Диалекты языка идиш" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jiddi%C5%A1#Murteet" title="Jiddiš – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Jiddiš" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%96%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8_%D1%97%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%88%D1%83" title="Діалекти їдишу – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Діалекти їдишу" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%99%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A2_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%A2%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%9F" title="יידישע דיאלעקטן – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="יידישע דיאלעקטן" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q515419#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:lavender;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:lavender;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Jewish culture</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/260px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/390px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg/520px-Mordecai_and_Esther.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="1021" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Languages</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_Hebrew" title="Samaritan Hebrew">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_vocalization" title="Babylonian vocalization">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_vocalization" title="Palestinian vocalization">Palestinian</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judeo-Aramaic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hulaul%C3%A1_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hulaulá language">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishana_Deni" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishana Deni">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lish%C3%A1n_Did%C3%A1n" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishán Didán">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barzani_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Betanure_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Betanure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lishanid_Noshan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lishanid Noshan">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Palestinian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></li></ul></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Arabic languages">Judeo-Arabic</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Yahudic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Djerbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Yemenite</a></li></ul> <p><b>Other <a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_diaspora_languages" title="List of Jewish diaspora languages">Jewish diaspora languages</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yevanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Yevanic">Yevanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalanic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalanic language">Catalanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italkian" class="mw-redirect" title="Italkian">Italkian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Piedmontese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Gruzinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzhidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Dzhidi">Dzhidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhori" class="mw-redirect" title="Bukhori">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Juhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani language">Golpaygani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Hamedani dialect">Hamedani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuadit" class="mw-redirect" title="Shuadit">Shuadit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judeo-Marathi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Berber">Judeo-Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judeo-Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Koiné Greek</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_mythology" title="Jewish mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baal" title="Baal">Baal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_(deity)" title="El (deity)">El</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genesis_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Genesis 1">Genesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Eve" title="Adam and Eve">Adam and Eve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilith" title="Lilith">Lilith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garden_of_Eden" title="Garden of Eden">Garden of Eden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biblical)" title="Tree of life (biblical)">Tree of Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbidden_fruit" title="Forbidden fruit">Forbidden Fruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchs_(Bible)" title="Patriarchs (Bible)">Patriarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promised_Land" title="Promised Land">Promised Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gog_and_Magog" title="Gog and Magog">Gog and Magog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimrod" title="Nimrod">Nimrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodom_and_Gomorrah" title="Sodom and Gomorrah">Sodom and Gomorrah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cain_and_Abel" title="Cain and Abel">Cain and Abel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moses" title="Moses">Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burning_bush" title="Burning bush">Burning bush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Plagues" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Plagues">Ten Plagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossing_the_Red_Sea" title="Crossing the Red Sea">Crossing the Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Exodus" title="The Exodus">The Exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Mount_Sinai" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Mount Sinai">Mount Sinai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_calf" title="Golden calf">Golden calf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabernacle" title="Tabernacle">Tabernacle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Canaan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conquest of Canaan">Conquest of Canaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moloch" title="Moloch">Moloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gehenna" title="Gehenna">Gehenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gathering_of_Israel" title="Gathering of Israel">Gathering of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_(biblical_figure)" title="Daniel (biblical figure)">Daniel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon" title="Gideon">Gideon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul" title="Saul">Saul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_and_Goliath" class="mw-redirect" title="David and Goliath">David and Goliath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solomon" title="Solomon">Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samson" title="Samson">Samson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esther" title="Esther">Esther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haman" title="Haman">Haman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordecai" title="Mordecai">Mordecai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_(biblical_figure)" title="Job (biblical figure)">Job</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezra" title="Ezra">Ezra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_(biblical_figure)" title="Ruth (biblical figure)">Ruth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azrael" title="Azrael">Azrael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_(archangel)" title="Michael (archangel)">Michael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel" title="Gabriel">Gabriel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dobiel" title="Dobiel">Dobiel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouza" class="mw-redirect" title="Ouza">Ouza</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Jewish_folklore" title="Jewish folklore">Jewish folklore</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dybbuk" title="Dybbuk">Dybbuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golem" title="Golem">Golem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behemoth" title="Behemoth">Behemoth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leviathan" title="Leviathan">Leviathan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shedim" title="Shedim">Shedim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannin_(monster)" title="Tannin (monster)">Tannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rahab_(Egypt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rahab (Egypt)">Rahab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagdana_(Judaism)" title="Bagdana (Judaism)">Bagdana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estries" title="Estries">Estries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belial" title="Belial">Belial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samael" title="Samael">Samael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Re%27em" title="Re'em">Re'em</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baal_Berith" title="Baal Berith">Baal Berith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lilin" title="Lilin">Lilin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_Juchne" title="Bar Juchne">Bar Juchne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziz" title="Ziz">Ziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naamah_(demon)" title="Naamah (demon)">Naamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazzikin" title="Mazzikin">Mazzikin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arariel" title="Arariel">Arariel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Se%27irim" title="Se'irim">Se'irim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumah_(angel)" title="Dumah (angel)">Dumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armilus" title="Armilus">Armilus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broxa" title="Broxa">Broxa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elioud" title="Elioud">Elioud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alukah" title="Alukah">Alukah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephaite" title="Rephaite">Rephaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pardes_(legend)" title="Pardes (legend)">Pardes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yossele_the_Holy_Miser" title="Yossele the Holy Miser">Yossele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_ants" title="Valley of the ants">Valley of the ants</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature" title="Jewish literature">Literature</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical literature">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_literature" title="Hebrew literature">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_American_literature" title="Jewish American literature">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish#Literature" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Ladino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_literature" title="Judeo-Tat literature">Judeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_literature" title="Yiddish literature">Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_English_Jewish_literature" title="Early English Jewish literature">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jews#Yemenite_Jewish_literature" title="Yemenite Jews">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musar_literature" title="Musar literature">Musar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_literature" title="Rabbinic literature">Rabbinic</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Jewish poetry</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_poetry" title="Biblical poetry">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piyyut" title="Piyyut">Piyyutim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_poetry_from_Al-Andalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish poetry from Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Jewish_poetry" title="Yemenite Jewish poetry">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_and_Jewish_epic_poetry" title="Hebrew and Jewish epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_literature#Poetry" title="Jewish literature">Medieval Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew_poetry" title="Modern Hebrew poetry">Modern Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocaust_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust literature">Holocaust</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Strauss" title="Leo Strauss">Strauss</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_music" title="Jewish music">Music</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Jewish_music" title="Secular Jewish music">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Jewish_music" title="Religious Jewish music">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_music" title="Mizrahi music">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardic_music" title="Sephardic music">Sephardic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klezmer" title="Klezmer">Klezmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niggun" class="mw-redirect" title="Niggun">Niggun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zemirot" title="Zemirot">Zemirot</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_art" title="Jewish art">Art</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Jewish_art" title="Ancient Jewish art">Ancient Jewish art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat_theatre" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Tat theatre">Judeo-Tat theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_dance" title="Jewish dance">Jewish dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_humor" title="Jewish humor">Humour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Jews_associated_with_the_visual_arts" title="Lists of Jews associated with the visual arts">List of Jews in the visual arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_film_directors" title="List of Jewish film directors">List of Jewish film directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_American_cinema" title="Jews in American cinema">Jews in American cinema</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture#Science_and_technology" title="Jewish culture">Science</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_medicine" title="Jewish medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology" title="Biblical cosmology">Biblical cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_mathematicians" title="List of Jewish mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jewish_scientists_and_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Jewish scientists and philosophers">Scientists</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">Sport</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jews_in_sports" title="List of Jews in sports">List of Jews in sports</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_association_football" title="Jews in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_baseball" title="Jews in baseball">Baseball</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Jewish_Sports_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame">Jewish Sports Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maccabiah_Games" title="Maccabiah Games">Maccabiah Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observance_of_Yom_Kippur_by_Jewish_athletes" title="Observance of Yom Kippur by Jewish athletes">Jewish athletes and Yom Kippur</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_cuisine" title="Jewish cuisine">Cuisine</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Israelite_cuisine" title="Ancient Israelite cuisine">Ancient Israelite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Sephardic_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Sephardic Jews">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_the_Mizrahi_Jews" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuisine of the Mizrahi Jews">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashkenazi cuisine">Ashkenazi</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;;background:lavender;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Other aspects</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_symbolism" title="Jewish symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_clothing" title="Jewish religious clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synagogue_architecture" title="Synagogue architecture">Architecture</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Judaism" title="Portal:Judaism">Portal:Judaism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Jewish_culture" title="Category:Jewish culture">Category:Jewish culture</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_culture" title="Template talk:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Yiddish dialects</b> are <a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">varieties</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> language and are divided according to the region in Europe where each developed its distinctiveness. Linguistically, Yiddish is divided in distinct Eastern and Western dialects. While the Western dialects mostly died out in the 19th-century due to Jewish language assimilation into mainstream culture, the Eastern dialects were very vital until most of Eastern European Jewry was wiped out by the <a href="/wiki/Holocaust" class="mw-redirect" title="Holocaust">Shoah</a>. </p><p>The Northeastern dialects of Eastern Yiddish were dominant in 20th-century Yiddish culture and academia, but in the 21st-century, the Southern dialects of Yiddish that are preserved by many <a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a> communities have become the most commonly spoken form of Yiddish. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Varieties">Varieties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Varieties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yidish-dialects-ru.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Yidish-dialects-ru.png/330px-Yidish-dialects-ru.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Yidish-dialects-ru.png/495px-Yidish-dialects-ru.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Yidish-dialects-ru.png/660px-Yidish-dialects-ru.png 2x" data-file-width="3497" data-file-height="2454" /></a><figcaption>Yiddish dialects (late 19th-early 20th century):<br /> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#DBDB70; color:black;"> </span> Western dialects</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend nowrap"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FBEC5D; color:black;"> </span> Eastern dialects</span></figcaption></figure> <p>Yiddish dialects are generally grouped into either Western Yiddish and Eastern Yiddish.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western Yiddish developed from the 9th century in Western-Central Europe, in the region which was called <a href="/wiki/Ashkenaz" title="Ashkenaz">Ashkenaz</a> by Jews, while Eastern Yiddish developed its distinctive features in Eastern Europe after the movement of large numbers of Jews from western to central and eastern Europe. </p><p>General references to the "Yiddish language" without qualification are normally taken to apply to Eastern Yiddish, unless the subject under consideration is Yiddish literature prior to the 19th century, in which case the focus is more likely to be on Western Yiddish. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Yiddish">Western Yiddish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Western Yiddish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While most Jews in the Rhineland who escaped persecution in the 14th century fled to the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, some continued to survive in the countryside of Switzerland, southern Germany and Alsace. They maintained Jewish customs and spoke Western Yiddish.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Western Yiddish included three dialects: </p> <ul><li><b>Northwestern</b> (spoken in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Germany" title="Northern Germany">Northern Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>),</li> <li><b>Midwestern</b> (spoken in <a href="/wiki/Central_Germany_(geography)" title="Central Germany (geography)">central Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a>),</li> <li><b>Southwestern</b> (spoken in northern <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Germany" title="Southern Germany">southern Germany</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a>, extending into <a href="/wiki/Northern_Italy" title="Northern Italy">Northern Italy</a>).</li></ul> <p>These have a number of clearly distinguished regional varieties, such as <a href="/wiki/History_of_Jews_in_Alsace#Language_and_origins" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Jews in Alsace">Judeo-Alsatian</a>, plus many local subvarieties. </p><p>The Judeo-<a href="/wiki/Alsatian_dialect" title="Alsatian dialect">Alsatian</a> traditionally spoken by the Jews of Alsace is called <i>Yédisch-Daïtsch</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> originally a mixture of <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic language">Aramaic</a> idioms and virtually indistinguishable from mainstream Yiddish. From the 12th century onwards, due among other things to the influence of the nearby <a href="/wiki/Rashi" title="Rashi">Rashi</a> school, <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> linguistic elements aggregated as well, and from the 18th century onwards, some <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a> elements due to immigrants blended into Yédisch-Daïtsch too.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to C. J. Hutterer (1969), "In western and central Europe the WY dialects must have died out within a short time during the period of reforms [i.e. the movements toward <a href="/wiki/Jewish_emancipation" title="Jewish emancipation">Jewish emancipation</a>] following the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 18th century, Yiddish was declining in <a href="/wiki/Germanic-speaking_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic-speaking Europe">German-speaking regions</a>, as Jews were <a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">acculturating</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Haskalah" title="Haskalah">Haskalah</a> opposed the use of Yiddish, and preference for German grew. By the end of the 18th century, Western Yiddish was mostly out of use, though some speakers were discovered in these regions as late as the mid-20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Yiddish">Eastern Yiddish</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Eastern Yiddish"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eastern Yiddish is split into Northern and Southern dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Northern / <strong><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238216509">.mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#b1d2ff}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .vanchor>:target~.vanchor-text{background-color:#0f4dc9}}</style><span class="vanchor"><span id="Northeastern"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Northeastern</span></span></strong> Yiddish (<strong><span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Litvish</i></span></strong> or "Lithuanian" Yiddish) was spoken in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belarus" title="Belarus">Belarus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a>, and portions of northeastern <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>, northern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Western_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Russia">western Russia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hiberno-Yiddish spoken by Jews in Ireland is based on this dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Southern"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Southern</span></span> dialects are again subdivided: <ul><li><strong><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Mideastern"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Mideastern</span></span></strong> Yiddish (<strong>Central</strong>, <strong><span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Poylish</i></span></strong> or "Polish" Yiddish) was spoken in Poland, western <a href="/wiki/Galicia_(Eastern_Europe)" title="Galicia (Eastern Europe)">Galicia</a> (<span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Galitsianer</i></span>), and much of <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>.</li> <li><strong><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Southeastern"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Southeastern</span></span></strong> Yiddish (<strong><span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Ukrainish</i></span></strong> or "Ukrainian" Yiddish) was spoken in <a href="/wiki/Volhynia" title="Volhynia">Volhynia</a> (<span title="Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="yi-Latn">Volinyer</i></span>), <a href="/wiki/Podolia" title="Podolia">Podolia</a> (<span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Podolyer</i></span>), and <a href="/wiki/Bessarabia" title="Bessarabia">Bessarabia</a> (<span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Besaraber</i></span>, in <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ul> <p>Ukrainian Yiddish was the basis for standard <a href="/wiki/Theatre_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Theatre Yiddish">theatre Yiddish</a>, while Lithuanian Yiddish was the basis of standard literary and academic Yiddish.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About three-quarters of contemporary Yiddish speakers speak Southern Yiddish varieties, the majority speaking Polish Yiddish.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most Hasidic communities use southern dialects, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Chabad" title="Chabad">Chabad</a> which uses <span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Litvish</i></span>; many Haredim in Jerusalem also preserve Litvish Yiddish.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Udmurtia_and_Tatarstan" title="History of the Jews in Udmurtia and Tatarstan">Jews who settled</a> in <a href="/wiki/Udmurtia" title="Udmurtia">Udmurtia</a> would develop dialects incorporating <a href="/wiki/Udmurt_language" title="Udmurt language">Udmurt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tatar_language" title="Tatar language">Tatar</a> vocabulary (<strong><span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Udmurtish</i></span></strong> or "Udmurt" Yiddish). The Udmurt dialect has been traditionally split into two groupings. </p> <ul><li><strong><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Central"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Central</span></span></strong> dialects, which were centered around <a href="/wiki/Izhevsk" title="Izhevsk">Izhevsk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarapul" title="Sarapul">Sarapul</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Votkinsk" title="Votkinsk">Votkinsk</a>.</li> <li><strong><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238216509"><span class="vanchor"><span id="Southern"></span><span class="vanchor-text">Southern</span></span></strong> dialects, which were centered around <a href="/wiki/Kambarka" title="Kambarka">Kambarka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alnashi" title="Alnashi">Alnashi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Agryz" title="Agryz">Agryz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Naberezhnye_Chelny" title="Naberezhnye Chelny">Naberezhnye Chelny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transitional_Yiddish_dialects">Transitional Yiddish dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Transitional Yiddish dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some linguists have proposed the existence of transitional dialects of Yiddish that have been created in areas between Western and Eastern dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transitional Yiddish is spoken in two different regions, a Western part and an Eastern part. </p> <ul><li>The <b>Western part</b> (<a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravia" title="Moravia">Moravia</a>, west <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a>, and west <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a>) are characterized by a Yiddish dialect which was lexically east European but phonologically west European.</li> <li>The <b>Eastern part</b> (the <a href="/wiki/Great_Hungarian_Plain" title="Great Hungarian Plain">Hungarian lowlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transylvania" title="Transylvania">Transylvania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carpathian_Rus" class="mw-redirect" title="Carpathian Rus">Carpathian Rus</a>) is a fusion of the west-Transcarpathian dialect with dialects brought by chasidic immigrants from Galicia. Transition Yiddish countries are sometimes considered jointly Eastern Yiddish countries.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Differences_between_dialects">Differences between dialects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Differences between dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The primary differences between the contemporary dialects are in the quality of stressed vowels, though there are also differences in morphology, lexicon, and grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Northern dialects are more conservative in vowel quality, while southern dialects have preserved vowel quantity distinctions.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Comparison">Comparison</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Comparison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Stressed vowels in the Yiddish dialects may be understood by considering their common origins in the Proto-Yiddish sound system. Yiddish linguistic scholarship uses a system developed by M. Weinreich (1960) to indicate the descendent <a href="/wiki/Diaphoneme" title="Diaphoneme">diaphonemes</a> of the Proto-Yiddish stressed vowels.<sup id="cite_ref-j28_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-j28-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Each Proto-Yiddish vowel is given a unique two-digit identifier, and its reflexes use it as a subscript, for example Southeastern <i>o<sub>11</sub></i> is the vowel /o/, descended from Proto-Yiddish */a/.<sup id="cite_ref-j28_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-j28-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first digit indicates Proto-Yiddish <b>quality</b> (1-=*[a], 2-=*[e], 3-=*[i], 4-=*[o], 5-=*[u]), and the second refers to <b>quantity or diphthongization</b> (-1=short, -2=long, -3=short but lengthened early in the history of Yiddish, -4=diphthong, -5=special length occurring only in Proto-Yiddish vowel 25).<sup id="cite_ref-j28_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-j28-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Vowels 23, 33, 43 and 53 have the same reflexes as 22, 32, 42 and 52 in all Yiddish dialects, but they developed distinct values in <a href="/wiki/Middle_High_German" title="Middle High German">Middle High German</a>; Katz (1978) argues that they should be collapsed with the -2 series, leaving only 13 in the -3 series.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <caption><b>Genetic sources of Yiddish dialect vowels</b><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Netherlandic </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i<sub>31</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>iː<sub>32</sub></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span><sub>52</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span><sub>25</sub> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">o<sub>51</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>oː</span><sub>12</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛ<sub>21</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>ɛj</span><sub>22/34</sub> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ<sub>41</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>ɔu</span><sub>42/54</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a<sub>11/13</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>aː</span><sub>24/44</sub> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Polish </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i<sub>31/51</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>iː<sub>32/52</sub></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span><sub>12/13</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː~ej</span><sub>25</sub> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː~ou<sub>54</sub></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛ<sub>21</sub></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ<sub>41</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>ɔj</span><sub>42/44</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a<sub>11</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>aː<sub>34</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>aj<sub>22/24</sub></span> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Lithuanian </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">i<sub>31/32</sub></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">u</span><sub>51/52</sub> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_vowel" title="Close-mid vowel">Close-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ej</span><sub>22/24/42/44</sub> </td> <td align="center"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_vowel" title="Open-mid vowel">Open-mid</a> </th> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɛ<sub>21/25</sub></span> </td> <td align="center"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔ<sub>12/13/41</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>ɔj<sub>54</sub></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">a<sub>11</sub><span class="wrap"> </span>aj</span><sub>34</sub> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Examples<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>PY</th> <th>Netherlandic</th> <th>Polish</th> <th>Lithuanian </th></tr> <tr> <th>11 (A<sub>1</sub>) </th> <td align="center"><b>a</b>lt</td> <td align="center"><b>a</b>lt</td> <td align="center"><b>a</b>lt </td></tr> <tr> <th>42 (O<sub>2</sub>) </th> <td align="center">br<b>ɔu</b>t</td> <td align="center">br<b>ɔj</b>t</td> <td align="center">br<b>ej</b>t </td></tr> <tr> <th>13 (A<sub>3</sub>) </th> <td align="center">v<b>a</b>s</td> <td align="center">v<b>u</b>s</td> <td align="center">v<b>ɔ</b>s </td></tr> <tr> <th>24 (E<sub>4</sub>) </th> <td align="center"><b>ā</b>n</td> <td align="center"><b>aj</b>n</td> <td align="center"><b>ej</b>n </td></tr> <tr> <th>54 (U<sub>4</sub>) </th> <td align="center">h<b>ɔu</b>z</td> <td align="center">h<b>ō</b>z~<br />h<b>ou</b>z</td> <td align="center">h<b>ɔj</b>z </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Vowel (Hebrew script) </th> <th>Northern Yiddish (Litvish) </th> <th>Southern Yiddish (Poylish, Galitzish) </th> <th>Comparison (Heb. script = NY = SY) </th></tr> <tr> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1241449095">.mw-parser-output .script-hebrew,.mw-parser-output .script-Hebr{font-family:"Ezra SIL SR","Ezra SIL","SBL Hebrew","Taamey Frank CLM","SBL BibLit","Taamey Ashkenaz","Frank Ruehl CLM","Keter Aram Tsova","Taamey David CLM","Keter YG","Shofar","David CLM","Hadasim CLM","Simple CLM","Nachlieli",Cardo,Alef,"Noto Serif Hebrew","Noto Sans Hebrew","David Libre",David,"Times New Roman",Gisha,Arial,FreeSerif,FreeSans}</style><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">אָ</span></span>‎ </td> <td>o <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a>]</span> </td> <td>u <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>]</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">דאָס, זאָגן</span></span>‎ = dos, zogn = dus, zugn </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">אֻ, וּ</span></span>‎ </td> <td>u <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a>]</span> </td> <td>i <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>]</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">קוגל</span></span>‎ = <a href="/wiki/Kugel" title="Kugel">kugel</a> = kigel </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ײַ</span></span>‎ </td> <td>ai <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aj]</span> </td> <td>ah <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open_central_unrounded_vowel" title="Open central unrounded vowel">aː</a>]</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">זײַן</span></span>‎ = zayn = zahn </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">אֵ, ײ</span></span>‎ </td> <td>ey <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛɪ]</span> </td> <td>ay <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[aj]</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">קלײן, צװײ</span></span>‎ = kleyn, tzvey = klayn, tzvay </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ױ, וֹ</span></span>‎ </td> <td>ey <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɛɪ]</span> </td> <td>oy <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[oj]</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ברױט</span></span>‎ = breyt = broyt </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">ע</span></span>‎ </td> <td>e <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a>]</span> </td> <td>ey <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ej]</span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1241449095"><span class="script-hebrew" style="font-size: 110%;" dir="rtl"><span style="font-size:200%;line-height:1.5">שטעטל</span></span>‎ = shtetl = shteytl (Note: Unstressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/e/</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Mid_central_vowel" title="Mid central vowel">ə</a>]</span> does not change) </td></tr></tbody></table><p><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some dialects have final consonant devoicing. </p><p>Merger of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>/</span> into <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a>/</span> was common in Litvish Yiddish in previous generations.<sup id="cite_ref-yivo_7-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as <a href="/wiki/Sabesdiker_losn" title="Sabesdiker losn">Sabesdiker losn</a>, it has been stigmatized and deliberately avoided by recent generations of Litvaks. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_"neutral"_form"><span id="Development_of_.22neutral.22_form"></span>Development of "neutral" form</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Development of "neutral" form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Yiddish_dialects" title="Special:EditPage/Yiddish dialects">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As with many other languages with strong literary traditions, there was a more or less constant tendency toward the development of a neutral written form acceptable to the speakers of all dialects. In the early 20th century, for both cultural and political reasons, particular energy was focused on developing a modern Standard Yiddish. This contained elements from all three Eastern dialects but its phonetic attributes were predominantly based on Northeastern pronunciation. A separate article describes the resulting modern <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_phonology" title="Yiddish phonology">Standard Yiddish phonology</a>, without detailing the phonetic variation among the three contributing dialects or the further distinctions among the myriad local varieties that they subsume. </p><p>A useful early review of the differences between the three main Eastern dialects is provided by the Yiddish lexicographer Alexander Harkavy in a <i>Treatise on Yiddish Reading, Orthography, and Dialectal Variations</i> first published in 1898 together with his Yiddish-English Dictionary (<a href="#harkavy1898">Harkavy 1898</a>). A scanned facsimile is <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.engr.uky.edu/~raphael/yiddish/harkavy/index.utf8.html">available online</a>. The relevant material is presented there under the heading <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.engr.uky.edu/~raphael/yiddish/harkavy/0015.png">Dialects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Standardization_controversy">Standardization controversy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Standardization controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Yiddish_dialects" title="Special:EditPage/Yiddish dialects">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Center_for_Jewish_History_NYC_14.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Center_for_Jewish_History_NYC_14.JPG/220px-Center_for_Jewish_History_NYC_14.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Center_for_Jewish_History_NYC_14.JPG/330px-Center_for_Jewish_History_NYC_14.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Center_for_Jewish_History_NYC_14.JPG/440px-Center_for_Jewish_History_NYC_14.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>YIVO on 16th Street in Manhattan, New York City</figcaption></figure><p>Harkavy, like others of the early standardizers, regards Litvish as the "leading branch". That assertion has, however, been questioned by many authors and remains the subject of keen controversy. <a href="/wiki/YIVO" title="YIVO">YIVO</a>, the Jewish Scientific Institute,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is often seen as the initiating agent in giving phonetic preference to Litvish, but Harkavy's work predates YIVO's and he was not exclusively describing personal preference. A broad-based study provided in the <i>Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry</i> (discussed in detail below under the heading <a href="#Documentation">Documentation</a>) provides a clearer picture of the more recent YIVO perspective. </p><p>The heart of the debate is the priority given to the dialect with the smallest number of speakers. One of the alternative proposals put forward in the early discussion of standardizing spoken Yiddish was to base it on the pronunciation of the Southeastern dialect, which was the most widely used form in the <a href="/wiki/Yiddish_theatre" title="Yiddish theatre">Yiddish theatre</a> (c.f. <i><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChnendeutsch" title="Bühnendeutsch">Bühnendeutsch</a></i>, the stage pronunciation, as a common designation for <a href="/wiki/Standard_German" title="Standard German">Standard German</a>). </p><p>There is nothing unusual about heated debate over <a href="/wiki/Language_planning" title="Language planning">language planning</a> and reform. Such normative initiatives are, however, frequently based on legislative authority – something which, with the exception of regulation in the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, has never applied to Yiddish. It might therefore be expected that the controversy about the development of Standard Yiddish would be particularly intense. </p><p> The acrimony surrounding the extensive role played by YIVO is vividly illustrated by in remarks made by Birnbaum:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There is no standard pronunciation in Yiddish. However, the members and friends of the Yivo Institute for Jewish Research, New York, have strong views on the subject. They are convinced that Y should not differ in this respect from the great Western languages, and so they are willing to introduce a standard one. In their publications they speak as if it were already in existence, but this is wishful thinking – acceptance of their system being restricted to their circle. The original proponents of this 'standard' were speakers of the Northern dialect and so, without further ado and without discussing the matter or giving any reasons, they decided that their own pronunciation was the 'standard'. However, the man in the street knows nothing about it. If he happens to be a Southerner he does not exchange his rich phonemic system for the meagre one of the Northern dialect. He does not even know that this is 'supposed to be' the 'standard'. And if he is a Northerner, he goes on speaking as before, without realizing that he would need to change only one of his vowels in order to qualify as a speaker of the 'standard'. It is ironic that the partisans of the 'standard' – all convinced democrats – should ask the majority of Yiddish-speakers to switch over from their own pronunciation to that of a minority, comprising only a quarter of all Yiddish speakers.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="#birnbaum1979">Solomon Birnbaum, 1979</a></cite></div></blockquote> <p>Recent criticism of modern Standard Yiddish is expressed by Michael Wex in several passages in <a href="#wex2005">Wex 2005</a>. Regardless of any nuance that can be applied to the consideration of these arguments, it may be noted that modern Standard Yiddish is used by very few mother-tongue speakers and is not evoked by the vast bulk of Yiddish literature. It has, however, become a norm in present-day instruction of Yiddish as a foreign language and is therefore firmly established in any discourse about the development of that language. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Documentation">Documentation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Documentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Between 1992 and 2000, <a href="/wiki/Marvin_Herzog" title="Marvin Herzog">Herzog</a> et al. published a three-volume <i>Language and Cultural Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry</i>, commonly referred to as the <i>LCAAJ</i>. This provides a detailed description of the phonetic elements of what is presented as an Eastern-Western <a href="/wiki/Dialect_continuum" title="Dialect continuum">dialect continuum</a>, and mapping their geographic distribution.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A more recent extensive phonetic description, also of both Eastern and Western Yiddish, was published by Neil G. Jacobs in 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2005_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2005-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordkhe_Veynger" title="Mordkhe Veynger">Mordkhe Veynger</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some authors use the term "Southeastern Yiddish" as a collective designation for both <span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Poylish</i></span> and <span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Ukrainish</i></span> while still applying the term Northeastern Yiddish to <span title="Eastern Yiddish-language romanization"><i lang="ydd-Latn">Litvish</i></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The two varieties differ slightly. Many words with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oj/</span> in the standard have <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ej/</span> in Lithuanian Yiddish, e.g. <span title="Eastern Yiddish-language text"><span lang="ydd" dir="rtl">וואוין</span></span> = Standard <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vojn/</span>, Lithuanian <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/vejn/</span>. See <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKatz1987" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Dovid (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz"><i>Grammar of the Yiddish Language</i></a></span>. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz/page/38">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-2161-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-2161-0"><bdi>0-7156-2161-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+the+Yiddish+Language&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Gerald+Duckworth+%26+Co.+Ltd.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-7156-2161-0&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Dovid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammarofyiddish0000katz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=yih">Western Yiddish</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ydd">Eastern Yiddish</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAriel_David2018" class="citation news cs1">Ariel David (2018-10-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.haaretz.com/world-news/europe/.premium-oldest-jewish-community-in-switzerland-is-disappearing-but-not-without-a-fight-1.6554118">"Oldest Jewish Community in Switzerland Is Disappearing, but Not Without a Fight"</a>. <i>Haaretz</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Haaretz&rft.atitle=Oldest+Jewish+Community+in+Switzerland+Is+Disappearing%2C+but+Not+Without+a+Fight&rft.date=2018-10-14&rft.au=Ariel+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.haaretz.com%2Fworld-news%2Feurope%2F.premium-oldest-jewish-community-in-switzerland-is-disappearing-but-not-without-a-fight-1.6554118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://judaisme.sdv.fr/dialecte/">Yédisch-Daïtsch, le dialecte judéo-alsacien</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://judaisme.sdv.fr/dialecte/articles/plevy.htm">Structure du parler judéo-alsacien</a> <span class="languageicon">(in French)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in: Jochnowitz, George (2010). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jochnowitz.net/Essays/WesternYiddish.html">Western Yiddish in Orange County, New York State</a>". jochnowitz.net. Retrieved 14 September 2017. Jochnowitz is a professor emeritus of linguistics at the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Staten_Island" title="College of Staten Island">College of Staten Island</a>, City University of New York. "This article appeared in <i>Les Cahiers du CREDYO</i>. No. 5 (2010), published by the Centre de Recherche, d'Etudes et de Documentation du Yidich Occidental."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yivo-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yivo_7-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Language/Yiddish#id0eztae">Yiddish Dialects</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jwire.com.au/hiberno-yiddish-the-language-of-irish-jews/">"Hiberno-Yiddish – The language of Irish Jews"</a>. 15 January 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hiberno-Yiddish+%E2%80%93+The+language+of+Irish+Jews&rft.date=2023-01-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jwire.com.au%2Fhiberno-yiddish-the-language-of-irish-jews%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Алтынцев, А.В., Понятие любви у ашкеназов Удмуртии и Татарстана", Наука Удмуртии. 2013. № 4 (66), с. 131. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://snioo.ru/images/stories/nu-print/nu4662013.pdf">https://snioo.ru/images/stories/nu-print/nu4662013.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Burko, A., The New Yiddish Dialectology: A Review of Alexander Beider’s The Origins of Yiddish Dialects" <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://ingeveb.org/articles/new-yiddish-dialectology">https://ingeveb.org/articles/new-yiddish-dialectology</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz1987" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Dovid (1987). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz"><i>Grammar of the Yiddish Language</i></a></span>. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grammarofyiddish0000katz/page/38">38</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-2161-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-2161-0"><bdi>0-7156-2161-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammar+of+the+Yiddish+Language&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=Gerald+Duckworth+%26+Co.+Ltd.&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-7156-2161-0&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Dovid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrammarofyiddish0000katz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-j28-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-j28_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-j28_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-j28_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJacobs2005">Jacobs (2005</a>:28)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKatz1978">Katz (1978</a>:17)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKatz1978">Katz (1978</a>:25)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKatz1978">Katz (1978</a>:18–23)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarkavy" class="citation web cs1">Harkavy, Alexander. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.engr.uky.edu/~raphael/yiddish/harkavy/0015.png">"Dialects"</a>. <i>Treatise on Yiddish Reading, Orthography, and Dialectal Variations</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 May</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Treatise+on+Yiddish+Reading%2C+Orthography%2C+and+Dialectal+Variations&rft.atitle=Dialects&rft.aulast=Harkavy&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cs.engr.uky.edu%2F~raphael%2Fyiddish%2Fharkavy%2F0015.png&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.yivo.org/">"Home"</a>. <i>yivo.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=yivo.org&rft.atitle=Home&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.yivo.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargolis" class="citation web cs1">Margolis, Michelle. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://guides.library.columbia.edu/c.php?g=730523&p=5319433">"Research Guides: Language and Culture Archive of Ashkenazic Jewry Digital Archive User Guide: Introduction"</a>. <i>guides.library.columbia.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-01-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=guides.library.columbia.edu&rft.atitle=Research+Guides%3A+Language+and+Culture+Archive+of+Ashkenazic+Jewry+Digital+Archive+User+Guide%3A+Introduction&rft.aulast=Margolis&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fguides.library.columbia.edu%2Fc.php%3Fg%3D730523%26p%3D5319433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2005-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJacobs2005_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJacobs2005">Jacobs 2005</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><div id="birnbaum1979">Birnbaum, Solomon A., <i>Yiddish: A Survey and a Grammar</i>, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1979, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8020-5382-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8020-5382-3">0-8020-5382-3</a>.</div></li> <li><div id="estraikh1999">Estraikh, Gennady, <i>Soviet Yiddish: Language Planning and Linguistic Development</i>, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-818479-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-818479-4">0-19-818479-4</a>.</div></li> <li><div id="fishman1981"><a href="/wiki/Joshua_Fishman" title="Joshua Fishman">Fishman, Joshua A.</a> (ed.), <i>Never Say Die: A Thousand Years of Yiddish in Jewish Life and Letters</i>, Mouton Publishers, The Hague, 1981, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-279-7978-2" title="Special:BookSources/90-279-7978-2">90-279-7978-2</a>.</div></li> <li><div id="harkavy1898">Harkavy, Alexander, <i>Harkavy's English-Jewish and Jewish-English Dictionary</i>, Hebrew Publishing Company, New York, 1898. Expanded 6th ed., 1910, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.engr.uky.edu/~raphael/yiddish/harkavy/index.utf8.html">scanned facsimile.</a></div></li> <li><div id="lcaaj">Herzog, Marvin, et al. ed., <i>The Language and Culture Atlas of Ashkenazic Jewry</i>, 3 vols., Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen, 1992–2000, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-484-73013-7" title="Special:BookSources/3-484-73013-7">3-484-73013-7</a>.</div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs2005" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, Neil G. (2005). <i>Yiddish: A Linguistic Introduction</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77215-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77215-X"><bdi>0-521-77215-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yiddish%3A+A+Linguistic+Introduction&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-77215-X&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Neil+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><div id="katz1987">Katz, Dovid, <i>Grammar of the Yiddish Language</i>, Duckworth, London, 1987, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7156-2161-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-7156-2161-0">0-7156-2161-0</a>.</div></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz1978" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Dovid (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dovidkatz.net/dovid/PDFLinguistics/1978a.pdf"><i>Genetic Notes on Netherlandic Yiddish Vocalism</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Genetic+Notes+on+Netherlandic+Yiddish+Vocalism&rft.date=1978&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Dovid&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dovidkatz.net%2Fdovid%2FPDFLinguistics%2F1978a.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AYiddish+dialects" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><div id="weinreich1999">Weinreich, Uriel, <i>College Yiddish: an Introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish Life and Culture</i>, 6th revised ed., YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, New York, 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914512-26-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-914512-26-9">0-914512-26-9</a>.</div></li> <li><div id="wex2005"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Wex" title="Michael Wex">Wex, Michael</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Born_to_Kvetch" title="Born to Kvetch">Born to Kvetch</a>: Yiddish Language and Culture in All Its Moods</i>, St. Martin's Press, New York, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-30741-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-30741-1">0-312-30741-1</a>.</div></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Yiddish_dialects&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has a book on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Yiddish" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Yiddish">Yiddish</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jewishlanguages.org/yiddish">Jewish Language Research Website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/projects/digital/lcaaj/index.html">LCAAJ</a> Columbia University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eydes.org/eydes.htm">LCAAJ</a> EYDES</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dovidkatz.net/WebAtlas/0_TerritoryLitvish.htm">Map of Lithuanian Yiddish territory</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Jewish_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Jewish_languages" title="Template talk:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Jewish languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Jewish_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_languages" title="Jewish languages">Jewish languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eras</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew" title="Biblical Hebrew">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Mishnaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Hebrew" title="Medieval Hebrew">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Hebrew" title="Modern Hebrew">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reading traditions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ashkenazi_Hebrew" title="Ashkenazi Hebrew">Ashkenazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sephardi_Hebrew" title="Sephardi Hebrew">Sephardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizrahi_Hebrew" title="Mizrahi Hebrew">Mizrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Hebrew" title="Italian Hebrew">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemenite_Hebrew" title="Yemenite Hebrew">Yemenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiberian_Hebrew" title="Tiberian Hebrew">Tiberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Aramaic_languages" title="Judeo-Aramaic languages">Judaeo-Aramaic</a>/<a href="/wiki/Targum_(Aramaic_dialects)" title="Targum (Aramaic dialects)">Targum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic" title="Biblical Aramaic">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mishnaic_Hebrew" title="Mishnaic Hebrew">Talmudic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Babylonian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Babylonian Aramaic">Babylonian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Palestinian_Aramaic" title="Jewish Palestinian Aramaic">Jewish Palestinian Aramaic</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Galilean_dialect" title="Galilean dialect">Galilean</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Barzani" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Barzani">Barzani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Trans-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Hulaulá</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Zakho" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Zakho">Lishana Deni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Urmia" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Urmia">Lishán Didán</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-Zab_Jewish_Neo-Aramaic" title="Inter-Zab Jewish Neo-Aramaic">Lishanid Noshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Neo-Aramaic_dialect_of_Betanure" title="Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialect of Betanure">Betanure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Arabic" title="Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Arabic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Algerian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Algerian Arabic">Judaeo-Algerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Egyptian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Egyptian Arabic">Judaeo-Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fessi_dialect#Jewish_Fessi_dialect" title="Fessi dialect">Judaeo-Fessi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iraqi_Arabic" title="Judeo-Iraqi Arabic">Judaeo-Iraqi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Jewish_Arabic" title="Baghdad Jewish Arabic">Judaeo-Baghdadi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Moroccan_Arabic" title="Judeo-Moroccan Arabic">Judaeo-Moroccan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Palestinian_Judeo-Arabic" title="Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic">Judaeo-Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tripolitanian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic">Judaeo-Tripolitanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Syrian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Syrian Arabic">Judaeo-Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tunisian_Arabic" title="Judeo-Tunisian Arabic">Judaeo-Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Yemeni_Arabic" title="Judeo-Yemeni Arabic">Judaeo-Yemeni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez" title="Geʽez">Geʽez</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Semitic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethiopian Semitic languages">Ethiosemitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayla_dialect" title="Kayla dialect">Kayla</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Qwara_dialect" title="Qwara dialect">Qwara</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Cushitic_languages" title="Cushitic languages">Cushitic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Berber_language" title="Judeo-Berber language">Judaeo-Berber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Yiddish" title="Yiddish">Yiddish</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">dialects</a>/<i><a href="/wiki/Argot" class="mw-redirect" title="Argot">argots</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Yiddish">Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galitzish" class="mw-redirect" title="Galitzish">Galitzish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithuanian Yiddish">Litvish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poylish" class="mw-redirect" title="Poylish">Poylish</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ukrainish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurtish" class="mw-redirect" title="Udmurtish">Udmurtish</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Klezmer-loshn" title="Klezmer-loshn">Klezmer-loshn</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Yiddish">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Alsatian" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Alsatian">Judaeo-Alsatian</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lachoudisch" title="Lachoudisch">Lachoudisch</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scots-Yiddish" class="mw-redirect" title="Scots-Yiddish">Scots-Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.5em"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_English_varieties" title="Jewish English varieties">Jewish English</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yeshivish" title="Yeshivish">Yeshivish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yinglish" class="mw-redirect" title="Yinglish">Yinglish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heblish" class="mw-redirect" title="Heblish">Heblish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Romance_languages" title="Judaeo-Romance languages">Judaeo-Romance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Catalan" title="Judaeo-Catalan">Judaeo-Catalan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Italian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Italian languages">Judaeo-Italian</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Livornese" title="Judeo-Livornese">Judaeo-Livornese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Mantuan" title="Judeo-Mantuan">Judaeo-Mantuan</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Piedmontese" title="Judaeo-Piedmontese">Judaeo-Piedmontese</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Roman_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Roman language">Judaeo-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Spanish" title="Judaeo-Spanish">Judaeo-Spanish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haketia" title="Haketia">Haketia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tetuani_Ladino" title="Tetuani Ladino">Tetuani</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Latin" title="Judeo-Latin">Judaeo-Latin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Proven%C3%A7al" title="Judeo-Provençal">Judaeo-Provençal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Gascon" title="Judeo-Gascon">Judaeo-Gascon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Portuguese" title="Judaeo-Portuguese">Judaeo-Portuguese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Aragonese" title="Judaeo-Aragonese">Judaeo-Aragonese</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zarphatic_language" title="Zarphatic language">Zarphatic</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Iranian_languages" title="Judeo-Iranian languages">Judaeo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukharian_(Judeo-Tajik_dialect)" title="Bukharian (Judeo-Tajik dialect)">Bukhori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Tat" title="Judeo-Tat">Judaeo-Tat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Persian" title="Judeo-Persian">Judaeo-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Hamedani%E2%80%93Borujerdi" title="Judeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi">Judaeo-Hamedani–Borujerdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Shirazi" title="Judeo-Shirazi">Judaeo-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian_Dari" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian Dari">Judaeo-Yazdi–Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Kashani" title="Judeo-Kashani">Judaeo-Kashani</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Golpaygani" class="mw-redirect" title="Judeo-Golpaygani">Judaeo-Golpaygani</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Koine_Greek" title="Jewish Koine Greek">Jewish Koine Greek</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yevanic_language" title="Yevanic language">Yevanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knaanic_language" title="Knaanic language">Knaanic</a></i>, Pre-1970s <a href="/wiki/Odesan_Russian" title="Odesan Russian">Odesan Russian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Urdu" title="Judeo-Urdu">Judaeo-Urdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judeo-Marathi" title="Judeo-Marathi">Judaeo-Marathi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krymchak_language" title="Krymchak language">Krymchak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karaim_language" title="Karaim language">Karaim</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malayalam" title="Judeo-Malayalam">Judaeo-Malayalam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Georgian" title="Judaeo-Georgian">Judaeo-Georgian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaeo-Papiamento" title="Judaeo-Papiamento">Judaeo-Papiamento</a> (<a href="/wiki/Portuguese-based_creole_languages" title="Portuguese-based creole languages">Portuguese-based Creole</a>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Malay" title="Judeo-Malay">Judaeo-Malay</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malayic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Sign_Language" title="Israeli Sign Language">Israeli Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/German_Sign_Language_family" title="German Sign Language family">German Sign</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Jewish_Sign_Language" title="Algerian Jewish Sign Language">Algerian Jewish Sign Language</a> (<a href="/wiki/Village_sign_language" title="Village sign language">village sign language</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Varieties_of_languages" 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4em"><a href="/wiki/Variety_(linguistics)" title="Variety (linguistics)">Varieties</a> of languages</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_dialects" title="Albanian dialects">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Arabic" title="Varieties of Arabic">Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_dialects" title="Aragonese dialects">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_dialects" title="Armenian dialects">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_dialects" title="Aromanian dialects">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_dialects" title="Azerbaijani dialects">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_dialects" title="Basque dialects">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_dialects" title="Bengali dialects">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_dialects" title="Bulgarian dialects">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_dialects" title="Catalan dialects">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Chinese" title="Varieties of Chinese">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_dialects" title="Danish dialects">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_dialects" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch dialects">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_English" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_French" title="Varieties of French">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_dialects" title="Georgian dialects">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_dialects" title="German dialects">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varieties_of_Modern_Greek" title="Varieties of Modern Greek">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Central Indo-Aryan languages">Hindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_dialects" title="Korean dialects">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Macedonian" title="Dialects of Macedonian">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayic_languages" title="Malayic languages">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maltese_language#Dialects" title="Maltese language">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_dialects" title="Norwegian dialects">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashto_dialects" title="Pashto dialects">Pashto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_dialects_and_varieties" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian dialects and varieties">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Polish" title="Dialects of Polish">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_dialects" title="Portuguese dialects">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_dialects_and_languages" title="Punjabi dialects and languages">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_language#Dialects" title="Romani language">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_dialects" title="Romanian dialects">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_dialects" title="Russian dialects">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Serbo-Croatian" title="Dialects of Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovene_dialects" title="Slovene dialects">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_dialects_and_varieties" title="Spanish dialects and varieties">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_dialects" title="Swedish dialects">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_dialects" title="Turkish dialects">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_dialects" title="Ukrainian dialects">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialects_of_Urdu" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialects of Urdu">Urdu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: 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