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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Geography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Linguistics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Linguistics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Linguistics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Linguistics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Political science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.10</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.11</span> <span>Sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_fields_of_study" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_fields_of_study"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Additional fields of study</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_fields_of_study-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methodology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methodology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methodology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Methodology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Methodology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Social research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recursivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recursivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Recursivity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recursivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education_and_degrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_degrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Education and degrees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_degrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low_priority_of_social_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low_priority_of_social_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Low priority of social science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low_priority_of_social_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-People_associated_with_the_social_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#People_associated_with_the_social_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>People associated with the social sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-People_associated_with_the_social_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>General</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bibliography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th_and_21st_centuries_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>20th and 21st centuries sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th_and_21st_centuries_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>19th century sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.3</span> <span>General sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.4</span> <span>Academic resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Academic_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Opponents_and_critics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opponents_and_critics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.5</span> <span>Opponents and critics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opponents_and_critics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Social science</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 130 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-130" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">130 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosiale_wetenskap" title="Sosiale wetenskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Sosiale wetenskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialwissenschaften" title="Sozialwissenschaften – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Sozialwissenschaften" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="علوم اجتماعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علوم اجتماعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencias_socials" title="Ciencias socials – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Ciencias socials" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences_soci%C3%A2les" title="Sciences sociâles – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Sciences sociâles" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencies_sociales" title="Ciencies sociales – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ciencies sociales" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ctimai_elml%C9%99r" title="İctimai elmlər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İctimai elmlər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="সামাজিক বিজ্ঞান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সামাজিক বিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C4%81-ho%C4%93_kho-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Siā-hoē kho-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Siā-hoē kho-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%99%D3%99%D0%BC%D2%93%D0%B8%D3%99%D1%82_%D1%84%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B4%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B5" title="Йәмғиәт фәндәре – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Йәмғиәт фәндәре" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Грамадскія навукі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грамадскія навукі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सामाजिक बिज्ञान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सामाजिक बिज्ञान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyensyang_pangsosyedad" title="Siyensyang pangsosyedad – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Siyensyang pangsosyedad" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Хуманитарни и социални науки – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Хуманитарни и социални науки" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialwissnschoft" title="Sozialwissnschoft – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Sozialwissnschoft" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tvene_nauke" title="Društvene nauke – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Društvene nauke" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skianto%C3%B9_sokial" title="Skiantoù sokial – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Skiantoù sokial" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A8ncies_socials" title="Ciències socials – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciències socials" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%C4%95%D1%80%D0%BB%C4%95%D1%85_%C4%83%D1%81%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85%C4%95%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Пĕрлĕх ăслăхĕсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Пĕрлĕх ăслăхĕсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alamdag_katilingbanon" title="Alamdag katilingbanon – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Alamdag katilingbanon" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spole%C4%8Densk%C3%A9_v%C4%9Bdy" title="Společenské vědy – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Společenské vědy" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwyddorau_cymdeithas" title="Gwyddorau cymdeithas – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwyddorau cymdeithas" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samfundsvidenskab" title="Samfundsvidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Samfundsvidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozialwissenschaften" title="Sozialwissenschaften – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sozialwissenschaften" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotsiaalteadused" title="Sotsiaalteadused – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sotsiaalteadused" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AD%CF%82_%CE%B5%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AE%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%82" title="Κοινωνικές επιστήμες – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοινωνικές επιστήμες" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencias_sociales" title="Ciencias sociales – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciencias sociales" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socia_scienco" title="Socia scienco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Socia scienco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gizarte-zientziak" title="Gizarte-zientziak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gizarte-zientziak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="علوم اجتماعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="علوم اجتماعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences_sociales" title="Sciences sociales – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sciences sociales" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosjale_wittenskip" title="Sosjale wittenskip – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Sosjale wittenskip" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siencis_soci%C3%A2ls" title="Siencis sociâls – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Siencis sociâls" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eola%C3%ADocht_sh%C3%B3isialta" title="Eolaíocht shóisialta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eolaíocht shóisialta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oaylleeaght_heshoil" title="Oaylleeaght heshoil – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Oaylleeaght heshoil" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencias_sociais" title="Ciencias sociais – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ciencias sociais" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thayathi_cia_social" title="Thayathi cia social – Kikuyu" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Thayathi cia social" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="Kikuyu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%AE%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%9C%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%95_%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%BF%E0%AA%9C%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%9E%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%A8" title="સામાજિક વિજ્ઞાન – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="સામાજિક વિજ્ઞાન" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ગુજરાતી</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%9A%8C%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="사회과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사회과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimiyyar_zamantakewa" title="Kimiyyar zamantakewa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Kimiyyar zamantakewa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Հասարակական գիտություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հասարակական գիտություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सामाजिक विज्ञान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सामाजिक विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tvene_znanosti" title="Društvene znanosti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Društvene znanosti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociala_cienco" title="Sociala cienco – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Sociala cienco" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmu_sosial" title="Ilmu sosial – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ilmu sosial" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientia_social" title="Scientia social – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Scientia social" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9lagsv%C3%ADsindi" title="Félagsvísindi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Félagsvísindi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienze_sociali" title="Scienze sociali – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scienze sociali" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%94" title="מדעי החברה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדעי החברה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inooqatigiinnik_ilisimatusarneq" title="Inooqatigiinnik ilisimatusarneq – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Inooqatigiinnik ilisimatusarneq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%9C_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9E%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8" title="ಸಮಾಜ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಮಾಜ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%93%E1%83%9D%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="საზოგადოებრივი მეცნიერებები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საზოგადოებრივი მეცნიერებები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D2%93%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Әлеуметтік ғылымдар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әлеуметтік ғылымдар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayansi_ya_jamii" title="Sayansi ya jamii – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Sayansi ya jamii" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syans_sosyal" title="Syans sosyal – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Syans sosyal" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanist%C3%AAn_civak%C3%AE" title="Zanistên civakî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zanistên civakî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%ABnza_soziela" title="Sciënza soziela – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Sciënza soziela" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientiae_sociales" title="Scientiae sociales – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scientiae sociales" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C4%81l%C4%81s_zin%C4%81tnes" title="Sociālās zinātnes – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sociālās zinātnes" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialiniai_mokslai" title="Socialiniai mokslai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Socialiniai mokslai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociaal_weitesjappe" title="Sociaal weitesjappe – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Sociaal weitesjappe" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1rsadalomtudom%C3%A1nyok_list%C3%A1ja" title="Társadalomtudományok listája – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Társadalomtudományok listája" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%BF%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Општествени науки – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Општествени науки" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siansa_ara-ts%C3%B4sialy" title="Siansa ara-tsôsialy – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Siansa ara-tsôsialy" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%B9%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സാമൂഹികശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാമൂഹികശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xjenzi_so%C4%8Bjali" title="Xjenzi soċjali – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Xjenzi soċjali" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="सामाजिक शास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सामाजिक शास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%AA%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="ოჯარალე მენცარობეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ოჯარალე მენცარობეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A%D9%87" title="علوم اجتماعيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="علوم اجتماعيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85" title="ایجتماعی علوم – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ایجتماعی علوم" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sains_sosial" title="Sains sosial – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sains sosial" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilimu_sosial" title="Ilimu sosial – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Ilimu sosial" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%A9ncias_sociales" title="Ciéncias sociales – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ciéncias sociales" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B6%D0%BB%D1%8D%D1%85_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Нийгмийн шинжлэх ухаан – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Нийгмийн шинжлэх ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociale_wetenschappen" title="Sociale wetenschappen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sociale wetenschappen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociaole_wetenschop" title="Sociaole wetenschop – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Sociaole wetenschop" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सामाजिक विज्ञान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सामाजिक विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="सामाजिक विज्ञान – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सामाजिक विज्ञान" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="社会科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="社会科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samfunnsvitenskap" title="Samfunnsvitenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Samfunnsvitenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samfunnsvitskap" title="Samfunnsvitskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Samfunnsvitskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosial_sienties" title="Sosial sienties – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Sosial sienties" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci%C3%A9ncias_socialas" title="Sciéncias socialas – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sciéncias socialas" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%9C%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%95_%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%9E%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8" title="ସାମାଜିକ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସାମାଜିକ ବିଜ୍ଞାନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saayinsii_Hawaasaa" title="Saayinsii Hawaasaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Saayinsii Hawaasaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijtimoiy_fanlar" title="Ijtimoiy fanlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ijtimoiy fanlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%B2%DB%90_%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%DB%90" title="ټولنيزې پوهنې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ټولنيزې پوهنې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suoshal_sayans" title="Suoshal sayans – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Suoshal sayans" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%98" title="វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រសង្គម – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វិទ្យាសាស្ត្រសង្គម" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienches_sochiales" title="Scienches sochiales – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Scienches sochiales" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nauki_spo%C5%82eczne" title="Nauki społeczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nauki społeczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ci%C3%AAncias_sociais" title="Ciências sociais – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ciências sociais" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociall%C4%B1q_ilimler" title="Sociallıq ilimler – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Sociallıq ilimler" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C8%98tiin%C8%9Be_sociale" title="Științe sociale – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Științe sociale" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runa_kawsaykamay" title="Runa kawsaykamay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Runa kawsaykamay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Общественные науки – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Общественные науки" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB_%D2%AF%D3%A9%D1%80%D1%8D%D1%85%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80" title="Социал үөрэхтэр – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Социал үөрэхтэр" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="समाजविज्ञानम् – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="समाजविज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Social science" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shkenca_shoq%C3%ABrore" title="Shkenca shoqërore – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shkenca shoqërore" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A2_%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80" title="සමාජ විද්‍යාව – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සමාජ විද්‍යාව" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_sciences" title="Social sciences – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Social sciences" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%86%D8%B3" title="سماجي سائنس – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="سماجي سائنس" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolo%C4%8Densk%C3%A1_veda" title="Spoločenská veda – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Spoločenská veda" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%BEboslovje" title="Družboslovje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Družboslovje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilmiga_bulshada" title="Cilmiga bulshada – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Cilmiga bulshada" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%95_%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%DB%95%DA%B5%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="زانستە کۆمەڵایەتییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زانستە کۆمەڵایەتییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tvene_nauke" title="Društvene nauke – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Društvene nauke" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tvene_nauke" title="Društvene nauke – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Društvene nauke" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhteiskuntatiede" title="Yhteiskuntatiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yhteiskuntatiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samh%C3%A4llsvetenskap" title="Samhällsvetenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Samhällsvetenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agham_panlipunan" title="Agham panlipunan 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of science that studies society and its relationships</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the integrated field of study intended to promote civic competence, see <a href="/wiki/Social_studies" title="Social studies">Social studies</a>. For the social-political-economic theory first pioneered by Karl Marx, see <a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">Scientific socialism</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Social Sciences" redirects here. 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nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A stylised Bohr model of a lithium atom" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/75px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg/113px-Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg.png 1.5x, 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title="Natural science">Natural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_physical_science" title="Outline of physical science">Physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_life_sciences" title="List of life sciences">Life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">Applied</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">In society</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientist</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_science" title="Outline of science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science" title="Category:Science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Indexes_of_science_articles" title="Category:Indexes of science articles">Article indexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_science" title="Category:Glossaries of science">Glossaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Science" title="Template:Science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Science" title="Template talk:Science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p><b>Social science</b> is one of the <a href="/wiki/Branches_of_science" title="Branches of science">branches of science</a>, devoted to the study of <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">relationships</a> among members within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, the original "science of society", established in the 18th century. In addition to sociology, it now encompasses a wide array of <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic disciplines</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">communication studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culturology" title="Culturology">culturology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivist</a> social scientists use methods resembling those used in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a> as tools for understanding societies, and so define science in its stricter <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern sense</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Interpretivist</a> or speculative social scientists, by contrast, may use social critique or symbolic interpretation rather than constructing <a href="/wiki/Empirically" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirically">empirically</a> falsifiable theories, and thus treat science in its broader sense.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern academic practice, researchers are often <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclectic</a>, using multiple <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodologies</a> (for instance, by combining both <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">social research</a></i> has also acquired a degree of autonomy as practitioners from various disciplines share similar goals and methods.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History of the social sciences</a></div> <p>The history of the social sciences began in the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> after 1651,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which saw a revolution within <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>, changing the basic framework by which individuals understood what was scientific. Social sciences came forth from the <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a> of the time and were influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Revolution" title="Age of Revolution">Age of Revolutions</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>social sciences</i> developed from the sciences (<a href="/wiki/Experimental_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Experimental science">experimental</a> and <a href="/wiki/Applied_science" title="Applied science">applied</a>), or the systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the <a href="/wiki/Social_improvement" class="mw-redirect" title="Social improvement">social improvement</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">group of interacting entities</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SocialColumbian1897_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SocialColumbian1897-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Peck1897_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peck1897-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A9die" title="Encyclopédie">grand encyclopedia of Diderot</a>, with articles from <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in other specialized encyclopedias. The term "social science" was coined in French by <a href="/wiki/Victor_de_Riqueti,_marquis_de_Mirabeau" title="Victor de Riqueti, marquis de Mirabeau">Mirabeau</a> in 1767, before becoming a distinct conceptual field in the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social science was influenced by positivism,<sup id="cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense experience and avoiding the negative; <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> speculation was avoided. <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a> used the term <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">science sociale</i></span> to describe the field, taken from the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Charles Fourier</a>; Comte also referred to the field as <a href="/wiki/Social_physics" title="Social physics">social physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following this period, five paths of development sprang forth in the social sciences, influenced by Comte in other fields.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One route that was taken was the rise of social research. Large <a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">statistical surveys</a> were undertaken in various parts of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. Another route undertaken was initiated by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, studying "social facts", and <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Vilfredo Pareto</a>, opening metatheoretical ideas and individual theories. A third means developed, arising from the methodological dichotomy present, in which <a href="/wiki/Social_phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Social phenomena">social phenomena</a> were identified with and understood; this was championed by figures such as <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fourth route taken, based in economics, was developed and furthered economic knowledge as a <a href="/wiki/Hard_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard science">hard science</a>. The last path was the <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlation</a> of knowledge and <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">social values</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">antipositivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">verstehen</a> sociology of Max Weber firmly demanded this distinction. In this route, theory (description) and prescription were non-overlapping formal discussions of a subject.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The foundation of social sciences in the West implies conditioned relationships between progressive and traditional spheres of knowledge. In some contexts, such as the Italian one, sociology slowly affirms itself and experiences the difficulty of affirming a strategic knowledge beyond philosophy and theology.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the start of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Enlightenment philosophy">Enlightenment philosophy</a> was challenged in various quarters. After the use of classical theories since the end of the scientific revolution, various fields substituted mathematics studies for experimental studies and examining equations to build a theoretical structure. The development of social science subfields became very quantitative in methodology. The <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> and cross-disciplinary nature of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific inquiry</a> into human behaviour, social and environmental factors affecting it, made many of the natural sciences interested in some aspects of social science methodology.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social research of <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">sociobiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioeconomics_(biophysical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioeconomics (biophysical)">bioeconomics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of science">sociology of science</a>. Increasingly, quantitative research and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences. In the first half of the 20th century, statistics became a free-standing discipline of applied mathematics.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statistical methods were used confidently. </p><p>In the contemporary period, <a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a> and <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> influenced the furtherance of the social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers continue to search for a unified consensus on what methodology might have the power and refinement to connect a proposed "grand theory" with the various midrange theories that, with considerable success, continue to provide usable frameworks for massive, growing data banks; for more, see <a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">consilience</a>. The social sciences will for the foreseeable future be composed of different zones in the research of, and sometimes distinct in approach toward, the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "social science" may refer either to the specific <i>sciences of society</i> established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or more generally to all disciplines outside of "noble science" and <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a>. By the late 19th century, the academic social sciences were constituted of five fields: <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> and amendment of the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economy" title="Economy">economy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SocialColumbian1897_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SocialColumbian1897-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around the start of the 21st century, the expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as <a href="/wiki/Economic_imperialism_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic imperialism (economics)">economic imperialism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Imperialism_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imperialism-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A distinction is usually drawn between the social sciences and the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. Classicist <a href="/wiki/Allan_Bloom" title="Allan Bloom">Allan Bloom</a> writes in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> (1987): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Social science and humanities have a mutual contempt for one another, the former looking down on the latter as unscientific, the latter regarding the former as <a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">philistine</a>. […] The difference comes down to the fact that social science really wants to be predictive, meaning that man is predictable, while the humanities say that he is not.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches">Branches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a topical guide, see <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science#Branches_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline of social science § Branches of social science</a>.</div> <p>The social science disciplines are branches of knowledge taught and researched at the college or university level. Social science disciplines are defined and recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> in which research is published, and the learned social science societies and academic departments or faculties to which their practitioners belong. Social science fields of study usually have several sub-disciplines or branches, and the distinguishing lines between these are often both arbitrary and ambiguous.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The following are widely-considered to be social sciences:<sup id="cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archival_science" title="Archival science">Archival science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural science">Behavioural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_science" title="Crime science">Crime science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturology" title="Culturology">Culturology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Education science">Education science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">Ethnobotany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_studies" title="Folklore studies">Folklore studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Futures_studies" title="Futures studies">Futures studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_economics" title="Home economics">Home economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_resource_management" title="Human resource management">Human resource management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_relations" title="Industrial relations">Industrial relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Information sciences">Information sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal management">Legal management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">Library science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_science" title="Management science">Management science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Military science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">Organizational behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational studies">Organizational studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paralegal_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralegal studies">Paralegal studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penology" title="Penology">Penology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_relations" title="Public relations">Public relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_management" title="Strategic management">Strategic management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Sustainable development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">Sustainability studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline of anthropology</a></div> <p>Anthropology is the holistic "science of man", a science of the totality of human existence. The discipline deals with the integration of different aspects of the social sciences, <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_biology" title="Human biology">human biology</a>. In the twentieth century, academic disciplines have often been institutionally divided into three broad domains. Firstly, the natural sciences seek to derive general laws through reproducible and verifiable experiments. Secondly, the humanities generally study local traditions, through their history, literature, music, and arts, with an emphasis on understanding particular individuals, events, or eras. Finally, the social sciences have generally attempted to develop scientific methods to understand social phenomena in a generalizable way, though usually with methods distinct from those of the natural sciences.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The anthropological social sciences often develop nuanced descriptions rather than the general laws derived in physics or chemistry, or they may explain individual cases through more general principles, as in many fields of psychology. Anthropology (like some fields of history) does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the United States, anthropology is divided into four sub-fields: archaeology, <a href="/wiki/Physical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical Anthropology">physical or biological anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">anthropological linguistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>. It is an area that is offered at most undergraduate institutions. The word <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">anthropos</i></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄνθρωπος</span></span>) in Ancient Greek means "human being" or "person". <a href="/wiki/Eric_Wolf" title="Eric Wolf">Eric Wolf</a> described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The goal of anthropology is to provide a <a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">holistic</a> account of humans and human nature. This means that, though anthropologists generally specialize in only one sub-field, they always keep in mind the biological, linguistic, historic and cultural aspects of any problem. Since anthropology arose as a science in Western societies that were complex and industrial, a major trend within anthropology has been a methodological drive to study peoples in societies with more simple social organization, sometimes called "primitive" in anthropological literature, but without any connotation of "inferior".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Today, anthropologists use terms such as "less complex" societies or refer to specific modes of <a href="/wiki/Subsistence" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsistence">subsistence</a> or <a href="/wiki/Modes_of_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Modes of production">production</a>, such as "pastoralist" or "forager" or "horticulturalist" to refer to humans living in non-industrial, non-Western cultures, such people or folk (<span title="undetermined-language text"><i lang="und-Latn">ethnos</i></span>) remaining of great interest within anthropology.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a people in detail, using biogenetic, archaeological, and linguistic data alongside direct observation of contemporary customs.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. It is possible to view all human cultures as part of one large, evolving global culture. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication_studies">Communication studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Communication studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_communication_studies" title="History of communication studies">History of communication studies</a></div> <p>Communication studies deals with processes of human <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, commonly defined as the sharing of symbols to create <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Meaning (linguistics)">meaning</a>. The discipline encompasses a range of topics, from face-to-face conversation to mass media outlets such as television broadcasting. Communication studies also examine how messages are interpreted through the political, cultural, economic, and social dimensions of their contexts. Communication is institutionalized under many different names at different universities, including <i>communication</i>, <i>communication studies</i>, <i>speech communication</i>, <i>rhetorical studies</i>, <i>communication science</i>, <i>media studies</i>, <i>communication arts</i>, <a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">mass communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_ecology" title="Media ecology">media ecology</a>, and <i>communication and media science</i>. </p><p>Communication studies integrate aspects of both social sciences and the humanities. As a social science, the discipline often overlaps with sociology, psychology, anthropology, biology, political science, economics, and public policy, among others. From a humanities perspective, communication is concerned with rhetoric and persuasion (traditional graduate programs in communication studies trace their history to the rhetoricians of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>). The field applies to outside disciplines as well, including engineering, architecture, mathematics, and information science.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_economics" title="Outline of economics">Outline of economics</a></div> <p>Economics is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word "economics" is from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">οἶκος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">oikos</i></span>, "family, household, estate") and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">νόμος</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><i lang="grc-Latn">nomos</i></span>, "custom, law"), and hence means "household management" or "management of the state". An <a href="/wiki/Economist" title="Economist">economist</a> is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a <a href="/wiki/Academic_degree" title="Academic degree">degree</a> in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by <a href="/wiki/Lionel_Robbins" title="Lionel Robbins">Lionel Robbins</a> in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses". Without scarcity and alternative uses, there is no <a href="/wiki/Economic_problem" title="Economic problem">economic problem</a>. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behavior".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Market-Chichicastenango.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Market-Chichicastenango.jpg/220px-Market-Chichicastenango.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Market-Chichicastenango.jpg/330px-Market-Chichicastenango.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Market-Chichicastenango.jpg/440px-Market-Chichicastenango.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in <a href="/wiki/Chichicastenango" title="Chichicastenango">Chichicastenango</a> Market, <a href="/wiki/Guatemala" title="Guatemala">Guatemala</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Economics has two broad branches: <a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a>, where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household or firm, and <a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a>, where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes <a href="/wiki/Positive_(social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive (social sciences)">positive</a> economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from <a href="/wiki/Normative_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative economics">normative economics</a>, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a> value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the <a href="/wiki/Physiocrats" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiocrats">physiocratic school</a>. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to other social situations such as <a href="/wiki/Public_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Public choice theory">politics</a>, law, <a href="/wiki/Experimental_economics" title="Experimental economics">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, marriage and family life, and other social interactions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been described as economic imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-Imperialism_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Imperialism-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_education" title="Outline of education">Outline of education</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg/220px-Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg/330px-Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg/440px-Laurentius_de_Voltolina_Vorlesung_vor_Studenten_-_Min_1233_-_Kupferstichkabinett_Berlin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3278" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of world's oldest university, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a>, in Italy</figcaption></figure> <p>Education <a href="/wiki/List_of_education_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of education topics">encompasses</a> teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgement and well-developed wisdom. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation (see <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a>). To educate means 'to draw out', from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>educare</i>, or to facilitate the realization of an individual's potential and talents. It is an application of <a href="/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a>, a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a>, linguistics, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, sociology and anthropology.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geography">Geography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline of geography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Physical_World_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/220px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="111" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/330px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Physical_World_Map.svg/440px-Physical_World_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="973" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Earth</figcaption></figure> <p>Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical geography</a>. The former focuses largely on the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a> and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. This may involve <a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">cultural geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transportation_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Transportation geography">transportation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">military operations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">cities</a>. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation and life, soil, <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceans</a>, water and <a href="/wiki/Landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Landforms">landforms</a> are produced and interact (is also commonly regarded as an <a href="/wiki/Earth_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth Science">Earth Science</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-What_is_geography?_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-What_is_geography?-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical geography examines phenomena related to the <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">measurement of earth</a>. As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is <a href="/wiki/Environmental_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental geography">environmental geography</a>. Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Hayes-Bohanan_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hayes-Bohanan-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other <a href="/wiki/Geography#Branches" title="Geography">branches of geography</a> include <a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">social geography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">regional geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">geomatics</a>. </p><p>Geographers attempt to understand the Earth in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of <a href="/wiki/Mapmaking" class="mw-redirect" title="Mapmaking">mapmaking</a> and finding ways to precisely <a href="/wiki/Map_projection" title="Map projection">project</a> the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences. <a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a> is often taught in a college in a unified Department of Geography.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline, closely related to <a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic Information Science">Geographic Information Science</a>, that seeks to understand humanity and its natural environment. The fields of <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">regional science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Planetology" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetology">planetology</a> are closely related to geography. Practitioners of geography use many technologies and methods to collect data such as <a href="/wiki/Geographic_Information_Systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Geographic Information Systems">Geographic Information Systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Global_positioning_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Global positioning systems">global positioning systems</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_2">History</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_history" title="Outline of history">Outline of history</a></div> <p>History is the continuous, systematic narrative and research into past human events as interpreted through historiographical paradigms or theories. When used as the name of a <a href="/wiki/Field_of_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Field of study">field of study</a>, <i>history</i> refers to the study and interpretation of the record of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, societies, institutions, and any topic that has changed over time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>. In modern <a href="/wiki/Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>, whether or not history remains a humanities-based subject is contested. In the United States the <a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a> includes history in its definition of humanities (as it does for applied linguistics).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a> classifies history as a social science.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">historical method</a> comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary sources</a> and other evidence to research and then to <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">write history</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Social_Science_History_Association" title="Social Science History Association">Social Science History Association</a>, formed in 1976, brings together scholars from numerous disciplines interested in <a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social history</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_law" title="Outline of law">Outline of law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/220px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/330px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg/440px-Microcosm_of_London_Plate_058_-_Old_Bailey_edited.jpg 2x" data-file-width="828" data-file-height="626" /></a><figcaption>A trial at a criminal court, the <a href="/wiki/Old_Bailey" title="Old Bailey">Old Bailey</a> in London</figcaption></figure> <p>The social science of law, jurisprudence, in common parlance, means a rule that (unlike a rule of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>) is capable of enforcement through institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Crimes_Against_Humanity_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crimes_Against_Humanity-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, many laws are based on <a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">norms</a> accepted by a community and thus have an ethical foundation. The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a "system of rules",<sup id="cite_ref-hhc_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hhc-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as an "interpretive concept"<sup id="cite_ref-rdl_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rdl-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to achieve justice, as an "authority"<sup id="cite_ref-jra_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jra-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction".<sup id="cite_ref-jap_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jap-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social science and the humanities. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Labour_law" title="Labour law">labour law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Company_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Company law">company law</a> and many more can have long-lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun <i>law</i> derives from the <a href="/wiki/Old_English_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old English language">Old English</a> <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">lagu</i></span>, meaning something laid down or fixed<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the adjective <i>legal</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">lex</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linguistics">Linguistics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Linguistics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_linguistics" title="Outline of linguistics">Outline of linguistics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/220px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/330px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, recognized as the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Linguistics investigates the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is divided into areas that focus on aspects of the linguistic signal, such as <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a> (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a> (the study of meaning), <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> (the study of the structure of words), <a href="/wiki/Phonetics" title="Phonetics">phonetics</a> (the study of speech sounds) and <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a> (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">evolutionary linguistics</a> (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and <a href="/wiki/Psycholinguistics" title="Psycholinguistics">psycholinguistics</a> (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/synchronic" class="extiw" title="wikt:synchronic">synchronic</a> perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it—partly owing to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>—aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole</a> studies, <a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">discourse analysis</a>, social interactional linguistics, and <a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">sociolinguistics</a> explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and statistics in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be understood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other areas, like <a href="/wiki/Acoustic_phonetics" title="Acoustic phonetics">acoustic phonetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurolinguistics" title="Neurolinguistics">neurolinguistics</a>, draw on the natural sciences. Linguistics draws only secondarily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Saussure" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferdinand Saussure">Ferdinand Saussure</a> is considered the father of modern linguistics.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_science">Political science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Political science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/220px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/330px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg/440px-Aristoteles_Louvre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="2241" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> asserted that man is a political animal in his <i><a href="/wiki/Politics_(Aristotle)" title="Politics (Aristotle)">Politics</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of <a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">political systems</a> and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of political science include <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political theory and philosophy</a>, civics and <a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative politics</a>, theory of <a href="/wiki/Direct_democracy" title="Direct democracy">direct democracy</a>, apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, international relations, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy" title="Foreign policy">foreign policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>, politics, public administration, administrative behaviour, public law, judicial behaviour, and <a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">public policy</a>. Political science also studies <a href="/wiki/Power_in_international_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Power in international relations">power in international relations</a> and the theory of <a href="/wiki/Great_powers" class="mw-redirect" title="Great powers">great powers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Superpower" title="Superpower">superpowers</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Political science is methodologically diverse, although recent years have witnessed an upsurge in the use of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (July 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that is, the proliferation of formal-deductive model building and quantitative hypothesis testing. Approaches to the discipline include <a href="/wiki/Rational_choice" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice">rational choice</a>, classical political philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Interpretivism_(social_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretivism (social science)">interpretivism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">behaviouralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a>, pluralism, and <a href="/wiki/Institutionalism_in_political_parties" title="Institutionalism in political parties">institutionalism</a>. Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought: primary sources such as historical documents, interviews, and official records, as well as secondary sources such as <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholarly article">scholarly articles</a>, are used in building and testing theories. Empirical methods include <a href="/wiki/Sample_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Sample survey">survey</a> research, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical analysis">statistical analysis</a> <a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">or econometrics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Case studies">case studies</a>, experiments, and model building.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_psychology" title="Outline of psychology">Outline of psychology</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Social_science" title="Special:EditPage/Social science">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wundt-research-group.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Wundt-research-group.jpg/220px-Wundt-research-group.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Wundt-research-group.jpg/330px-Wundt-research-group.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Wundt-research-group.jpg/440px-Wundt-research-group.jpg 2x" data-file-width="552" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Maximilian_Wundt" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt">Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt</a> was the founder of <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour and mental processes.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-APA_mission_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APA_mission-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>psychology</i> comes from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ψυχή</span></span> <i>(<a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a></i>, "soul" or "mind") and the suffix <i><a href="/wiki/-logy" title="-logy">logy</a></i> ("study").<sup id="cite_ref-OED_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OED-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychology differs from anthropology, economics, political science, and sociology in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the <a href="/wiki/Mental_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental function">mental function</a> and overt behaviour of individuals, while the other disciplines focus on creating descriptive generalizations about the functioning of social groups or situation-specific human behaviour. In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields. Psychology differs from <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behaviour, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of <a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">neuropsychology</a> combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many people associate psychology with <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-brain_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brain-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology. In reality, psychology has myriad specialties including <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Educational_psychology" title="Educational psychology">educational psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Industrial_and_organizational_psychology" title="Industrial and organizational psychology">industrial-organizational psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_psychology" title="Mathematical psychology">mathematical psychology</a>, neuropsychology, and <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">quantitative</a> analysis of behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychology is a very broad science that is rarely tackled as a whole, major block. Although some subfields encompass a natural science base and a social science application, others can be clearly distinguished as having little to do with the social sciences or having a lot to do with the social sciences. For example, biological psychology is considered a natural science with a social scientific application (as is clinical medicine), social and occupational psychology are, generally speaking, purely social sciences, whereas neuropsychology is a natural science that lacks application out of the scientific tradition entirely.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In British universities, emphasis on what tenet of psychology a student has studied and/or concentrated is communicated through the degree conferred: <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Psychology">BPsy</a> indicates a balance between natural and social sciences, <a href="/wiki/BSc" class="mw-redirect" title="BSc">BSc</a> indicates a strong (or entire) scientific concentration, whereas a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a> underlines a majority of social science credits. This is not always necessarily the case however, and in many UK institutions students studying the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Psychology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bachelor of Psychology">BPsy</a>, <a href="/wiki/BSc" class="mw-redirect" title="BSc">BSc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a> follow the same curriculum as outlined by The <a href="/wiki/British_Psychological_Society" title="British Psychological Society">British Psychological Society</a> and have the same options of specialism open to them regardless of whether they choose a balance, a heavy science basis, or heavy social science basis to their degree. If they applied to read the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>. for example, but specialized in heavily science-based modules, then they will still generally be awarded the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology">Sociology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sociology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline of sociology</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Social_science" title="Special:EditPage/Social science">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">December 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/220px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> is considered one of the founding fathers of sociology.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sociology is the systematic study of society, individuals' relationship to their societies, the consequences of difference, and other aspects of human <a href="/wiki/Social_action" title="Social action">social action</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meaning of the word comes from the suffix <i>-logy</i>, which means "study of", derived from Ancient Greek, and the stem <i>soci-</i>, which is from the Latin word <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">socius</i></span>, meaning "companion", or society in general.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term <i>sociology</i> to describe a way to apply natural science principles and techniques to the social world in 1838.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comte endeavoured to unify history, psychology and economics through the descriptive understanding of the social realm. He proposed that social ills could be remedied through sociological positivism, an epistemological approach outlined in <i>The Course in Positive Philosophy</i> [1830–1842] and <i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1844). Though Comte is generally regarded as the "Father of Sociology", the discipline was formally established by another French thinker, Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who developed positivism as a foundation to practical social research. Durkheim set up the first European department of sociology at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Bordeaux" title="University of Bordeaux">University of Bordeaux</a> in 1895, publishing his <i><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_the_Sociological_Method" class="mw-redirect" title="Rules of the Sociological Method">Rules of the Sociological Method</a></i>. In 1896, he established the journal <span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/L%27Ann%C3%A9e_sociologique" title="L'Année sociologique">L'Année sociologique</a></i></span>. Durkheim's seminal monograph, <i><a href="/wiki/Suicide_(Durkheim_book)" title="Suicide (Durkheim book)">Suicide</a></i> (1897), a case study of suicide rates among <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> populations, distinguished sociological analysis from psychology or philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> rejected Comte's positivism but nevertheless aimed to establish a <i>science of society</i> based on <a href="/wiki/Historical_materialism" title="Historical materialism">historical materialism</a>, becoming recognized as a founding figure of sociology posthumously as the term gained broader meaning. Around the start of the 20th century, the first wave of German sociologists, including Max Weber and <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a>, developed sociological antipositivism. The field may be broadly recognized as an amalgam of three modes of social thought in particular: Durkheimian positivism and <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>; Marxist historical materialism and <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theory</a>; and Weberian antipositivism and verstehen analysis. American sociology broadly arose on a separate trajectory, with little Marxist influence, an emphasis on rigorous experimental methodology, and a closer association with <a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">pragmatism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a>. In the 1920s, the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_school_(sociology)" title="Chicago school (sociology)">Chicago school</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a>. Meanwhile, in the 1930s, the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a> pioneered the idea of <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, an interdisciplinary form of <a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist sociology</a> drawing upon thinkers as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>. Critical theory would take on something of a life of its own after World War II, influencing <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Contemporary_Cultural_Studies" title="Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies">Birmingham School</a> establishment of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Sociology evolved as an academic response to the challenges of <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Industrialization" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrialization">industrialization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urbanization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>, and a perceived process of enveloping <a href="/wiki/Rationalization_(sociology)" title="Rationalization (sociology)">rationalization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field generally concerns the <a href="/wiki/Social_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Social rule">social rules</a> and processes that bind and separate people not only as individuals, but as members of <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_association" title="Voluntary association">associations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Group_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Group (sociology)">groups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">communities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institution">institutions</a>, and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">contacts</a> between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">global social processes</a>. In the terms of sociologists <a href="/wiki/Peter_L._Berger" title="Peter L. Berger">Peter L. Berger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Luckmann" title="Thomas Luckmann">Thomas Luckmann</a>, social scientists seek an understanding of the <i><a href="/wiki/Social_Construction_of_Reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Social Construction of Reality">Social Construction of Reality</a></i>. Most sociologists work in one or more <a href="/wiki/Subfields_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Subfields of sociology">subfields</a>. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a> studies inequality and class structure; demography studies changes in population size or type; criminology examines criminal behaviour and deviance; and <a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">political sociology</a> studies the interaction between society and state.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Since its inception, sociological epistemologies, methods, and frames of enquiry, have significantly expanded and diverged.<sup id="cite_ref-Giddens_Intro_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giddens_Intro-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, collecting both quantitative and qualitative data, draw upon empirical techniques, and engage critical theory.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common modern methods include case studies, <a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">historical research</a>, interviewing, <a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">participant observation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">social network analysis</a>, survey research, statistical analysis, and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for purposes beyond the academy. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy, through subdisciplinary areas such as <a href="/wiki/Evaluation_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaluation research">evaluation research</a>, methodological assessment, and <a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">public sociology</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the early 1970s, women sociologists began to question sociological paradigms and the invisibility of women in sociological studies, analysis, and courses.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1969, feminist sociologists challenged the discipline's <a href="/wiki/Androcentrism" title="Androcentrism">androcentrism</a> at the American Sociological Association's annual conference.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to the founding of the organization Sociologists for Women in Society, and, eventually, a new sociology journal, <a href="/wiki/Gender_%26_Society" title="Gender & Society">Gender & Society</a>. Today, the <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">sociology of gender</a> is considered to be one of the most prominent sub-fields in the discipline.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New sociological sub-fields continue to appear — such as <a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">community studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">computational sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">environmental sociology</a>, network analysis, <a href="/wiki/Actor-network_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Actor-network theory">actor-network theory</a>, gender studies, and a growing list, many of which are <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">cross-disciplinary</a> in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Additional_fields_of_study">Additional fields of study</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Additional fields of study"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">Auxiliary sciences of history</a></div> <p>Additional applied or interdisciplinary fields related to the social sciences or are applied social sciences include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a>, a science that is focused on the study of human cultures by means of the recovery, documentation, analysis, and interpretation of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, features, and landscapes.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a>, interdisciplinary fields of research and scholarship pertaining to particular geographical, national/federal, or cultural regions.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioural science">Behavioural science</a>, which encompasses disciplines that explore the activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_Social_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Computational Social Science">Computational social science</a>, an umbrella field encompassing computational approaches within the social sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a>, the statistical study of human populations.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a>, a branch of social science that addresses issues of concern to developing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a>, the broad study of interrelations between humans and the natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a>, which integrates social, humanistic, and natural science perspectives on the relation between humans and the natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a>, which is focused on the study of gender identity, masculinity, femininity, <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> issues, and <a href="/wiki/Sexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexuality">sexuality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a>, an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="International studies">International studies</a>, which covers both international relations (the study of foreign affairs and global issues among states within the international system) and <a href="/wiki/International_education" title="International education">international education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_management_(academic_discipline)" title="Legal management (academic discipline)">Legal management</a>, a social sciences discipline that is designed for students interested in the study of state and legal elements.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Library science">Library science</a>, a field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; and the collection, organization, preservation and dissemination of information resources.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a>, which consists of various levels of leadership and administration of an organization in all business and human organizations. It is the effective execution of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives through adequate planning, executing and controlling activities.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marketing" title="Marketing">Marketing</a>, the identification of human needs and wants, defines and measures their magnitude for demand and understanding the process of consumer buying behaviour to formulate products and services, pricing, promotion and distribution to satisfy these needs and wants through exchange processes and building long-term relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a>, the study of production, buying and selling, and their relations with law, custom, and government.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">Public administration</a>, the development, implementation and study of branches of government policy. Though public administration has been historically referred to as government management,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it increasingly encompasses <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a> (NGOs) that also operate with a similar, primary dedication to the betterment of humanity.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Academic_study_of_Western_esotericism" title="Academic study of Western esotericism">Western esoteric studies</a>, which incorporate social-scientific research on phenomena deemed religious.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methodology">Methodology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Methodology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_research">Social research</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Social research"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></div> <p>The origin of the survey can be traced back at least as early as the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a> in 1086,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while some scholars pinpoint the origin of demography to 1663 with the publication of <a href="/wiki/John_Graunt" title="John Graunt">John Graunt</a>'s <i>Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social research began most intentionally, however, with the <a href="/wiki/Positivist" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivist">positivist</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a> in the 19th century. </p><p>In contemporary usage, "social research" is a relatively autonomous term, encompassing the work of practitioners from various disciplines that share in its aims and methods. Social scientists employ a range of methods in order to analyse a vast breadth of social phenomena; from <a href="/wiki/Census" title="Census">census</a> survey data derived from millions of individuals, to the in-depth analysis of a single agent's social experiences; from monitoring what is happening on contemporary streets, to the investigation of ancient historical documents. The methods originally rooted in classical sociology and statistical mathematics have formed the basis for research in other disciplines, such as political science, media studies, and marketing and <a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">market research</a>. </p><p>Social research methods may be divided into two broad schools: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_method" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitative method">Quantitative designs</a> approach social phenomena through quantifiable evidence, and often rely on statistical analysis of many cases (or across intentionally designed treatments in an experiment) to create valid and reliable general claims.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative designs</a> emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation, communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual and subjective accuracy over generality.</li></ul> <p>Social scientists will commonly combine quantitative and qualitative approaches as part of a multi-strategy design. Questionnaires, field-based data collection, archival database information and laboratory-based data collections are some of the measurement techniques used. It is noted the importance of measurement and analysis, focusing on the (difficult to achieve) goal of objective research or <a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">statistical hypothesis testing</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> uses mathematical language to describe a system. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed 'mathematical modelling' (also modeling). A <i>mathematical model</i> is "a representation of the essential aspects of an existing <a href="/wiki/System" title="System">system</a> (or a system to be constructed) that presents knowledge of that system in usable form".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to <a href="/wiki/Dynamical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamical systems">dynamical systems</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statistical_model" title="Statistical model">statistical models</a>, <a href="/wiki/Differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential equations">differential equations</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Game_theory" title="Game theory">game theoretic models</a>. </p><p>These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. The system is a set of interacting or interdependent entities, real or abstract, forming an integrated whole. The concept of an <i>integrated whole</i> can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships that are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime. A <a href="/wiki/Dynamical_system" title="Dynamical system">dynamical system</a> modeled as a <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematical</a> <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formalization</a> has a fixed "rule" that describes the time dependence of a point's position in its <a href="/wiki/Ambient_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambient space">ambient space</a>. Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers. The <i>evolution rule</i> of the dynamical system is a <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">fixed rule</a> that describes what future states follow from the current state. The rule is <a href="/wiki/Deterministic_system_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic system (mathematics)">deterministic</a>: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state. </p><p>Social scientists often conduct <a href="/wiki/Program_evaluation" title="Program evaluation">program evaluation</a>, which is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing, and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and programs,<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. In both the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know whether the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for, receiving or objecting to are producing the intended effect. While program evaluation first focuses around this definition, important considerations often include how much the program costs per participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate and useful.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory">Theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></div> <p>Some social theorists emphasize the subjective nature of research. These writers espouse social theory perspectives that include various types of the following: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a> is the examination and critique of society and culture, drawing from knowledge across social sciences and humanities disciplines.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">Dialectical materialism</a> is the philosophy of Karl Marx, which he formulated by taking the dialectic of Hegel and joining it to the materialism of Feuerbach.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Feminist theory</a> is the extension of feminism into theoretical, or philosophical discourse; it aims to understand the nature of gender inequality.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxist theories</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">revolutionary theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scientific_socialism" title="Scientific socialism">scientific socialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">class theory</a>, cover work in philosophy that is strongly influenced by Karl Marx's materialist approach to theory or is written by Marxists.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phronetic_social_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Phronetic social science">Phronetic social science</a> is a theory and methodology for doing social science focusing on ethics and political power, based on a contemporary interpretation of Aristotelian phronesis.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-colonialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-colonialism">Post-colonial theory</a> is a reaction to the cultural legacy of colonialism.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> refers to a point of departure for works of literature, drama, architecture, cinema, and design, as well as in marketing and business and in the interpretation of history, law, culture and religion in the late 20th century.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rational_choice_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational choice theory">Rational choice theory</a> is a framework for understanding and often formally modeling social and economic behaviour.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a> considers how social phenomena develop in social contexts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a> is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a> is a sociological paradigm that addresses what social functions various elements of the social system perform in regard to the entire system.</li></ul> <p>Other fringe social theorists delve into the alternative nature of research. These writers share social theory perspectives that include various types of the following: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a> describes a sentiment of critique towards, or evaluation of, intellectuals and intellectual pursuits.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a> is a position critical of science and the scientific method.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recursivity">Recursivity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Recursivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Authors use the concept of <i>recursivity</i> to foreground the situation in which social scientists find themselves when producing knowledge about the world they are always already part of.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Audrey Alejandro, "as social scientists, the recursivity of our condition deals with the fact that we are both subjects (as discourses are the medium through which we analyse) and objects of the academic discourses we produce (as we are social agents belonging to the world we analyse)."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this basis, she identifies in recursivity a fundamental challenge in the production of emancipatory knowledge which calls for the exercise of <a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">reflexive</a> efforts: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>we are socialised into discourses and dispositions produced by the socio-political order we aim to challenge, a socio-political order that we may, therefore, reproduce unconsciously while aiming to do the contrary. The recursivity of our situation as scholars – and, more precisely, the fact that the dispositional tools we use to produce knowledge about the world are themselves produced by this world – both evinces the vital necessity of implementing reflexivity in practice and poses the main challenge in doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Education_and_degrees">Education and degrees</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Education and degrees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most universities offer degrees in social science fields.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Social_Science" title="Bachelor of Social Science">Bachelor of Social Science</a> is a degree targeted at the social sciences in particular, it is often more flexible and in-depth than other degrees that include social science subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, a university may offer a student who studies a social sciences field a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a> degree, particularly if the field is within one of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a> such as history, or a BSc: Bachelor of Science degree such as those given by the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, as the social sciences constitute one of the two main branches of science (the other being the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>). In addition, some institutions have degrees for a particular social science, such as the <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Economics" title="Bachelor of Economics">Bachelor of Economics</a> degree, though such specialized degrees are relatively rare in the United States. </p><p>Graduate students may receive a <a href="/wiki/Master%27s_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> (<a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a> or a field-specific degree such as <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration" title="Master of Public Administration">Master of Public Administration</a>) or a doctoral degree (e.g. <a href="/wiki/PhD" class="mw-redirect" title="PhD">PhD</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Low_priority_of_social_science">Low priority of social science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Low priority of social science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Social sciences receive less funding than natural sciences. It has been estimated that only 0.12% of all funding for climate-related research is spent on the social science of <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">climate change mitigation</a>. Vastly more funding is spent on natural science studies of climate change and considerable sums are also spent on studies of the impact of and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation to climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that this is a misallocation of resources, as the most urgent puzzle at the current juncture is to work out how to change human behavior to mitigate climate change, whereas the natural science of climate change is already well established and there will be decades and centuries to handle adaptation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, funding and attention paid to the social sciences varies across countries. For instance, the development of a social scientific community can become a priority entangled with national politics.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of Brazil, for example, the institutionalisation of social sciences took place in a political context where the state struggled to assert its territorial power, and the social scientific field was expected to produce investigation but also political inputs towards the construction of a new nation.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This need was accentuated after the 1932 revolution, in the wake of which the USP was founded and became the biggest university in South America. Subsequently, these developments led to the deployment of university programs and the institution of national associations in anthropology, sociology and political science.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_91-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="People_associated_with_the_social_sciences">People associated with the social sciences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: People associated with the social sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuel_Castells" title="Manuel Castells">Manuel Castells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wade_Davis_(anthropologist)" title="Wade Davis (anthropologist)">Wade Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Louis Dumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Norbert Elias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Friedrich Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frantz_Fanon" title="Frantz Fanon">Frantz Fanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milton_Friedman" title="Milton Friedman">Milton Friedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arlie_Hochschild" class="mw-redirect" title="Arlie Hochschild">Arlie Hochschild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Jahoda" title="Marie Jahoda">Marie Jahoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_F._Lazarsfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul F. Lazarsfeld">Paul F. Lazarsfeld</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lubbock,_1st_Baron_Avebury" title="John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury">John Lubbock, 1st Baron Avebury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli" title="Niccolò Machiavelli">Niccolò Machiavelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montesquieu" title="Montesquieu">Montesquieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Pinker" title="Steven Pinker">Steven Pinker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Said" title="Edward Said">Edward Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Say" title="Jean-Baptiste Say">Jean-Baptiste Say</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Schutz" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Schutz">Alfred Schutz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B.F._Skinner" class="mw-redirect" title="B.F. Skinner">B.F. Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Tannen" title="Deborah Tannen">Deborah Tannen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Turner" title="Victor Turner">Victor Turner</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/28px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/42px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/56px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: General"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">Structure and agency</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods">Methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_action_research" title="Participatory action research">Participatory action research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Representation_theory" title="Representation theory">Representation theory</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulbenkian_commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulbenkian commission">Gulbenkian commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labelling" title="Labelling">Labelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obshchestvovedeniye" title="Obshchestvovedeniye">Obshestvovedeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of social sciences">Philosophy of social sciences</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A Bachelor of Social Science degree can be earned at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Adelaide" title="University of Adelaide">University of Adelaide</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Waikato" title="University of Waikato">University of Waikato</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hamilton,_New_Zealand" title="Hamilton, New Zealand">Hamilton, New Zealand</a>), <a href="/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_New_South_Wales" title="University of New South Wales">University of New South Wales</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hong_Kong" title="University of Hong Kong">University of Hong Kong</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Manchester" title="University of Manchester">University of Manchester</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University,_New_Zealand" class="mw-redirect" title="Lincoln University, New Zealand">Lincoln University, New Zealand</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_University_of_Malaysia" title="National University of Malaysia">National University of Malaysia</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Queensland" title="University of Queensland">University of Queensland</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-science">"Social science: History, Disciplines, Future Development, & Facts"</a>. <i>Britannica</i>. April 27, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+science%3A+History%2C+Disciplines%2C+Future+Development%2C+%26+Facts&rft.btitle=Britannica&rft.date=2023-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fsocial-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2014" class="citation book cs1">Little, William (November 6, 2014). "1". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opentextbc.ca/introductiontosociology/"><i>Introduction to Sociology – 1st Canadian Edition</i></a>. BCampus.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=1&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Sociology+%E2%80%93+1st+Canadian+Edition&rft.pub=BCampus&rft.date=2014-11-06&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopentextbc.ca%2Fintroductiontosociology%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimansWoutersHeilbron2019" class="citation journal cs1">Timans, Rob; Wouters, Paul; Heilbron, Johan (April 2019). "Mixed methods research: what it is and what it could be". <i>Theory and Society</i>. <b>48</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">193–</span>216. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11186-019-09345-5">10.1007/s11186-019-09345-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1887%2F78033">1887/78033</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theory+and+Society&rft.atitle=Mixed+methods+research%3A+what+it+is+and+what+it+could+be&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E216&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1887%2F78033&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11186-019-09345-5&rft.aulast=Timans&rft.aufirst=Rob&rft.au=Wouters%2C+Paul&rft.au=Heilbron%2C+Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhattacherjee2012" class="citation book cs1">Bhattacherjee, Anol (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=oa_textbooks"><i>Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices</i></a>. University of South Florida.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Science+Research%3A+Principles%2C+Methods%2C+and+Practices&rft.pub=University+of+South+Florida&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Bhattacherjee&rft.aufirst=Anol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcommons.usf.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1002%26context%3Doa_textbooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuper1996" class="citation book cs1">Kuper, Adam (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S3zZ18tt3gkC"><i>The Social Science Encyclopedia</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10829-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10829-4"><bdi>978-0-415-10829-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Science+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10829-4&rft.aulast=Kuper&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS3zZ18tt3gkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kuper1985-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kuper1985_6-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kuper, A., and Kuper, J. (1985). <i>The Social Science Encyclopaedia</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SocialColumbian1897-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SocialColumbian1897_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SocialColumbian1897_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Social sciences, <i>Columbian Cyclopedia</i>. (1897). Buffalo: Garretson, Cox & Company. p. 227.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Peck1897-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Peck1897_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peck, H.T., Peabody, S.H., and Richardson, C.F. (1897). <i>The International Cyclopedia, A Compendium of Human Knowledge</i>. Rev. with large additions. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLalevée2023" class="citation journal cs1">Lalevée, Thomas (May 30, 2023). "Three Versions of Social Science in Late Eighteenth-Century France". <i>Modern Intellectual History</i>. <b>20</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">1023–</span>1043. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1479244323000100">10.1017/S1479244323000100</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Intellectual+History&rft.atitle=Three+Versions+of+Social+Science+in+Late+Eighteenth-Century+France&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1023-%3C%2Fspan%3E1043&rft.date=2023-05-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1479244323000100&rft.aulast=Lalev%C3%A9e&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to Comte, the <i>social physics</i> field was similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber2017" class="citation book cs1">Weber, Max (2017). <i>Methodology of Social Sciences</i>. 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(1965). 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(2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/42294/1/__Libfile_repository_Content_Calhoun%2CC_Comment%20on_Comment%20on%28lsero%29.pdf">"Anthropology, Sociology, and Other Dubious Disciplines"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>44</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">453–</span>65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F375868">10.1086/375868</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Anthropology%2C+Sociology%2C+and+Other+Dubious+Disciplines&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E453-%3C%2Fspan%3E65&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F375868&rft.aulast=Wallerstein&rft.aufirst=I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.lse.ac.uk%2F42294%2F1%2F__Libfile_repository_Content_Calhoun%252CC_Comment%2520on_Comment%2520on%2528lsero%2529.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLowie1924" class="citation book cs1">Lowie, Robert (1924). <i>Primitive Religion</i>. 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Putnam's Sons.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primitive+Culture&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=J.P.+Putnam%27s+Sons&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=Tylor&rft.aufirst=Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNandaWarms2008" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Serena_Nanda" title="Serena Nanda">Nanda, Serena</a>; Warms, Richard (2008), "Chapter One", <i>Culture Counts</i>, Wadsworth</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+One&rft.btitle=Culture+Counts&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Nanda&rft.aufirst=Serena&rft.au=Warms%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosaldo1993" class="citation cs2">Rosaldo, Renato (1993), <i>Culture and Truth: The remaking of social analysis</i>, Beacon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Truth%3A+The+remaking+of+social+analysis&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Rosaldo&rft.aufirst=Renato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIndaRosaldo2007" class="citation cs2">Inda, John Xavier; Rosaldo, Renato (2007), <i>The Anthropology of Globalization</i>, Wiley-Blackwell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropology+of+Globalization&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Inda&rft.aufirst=John+Xavier&rft.au=Rosaldo%2C+Renato&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109547?query=Economics&ct=">"economics – Britannica Online Encyclopedia"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=economics+%E2%80%93+Britannica+Online+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Feb%2Farticle-9109547%3Fquery%3DEconomics%26ct%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Gary_Becker" title="Gary Becker">Becker, Gary S.</a> (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iwEOFKSKbMgC&dq=%22The+Economic+Approach+to+Human+Behavior%22+Introduction&lr=&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0"><i>The Economic Approach to Human Behavior</i></a>. University of Chicago Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.teachersmind.com/education.htm">"An overview of education"</a>. <i>teachersmind.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=teachersmind.com&rft.atitle=An+overview+of+education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.teachersmind.com%2Feducation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-What_is_geography?-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-What_is_geography?_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061006152742/http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html">"What is geography?"</a>. <i>AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and Related Geographical Sciences</i>. Association of American Geographers. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aag.org/Careers/What_is_geog.html">the original</a> on October 6, 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 9,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=AAG+Career+Guide%3A+Jobs+in+Geography+and+Related+Geographical+Sciences&rft.atitle=What+is+geography%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aag.org%2FCareers%2FWhat_is_geog.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hayes-Bohanan-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hayes-Bohanan_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayes-Bohanan" class="citation web cs1">Hayes-Bohanan, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webhost.bridgew.edu/jhayesboh/environmentalgeography.htm">"What is Environmental Geography, Anyway?"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 9,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Environmental+Geography%2C+Anyway%3F&rft.aulast=Hayes-Bohanan&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwebhost.bridgew.edu%2Fjhayesboh%2Fenvironmentalgeography.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.neh.gov/about">"About NEH"</a>. National Endowment for the Humanities.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+NEH&rft.pub=National+Endowment+for+the+Humanities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.neh.gov%2Fabout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.nap.edu/readingroom/books/researchdoc/summary.html">"Research-Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Research-Doctorate+Programs+in+the+United+States%3A+Continuity+and+Change&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.nap.edu%2Freadingroom%2Fbooks%2Fresearchdoc%2Fsummary.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ssha.org/">the SSHA website</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crimes_Against_Humanity-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Crimes_Against_Humanity_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Robertson" title="Geoffrey Robertson">Robertson, Geoffrey</a> (2006). <i>Crimes Against Humanity</i>. Penguin. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-102463-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-102463-9"><bdi>978-0-14-102463-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crimes+Against+Humanity&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-14-102463-9&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hhc-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hhc_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1961" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart, H.L.A.</a> (1961). <a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law"><i>The Concept of Law</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-876122-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-876122-8"><bdi>978-0-19-876122-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Concept+of+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1961&rft.isbn=978-0-19-876122-8&rft.aulast=Hart&rft.aufirst=H.L.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rdl-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-rdl_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDworkin1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Dworkin" title="Ronald Dworkin">Dworkin, Ronald</a> (1986). <i>Law's Empire</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-51836-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-51836-0"><bdi>978-0-674-51836-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law%27s+Empire&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-674-51836-0&rft.aulast=Dworkin&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jra-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jra_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaz1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Raz, Joseph</a> (1979). <i>The Authority of Law</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956268-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956268-8"><bdi>978-0-19-956268-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Authority+of+Law&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956268-8&rft.aulast=Raz&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jap-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jap_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin1831" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Austin_(legal_philosopher)" title="John Austin (legal philosopher)">Austin, John</a> (1831). <i>The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Providence+of+Jurisprudence+Determined&rft.date=1831&rft.aulast=Austin&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none"><i>Etymonline Dictionary</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal"><i>Merriam-Webster's Dictionary</i></a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnonymous2022" class="citation web cs1">Anonymous (March 2, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linguistics.ucdavis.edu/what-linguistics">"What is Linguistics? | linguistics"</a>. <i>linguistics.ucdavis.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 13,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=linguistics.ucdavis.edu&rft.atitle=What+is+Linguistics%3F+%7C+linguistics&rft.date=2022-03-02&rft.au=Anonymous&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.ucdavis.edu%2Fwhat-linguistics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ebenstein, Alan (2002). Introduction to Political Thinkers. Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHindmoor2006" class="citation book cs1">Hindmoor, Andrew (2006). <i>Rational Choice</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3422-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-3422-2"><bdi>978-1-4039-3422-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rational+Choice&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-3422-2&rft.aulast=Hindmoor&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/support/about-apa">Frequently asked questions about APA</a> Retrieved on November 28th, 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-APA_mission-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-APA_mission_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The mission of the APA [American Psychological Association] is to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives"; APA (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx"><i>About APA</i>.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170902193306/http://www.apa.org/about/index.aspx">Archived</a> 2 September 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved 20 October 2010.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter E. Nathan & James Langenbucher, "Diagnosis and Classification", in Weiner (ed.), <i>Handbook of Psychology</i> (2003), Volume 8: <i>Clinical Psychology</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OED-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OED_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Online Etymology Dictionary. 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Los Angeles: Ralston Press.</li> <li>Small, A.W. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UEYWAAAAYAAJ"><i>The meaning of social science</i></a>. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century_sources">19th century sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: 19th century sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Andrews, S.P. (1888). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0_8dAAAAIAAJ"><i>The science of society</i></a>. Boston, Mass: Sarah E. Holmes.</li> <li>Denslow, V.B. (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modernthinkerspr00densuoft"><i>Modern thinkers principally upon social science: What they think, and why</i></a>. Chicago: Belford, Clarke & Co.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Torrey_Harris" title="William Torrey Harris">Harris, William Torrey</a> (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MUUWAAAAYAAJ"><i>Method of Study in Social Science</i></a>: A Lecture Delivered Before the St. Louis Social Science Association, March 4, 1879. St. Louis: G.I. Jones and Co, 1879.</li> <li>Hamilton, R.S. (1873). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/presentstatusofs00hami"><i>Present status of social science. A review, historical and critical, of the progress of thought in social philosophy</i></a>. New York: H.L. Hinton.</li> <li>Carey, H.C. (1867). <i>Principles of social science</i>. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co. [etc.]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0RsWAAAAYAAJ">Volume I</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LSEWAAAAYAAJ">Volume II</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-yAWAAAAYAAJ">Volume III</a>.</li> <li>Calvert, G.H. (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/introductiontos00calvgoog"><i>Introduction to social science: A discourse in three parts</i></a>. New York: Redfield.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: General sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Backhouse, Roger E., and Philippe Fontaine, eds. <i>A historiography of the modern social sciences</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2014).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="256_pages" class="citation book cs1">Backhouse, Roger E.; Fontaine, Philippe, eds. (2010). <i>The History of the Social Sciences Since 1945</i>. 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Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+science%3A+Beyond+constructivism+and+realism&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Delanty&rft.aufirst=G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHargittai2009" class="citation book cs1">Hargittai, E. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=268873"><i>Research Confidential: Solutions to Problems Most Social Scientists Pretend They Never Have</i></a>. Ann Arbor: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Press" title="University of Michigan Press">University of Michigan Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472026531" title="Special:BookSources/978-0472026531"><bdi>978-0472026531</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+Confidential%3A+Solutions+to+Problems+Most+Social+Scientists+Pretend+They+Never+Have&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0472026531&rft.aulast=Hargittai&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.press.umich.edu%2FtitleDetailDesc.do%3Fid%3D268873&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Heim, K. M. (1987). Social Scientific Information Needs for Numeric Data: The Evolution of the International Data Archive Infrastructure. <i>Collection Management</i>, 9(1), 1–53.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntColander2008" class="citation book cs1">Hunt, E.F.; Colander, D.C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fWofAAAACAAJ"><i>Social science: An introduction to the study of society</i></a>. 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Carey (page does not exist)">Carey, H.C.</a>; McKean, K. (1883). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ckEVAAAAYAAJ"><i>Manual of social science; Being a condensation of the Principles of social science</i></a>. Philadelphia: Baird.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Manual+of+social+science%3B+Being+a+condensation+of+the+Principles+of+social+science&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=Baird&rft.date=1883&rft.aulast=Carey&rft.aufirst=H.C.&rft.au=McKean%2C+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DckEVAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGalavotti2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Maria_Carla_Galavotti" title="Maria Carla Galavotti">Galavotti, M.C.</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VpForyYAYy0C"><i>Observation and experiment in the natural and social sciences</i></a>. Boston studies in the philosophy of science. Vol. 232. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1251-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-1251-8"><bdi>978-1-4020-1251-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Observation+and+experiment+in+the+natural+and+social+sciences&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.series=Boston+studies+in+the+philosophy+of+science&rft.pub=Kluwer+Academic&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-1251-8&rft.aulast=Galavotti&rft.aufirst=M.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVpForyYAYy0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorton2006" class="citation book cs1">Gorton, W.A. (2006). <i>Karl Popper and the social sciences</i>. SUNY series in the philosophy of the social sciences. Albany: State University of New York Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Karl+Popper+and+the+social+sciences&rft.place=Albany&rft.series=SUNY+series+in+the+philosophy+of+the+social+sciences&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Gorton&rft.aufirst=W.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1973" class="citation book cs1">Harris, F.R. (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mqQ9vf0JS_YC"><i>Social science and national policy</i></a>. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-3445-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-3445-2"><bdi>978-1-4128-3445-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+science+and+national+policy&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+N.J.&rft.pub=Transaction+Books&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-3445-2&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=F.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmqQ9vf0JS_YC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span> distributed by Dutton</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrimerman1969" class="citation book cs1">Krimerman, L.I. (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/naturescopeofsoc0000krim"><i>The nature and scope of social science: A critical anthology</i></a></span>. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-390-52678-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-390-52678-6"><bdi>978-0-390-52678-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+and+scope+of+social+science%3A+A+critical+anthology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-390-52678-6&rft.aulast=Krimerman&rft.aufirst=L.I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnaturescopeofsoc0000krim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRule1997" class="citation book cs1">Rule, J.B. (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryprogressin0000rule"><i>Theory and progress in social science</i></a></span>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57365-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57365-8"><bdi>978-0-521-57365-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+and+progress+in+social+science&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57365-8&rft.aulast=Rule&rft.aufirst=J.B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoryprogressin0000rule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShionoya1997" class="citation book cs1">Shionoya, Y. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fakFiE79qTAC"><i>Schumpeter and the idea of social science: A metatheoretical study. Historical perspectives on modern economics</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schumpeter+and+the+idea+of+social+science%3A+A+metatheoretical+study.+Historical+perspectives+on+modern+economics&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Shionoya&rft.aufirst=Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfakFiE79qTAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSingletonStraits1988" class="citation book cs1">Singleton, Royce, A.; Straits, Bruce C. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070303032753/http://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Sociology/TheoryMethods/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE0Nzk0MA%3D%3D"><i>Approaches to Social Research</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514794-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514794-0"><bdi>978-0-19-514794-0</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Sociology/TheoryMethods/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE0Nzk0MA==">the original</a> on March 3, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Approaches+to+Social+Research&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514794-0&rft.aulast=Singleton&rft.aufirst=Royce%2C+A.&rft.au=Straits%2C+Bruce+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.us.oup.com%2Fus%2Fcatalog%2Fgeneral%2Fsubject%2FSociology%2FTheoryMethods%2F~~%2Fdmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE0Nzk0MA%3D%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas1979" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, D. (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-mY4AAAAIAAJ"><i>Naturalism and social science: a post-empiricist philosophy of social science</i></a>. CUP Archive. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29660-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29660-1"><bdi>978-0-521-29660-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Naturalism+and+social+science%3A+a+post-empiricist+philosophy+of+social+science&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29660-1&rft.aulast=Thomas&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-mY4AAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrigg2001" class="citation book cs1">Trigg, R. (2001). <i>Understanding social science: A philosophical introduction to the social sciences</i>. Malden, Mass: Blackwell Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+social+science%3A+A+philosophical+introduction+to+the+social+sciences&rft.place=Malden%2C+Mass&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Trigg&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeber,_M.1906" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber, M.</a> (1906) [1904]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N14BAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA725"><i>The Relations of the Rural Community to Other Branches of Social Science, Congress of Arts and Science: Universal Exposition</i></a>. St. Louis: Houghton, Mifflin and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Relations+of+the+Rural+Community+to+Other+Branches+of+Social+Science%2C+Congress+of+Arts+and+Science%3A+Universal+Exposition&rft.place=St.+Louis&rft.pub=Houghton%2C+Mifflin+and+Company&rft.date=1906&rft.au=Weber%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN14BAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA725&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreswell" class="citation book cs1">Creswell, John W. <i>Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-299-95719-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-299-95719-0"><bdi>978-1-299-95719-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/859836343">859836343</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Educational+research%3A+planning%2C+conducting%2C+and+evaluating+quantitative+and+qualitative+research&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F859836343&rft.isbn=978-1-299-95719-0&rft.aulast=Creswell&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Academic_resources">Academic resources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Academic resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1552-3349">1552-3349</a> (electronic) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0002-7162">0002-7162</a> (paper), Sage Publications</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEffersonRicherson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Efferson, Charles; Richerson, Peter J. (March 16, 2007). "A prolegomenon to nonlinear empiricism in the human behavioral sciences". <i>Biology & Philosophy</i>. <b>22</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10539-005-9013-7">10.1007/s10539-005-9013-7</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biology+%26+Philosophy&rft.atitle=A+prolegomenon+to+nonlinear+empiricism+in+the+human+behavioral+sciences&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=2007-03-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10539-005-9013-7&rft.aulast=Efferson&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Richerson%2C+Peter+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASocial+science" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Opponents_and_critics">Opponents and critics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Opponents and critics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_H._Smith" title="George H. Smith">George H. Smith</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.libertarianism.org/columns/intellectuals-libertarianism-thomas-sowell-robert-nisbet"><i>Intellectuals and Libertarianism: Thomas Sowell and Robert Nisbet</i></a></li> <li>Phil Hutchinson, <a href="/wiki/Rupert_Read" title="Rupert Read">Rupert Read</a> and Wes Sharrock (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IF01zvRg9ekC"><i>There's No Such Thing as a Social Science</i></a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4776-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4776-8">978-0-7546-4776-8</a></li> <li>Sabia, D.R., and Wallulis, J. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IgDtHi4Sq-wC"><i>Changing social science: Critical theory and other critical perspectives</i></a>. Albany: State University of New York Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_science&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output 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plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Social_science" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Social science">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Social sciences">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Social_science" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Social science">News</a> from Wikinews</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Social_science" class="extiw" title="q:Social science">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="s:Category:Social sciences">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Social_science" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Social science">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Social_science" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Social science">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/27px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/41px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/54px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q34749" class="extiw" title="d:Q34749">Data</a> from Wikidata</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://icrhs.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/">Institute for Comparative Research in Human and Social Sciences (ICR)</a> (JAPAN)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091028070226/http://www.uel.ac.uk/cswr/index.htm">Centre for Social Work Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080312160638/http://www.sobiad.org/icss-conference/icss-main.htm">International Conference on Social Sciences</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/ngo/issc">International Social Science Council</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ashgate.com/pdf/SamplePages/There_is_No_Such_Thing_as_a_Social_Science_Intro.pdf">Introduction to Hutchinson et al., <i>There's No Such Thing as a Social Science</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/">Intute: Social Sciences (UK)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sobiad.org/english.html">Social Science Research Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vl-site.org/index.html">Social Science Virtual Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.canaktan.org/">Social Science Virtual Library: Canaktanweb (Turkish)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://social-sciences-and-humanities.com/">Social Sciences And Humanities</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xlab.berkeley.edu">UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://monthlyreview.org/100501baran.php">The Dialectic of Social Science</a> by Paul A. Baran</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.humanitiescommission.org/">American Academy <i>Commission on the Humanities and Social Sciences</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences710" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences710" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" 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mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Positivism" title="Template:Positivism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Positivism" title="Template talk:Positivism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Positivism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Positivism47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Perspectives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate47" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> 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