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<span>Marines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Development</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Development-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Development subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Terceras_Landing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terceras_Landing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Terceras Landing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terceras_Landing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Queen_Anne's_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Queen_Anne's_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Queen Anne's War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Queen_Anne's_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_War_of_Jenkin's_Ear" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_War_of_Jenkin's_Ear"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The War of Jenkin's Ear</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_War_of_Jenkin's_Ear-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-King_George's_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King_George's_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>King George's War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King_George's_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_and_Indian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_and_Indian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>French and Indian War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_and_Indian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Revolutionary_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Revolutionary_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>American Revolutionary War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Revolutionary_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Second_British_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Second_British_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>The Second British Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Second_British_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Industrial_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Industrial_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Industrial era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_operations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_operations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern operations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Modern_operations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Modern operations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Modern_operations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gallipoli" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallipoli"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Gallipoli</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallipoli-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interwar_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interwar_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Interwar developments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interwar_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Britain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_World_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_World_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Second World War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_World_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Specialized_infantry_landing_craft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialized_infantry_landing_craft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Specialized infantry landing craft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialized_infantry_landing_craft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialized_vehicle_landing_craft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialized_vehicle_landing_craft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Specialized vehicle landing craft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialized_vehicle_landing_craft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-D-Day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#D-Day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>D-Day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-D-Day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.4</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Korean_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Korean_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Korean War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Korean_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suez_Crisis_and_Falklands_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suez_Crisis_and_Falklands_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Suez Crisis and Falklands War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suez_Crisis_and_Falklands_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landing_at_Cyprus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landing_at_Cyprus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Landing at Cyprus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landing_at_Cyprus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran-Iraq_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran-Iraq_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Iran-Iraq war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran-Iraq_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persian_Gulf_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persian_Gulf_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.8</span> <span>Persian Gulf War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persian_Gulf_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Elem_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Elem_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.9</span> <span>Elem War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Elem_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraq_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraq_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.10</span> <span>Iraq War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraq_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasion_of_Anjouan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_of_Anjouan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.11</span> <span>Invasion of Anjouan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_of_Anjouan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Battle_of_Kismayo_(2012)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Battle_of_Kismayo_(2012)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.12</span> <span>Battle of Kismayo (2012)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Battle_of_Kismayo_(2012)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Amphibious warfare</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 38 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-38" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">38 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D8%A8_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حرب برمائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حرب برمائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibiya_m%C3%BCharib%C9%99" title="Amfibiya müharibə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Amfibiya müharibə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Морски десант – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Морски десант" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oboj%C5%BEiveln%C3%A1_operace" title="Obojživelná operace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Obojživelná operace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibiekrigsf%C3%B8relse" title="Amfibiekrigsførelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Amfibiekrigsførelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibische_Kriegsf%C3%BChrung" title="Amphibische Kriegsführung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Amphibische Kriegsführung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_anfibia" title="Guerra anfibia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerra anfibia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibia_albordi%C4%9Do" title="Amfibia albordiĝo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Amfibia albordiĝo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A2%D8%A8%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="عملیات آبی خاکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عملیات آبی خاکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9barquement" title="Débarquement – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Débarquement" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibyske_oarlochfiering" title="Amfibyske oarlochfiering – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Amfibyske oarlochfiering" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_anfibia" title="Guerra anfibia – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Guerra anfibia" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EB%A5%99%EC%96%91%EC%9A%A9%EC%A0%84" title="수륙양용전 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수륙양용전" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibijska_operacija" title="Amfibijska operacija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Amfibijska operacija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peperangan_amfibi" title="Peperangan amfibi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Peperangan amfibi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerra_anfibia" title="Guerra anfibia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Guerra anfibia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%97%D7%9E%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="לוחמה אמפיבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לוחמה אמפיבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82" title="Поморски десант – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Поморски десант" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peperangan_amfibia" title="Peperangan amfibia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Peperangan amfibia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibische_oorlogvoering" title="Amfibische oorlogvoering – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Amfibische oorlogvoering" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E9%99%B8%E4%B8%A1%E7%94%A8%E4%BD%9C%E6%88%A6" title="水陸両用作戦 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="水陸両用作戦" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibisk_krigf%C3%B8ring" title="Amfibisk krigføring – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Amfibisk krigføring" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amfibisk_krigf%C3%B8ring" title="Amfibisk krigføring – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Amfibisk krigføring" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military operation attacking from air and sea to land</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Amphibious assault" redirects here. For the band Amphibious Assault, see <a href="/wiki/Fallon_Bowman" title="Fallon Bowman">Fallon Bowman</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IWM-H-19057-Crusader-landing-19420426.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/IWM-H-19057-Crusader-landing-19420426.jpg/250px-IWM-H-19057-Crusader-landing-19420426.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/IWM-H-19057-Crusader-landing-19420426.jpg/375px-IWM-H-19057-Crusader-landing-19420426.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/IWM-H-19057-Crusader-landing-19420426.jpg/500px-IWM-H-19057-Crusader-landing-19420426.jpg 2x" data-file-width="790" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Crusader_tank" title="Crusader tank">Crusader tank</a> landing on a beach from a <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft_tank" title="Landing craft tank">Tank Landing Craft</a> in a 1942 test</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:150%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></span><br /><span class="nobold"><span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war" title="Outline of war">outline</a>)</span></span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:War,_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers,_artist._LCCN91480633_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-War%2C_northwest_gallery_-_Gari_Melchers%2C_artist._LCCN91480633_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3691" data-file-height="1076" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_fortification" title="Medieval fortification">castles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_Revolution" title="Military Revolution">military revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pike_and_shot" title="Pike and shot">pike and shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_weaponry_and_warfare" title="Napoleonic weaponry and warfare">napoleonic warfare</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen warfare</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_ministry" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense ministry">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_army" title="Regular army">Regular</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irregular_military" title="Irregular military">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_army" title="Standing army">Standing army</a> / <a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifleman" title="Rifleman">Rifleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Recon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Comms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">Pilot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_commissar" title="Political commissar">Commissar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanized_infantry" title="Mechanized infantry">Mechanized</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ships</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Combat systems:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo data computer</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Basic training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military manoeuvrers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Combat training">Combat training</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">Fortification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_warfare" title="Seabed warfare">Seabed</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Air defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics#Cavalry_in_modern_warfare" title="Cavalry tactics">Air cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_robot" title="Military robot">Robot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Electromagnetic warfare">Electromagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missile_defense" title="Missile defense">Missile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_warfare" title="Submarine warfare">Submarine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_assault" title="Air assault">Air assault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-submarine_warfare" title="Anti-submarine warfare">Anti-sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">Convoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_formation" title="Tactical formation">Formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_tactics" title="Naval tactics">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encirclement" title="Encirclement">Encirclement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investment_(military)" title="Investment (military)">Investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(tactical)" title="Screening (tactical)">Screen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_operations" title="Special operations">Special</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_operation" title="Covert operation">Covert</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-access/area_denial" title="Anti-access/area denial">Anti-access</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commerce_raiding" title="Commerce raiding">Commerce raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_Fort_Strategy" title="Empty Fort Strategy">Empty fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_strategy" title="Nuclear strategy">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Grand_strategy" title="Grand strategy">Grand strategy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_warfare" title="Asymmetric warfare">Asymmetric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">Blockade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broken-backed_war_theory" title="Broken-backed war theory">Broken-backed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_war_(general_term)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold war (general term)">Cold war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_war" title="Colonial war">Colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest" title="Conquest">Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Containment" title="Containment">Containment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divide_and_rule" title="Divide and rule">Divide and conquer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_warfare" title="Economic warfare">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic warfare">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleet_in_being" title="Fleet in being">Fleet in being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irregular_warfare" title="Irregular warfare">Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_national_liberation" title="Wars of national liberation">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limited_war" title="Limited war">Limited</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Network-centric_warfare" title="Network-centric warfare">Network-centric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_generation_warfare" title="New generation warfare">New generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_war" title="Perpetual war">Perpetual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_warfare" title="Political warfare">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princely_rebellion" title="Princely rebellion">Princely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">Proxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_war" title="Resource war">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_studies" title="Strategic studies">Strategic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_succession" title="War of succession">Succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">Total war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_war" title="World war">World war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_administration" title="Military administration">Administrative</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_education_and_training" title="Military education and training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Area_of_responsibility" title="Area of responsibility">Area of responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_doctrine" title="Military doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_force" title="Economy of force">Economy of force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Technology and equipment</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">Personnel</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counter-recruitment" title="Counter-recruitment">counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobilization" title="Mobilization">Mobilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruit_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Recruit training">Training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Specialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_military" title="Women in the military">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_people_and_military_service" title="Transgender people and military service">Transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment_in_the_military" title="Sexual harassment in the military">Harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">foreign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a> / <a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_logistics" title="History of military logistics">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_economy" title="War economy">War economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Arms industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materiel" title="Materiel">Materiel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_supply-chain_management" title="Military supply-chain management">Supply-chain management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Main_operating_base" title="Main operating base">MOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forward_operating_base" title="Forward operating base">FOB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outpost_(military)" title="Outpost (military)">Outpost</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Science</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_projection" title="Power projection">Power projection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss-of-strength_gradient" title="Loss-of-strength gradient">Loss-of-strength gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lanchester%27s_laws" title="Lanchester's laws">Lanchester's laws</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Force_multiplication" title="Force multiplication">Force multiplication</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">Law</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">Occupation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice" title="Armistice">Armistice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">Ceasefire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> / <a href="/wiki/Military_volunteer" title="Military volunteer">Volunteer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Court-martial" title="Court-martial">Court-martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol" title="Geneva Protocol">Geneva Protocol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Islamic rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_justice" title="Military justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combatant" title="Combatant">Lawful</a> / <a href="/wiki/Unlawful_combatant" title="Unlawful combatant">Unlawful combatant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letter_of_marque" title="Letter of marque">Letter of marque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perfidy" title="Perfidy">Perfidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_military_company" title="Private military company">Private military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_foreign_volunteers" title="List of foreign volunteers">Foreign expatriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercenary" title="Mercenary">Mercenary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">Privateer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_laws_on_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish laws on war">Jewish laws on war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rules_of_engagement" title="Rules of engagement">Rules of engagement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">Martial law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_crime" title="War crime">War crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_military_unit" title="Penal military unit">Penal military unit</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_theory" title="Military theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_supremacy" title="Air supremacy">Air supremacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_of_the_sea" title="Command of the sea">Command of the sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-spectrum_dominance" title="Full-spectrum dominance">Full-spectrum dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmatch" title="Overmatch">Overmatch</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unrestricted_Warfare" title="Unrestricted Warfare">Unrestricted Warfare</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">Just war theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_war" title="Principles of war">Principles of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_dilemma" title="Security dilemma">Security dilemma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripwire_force" title="Tripwire force">Tripwire force</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_wargaming" title="Professional wargaming">Wargaming</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_simulation" title="Military simulation">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Exercises</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_operations_other_than_war" title="Military operations other than war">Non-warfare</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">Arms control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-insurgency" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-insurgency">Counter-insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">deterrence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disaster_response" title="Disaster response">Disaster response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunboat_diplomacy" title="Gunboat diplomacy">Gunboat diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarian_aid" title="Humanitarian aid">Humanitarian aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-intensity_conflict" title="Low-intensity conflict">Low-intensity conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">Multilateralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peacekeeping" title="Peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peacebuilding" title="Peacebuilding">Peacebuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_through_strength" title="Peace through strength">Peace through strength</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Show_of_force" title="Show of force">Show of force</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_tradition" title="Military tradition">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_awards_and_decorations" title="Military awards and decorations">Awards and decorations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_cry" title="Battle cry">Battle cry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_film" title="War film">War film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science_fiction" title="Military science fiction">Military science fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_novel" title="War novel">War novel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foot_drill" title="Foot drill">Foot drill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_song" title="War song">War song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_uniform" title="Military uniform">Uniform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wargame" title="Wargame">Wargame</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_war" title="Women in war">Women in war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_resister" title="War resister">War resister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_studies" title="War studies">War studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horses_in_warfare" title="Horses in warfare">Horses in warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_sexual_violence" title="Wartime sexual violence">Wartime sexual violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_column" title="Fifth column">Fifth column</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_established_military_terms" title="List of established military terms">Military terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:War" title="Template talk:War"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:War"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Amphibious warfare</b> is a type of <a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">offensive</a> <a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">military operation</a> that today uses <a href="/wiki/Naval_ship" title="Naval ship">naval ships</a> to project ground and <a href="/wiki/Air_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Air power">air power</a> onto a hostile or potentially hostile shore at a designated <a href="/wiki/Landing_beach" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing beach">landing beach</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through history the operations were conducted using <a href="/wiki/Ship%27s_boat" title="Ship's boat">ship's boats</a> as the primary method of delivering troops to shore. Since the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Gallipoli Campaign</a>, specialised <a href="/wiki/Watercraft" title="Watercraft">watercraft</a> were increasingly designed for landing troops, material and vehicles, including by <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">landing craft</a> and for insertion of <a href="/wiki/Commando" title="Commando">commandos</a>, by fast <a href="/wiki/Patrol_boat" title="Patrol boat">patrol boats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zodiac_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Zodiac Group">zodiacs</a> (rigid inflatable boats) and from <a href="/wiki/Midget_submarine" title="Midget submarine">mini-submersibles</a>. The term <i>amphibious</i> first emerged in the United Kingdom and the United States during the 1930s with introduction of vehicles such as <a href="/wiki/Vickers-Carden-Loyd_Light_Amphibious_Tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Vickers-Carden-Loyd Light Amphibious Tank">Vickers-Carden-Loyd Light Amphibious Tank</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Vehicle_Tracked" title="Landing Vehicle Tracked">Landing Vehicle Tracked</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amphibious warfare includes operations defined by their type, purpose, scale and means of execution. In the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> at the time these were called <a href="/wiki/Combined_operations" title="Combined operations">combined operations</a> which were defined as "...operations where naval, military or air forces in any combination are co-operating with each other, working independently under their respective commanders, but with a common strategic object."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All armed forces that employ troops with special training and equipment for conducting landings from naval vessels to shore agree to this definition. Since the 20th century an amphibious landing of troops on a <a href="/wiki/Beachhead" title="Beachhead">beachhead</a> is acknowledged as the most complex of all military maneuvers. The undertaking requires an intricate coordination of numerous military specialties, including <a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">air power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_gunfire_support" title="Naval gunfire support">naval gunfire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Troopship" title="Troopship">naval transport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">logistical planning</a>, specialized equipment, <a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">land warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">tactics</a>, and extensive training in the nuances of this maneuver for all personnel involved. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RoK_K1_88-Tank_landing_from_LCAC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/RoK_K1_88-Tank_landing_from_LCAC.jpg/220px-RoK_K1_88-Tank_landing_from_LCAC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/RoK_K1_88-Tank_landing_from_LCAC.jpg/330px-RoK_K1_88-Tank_landing_from_LCAC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/RoK_K1_88-Tank_landing_from_LCAC.jpg/440px-RoK_K1_88-Tank_landing_from_LCAC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>South Korean <a href="/wiki/K1_88-Tank" class="mw-redirect" title="K1 88-Tank">Type 88 K1</a> MBT comes ashore from an American <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Air_Cushion" title="Landing Craft Air Cushion">LCAC</a> in March 2007.</figcaption></figure> <p>In essence, amphibious operations consist of the phases of strategic planning and preparation, operational transit to the intended <a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">theatre of operations</a>, pre-landing <a href="/wiki/US_Amphibious_Training_Base" title="US Amphibious Training Base">rehearsal</a> and disembarkation, troop landings, <a href="/wiki/Beachhead" title="Beachhead">beachhead</a> consolidation and conducting inland ground and air operations. Historically, within the scope of these phases a vital part of success was often based on the <a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">military logistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naval_gunfire_support" title="Naval gunfire support">naval gunfire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">close air support</a>. Another factor is the variety and quantity of specialised vehicles and equipment used by the landing force that are designed for the specific needs of this type of operation. Amphibious operations can be classified as tactical or <a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">operational</a> <a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)" title="Raid (military)">raids</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe Raid</a>, operational landings in support of a larger land strategy such as the <a href="/wiki/Kerch%E2%80%93Eltigen_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerch–Eltigen Operation">Kerch–Eltigen Operation</a>, and a strategic opening of a new Theatre of Operations, for example the <i><a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Operation Avalanche</a></i>. The purpose of amphibious operations is usually offensive, except in cases of amphibious withdrawals, but is limited by the plan and terrain. Landings on islands less than 5,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,900 sq mi) in size are tactical, usually with the limited objectives of neutralising enemy defenders and obtaining a new base of operation. Such an operation may be prepared and planned in days or weeks, and would employ a naval <a href="/wiki/Task_force" title="Task force">task force</a> to land less than a <a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">division</a> of troops. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M113s_disembarking_a_LHD_Landing_Craft_during_Talisman_Sable_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/M113s_disembarking_a_LHD_Landing_Craft_during_Talisman_Sable_2019.jpg/220px-M113s_disembarking_a_LHD_Landing_Craft_during_Talisman_Sable_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/M113s_disembarking_a_LHD_Landing_Craft_during_Talisman_Sable_2019.jpg/330px-M113s_disembarking_a_LHD_Landing_Craft_during_Talisman_Sable_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/M113s_disembarking_a_LHD_Landing_Craft_during_Talisman_Sable_2019.jpg/440px-M113s_disembarking_a_LHD_Landing_Craft_during_Talisman_Sable_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5588" data-file-height="3725" /></a><figcaption>Two <a href="/wiki/M113_armoured_personnel_carriers_in_Australian_service" title="M113 armoured personnel carriers in Australian service">Australian M113s</a> disembarking from a landing craft during a training exercise in 2019</figcaption></figure> <p>The intent of operational landings is usually to exploit the shore as a vulnerability in the enemy's overall position, forcing <a href="/wiki/Military_deployment" title="Military deployment">redeployment</a> of forces, premature use of <a href="/wiki/Military_reserve" title="Military reserve">reserves</a>, and aiding a larger allied offensive effort elsewhere. Such an operation requiring weeks to months of preparation and planning, would use multiple task forces, or even a <a href="/wiki/Naval_fleet" title="Naval fleet">naval fleet</a> to land <a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">corps</a>-size forces, including on large islands, for example <i><a href="/wiki/Operation_Chromite" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Chromite">Operation Chromite</a></i>. A strategic <a href="/wiki/Landing_operation" title="Landing operation">landing operation</a> requires a major commitment of forces to invade a national territory in the <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelagic</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte" title="Battle of Leyte">Battle of Leyte</a>, or continental, such as <a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Neptune">Operation Neptune</a>. Such an operation may require multiple naval and air fleets to support the landings, and extensive intelligence gathering and planning of over a year. Although most amphibious operations are thought of primarily as beach landings, they can exploit available shore infrastructure to land troops directly into an urban environment if unopposed. In this case non-specialised ships can offload troops, vehicles and cargo using organic or facility wharf-side equipment. Tactical landings in the past have utilised <a href="/wiki/Small_boat_operations" title="Small boat operations">small boats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fast_attack_craft" title="Fast attack craft">small craft</a>, small ships and <a href="/wiki/Armed_merchant_ship" title="Armed merchant ship">civilian vessels</a> converted for the mission to deliver troops to the water's edge. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preparation_and_planning">Preparation and planning</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Preparation and planning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Amphibious_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Amphibious warfare">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A naval <a href="/wiki/Landing_operation" title="Landing operation">landing operation</a> requires vessels to troops and equipment and might include <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_reconnaissance" title="Amphibious reconnaissance">amphibious reconnaissance</a>. Military intelligence services obtain information on the opponent. Amphibious warfare goes back to ancient times. The <a href="/wiki/Sea_People" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea People">Sea Peoples</a> menaced the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptians</a> from the reign of <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a> as captured on the reliefs at <a href="/wiki/Medinet_Habu_(temple)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medinet Habu (temple)">Medinet Habu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Hellenic</a> city states routinely resorted to amphibious assaults upon each other's shores, which they reflected upon in their plays and other art. The landing at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marathon" title="Battle of Marathon">Marathon</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persians</a> on 9 September 490 BC was the largest amphibious operation until the landings at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Gallipoli">Battle of Gallipoli</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Marines">Marines</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Marines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tapisserie_bato1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Tapisserie_bato1.jpg/220px-Tapisserie_bato1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Tapisserie_bato1.jpg/330px-Tapisserie_bato1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Tapisserie_bato1.jpg/440px-Tapisserie_bato1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="595" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bayeux_Tapestry" title="Bayeux Tapestry">Bayeux Tapestry</a> depicts the 1066 Norman invasion of England with a force of some 8,000 infantry and heavy cavalry landed on the English shore.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1537 <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_Spain" title="Monarchy of Spain">King of Spain</a>, decided to train and assign amphibious-assault skilled units to the Royal Armada specifically for fighting on and from ships. The <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Navy_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Navy Marines">Spanish Marines</a> were born under the name <i>Compañías Viejas del Mar de Nápoles</i> ("All-Spanish Sea Companies of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Naples</a>"). The idea was to set up a permanent assignation of land troops to the Royal Spanish Navy that would be available for the Crown. </p><p>The first "professional" marine units were already task-trained amphibious troops, but instead of being disbanded, they were kept for the Spanish Crown's needs. Their first actions took place all along the Mediterranean Sea, where the Turks and <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">pirate</a> settlements were risks for commerce and navigation: <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>, Malta and <a href="/wiki/Gelves" title="Gelves">Gelves</a>. </p><p>In 1565, the island of <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a> was invaded by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Malta" title="Great Siege of Malta">Great Siege of Malta</a>, forcing its defenders to retreat to the fortified cities. A strategic choke point in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, its loss would have been so menacing for the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> that forces were urgently raised to relieve the island. It took four months to train, arm and move a 5,500-man amphibious force to lift the siege. </p><p>Other countries adopted the idea and subsequently raised their own early <a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">marine forces</a> as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Amphibious_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Amphibious warfare">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From the 15th to the 20th centuries, several European countries established and expanded overseas <a href="/wiki/Colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonies">colonies</a>. Amphibious operations mostly aimed to settle colonies and to secure strong points along navigational routes. Amphibious forces were fully organized and devoted to this mission,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> although the troops not only fought ashore, but on board ships. </p><p>By their nature amphibious assaults involve highly complex operations, demanding the coordination of disparate elements; when accomplished properly a paralyzing surprise to the enemy can be achieved. However, when there is a lack of preparation and/or coordination, often because of hubris, disastrous results can ensue. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terceras_Landing">Terceras Landing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Terceras Landing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%C3%81lvaro_de_Baz%C3%A1n,_Marquis_of_Santa_Cruz" title="Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz">Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz</a>, was an early proponent of amphibious warfare.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "<a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vila_Franca_do_Campo" title="Battle of Vila Franca do Campo">Terceras Landing</a>" in the <a href="/wiki/Azores" title="Azores">Azores</a> Islands on 25 May 1583, was a military feat as Bazán and the rest of commanders decided to make a fake landing to distract the defending forces (5,000 <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portuguese</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">French</a> soldiers). Special seagoing <a href="/wiki/Barge" title="Barge">barges</a> were also arranged to unload <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a> <a href="/wiki/Horse" title="Horse">horses</a> and 700 <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery pieces</a> on the beach; special <a href="/wiki/Rowing" title="Rowing">rowing boats</a> were armed with small <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannons</a> to support the landing boats; special supplies were readied to be unloaded and support the 11,000-man landing force strength. The total strength of the amphibious force was 15,000 men, including an armada of 90 ships. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Queen_Anne's_War"><span id="Queen_Anne.27s_War"></span>Queen Anne's War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Queen Anne's War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A superb example of successful combined operations, of both military branches and different imperial units, is the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Port_Royal_(1710)" title="Siege of Port Royal (1710)">Siege of Port Royal (1710)</a>. The siege was a combined arms, British/Colonial American amphibious assault upon the Acadian Provincial capital <a href="/wiki/Port-Royal_(Acadia)" title="Port-Royal (Acadia)">Port-Royal (Acadia)</a> of French Canada, during <a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_War" title="Queen Anne's War">Queen Anne's War</a> (the name of the American theater of the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>). The battle is known as the seminal moment in the conquest of <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a>. The siege resulted in the British imperial Force conquering French Arcadia and renaming Port Royal, <a href="/wiki/Annapolis_Royal" title="Annapolis Royal">Annapolis Royal</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_War_of_Jenkin's_Ear"><span id="The_War_of_Jenkin.27s_Ear"></span>The War of Jenkin's Ear</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The War of Jenkin's Ear"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One famous instance of a failed amphibious assault was in 1741 at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cartagena_de_Indias" title="Battle of Cartagena de Indias">Battle of Cartagena de Indias</a> in <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">New Granada</a>, when a large British amphibious assault force commanded by Admiral <a href="/wiki/Edward_Vernon" title="Edward Vernon">Edward Vernon</a>, and including a contingent of 200 Virginia "Marines"(not originally meant to be so) commanded by <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Washington_(1718%E2%80%931752)" title="Lawrence Washington (1718–1752)">Lawrence Washington</a> (older half brother of <a href="/wiki/George_Washington" title="George Washington">George Washington</a>), failed to overcome a much smaller, but very heavily fortified Spanish defence force and were forced to retreat back to the ships and call off the operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King_George's_War"><span id="King_George.27s_War"></span>King George's War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: King George's War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Louisbourg_(1745)" title="Siege of Louisbourg (1745)">Siege of Louisbourg (1745)</a> took place in 1745 when a <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a> colonial force aided by a small <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">British</a> fleet captured <a href="/wiki/Louisbourg" title="Louisbourg">Louisbourg</a>, the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">French</a> province of <a href="/wiki/%C3%8Ele-Royale_(New_France)" title="Île-Royale (New France)">Île-Royale</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a>) during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a>, known as <a href="/wiki/King_George%27s_War" title="King George's War">King George's War</a> in the <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British colonies</a>. </p><p>The northern British colonies regarded Louisbourg as a menacers, calling it the "American <a href="/wiki/Dunkirkers" title="Dunkirkers">Dunkirk</a>" due to its use as a base for <a href="/wiki/Privateer" title="Privateer">privateers</a>. There was regular, intermittent warfare between the French and the <a href="/wiki/Wabanaki_Confederacy" title="Wabanaki Confederacy">Wabanaki Confederacy</a> on one side and the northern New England colonies on the other (<i>See the Northeast Coast Campaigns of <a href="/wiki/King_William%27s_War#New_England,_Acadia_and_Newfoundland_Theatre" title="King William's War">1688</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Coast_Campaign_(1703)" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Coast Campaign (1703)">1703</a>, <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Coast_Campaign_(1723)" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Coast Campaign (1723)">1723</a>, <a href="/wiki/Father_Rale%27s_War#Northeast_Coast_Campaign_(1724)" class="mw-redirect" title="Father Rale's War">1724</a></i>). For the French, the <a href="/wiki/Fortress_of_Louisbourg" title="Fortress of Louisbourg">Fortress of Louisbourg</a> also protected the chief entrance to <a href="/wiki/Canada_(New_France)" title="Canada (New France)">Canada</a>, as well as the nearby French fisheries. The French government had spent 25 years in fortifying it, and the cost of its defenses was reckoned at thirty million livres.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the fortress's construction and layout was acknowledged as having superior seaward defences, a series of low rises behind them made it vulnerable to a land attack. The low rises provided attackers places to erect siege batteries. The fort's <a href="/wiki/Garrison" title="Garrison">garrison</a> was poorly paid and supplied, and its inexperienced leaders mistrusted them. The colonial attackers were also lacking in experience, but ultimately succeeded in gaining control of the surrounding defences. The defenders surrendered in the face of an imminent assault. </p><p>Louisbourg was an important bargaining chip in the peace negotiations to end the war, since it represented a major British success. Factions within the British government were opposed to returning it to the French as part of any peace agreement, but these were eventually overruled, and Louisbourg was returned, over the objections of the victorious British North Americans, to French control after the 1748 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Aix-la-Chapelle_(1748)" title="Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)">Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle</a>, in return for French concessions elsewhere. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="French_and_Indian_War">French and Indian War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: French and Indian War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Louisbourg_(1758)" title="Siege of Louisbourg (1758)">Siege of Louisbourg (1758)</a> was a pivotal operation of the British military in 1758 (which included Colonial American Provincial and Ranger units) during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (known in the United States as the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a>), a war that ended the French colonial era in <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Canada" title="Atlantic Canada">Atlantic Canada</a> and led to the subsequent British campaign to capture all of <a href="/wiki/French_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="French North America">French North America</a> by the war's end.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg/250px-PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg/375px-PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg/500px-PlainsOfAbraham2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2610" data-file-height="1683" /></a><figcaption>A drawing depicting the amphibious landing of British troops during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Quebec_(1759)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Quebec (1759)">Siege of Quebec</a> in 1759</figcaption></figure> <p>Another major amphibious landing took place during the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Quebec_(1759)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Quebec (1759)">Siege of Quebec</a> in 1759. The British, in addition to colonial American Ranger units, had raised experimental light infantry units to integrate aspects of the ranger ideal into the regular army. They also produced the first specially designed landing-craft in order to enable their troops to cross the <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Lawrence River">Saint Lawrence River</a> in force. After considering and rejecting a number of plans for landings on the north shore of the river, Major General <a href="/wiki/James_Wolfe" title="James Wolfe">James Wolfe</a> and his brigadiers decided in late August to land upriver of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The British prepared for their risky deployment upstream. Troops had already been aboard landing ships and drifting up and down the river for several days when on 12 September Wolfe made a final decision on the British landing site, selecting L'<a href="/wiki/Anse-au-Foulon" class="mw-redirect" title="Anse-au-Foulon">Anse-au-Foulon</a>. Wolfe's plan of attack depended on secrecy and surprise—a key element of a successful amphibious operation—a small party of men would land by night on the north shore, climb the tall cliff, seize a small road, and overpower the garrison that protected it, allowing the bulk of his army (5,000 men) to ascend the cliff by the small road and then deploy for battle on the plateau.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The operation proved a success, leading to the surrender of the city, and heavily influenced subsequent engagements. </p><p>In 1762 a British force, with a small colonial American ranger contingent, successfully landed at <a href="/wiki/Havana" title="Havana">Havana</a> in Cuba, <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Havana_(1762)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Havana (1762)">besieged the city and captured it</a> after a two-month campaign thanks to improved coordination of land and sea forces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="thanks to improved coordination (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the same year, 1762, British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> sailors and marines succeed in taking the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_East_Indies" title="Spanish East Indies">East Indies</a>: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Manila_(1762)" title="Battle of Manila (1762)">Manila</a> in the Philippines as well. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Revolutionary_War">American Revolutionary War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: American Revolutionary War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1776 <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Nicholas" title="Samuel Nicholas">Samuel Nicholas</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Marines" title="Continental Marines">Continental Marines</a>, the "progenitor" of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">United States Marine Corps</a>, made a first successful landing in the <a href="/wiki/Raid_of_Nassau" title="Raid of Nassau">Raid of Nassau</a> in the Bahamas. In 1782 The British rebuffed a long Franco-Spanish attempt to <a href="/wiki/Great_Siege_of_Gibraltar" title="Great Siege of Gibraltar">seize Gibraltar</a> by water-borne forces. In 1783 a Franco-Spanish force invaded the British-held island of <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Minorca,_1781" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Minorca, 1781">Minorca</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Second_British_Empire">The Second British Empire</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Second British Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1798 Minorca experienced yet another of its many changes of sovereignty when <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Minorca_(1798)" title="Capture of Minorca (1798)">captured by a British landing</a>. </p><p>As the British Empire expanded worldwide, four colonies (<a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a>; <a href="/wiki/Gibraltar" title="Gibraltar">Gibraltar</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>) were designated <a href="/wiki/Imperial_fortress" title="Imperial fortress">Imperial fortresses</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from which Britain's domination of the oceans and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean</a> seas was maintained, including its ability to deny safe passage to enemy naval and merchant vessels while protecting its own merchant trade, as well as to its ability to project superior naval and military force anywhere on the planet. </p><p>This was demonstrated during the <a href="/wiki/American_War_of_1812" class="mw-redirect" title="American War of 1812">American War of 1812</a>, when the ships of the <a href="/wiki/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station" title="North America and West Indies Station">North America Station</a> of the Royal Navy and military forces of the British Army, Board of Ordnance, and Royal Marines, maintained a blockade of much of the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">Atlantic seaboard</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States of America</a>, carried out amphibious raids such as the 22 June 1813 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Craney_Island" title="Battle of Craney Island">Battle of Craney Island</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and then launched the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Chesapeake Campaign">Chesapeake Campaign</a> (defeating American forces in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bladensburg" title="Battle of Bladensburg">Battle of Bladensburg</a>, capturing and <a href="/wiki/Burning_of_Washington" title="Burning of Washington">burning Washington, DC</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Alexandria_(Virginia)" title="Raid on Alexandria (Virginia)">raiding Alexandria, Virginia</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from Bermuda. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chesapeake_Campaign_Map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/91/Chesapeake_Campaign_Map.jpg/220px-Chesapeake_Campaign_Map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/91/Chesapeake_Campaign_Map.jpg/330px-Chesapeake_Campaign_Map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/91/Chesapeake_Campaign_Map.jpg/440px-Chesapeake_Campaign_Map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>British and American movements during the <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Chesapeake Campaign">Chesapeake Campaign</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The point is further reinforced by Britain's poor showing during the war in the battles upon the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain. Without great naval fortresses or forward reinforced ports the Royal Navy was unable to hold and command the lakes, or stop amphibious raiding into Canada, such as the many raids on York (now <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>) during the conflict. Even though each side held their own territorial coastlines, the British lost two large and powerful squadrons in two separate battles, the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Erie" title="Battle of Lake Erie">Battle of Lake Erie</a> & the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Champlain" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Lake Champlain">Battle of Lake Champlain</a>, losing the British control of the two strategic lakes, for no losses of American ships in either battle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_era">Industrial era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Industrial era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a>, US forces under <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> launched the first major amphibious assault in US history, and its largest amphibious assault until WWII, in the 1847 <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Veracruz" title="Siege of Veracruz">Siege of Veracruz</a>. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> of 1853–1856 the anti-Russian alliance launched an Anglo-French amphibious operation against Russia at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bomarsund" title="Battle of Bomarsund">Bomarsund</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a> on 8 August 1854. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> of 1861–1865 the <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">United States</a> made several amphibious assaults along the coastlines of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States</a>. Actions at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hatteras_Inlet_Batteries" title="Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries">Hatteras Inlet</a> (August 1861) and at Port Royal, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a> were the first of many attacks, others occurring on <a href="/wiki/Roanoke_Island" title="Roanoke Island">Roanoke Island</a>, NC; <a href="/wiki/Galveston" class="mw-redirect" title="Galveston">Galveston</a>, TX; <a href="/wiki/Fort_Sumter" title="Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morris_Island" title="Morris Island">Morris Island</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Island_(South_Carolina)" title="James Island (South Carolina)">James Island</a>, SC; and several more. The largest such clash happened in January 1865 at <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Fort_Fisher" title="Second Battle of Fort Fisher">Fort Fisher</a>—the largest and most powerful fort in the world at the time—which protected the entrance of <a href="/wiki/Wilmington,_North_Carolina" title="Wilmington, North Carolina">Wilmington, North Carolina</a>. The assaulting force consisted of over 15,000 men and 70 warships with over 600 guns. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fort_Fisher_Bombardment.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Fort_Fisher_Bombardment.jpg/220px-Fort_Fisher_Bombardment.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Fort_Fisher_Bombardment.jpg/330px-Fort_Fisher_Bombardment.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Fort_Fisher_Bombardment.jpg/440px-Fort_Fisher_Bombardment.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1243" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Ships of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Fort_Fisher" title="Second Battle of Fort Fisher">bombarding Fort Fisher</a> prior to the ground assault, during the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Marine_Brigade" title="Mississippi Marine Brigade">Mississippi Marine Brigade</a> was established to act swiftly against <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate</a> forces operating near the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The unit consisted of artillery, cavalry and infantry with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Ram_Fleet" title="United States Ram Fleet">United States Ram Fleet</a> used as transportation.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Amphibious warfare during the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Pacific" title="War of the Pacific">War of the Pacific</a> of 1879 to 1883 saw coordination of army, navy and specialized units. The first amphibious assault of this war took place during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pisagua" title="Battle of Pisagua">Battle of Pisagua</a> when 2,100 <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chilean</a> troops successfully took <a href="/wiki/Pisagua,_Chile" title="Pisagua, Chile">Pisagua</a> from 1,200 <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peruvian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivian</a> defenders on 2 November 1879. <a href="/wiki/Chilean_Navy" title="Chilean Navy">Chilean Navy</a> ships bombarded beach defenses for several hours at dawn,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> followed by open, oared boats landing army <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sapper" title="Sapper">sapper</a> units into waist-deep water, under enemy fire. An outnumbered first landing-wave fought at the beach; the second and third waves in the following hours succeeded in overcoming resistance and moving inland. By the end of the day, an expeditionary army of 10,000 had disembarked at the captured port. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_Army_Landing_on_the_Liaodong_Peninsula_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Japanese_Army_Landing_on_the_Liaodong_Peninsula_1.jpg/220px-Japanese_Army_Landing_on_the_Liaodong_Peninsula_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Japanese_Army_Landing_on_the_Liaodong_Peninsula_1.jpg/330px-Japanese_Army_Landing_on_the_Liaodong_Peninsula_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Japanese_Army_Landing_on_the_Liaodong_Peninsula_1.jpg/440px-Japanese_Army_Landing_on_the_Liaodong_Peninsula_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1601" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Japanese landing on <a href="/wiki/Liaodong_Peninsula" title="Liaodong Peninsula">Liaodong Peninsula</a>, 1909</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1881 Chilean ships transported approximately 30,000 men, along with their mounts and equipment, 500 miles (800 km) in order to attack Lima.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chilean commanders commissioned purpose-built, flat-bottomed landing craft that would deliver troops in shallow water closer to the beach, possibly<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (August 2016)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> the first purpose-built amphibious landing-craft in history:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "These [36 shallow draft, flat-bottomed] boats would be able to land three thousand men and twelve guns in a single wave". </p><p>Neutral military observers closely studied landing tactics and operations during the War of the Pacific: two <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> ships monitored the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pisagua" title="Battle of Pisagua">Battle of Pisagua</a>; <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> observer Lt. <a href="/wiki/Theodorus_B._M._Mason" title="Theodorus B. M. Mason">Theodorus B. M. Mason</a> included an account in his report <i>The War on the Pacific Coast of South America</i>. The <a href="/wiki/USS_Wachusett_(1861)" title="USS Wachusett (1861)">USS <i>Wachusett</i></a> with <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Alfred Thayer Mahan</a> in command, was stationed at Callao, Peru, protecting American interests during the final stages of the War of the Pacific. He formulated his concept of sea power while reading a history book in an English <a href="/wiki/Gentleman%27s_club" class="mw-redirect" title="Gentleman's club">gentleman's club</a> in Lima, Peru. This concept became the foundation for his celebrated <i><a href="/wiki/The_Influence_of_Sea_Power_upon_History" title="The Influence of Sea Power upon History">The Influence of Sea Power upon History</a></i> (1890).<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An amphibious assault took place on the beaches of <a href="/wiki/Veracruz_(city)" title="Veracruz (city)">Veracruz, Mexico</a> in 1914, when the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Veracruz" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of Veracruz">attacked and occupied the city</a> as result of the <a href="/wiki/Tampico_Affair" title="Tampico Affair">Tampico Affair</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_operations">Modern operations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Modern operations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Amphibious_warfare" title="Special:EditPage/Amphibious warfare">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">June 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-017-32,_Besetzung_Insel_%C3%96sel,_Linienschiff_und_Zeppelin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-017-32%2C_Besetzung_Insel_%C3%96sel%2C_Linienschiff_und_Zeppelin.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-017-32%2C_Besetzung_Insel_%C3%96sel%2C_Linienschiff_und_Zeppelin.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-017-32%2C_Besetzung_Insel_%C3%96sel%2C_Linienschiff_und_Zeppelin.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-017-32%2C_Besetzung_Insel_%C3%96sel%2C_Linienschiff_und_Zeppelin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-017-32%2C_Besetzung_Insel_%C3%96sel%2C_Linienschiff_und_Zeppelin.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_146-1971-017-32%2C_Besetzung_Insel_%C3%96sel%2C_Linienschiff_und_Zeppelin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="534" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>German battleship <a href="/wiki/SMS_Grosser_Kurf%C3%BCrst_(1913)" title="SMS Grosser Kurfürst (1913)"><i>Grosser Kurfürst</i></a> during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Albion" title="Operation Albion">Operation Albion</a> in October 1917</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> marked the beginning of the first modern amphibious warfare operations. However, tactics and equipment were still rudimentary and required much improvisation. </p><p>At the time, British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marine_Light_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Marine Light Infantry">Royal Marine Light Infantry</a> (merged with the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marine_Artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Marine Artillery">Royal Marine Artillery</a> in the 1920s to form the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a>) were used primarily as naval parties onboard <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> warships to maintain discipline and man ships' guns. The RMLI joined a new <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> division, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Division" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Naval Division">Royal Naval Division</a>, formed in 1914 (out of those not needed on ships) to fight on land; however, throughout the conflict, army units were depended upon to provide the bulk, if not all, of troops used in amphibious landings. </p><p>The first amphibious assault of the war was the <b>Battle of Bita Paka</b> (11 September 1914) was fought south of Kabakaul, on the island of <a href="/wiki/New_Britain" title="New Britain">New Britain</a>, and was a part of the invasion and subsequent occupation of <a href="/wiki/German_New_Guinea" title="German New Guinea">German New Guinea</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Australian_Naval_and_Military_Expeditionary_Force" title="Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force">Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force</a> (AN&MEF) shortly after the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first British amphibious assault of the war ended in disaster in November 1914. A large <a href="/wiki/British_Indian_Army" title="British Indian Army">British Indian Army</a> force was directed to launch an amphibious assault on <a href="/wiki/Tanga,_Tanzania" title="Tanga, Tanzania">Tanga</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_East_Africa" title="German East Africa">German East Africa</a>. British actions prior to the assault, however, alerted the Germans to prepare to repel an invasion. The Indian forces suffered heavy casualties when they <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tanga" title="Battle of Tanga">advanced on the city</a>, forcing them to withdraw back to their boats, leaving much of their equipment behind.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Russian army and navy also grew adept to amphibious warfare in the <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a>, conducting many raids and bombardments on Ottoman positions.<sup id="cite_ref-halpern_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halpern-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 11 October 1917, German land and naval forces launched an amphibious assault, code named <a href="/wiki/Operation_Albion" title="Operation Albion">Operation Albion</a>, on the islands of <a href="/wiki/Saaremaa" title="Saaremaa">Saaremaa</a> (Ösel), <a href="/wiki/Hiiumaa" title="Hiiumaa">Hiiumaa</a> (Dagö) and <a href="/wiki/Muhu" title="Muhu">Muhu</a> (Moon); they controlled the entrance to the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Riga" title="Gulf of Riga">Gulf of Riga</a>. By the end of the month German forces had successfully overrun the islands forcing the Russians to abandon them with the loss of some 20,000 troops, 100 guns and the <a href="/wiki/Pre-dreadnought_battleship" title="Pre-dreadnought battleship">pre-dreadnought battleship</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Russian_battleship_Slava" title="Russian battleship Slava">Slava</a></i>. The capture of the islands opened a route for German naval forces into the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Finland" title="Gulf of Finland">Gulf of Finland</a> threatening the city of <a href="/wiki/Petrograd" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrograd">Petrograd</a>, a fact that contributed to the cessation of hostilities on the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Eastern Front (World War I)">Eastern front</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gallipoli"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:V_Beach_Helles_Gallipoli.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/V_Beach_Helles_Gallipoli.jpg/250px-V_Beach_Helles_Gallipoli.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/V_Beach_Helles_Gallipoli.jpg/375px-V_Beach_Helles_Gallipoli.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/V_Beach_Helles_Gallipoli.jpg/500px-V_Beach_Helles_Gallipoli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="873" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Landing_at_Cape_Helles" title="Landing at Cape Helles">V Beach</a> about two days after the landing, seen from the bow of the <i><a href="/wiki/SS_River_Clyde" title="SS River Clyde">River Clyde</a></i></figcaption></figure> <p>The first large scale amphibious operations, ones that were to heavily influence theorists in the decades to come, were conducted as part of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gallipoli" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Gallipoli">Battle of Gallipoli</a> in 1915 against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli" title="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</a> peninsula forms the northern bank of the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles" title="Dardanelles">Dardanelles</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">strait</a> that provided a sea route to what was then the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied powers</a> during the war. Intending to secure it, Russia's allies Britain and France launched a naval attack followed by an <a href="#World_War_I_era">amphibious landing</a> on the peninsula with the eventual aim of capturing the Ottoman capital of <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>). Although the naval attack was repelled and the land campaign failed, the campaign was the first modern amphibious landing, and featured air support, specialized landing craft and a <a href="/wiki/Naval_bombardment" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval bombardment">naval bombardment</a>. </p><p>The seaplane tender <a href="/wiki/HMS_Ark_Royal_(1914)" title="HMS Ark Royal (1914)">HMS <i>Ark Royal</i></a> supported the landings under the command of <a href="/wiki/Commander" title="Commander">Commander</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Clark-Hall" title="Robert Clark-Hall">Robert Clark-Hall</a>. Seaplanes were used for <a href="/wiki/Aerial_reconnaissance" title="Aerial reconnaissance">aerial reconnaissance</a>, ground support for the troops <a href="/wiki/Landing_at_Anzac_Cove" title="Landing at Anzac Cove">landing at Anzac Cove</a> and the bombing of fortifications. <i>Ark Royal</i> was augmented by a squadron from the <a href="/wiki/No._203_Squadron_RAF" title="No. 203 Squadron RAF">No. 3 Squadron</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service" title="Royal Naval Air Service">Royal Naval Air Service</a>, operating from a nearby island. </p><p>Initial landings, starting on 25 April, took place in unmodified rowing boats that were extremely vulnerable to attack from the shore defences. The first purpose-built landing craft were built for the campaign. <a href="/wiki/SS_River_Clyde" title="SS River Clyde">SS <i>River Clyde</i></a>, built as a <a href="/wiki/Collier_(ship)" title="Collier (ship)">collier</a>, was adapted to be a <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare_ship" title="Amphibious warfare ship">landing ship</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Landing_at_Cape_Helles" title="Landing at Cape Helles">Landing at Cape Helles</a>. Openings were cut in her steel hull as sally ports from which troops would emerge onto gangways and then to a bridge of smaller boats from the ship to the beach. <a href="/wiki/Sheet_steel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheet steel">Boiler plate</a> and sandbags were mounted on her bow, and behind them a battery of 11 machine guns was installed. The machine gun battery was manned by <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Air_Service" title="Royal Naval Air Service">Royal Naval Air Service</a> men. Work began on painting <i>River Clyde</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s hull sandy yellow as <a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">camouflage</a>, but this was incomplete by the time of the landing.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anzac_Beach_4th_Bn_landing_8am_April_25_1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Anzac_Beach_4th_Bn_landing_8am_April_25_1915.jpg/220px-Anzac_Beach_4th_Bn_landing_8am_April_25_1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Anzac_Beach_4th_Bn_landing_8am_April_25_1915.jpg/330px-Anzac_Beach_4th_Bn_landing_8am_April_25_1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Anzac_Beach_4th_Bn_landing_8am_April_25_1915.jpg/440px-Anzac_Beach_4th_Bn_landing_8am_April_25_1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="486" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Landing_at_Anzac_Cove" title="Landing at Anzac Cove">Anzac Beach</a> amphibious landing, on 25 April 1915</figcaption></figure> <p>It was soon clear that the Turkish defence was equipped with rapid-fire weapons, which meant that ordinary landing boats were inadequate for the task. In February 1915, orders had been placed for the design of purpose built landing craft. A design was created in four days resulting in an order for 200 'X' <i>Lighters</i> with a <a href="/wiki/Spoon-shaped_bow" class="mw-redirect" title="Spoon-shaped bow">spoon-shaped bow</a> to take shelving beaches and a drop down frontal ramp. </p><p>The first use took place after they had been towed to the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a> and performed successfully in the 6 August <a href="/wiki/Landing_at_Suvla_Bay" title="Landing at Suvla Bay">landing at Suvla Bay</a> of <a href="/wiki/IX_Corps_(United_Kingdom)" title="IX Corps (United Kingdom)">IX Corps</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Commander" title="Commander">Commander</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Unwin" title="Edward Unwin">Edward Unwin</a>. </p><p>'X' <i>Lighters</i>, known to the soldiers as 'Beetles', carried about 500 men, displaced 135 tons and were based on London barges being 105 feet, 6 inches long, 21 feet wide, and 7 feet, 6 inches deep. The engines mainly ran on heavy oil and ran at a speed of approximately 5 knots. The sides of the ships were bullet proof, and was designed with a ramp on the bow for disembarkation. A plan was devised to land <a href="/wiki/Mark_I_tank#Mark_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark I tank">British heavy tanks</a> from pontoons in support of the <a href="/wiki/Third_Battle_of_Ypres" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Battle of Ypres">Third Battle of Ypres</a>, but this was abandoned.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sedd-el-Bahr_from_River_Clyde.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sedd-el-Bahr_from_River_Clyde.jpg/220px-Sedd-el-Bahr_from_River_Clyde.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sedd-el-Bahr_from_River_Clyde.jpg/330px-Sedd-el-Bahr_from_River_Clyde.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sedd-el-Bahr_from_River_Clyde.jpg/440px-Sedd-el-Bahr_from_River_Clyde.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1035" data-file-height="602" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Landing_at_Cape_Helles" title="Landing at Cape Helles">Landing at Cape Helles</a>, at <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_Campaign#Landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallipoli Campaign">Gallipoli</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The lessons of the Gallipoli campaign had a significant impact upon the development of amphibious operational planning,<sup id="cite_ref-Wahlert_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wahlert-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have since been studied by military planners prior to operations such as the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_Landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandy Landings">Normandy Landings</a> in 1944 and during the <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a> in 1982.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The campaign also influenced <a href="/wiki/US_Marine_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="US Marine Corps">US Marine Corps</a> amphibious operations during the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>, and continues to influence US amphibious doctrine. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a> the campaign "became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare" in the United Kingdom and United States,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because it involved the four types of amphibious operations: the raid, demonstration, assault and withdrawal.<sup id="cite_ref-Wahlert_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wahlert-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analysis of the campaign before <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> led to a belief among many <a href="/wiki/Armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces">armed forces</a> that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences. The perception continued until the <a href="/wiki/Normandy_Landings" class="mw-redirect" title="Normandy Landings">Normandy Landings</a> in June 1944, despite some successful examples of amphibious operations earlier in the war, such as those in <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Italy" title="Allied invasion of Italy">Italy</a>, and at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Tarawa</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_and_Marshall_Islands_campaign" title="Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign">Gilbert Islands</a> in the Pacific.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the negative perception prevailed among Allied planners in the interwar years, the war situation after 1940 meant that such operations had to be considered. However, despite early successes in North Africa and Italy, it was not until Normandy that the belief that opposed landings could not succeed was completely excised. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interwar_developments">Interwar developments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Interwar developments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the first amphibious landings involving armour was conducted by the <a href="/wiki/National_Army_(Ireland)" title="National Army (Ireland)">Irish National Army</a> in 1922, during the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Civil_War" title="Irish Civil War">Irish Civil War</a>. Landings against Republican rebels at <a href="/wiki/Westport,_County_Mayo" title="Westport, County Mayo">Westport</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fenit" title="Fenit">Fenit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cork_(city)" title="Cork (city)">Cork</a> all involved armour cars. The Westport and Fenit landings involved light armoured cars and <a href="/wiki/QF_18-pounder_gun" title="QF 18-pounder gun">18-pounder</a> artillery guns being hoisted off the ships by crane. Heavier armoured cars were used at Cork, resulting in some difficulty. While Irish troops could reach the coast in small boats from naval vessels offshore, the ships had to dock to unload the heavy vehicles and artillery guns. These operations were a major success for the Irish government forces, mainly due to the element of surprise and the use of armoured vehicles and artillery. Government forces were able to capture all the major towns and cities in southern <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Alhucemas_landing" title="Alhucemas landing">Alhucemas landing</a> on 8 September 1925, performed by a Spanish-French coalition against rebel Berber tribesmen in the north of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, was an amphibious landing where tanks were used for the first time and massive aerial and <a href="/wiki/Naval_gunfire_support" title="Naval gunfire support">naval gunfire support</a> was employed by the landing forces, directed by spotting personnel with communication devices. </p><p>Floating depots were organized with medical, water, ammunition and food supplies, to be dispatched ashore when needed. The barges used in this landing were the surviving "K" boats from <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli" title="Gallipoli">Gallipoli</a>, upgraded in Spanish shipyards. </p><p>In 1938, Japanese forces attacked Chinese defenders over the <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Yangtze River">Yangtze River</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a>. Soon, the Japanese would later further improve its techniques upon seaborne assaults by the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a>. By World War II, marines such as the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Special_Naval_Landing_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces">Special Naval Landing Force</a> used amphibious landings to attack and sweep across territories in South East Asia. Their technique of surprise landings with naval support inspired the British and American landings in World War II such as <a href="/wiki/D-Day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day">D-Day</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific Campaign</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Britain">Britain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Britain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Troops_marching_up_beach_during_loading_for_Kiska_operation,_13_August_1943_(80-G-475421).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Troops_marching_up_beach_during_loading_for_Kiska_operation%2C_13_August_1943_%2880-G-475421%29.jpg/220px-Troops_marching_up_beach_during_loading_for_Kiska_operation%2C_13_August_1943_%2880-G-475421%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Troops_marching_up_beach_during_loading_for_Kiska_operation%2C_13_August_1943_%2880-G-475421%29.jpg/330px-Troops_marching_up_beach_during_loading_for_Kiska_operation%2C_13_August_1943_%2880-G-475421%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Troops_marching_up_beach_during_loading_for_Kiska_operation%2C_13_August_1943_%2880-G-475421%29.jpg/440px-Troops_marching_up_beach_during_loading_for_Kiska_operation%2C_13_August_1943_%2880-G-475421%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4618" data-file-height="4410" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Mechanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Craft Mechanized">Landing Craft Mechanized</a> was designed by <a href="/wiki/Inter-Service_Training_and_Development_Centre" title="Inter-Service Training and Development Centre">Inter-Service Training and Development Centre</a> from 1938 as the first specialized amphibious ship for the transportation of tanks.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Inter-war_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-war period">inter-war period</a>, the combination of the negative experience at <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a> and economic stringency contributed to the delay in procuring equipment and adopting a universal doctrine for amphibious operations in the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. </p><p>The costly failure of the <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli campaign</a> coupled with the emerging potential of <a href="/wiki/Airpower" title="Airpower">airpower</a> satisfied many in naval and military circles that the age of amphibious operations had come to a close.<sup id="cite_ref-Maund_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maund-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, throughout the 1920s and 1930s, animated discussion in <a href="/wiki/Staff_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Staff College">Staff Colleges</a> in Britain and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Army" title="Indian Army">Indian Army</a> Staff College at <a href="/wiki/Quetta" title="Quetta">Quetta</a> surrounded the strategic potential of the <a href="/wiki/Dardanelles_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Dardanelles campaign">Dardanelles campaign</a> compared with the strategic stalemate of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>. The economic austerity of the worldwide <a href="/wiki/Economic_depression" title="Economic depression">economic depression</a> and the government's adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Year_Rule" title="Ten Year Rule">Ten Year Rule</a> assured that such theoretical talk would not result in the procurement of any large scale equipment. </p><p>Despite this outlook, the British produced the <i><a href="/wiki/Motor_Landing_Craft" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor Landing Craft">Motor Landing Craft</a></i> in 1920, based on their experience with the early 'Beetle' armoured transport. The craft could put a medium tank directly onto a beach. From 1924, it was used with landing boats in annual exercises in amphibious landings. It was later called <i>Landing Craft, Mechanized</i> (<i>LCM</i>) and was the predecessor of all <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Mechanized" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Craft Mechanized">landing craft mechanised</a> (LCM).<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">Army</a> and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> formed a landing craft committee to "recommend... the design of landing craft".<sup id="cite_ref-Maund_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maund-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prototype motor landing craft, designed by <a href="/wiki/J._Samuel_White" title="J. Samuel White">J. Samuel White</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cowes" title="Cowes">Cowes</a>, was built and first sailed in 1926.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It weighed 16 tons and had a box-like appearance, having a square bow and stern. To prevent fouling of the propellers in a craft destined to spend time in surf and possibly be beached, a crude <a href="/wiki/Pump-jet" title="Pump-jet">waterjet</a> propulsion system was devised by White's designers. A <a href="/wiki/Hotchkiss_et_Cie" title="Hotchkiss et Cie">Hotchkiss</a> petrol engine drove a centrifugal pump which produced a jet of water, pushing the craft ahead or astern, and steering it, according to how the jet was directed. Speed was 5–6 <a href="/wiki/Knot_(unit)" title="Knot (unit)">knots</a> and its beaching capacity was good.<sup id="cite_ref-Fergusson_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fergusson-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1930, three MLC were operated by the Royal Navy. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Commandos_Patch.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/British_Commandos_Patch.svg/220px-British_Commandos_Patch.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/British_Commandos_Patch.svg/330px-British_Commandos_Patch.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/British_Commandos_Patch.svg/440px-British_Commandos_Patch.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="403" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Inter-Service_Training_and_Development_Centre" title="Inter-Service Training and Development Centre">Inter-Service Training and Development Centre</a>, which helped to pioneer modern amphibious warfare doctrine, came under the command of Combined Operations Headquarters in June 1940. Pictured, the badge of Combined Operations.</figcaption></figure> <p>For a short journey, from shore to shore, the cargo could be rolled or carried into the boat over its ramp. On longer journeys, ship to shore, a derrick would lower the MLC into the sea from the transporting vessel. The derrick would then lower the vehicle or cargo load. Upon touching down on shore, soldiers or vehicles exited by the <a href="/wiki/Bow_(ship)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bow (ship)">bow</a> ramp. </p><p>Although there was much official apathy toward amphibious operations, this began to change in the late 1930s. The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Staff_College" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Naval Staff College">Royal Naval Staff College</a> at Greenwich, drafted a document detailing combined operations requirements and submitted it to the <a href="/wiki/Chiefs_of_Staff_Committee" title="Chiefs of Staff Committee">Chiefs of Staff</a> in 1936. The document recommended the establishment of an inter-service 'Training and Development Centre', with a permanent force of <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a> attached to it. Its functions were to "train in all methods for the seizure of defended beaches; develop the materiel necessary for such methods, with special regard to protection of troops, speed of landing, and the attainment of surprise; and develop methods and materiel for the destruction or neutralization of enemy defenses, including bombardment and aircraft co-operation.<sup id="cite_ref-Fergusson_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fergusson-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Inter-Service_Training_and_Development_Centre" title="Inter-Service Training and Development Centre">Inter-Service Training and Development Centre</a> was established at <a href="/wiki/Fort_Cumberland_(England)" title="Fort Cumberland (England)">Fort Cumberland</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Portsmouth" title="Portsmouth">Portsmouth</a> in 1938,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and brought together representatives from the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">Army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Royal_Air_Force" title="Royal Air Force">Royal Air Force</a> convened with the portfolio of developing methods and equipment to use in <a href="/wiki/Combined_Operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined Operations">Combined Operations</a>. </p><p>The Centre examined certain specific problems, including craft for landing tanks, beach organisation, floating piers, headquarters ships, amphibian tanks, underwater obstacles, the landing of water and petrol and the use of small craft in amphibious raids<sup id="cite_ref-Fergusson_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fergusson-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of 1939 the ISTDC had codified a policy for landings, and defended it at Staff College discussions. Operational experience during the <a href="/wiki/Second_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second World War">Second World War</a> introduced modifications to this landing policy, but it was essentially the policy used in the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Torch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Husky" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Husky">Husky</a> landings four years later.<sup id="cite_ref-Maund_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maund-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The essential shape of this landing policy is described by Bernard Fergusson in <i>The Watery Maze</i>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> The system provided for an approach under cover of darkness in fast ships carrying special craft; the craft being sent ashore while the ships lay out of sight of land; small-craft smoke and gun protection while the beachhead was seized; the landing of a reserve; the capture of a covering position far enough inland to secure the beach and anchorage from enemy fire; the bringing in of ships carrying the main body; and finally the discharge of vehicles and stores by other craft specially designed to do so directly on to beaches. And in all this it was important to achieve tactical surprise.<sup id="cite_ref-Fergusson_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fergusson-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Among the many tactical innovations introduced by the centre, codified in the <i>Manual on Combined Operations</i> and the <i>Standard Naval Bombardment Code</i>, was the use of Floating Piers (<a href="/wiki/Pontoon_(boat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontoon (boat)">pontoons</a>) to bridge the water gap, the creation of Smoke Generating devices to obscure the assault and the use of <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> directional beacons for landing accuracy. The centre also played a role in the development of the first specialized landing crafts, including the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Assault Landing Craft</a>, the <a href="/wiki/LCM_1" title="LCM 1">Mechanized Landing Craft</a> (LCM(1)), the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Tank" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Craft Tank">Landing Craft Tank (Mk. 1)</a>, Support Landing Craft LCS(1), LCS(2) and <a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Ship Infantry">Landing Ship Infantry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Divisional-sized amphibious landing exercises were carried out by the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a> in the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ellis_EarlH_USMC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ellis_EarlH_USMC.jpg/220px-Ellis_EarlH_USMC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ellis_EarlH_USMC.jpg/330px-Ellis_EarlH_USMC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Ellis_EarlH_USMC.jpg/440px-Ellis_EarlH_USMC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Major <a href="/wiki/Earl_Hancock_Ellis" title="Earl Hancock Ellis">Earl Hancock Ellis</a> developed amphibious warfare doctrine for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">United States Marine Corps</a> in the interwar period, and successfully predicted the nature of the subsequent <a href="/wiki/Asiatic-Pacific_Theater" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiatic-Pacific Theater">Pacific campaign</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In contrast to the British attitude, the U.S. military, especially the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a> remained enthusiastic at the possibilities of amphibious warfare. The Marine Corps was searching for an expanded mission after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, during which it had merely been used as a junior version of the Army <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>. During the 1920s, it found a new mission—to be a <a href="/wiki/Rapid_reaction_force" title="Rapid reaction force">fast-reacting</a>, light infantry fighting force carried rapidly to far off locations by the <a href="/wiki/US_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="US Navy">US Navy</a>. Its special role would be amphibious landings on enemy-held islands, but it took years to figure out how to do that. The <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Thayer_Mahan" title="Alfred Thayer Mahan">Mahanian</a> notion of a decisive fleet battle required <a href="/wiki/Forward_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Forward base">forward bases</a> for the Navy close to the enemy. After the <a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a> the Marines gained the mission of occupying and defending those forward bases, and began a training program on <a href="/wiki/Culebra,_Puerto_Rico" title="Culebra, Puerto Rico">Culebra Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Puerto_Rico" title="Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis,_ch_12_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis,_ch_12-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as 1900 the <a href="/wiki/General_Board_of_the_United_States_Navy" title="General Board of the United States Navy">General Board of the United States Navy</a> considered building advance bases for naval operations in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a>. The Marine Corps was given this mission in 1920, but the challenge was to avoid another disaster like <a href="/wiki/Gallipoli_campaign" title="Gallipoli campaign">Gallipoli</a>. The conceptual breakthrough came in 1921 when <a href="/wiki/Earl_Hancock_Ellis" title="Earl Hancock Ellis">Major "Pete" Ellis</a> wrote <i>Advanced Base Operations in Micronesia</i> a secret 30,000-word manifesto that proved inspirational to Marine strategists and highly prophetic.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To win a war in the Pacific, the Navy would have to fight its way through thousands of miles of ocean controlled by the Japanese—including the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marianas_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Marianas Islands">Marianas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu</a> island chains. If the Navy could land Marines to seize selected islands, they could become forward bases. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Darke_APA-159_-_LCVP_18.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Darke_APA-159_-_LCVP_18.jpg/220px-Darke_APA-159_-_LCVP_18.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Darke_APA-159_-_LCVP_18.jpg/330px-Darke_APA-159_-_LCVP_18.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Darke_APA-159_-_LCVP_18.jpg/440px-Darke_APA-159_-_LCVP_18.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="619" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/LCVP_(United_States)" title="LCVP (United States)">LCVPs</a>, known as 'Higgins Boats', were the first specialized landing craft for the US Navy. Pictured, <a href="/wiki/USS_Darke" title="USS Darke">USS <i>Darke</i></a> LCVP 18, possibly with Army troops as reinforcements at <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Prefecture" title="Okinawa Prefecture">Okinawa</a>, 1945.</figcaption></figure> <p>Ellis argued that with an enemy prepared to defend the beaches, success depended on high-speed movement of waves of <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">assault craft</a>, covered by heavy <a href="/wiki/Naval_bombardment" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval bombardment">naval gunfire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Airstrike" title="Airstrike">attack from the air</a>. He predicted that the decisive action would take place on the beach itself, so the assault teams would need not just infantry but also <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine gun</a> units, <a href="/wiki/Light_artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Light artillery">light artillery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Light_tanks" class="mw-redirect" title="Light tanks">light tanks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">combat engineers</a> to defeat beach obstacles and defenses. Assuming the enemy had its own artillery, the landing craft would have to be specially built to protect the landing force. The failure at Gallipoli came because the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman empire">Turks</a> could easily reinforce the specific landing sites. The Japanese would be unable to land new forces on the islands under attack.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not knowing which of the many islands would be the American target, the Japanese would have to disperse their strength by garrisoning many islands that would never be attacked. An island like <a href="/wiki/Eniwetok" class="mw-redirect" title="Eniwetok">Eniwetok</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>, would, Ellis estimated, require two regiments, or 4,000 Marines. Guided by Marine <a href="/wiki/Aerial_reconnaissance" title="Aerial reconnaissance">observer aircraft</a>, and supplemented by Marine <a href="/wiki/Light_bomber" title="Light bomber">light bombers</a>, warships would provide enough firepower so that Marines would not need any <a href="/wiki/Heavy_artillery" class="mw-redirect" title="Heavy artillery">heavy artillery</a> (in contrast to the Army, which relied heavily on its artillery). Shelling defended islands was a new mission for warships. The Ellis model was officially endorsed in 1927 by the Joint Board of the Army and Navy (a forerunner of the Joint Chiefs of Staff).<sup id="cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis,_ch_12_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis,_ch_12-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, actual implementation of the new mission took another decade because the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a> was preoccupied in <a href="/wiki/Central_America" title="Central America">Central America</a> and the Navy was slow to start training in how to support the landings. The prototype <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Base_Force" title="Advanced Base Force">advanced base force</a> officially evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Marine_Force" title="Fleet Marine Force">Fleet Marine Force</a> (FMF) in 1933.<sup id="cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1939, during the annual <a href="/wiki/Fleet_Landing_Exercises" title="Fleet Landing Exercises">Fleet Landing Exercises</a>, the FMF became interested in the military potential of <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Higgins" title="Andrew Higgins">Andrew Higgins</a>'s design of a powered, shallow-<a href="/wiki/Draft_(hull)" title="Draft (hull)">draught</a> boat. These <a href="/wiki/LCVP_(United_States)" title="LCVP (United States)">LCVPs</a>, dubbed the 'Higgins Boats', were reviewed and passed by the U.S. Naval <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Construction_and_Repair" title="Bureau of Construction and Repair">Bureau of Construction and Repair</a>. Soon, the Higgins boats were developed to a final design with a ramp, and were produced in large numbers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_World_War">Second World War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Second World War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg/220px-Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg/330px-Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg/440px-Into_the_Jaws_of_Death_23-0455M_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2963" data-file-height="2385" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Into_the_Jaws_of_Death" title="Into the Jaws of Death">Into the Jaws of Death</a></i>: Troops from the U.S. 1st Division landing on Omaha beach as part of Operation Overlord</figcaption></figure> <p>By the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a> tactics and equipment had moved on. The first use of British landing craft in an opposed landing in the Second World War, saw the disembarkation of <a href="/wiki/French_Foreign_Legion" title="French Foreign Legion">French Foreign Legionnaires</a> of the <a href="/wiki/13th_Demi-Brigade_of_the_Foreign_Legion" title="13th Demi-Brigade of the Foreign Legion">13th Demi-Brigade</a> and supporting French <a href="/wiki/Hotchkiss_H39" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotchkiss H39">Hotchkiss H39</a> tanks on the beach at <a href="/wiki/Bjerkvik" title="Bjerkvik">Bjerkvik</a>, <span style="white-space:nowrap">eight miles (13 km)</span> above Narvik, on 13 May during the Norwegian campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-Buffetaut_1994,_p._27_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buffetaut_1994,_p._27-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first major and successful amphibious operation was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Madagascar#Landings_(Operation_Ironclad)" title="Battle of Madagascar">Operation Ironclad</a>, a British campaign to capture <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy French-controlled</a> <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>. The naval contingent consisted of over 50 vessels, drawn from <a href="/wiki/Force_H" title="Force H">Force H</a>, the <a href="/wiki/British_Home_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="British Home Fleet">British Home Fleet</a> and the British <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Fleet" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Fleet">Eastern Fleet</a>, commanded by Rear Admiral <a href="/wiki/Edward_Neville_Syfret" title="Edward Neville Syfret">Edward Neville Syfret</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IWM_A_012399_Madagascar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/IWM_A_012399_Madagascar.jpg/220px-IWM_A_012399_Madagascar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/IWM_A_012399_Madagascar.jpg/330px-IWM_A_012399_Madagascar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/IWM_A_012399_Madagascar.jpg/440px-IWM_A_012399_Madagascar.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="593" /></a><figcaption>19 September 1942, Allied troops disembarking from a <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Landing Craft Assault</a> (LCA) in <a href="/wiki/Toamasina" title="Toamasina">Toamasina</a> harbour</figcaption></figure> <p>The fleet included the aircraft carrier <i>Illustrious</i>, her sister ship <i>Indomitable</i> and the aging battleship <i>Ramillies</i> to cover the landings. The first wave of the <a href="/wiki/29th_Infantry_Brigade_(United_Kingdom)" title="29th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)">British 29th Infantry Brigade</a> and <a href="/wiki/No._5_Commando" title="No. 5 Commando">No. 5 Commando</a> landed in <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">assault craft</a> on 5 May 1942, follow-up waves were by two brigades of the <a href="/wiki/5th_Infantry_Division_(United_Kingdom)" title="5th Infantry Division (United Kingdom)">5th Infantry Division</a> and Royal Marines. Air cover was provided mainly by <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Albacore" title="Fairey Albacore">Fairey Albacore</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fairey_Swordfish" title="Fairey Swordfish">Fairey Swordfish</a> <a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">torpedo</a> bombers which attacked Vichy shipping. </p><p>Purpose-built <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">landing craft</a> were among the vessels used at the evacuation from <a href="/wiki/Dunkirk" title="Dunkirk">Dunkirk</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dunkirk_evacuation" title="Dunkirk evacuation">Operation Dynamo</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an amphibious operation was tried out at <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe</a> in 1942. The operation proved a costly failure, but the lessons, hard learned, were used later. Many small-scale operations were conducted by the Allies on the Axis-held coast of Europe, including raids on the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Claymore" title="Operation Claymore">Lofoten Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/St_Nazaire_Raid" title="St Nazaire Raid">St Nazaire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Biting" title="Operation Biting">Bruneval</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Specialized_infantry_landing_craft">Specialized infantry landing craft</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Specialized infantry landing craft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canadian_landings_at_Juno_Beach.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Canadian_landings_at_Juno_Beach.jpg/220px-Canadian_landings_at_Juno_Beach.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Canadian_landings_at_Juno_Beach.jpg/330px-Canadian_landings_at_Juno_Beach.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Canadian_landings_at_Juno_Beach.jpg/440px-Canadian_landings_at_Juno_Beach.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2821" data-file-height="2161" /></a><figcaption>Canadian landings at <a href="/wiki/Juno_Beach" title="Juno Beach">Juno Beach</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Landing Craft Assault</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the run up to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, many specialized landing craft, both for infantry and vehicles, were developed. In November 1938, the <a href="/wiki/Inter-Service_Training_and_Development_Centre" title="Inter-Service Training and Development Centre">Inter-Service Training and Development Centre</a> proposed a new type of <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">landing craft</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maund_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maund-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its specifications were to weigh less than ten <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long tons</a>, to be able to carry the thirty-one men of a British Army <a href="/wiki/Platoon" title="Platoon">platoon</a> and five <a href="/wiki/Royal_Engineers" title="Royal Engineers">assault engineers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Royal_Signal_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Signal Corps">signallers</a>, and to be so shallow drafted as to be able to land them, wet only up to their knees, in eighteen inches of water.<sup id="cite_ref-Maund_35-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maund-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these specifications made the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Landing Craft Assault</a>; a separate set of requirements were laid down for a vehicle and supplies carrier, although previously the two roles had been combined in the <a href="/wiki/Motor_Landing_Craft" class="mw-redirect" title="Motor Landing Craft">Motor Landing Craft</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_LCA_commandos.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/British_LCA_commandos.jpg/170px-British_LCA_commandos.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/British_LCA_commandos.jpg/255px-British_LCA_commandos.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/British_LCA_commandos.jpg/340px-British_LCA_commandos.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="631" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Royal_Naval_Commandos" title="Royal Naval Commandos">Royal Navy Beach Commandos</a> aboard a <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Landing Craft Assault</a> of the 529th Flotilla, Royal Navy</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/J._Samuel_White" title="J. Samuel White">J. S. White</a> of Cowes built a prototype to the Fleming design.<sup id="cite_ref-Buffetaut,_p._26_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buffetaut,_p._26-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eight weeks later the craft was doing trials on the Clyde. All landing craft designs must find a compromise between two divergent priorities; the qualities that make a good sea boat are opposite those that make a craft suitable for beaching.<sup id="cite_ref-Saunders_1943,_p._11_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saunders_1943,_p._11-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The craft had a hull built of double-diagonal <a href="/wiki/Mahogany" title="Mahogany">mahogany</a> planking. The sides were plated with "10lb. D<small>I</small>HT" armour, a heat treated steel based on D1 steel,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in this case <a href="/wiki/Mangalloy" title="Mangalloy">Hadfield</a>'s Resista <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">4</span></span>".<sup id="cite_ref-Buff49_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buff49-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasion_Training_in_England_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Invasion_Training_in_England_02.jpg/220px-Invasion_Training_in_England_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Invasion_Training_in_England_02.jpg/330px-Invasion_Training_in_England_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Invasion_Training_in_England_02.jpg/440px-Invasion_Training_in_England_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/USS_LCI(L)-326" title="USS LCI(L)-326">USS <i>LCI-326</i></a>, a <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Infantry" title="Landing Craft Infantry">Landing Craft Infantry</a>, during training for <a href="/wiki/D-Day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day">D-Day</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Landing Craft Assault</a> remained the most common British and <a href="/wiki/British_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="British Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a> landing craft of World War II, and the humblest vessel admitted to the books of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a> on <a href="/wiki/D-Day" class="mw-redirect" title="D-Day">D-Day</a>. Prior to July 1942, these craft were referred to as "Assault Landing Craft" (ALC), but "Landing Craft; Assault" (LCA) was used thereafter to conform with the joint US–UK nomenclature system.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Infantry" title="Landing Craft Infantry">Landing Craft Infantry</a> was a stepped up <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship" title="Amphibious assault ship">amphibious assault ship</a>, developed in response to a British request for a vessel capable of carrying and landing substantially more troops than the smaller <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Landing Craft Assault</a> (LCA). The result was a small steel ship that could land 200 troops, traveling from rear bases on its own bottom at a speed of up to 15 knots. The original British design was envisioned as being a "one time use" vessel which would simply ferry the troops across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a>, and were considered an expendable vessel. As such, no troop sleeping accommodations were placed in the original design. This was changed shortly after initial use of these ships, when it was discovered that many missions would require overnight accommodations. </p><p>The first LCI(L)s entered service in 1943 chiefly with the Royal Navy (RN) and United States Navy. Some 923 LCI were built in ten American shipyards and 211 provided under lend-lease to the Royal Navy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Specialized_vehicle_landing_craft">Specialized vehicle landing craft</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Specialized vehicle landing craft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/Inter-Service_Training_and_Development_Centre" title="Inter-Service Training and Development Centre">Inter-Service Training and Development Centre</a>'s (ISTDC) successful development of the infantry carrying <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">LCA</a>, attention turned to the means of efficiently delivering a tank to a beach in 1938. Inquires were made of the army as to the heaviest tank that might be employed in a landing operation. The army wanted to be able to land a 12-ton tank, but the ISTDC, anticipating weight increases in future tank models specified 16 <a href="/wiki/Builder%27s_Old_Measurement#American_tons_burthen" title="Builder's Old Measurement">tons burthen</a> for Mechanised Landing Craft designs.<sup id="cite_ref-Maund_35-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maund-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another governor on any design was the need to land tanks and other vehicles in less than approximately <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1154941027"><span class="frac">2<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">2</span></span> feet of water.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_the_Dieppe_Raid,_August_1942_A11228.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_the_Dieppe_Raid%2C_August_1942_A11228.jpg/220px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_the_Dieppe_Raid%2C_August_1942_A11228.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_the_Dieppe_Raid%2C_August_1942_A11228.jpg/330px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_the_Dieppe_Raid%2C_August_1942_A11228.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_the_Dieppe_Raid%2C_August_1942_A11228.jpg/440px-The_Royal_Navy_during_the_Second_World_War-_the_Dieppe_Raid%2C_August_1942_A11228.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2271" data-file-height="1748" /></a><figcaption>Two examples of the <a href="/wiki/LCM_1" title="LCM 1">LCM 1</a> during the 1942 <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe Raid</a>. On the right is an earlier model without the later fully armoured steering shelter. This craft also has been given additional armour around the tank well and a ramp extension.</figcaption></figure> <p>Design work began at <a href="/wiki/John_I._Thornycroft_%26_Company" title="John I. Thornycroft & Company">John I. Thornycroft Ltd.</a> in May 1938 with trials completing in February 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-Fergusson_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fergusson-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although early LCM(1)s were powered by two Thornycroft 60 bhp petrol engines, the majority were powered by Chrysler, in-line, 6-cylinder Crown petrol engines. Constructed of <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> and selectively clad with armour plate, this shallow-draft, <a href="/wiki/Barge" title="Barge">barge</a>-like boat with a crew of 6, could ferry a tank of 16 long tons to shore at 7 <a href="/wiki/Knot_(unit)" title="Knot (unit)">knots</a> (13 km/h). Depending on the weight of the tank to be transported the craft might be lowered into the water by its davits already loaded or could have the tank placed in it after being lowered into the water. </p><p>Although the Royal Navy had the <a href="/wiki/LCM_1" title="LCM 1">Landing Craft Mechanised</a> at its disposal, in 1940, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> demanded an amphibious vessel capable of landing at least three 36-ton <a href="/wiki/Heavy_tank" title="Heavy tank">heavy tanks</a> directly onto a beach, able to sustain itself at sea for at least a week, and inexpensive and easy to build. <a href="/wiki/Loben_Edward_Harold_Maund" class="mw-redirect" title="Loben Edward Harold Maund">Admiral Maund</a>, Director of the <a href="/wiki/Inter-Service_Training_and_Development_Centre" title="Inter-Service Training and Development Centre">Inter-Service Training and Development Centre</a> (which had developed the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Craft_Assault" title="Landing Craft Assault">Landing Craft Assault</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>), gave the job to naval architect Sir Roland Baker, who within three days completed initial drawings for a 152-foot (46 m) landing craft with a 29-foot (8.8 m) beam and a shallow draft. Ship builders <a href="/wiki/Fairfield_Shipbuilding_and_Engineering_Company" title="Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company">Fairfields</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Brown_%26_Company" title="John Brown & Company">John Brown</a> agreed to work out details for the design under the guidance of the Admiralty Experimental Works at <a href="/wiki/Haslar" title="Haslar">Haslar</a>. Tank tests with models soon determined the characteristics of the craft, indicating that it would make 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph) on engines delivering about 700 hp (520 kW).<sup id="cite_ref-tinarmada_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tinarmada-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Designated the LCT Mark 1, 20 were ordered in July 1940 and a further 10 in October 1940.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The first LCT Mark 1 was launched by <a href="/wiki/Hawthorn_Leslie_and_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawthorn Leslie and Company">Hawthorn Leslie</a> in November 1940. It was an all-welded 372-ton steel-hulled vessel that drew only 3 feet (0.91 m) of water at the bow. Sea trials soon proved the Mark 1 to be difficult to handle and almost unmanageable in some sea conditions. The designers set about correcting the faults of the Mark 1 in the LCT Mark 2. Longer and wider, three Paxman diesel or <a href="/wiki/Napier_Lion" title="Napier Lion">Napier Lion</a> petrol engines replaced the Hall-Scotts, and 15 and 20 lb. armoured shielding was added to the wheelhouse and gun tubs. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LCT202.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/LCT202.jpg/220px-LCT202.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/LCT202.jpg/330px-LCT202.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/LCT202.jpg/440px-LCT202.jpg 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>LCT-202 off the coast of England, 1944</figcaption></figure> <p>The Mark 3 had an additional 32-foot (9.8 m) midsection that gave it a length of 192 feet (59 m) and a displacement of 640 tons. Even with this extra weight, the vessel was slightly faster than the Mark 1. The Mk.3 was accepted on 8 April 1941, and was prefabricated in five sections. The Mark 4 was slightly shorter and lighter than the Mk.3, but had a much wider beam (38 ft 9 in (11.81 m)) and was intended for cross channel operations as opposed to seagoing use. When tested in early assault operations, like the ill-fated Canadian commando raid on <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe</a> in 1942, the lack of manoeuvring ability led to the preference for a shorter overall length in future variants, most of which were built in the United States. </p><p>When the United States entered the war in December 1941, the U.S. Navy had no amphibious vessels at all, and found itself obliged to consider British designs already in existence. One of these, advanced by K.C. Barnaby of <a href="/wiki/John_I._Thornycroft_%26_Company" title="John I. Thornycroft & Company">Thornycroft</a>, was for a double-ended LCT to work with landing ships. The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Ships" title="Bureau of Ships">Bureau of Ships</a> quickly set about drawing up plans for landing craft based on Barnaby's suggestions, although with only one ramp. The result, in early 1942, was the LCT Mark 5, a 117-foot craft with a beam of 32 feet that could accommodate five 30-ton or four 40-ton tanks or 150 tons of cargo. With a crew of twelve men and one officer, this 286 ton landing craft had the merit of being able to be shipped to combat areas in three separate water-tight sections aboard a cargo ship or carried pre-assembled on the flat deck of an <a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship,_Tank" title="Landing Ship, Tank">LST</a>. The Mk.5 would be launched by heeling the LST on its beam to let the craft slide off its chocks into the sea, or cargo ships could lower each of the three sections into the sea where they were joined.<sup id="cite_ref-tinarmada_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tinarmada-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LST_Sicily.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/LST_Sicily.jpg/220px-LST_Sicily.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/LST_Sicily.jpg/330px-LST_Sicily.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/LST_Sicily.jpg/440px-LST_Sicily.jpg 2x" data-file-width="613" data-file-height="799" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canadian</a> LST off-loads an <a href="/wiki/M4_Sherman" title="M4 Sherman">M4 Sherman</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Allied_invasion_of_Sicily" title="Allied invasion of Sicily">Allied invasion of Sicily</a> in 1943.</figcaption></figure> <p>A further development was the <a href="/wiki/Landing_Ship,_Tank" title="Landing Ship, Tank">Landing Ship, Tank</a> designation, built to support amphibious operations by carrying significant quantities of vehicles, cargo, and <a href="/wiki/Landing_troops" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing troops">landing troops</a> directly onto an unimproved shore. The British <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dynamo" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Dynamo">evacuation from Dunkirk</a> in 1940 demonstrated to the <a href="/wiki/British_Admiralty" class="mw-redirect" title="British Admiralty">Admiralty</a> that the Allies needed relatively large, ocean-going ships capable of shore-to-shore delivery of <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a> and other vehicles in <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_assault" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphibious assault">amphibious assaults</a> upon the continent of Europe. The first purpose-built LST design was <a href="/wiki/HMS_Boxer_(F121)" title="HMS Boxer (F121)">HMS <i>Boxer</i></a>. To carry 13 <a href="/wiki/Churchill_tank" title="Churchill tank">Churchill</a> <a href="/wiki/Infantry_tank" title="Infantry tank">infantry tanks</a>, 27 vehicles and nearly 200 men (in addition to the crew) at a speed of 18 knots, it could not have the shallow draught that would have made for easy unloading. As a result, each of the three (<i>Boxer</i>, <i>Bruiser</i>, and <i>Thruster</i>) ordered in March 1941 had a very long ramp stowed behind the bow doors. </p><p>In November 1941, a small delegation from the British Admiralty arrived in the United States to pool ideas with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">United States Navy</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Ships" title="Bureau of Ships">Bureau of Ships</a> with regard to development of ships and also including the possibility of building further <i>Boxer</i>s in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this meeting, it was decided that the Bureau of Ships would design these vessels. The LST(2) design incorporated elements of the first British LCTs from their designer, Sir Rowland Baker, who was part of the British delegation. This included sufficient buoyancy in the ships' sidewalls that they would float even with the tank deck flooded.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The LST(2) gave up the speed of HMS <i>Boxer</i> at only 10 knots but had a similar load while drawing only 3 feet forward when beaching. </p><p>In three separate acts dated 6 February 1942, 26 May 1943, and 17 December 1943, Congress provided the authority for the construction of LSTs along with a host of other auxiliaries, <a href="/wiki/Destroyer_escort" title="Destroyer escort">destroyer escorts</a>, and assorted <a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">landing craft</a>. The enormous building program quickly gathered momentum. Such a high priority was assigned to the construction of LSTs that the previously laid keel of an <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">aircraft carrier</a> was hastily removed to make room for several LSTs to be built in her place. The keel of the first LST was laid down on 10 June 1942 at <a href="/wiki/Newport_News,_Virginia" title="Newport News, Virginia">Newport News</a>, Va., and the first standardized LSTs were floated out of their building dock in October. Twenty-three were in commission by the end of 1942. Lightly armored, they could steam cross the ocean with a full load on their own power, carrying infantry, tanks and supplies directly onto the beaches. Together with 2,000 other landing craft, the LSTs gave the troops a protected, quick way to make combat landings, beginning in summer 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="D-Day">D-Day</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: D-Day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Normandy_landings" title="Normandy landings">Normandy landings</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lci-convoy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Lci-convoy.jpg/220px-Lci-convoy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Lci-convoy.jpg/330px-Lci-convoy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Lci-convoy.jpg/440px-Lci-convoy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="740" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>A large landing craft <a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">convoy</a> crosses the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> on 6 June 1944.</figcaption></figure> <p>The most famous amphibious assaults of the war, and of all time, were the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944, in which British, Canadian, and US forces landed at <a href="/wiki/Utah_Beach" title="Utah Beach">Utah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Omaha_Beach" title="Omaha Beach">Omaha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold_Beach" title="Gold Beach">Gold</a>, <a href="/wiki/Juno_Beach" title="Juno Beach">Juno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sword_Beach" title="Sword Beach">Sword</a> beaches in the largest amphibious operation in history. </p><p>The organizational planning of the landings (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Neptune" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Neptune">Operation Neptune</a>) was in the hands of <a href="/wiki/Admiral" title="Admiral">Admiral</a> <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Ramsay" title="Bertram Ramsay">Bertram Ramsay</a>. It covered the landing of the troops and their re-supply. Many innovative elements were included in the operation to ensure its success. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Operation_Pluto" title="Operation Pluto">Operation Pluto</a> was a scheme developed by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Hartley" title="Arthur Hartley">Arthur Hartley</a>, chief engineer with the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Iranian Oil Company">Anglo-Iranian Oil Company</a>, to construct an undersea <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">oil pipeline</a> under the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">English Channel</a> between <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> to provide logistical support to the landed armies. Allied forces on the European continent required a tremendous amount of fuel. Pipelines were considered necessary to relieve dependence on oil tankers, which could be slowed by bad weather, were susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">German</a> <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">submarines</a>, and were also needed in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a>. <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_William_Lloyd" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey William Lloyd">Geoffrey William Lloyd</a>, the Minister for Petroleum gained the support of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Mountbatten,_1st_Earl_Mountbatten_of_Burma" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma">Admiral Mountbatten</a>, Chief of <a href="/wiki/Combined_Operations" class="mw-redirect" title="Combined Operations">Combined Operations</a> for the operation.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two types of pipeline were developed. The first type was the flexible <i>HAIS</i> pipe with a <span class="nowrap">3 inch</span> (<span class="nowrap">75 mm</span>) diameter lead core, weighing around 55 <a href="/wiki/Long_ton" title="Long ton">long tons</a> per <a href="/wiki/Nautical_mile" title="Nautical mile">nautical mile</a> (<span class="nowrap">30 <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">t</a>/km</span>), was essentially a development by <a href="/wiki/Siemens_Brothers" title="Siemens Brothers">Siemens Brothers</a> (in conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/National_Physical_Laboratory,_UK" class="mw-redirect" title="National Physical Laboratory, UK">National Physical Laboratory</a>) of their existing <a href="/wiki/Undersea_telegraph_cable" class="mw-redirect" title="Undersea telegraph cable">undersea telegraph cables</a>, and known as HAIS (from Hartley-Anglo-Iranian-Siemens). The second type was a less flexible steel pipe of similar diameter, developed by engineers from the <a href="/wiki/Iraq_Petroleum_Company" title="Iraq Petroleum Company">Iraq Petroleum Company</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Burmah_Oil_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Burmah Oil Company">Burmah Oil Company</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PLUTO_Pump_Sandown_Isle_of_Wight.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/PLUTO_Pump_Sandown_Isle_of_Wight.jpg/220px-PLUTO_Pump_Sandown_Isle_of_Wight.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/PLUTO_Pump_Sandown_Isle_of_Wight.jpg/330px-PLUTO_Pump_Sandown_Isle_of_Wight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/PLUTO_Pump_Sandown_Isle_of_Wight.jpg/440px-PLUTO_Pump_Sandown_Isle_of_Wight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2088" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Operation_Pluto" title="Operation Pluto">PLUTO</a> Pump from Sandown on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In June 1942 the Post Office cable ship <i>Iris</i> laid lengths of both Siemens' and Henleys' cable in the Clyde. The pipeline was completely successful and PLUTO was formally brought into the plans for the invasion of Europe. The project was deemed "strategically important, tactically adventurous, and, from the industrial point of view, strenuous"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. After full-scale testing of an 83 km (45 nautical mile) HAIS pipe across the Bristol Channel between <a href="/wiki/Swansea" title="Swansea">Swansea</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> and <a href="/wiki/Watermouth" title="Watermouth">Watermouth</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Devon" title="North Devon">North Devon</a>, the first line to France was laid on 12 August 1944, over the 130 km (70 nautical miles) from <a href="/wiki/Shanklin_Chine" title="Shanklin Chine">Shanklin Chine</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a> across the English Channel to <a href="/wiki/Cherbourg_Naval_Base" title="Cherbourg Naval Base">Cherbourg Naval Base</a>. A further HAIS pipe and two HAMELs followed. As the fighting moved closer to Germany, 17 other lines (11 HAIS and 6 HAMEL) were laid from <a href="/wiki/Dungeness_(headland)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dungeness (headland)">Dungeness</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ambleteuse" title="Ambleteuse">Ambleteuse</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pas-de-Calais" title="Pas-de-Calais">Pas-de-Calais</a>. </p><p>In January 1945, 305 tonnes (300 long tons) of fuel was pumped to France per day, which increased tenfold to 3,048 tonnes (3,000 long tons) per day in March, and eventually to 4,000 tons (almost 1,000,000 Imperial gallons) per day. In total, over 781 000 m<sup>3</sup> (equal to a cube with 92 metre long sides or over 172 million imperial gallons) of <a href="/wiki/Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gasoline</a> had been pumped to the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> forces in Europe by <a href="/wiki/Victory_in_Europe_Day" title="Victory in Europe Day">VE day</a>, providing a critical supply of fuel until a more permanent arrangement was made, although the pipeline remained in operation for some time after.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The time period mentioned near this tag is ambiguous. (February 2011)">when?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Portable harbours</a> were also prefabricated as temporary facilities to allow rapid offloading of cargo onto the beaches during the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">Allied invasion of Normandy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe Raid</a> of 1942 had shown that the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allies</a> could not rely on being able to penetrate the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Wall" title="Atlantic Wall">Atlantic Wall</a> to capture a port on the north French coast. The problem was that large ocean-going ships of the type needed to transport heavy and bulky cargoes and stores needed <a href="/wiki/Draft_(hull)" title="Draft (hull)">sufficient depth of water</a> under their <a href="/wiki/Keel" title="Keel">keels</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">dockside cranes</a>, to off-load their cargo and this was not available except at the already heavily defended French harbours. Thus, the Mulberries were created to provide the port facilities necessary to offload the thousands of men and vehicles, and tons of supplies necessary to sustain <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Operation Overlord</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">Battle of Normandy</a>. The harbours were made up of all the elements one would expect of any harbour: <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">breakwater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pier" title="Pier">piers</a>, roadways etc. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Mulberry_artificial_harbour_off_Arromanches_in_Normandy,_September_1944._BU1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Mulberry_artificial_harbour_off_Arromanches_in_Normandy%2C_September_1944._BU1024.jpg/220px-The_Mulberry_artificial_harbour_off_Arromanches_in_Normandy%2C_September_1944._BU1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Mulberry_artificial_harbour_off_Arromanches_in_Normandy%2C_September_1944._BU1024.jpg/330px-The_Mulberry_artificial_harbour_off_Arromanches_in_Normandy%2C_September_1944._BU1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/The_Mulberry_artificial_harbour_off_Arromanches_in_Normandy%2C_September_1944._BU1024.jpg/440px-The_Mulberry_artificial_harbour_off_Arromanches_in_Normandy%2C_September_1944._BU1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1776" /></a><figcaption>Overall aerial view of the <a href="/wiki/Mulberry_harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Mulberry harbour">Mulberry B harbour</a> "Port Winston" in September 1944</figcaption></figure> <p>At a meeting following the <a href="/wiki/Dieppe_Raid" title="Dieppe Raid">Dieppe Raid</a>, Vice-Admiral <a href="/wiki/John_Hughes-Hallett" title="John Hughes-Hallett">John Hughes-Hallett</a> declared that if a port could not be captured, then one should be taken across the <a href="/wiki/English_Channel" title="English Channel">Channel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept of Mulberry harbours began to take shape when Hughes-Hallett moved to be Naval Chief of Staff to the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Overlord</a> planners. </p><p>The proposed harbours called for many huge <a href="/wiki/Caisson_(engineering)" title="Caisson (engineering)">caissons</a> of various sorts to build breakwaters and piers and connecting structures to provide the roadways. The caissons were built at a number of locations, mainly existing ship building facilities or large beaches like Conwy Morfa around the British coast. The works were let out to commercial construction firms including <a href="/wiki/Balfour_Beatty" title="Balfour Beatty">Balfour Beatty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Costain_Group" title="Costain Group">Costain</a>, <a href="/wiki/BAM_Nuttall" title="BAM Nuttall">Nuttall</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Boot_PLC" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Boot PLC">Henry Boot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_McAlpine" title="Sir Robert McAlpine">Sir Robert McAlpine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lind_%26_Company" title="Peter Lind & Company">Peter Lind & Company</a>, who all still operate today, and <a href="/wiki/Holland,_Hannen_%26_Cubitts" title="Holland, Hannen & Cubitts">Cubitts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holloway_Brothers_(London)" title="Holloway Brothers (London)">Holloway Brothers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mowlem" title="Mowlem">Mowlem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taylor_Woodrow_Construction" title="Taylor Woodrow Construction">Taylor Woodrow</a>, who all have since been absorbed into other businesses that are still operating.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On completion they were towed across the English Channel by <a href="/wiki/Tugboat" title="Tugboat">tugs</a><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to the Normandy coast at only 4.3 Knots (8 km/h or 5 mph), built, operated and maintained by the Corps of Royal Engineers, under the guidance of Reginald D. Gwyther, who was appointed CBE for his efforts. </p><p>By 9 June, just 3 days after D-Day, two harbours codenamed Mulberry "A" and "B" were constructed at <a href="/wiki/Omaha_Beach" title="Omaha Beach">Omaha Beach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arromanches-les-Bains" title="Arromanches-les-Bains">Arromanches</a>, respectively. However, a large storm on 19 June destroyed the American harbour at Omaha, leaving only the British harbour still intact but damaged, which included damage to the 'Swiss Roll' which had been deployed as the most western floating roadway had to be taken out of service. The surviving Mulberry "B" came to be known as <b>Port Winston</b> at Arromanches. While the harbour at Omaha was destroyed sooner than expected, Port Winston saw heavy use for 8 months—despite being designed to last only 3 months. In the 10 months after D-Day, it was used to land over 2.5 million men, 500,000 vehicles, and 4 million tonnes of supplies providing much needed reinforcements in France.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other">Other</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other large amphibious operations in the <a href="/wiki/European_theatre_of_World_War_II" title="European theatre of World War II">European theatre of World War II</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">war in the Pacific</a> include: </p><p><b>Europe:</b> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Location </th> <th>Operation </th> <th>Date </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Weser%C3%BCbung" title="Operation Weserübung">Operation Weserübung</a> (German: <i>Unternehmen Weserübung</i>) </td> <td>9 April 1940 </td> <td>German attack on Norway and Denmark </td></tr> <tr> <td>Cross English Channel </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Sea_Lion" title="Operation Sea Lion">Operation Sea Lion</a> (German: <i>Unternehmen Seelöwe</i>) </td> <td>planned 20 September 1940 </td> <td>Not carried out after Germany failed to gain air supremacy, postponed indefinitely on 17 September 1940 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Crete" title="Battle of Crete">Battle of Crete</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Mercury" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Mercury">Operation Mercury</a> (German: <i>Unternehmen Merkur</i>) </td> <td>20 May 1941 </td> <td>Axis invasion of Crete. Primarily an <a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">airborne assault</a>. The battle lasted about 10 days </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Feodosia_Landing" class="mw-redirect" title="Feodosia Landing">Feodosia Landing</a> </td> <td>December 1941 </td> <td>Soviet forces established a bridgehead on the <a href="/wiki/Kerch_Peninsula" title="Kerch Peninsula">Kerch Peninsula</a> which they maintained until May 1942, but failed to prevent the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Sevastopol_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Siege of Sevastopol (1941–1942)">fall of Sevastopol</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria_assault" title="Yevpatoria assault">Yevpatoria assault</a> </td> <td>January 1942 </td> <td>Stormy weather prevented the reinforcement of Soviet troops from <a href="/wiki/Sevastopol" title="Sevastopol">Sevastopol</a> who landed at <a href="/wiki/Yevpatoria" title="Yevpatoria">Yevpatoria</a> and occupied part of the town for 4 days. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africa campaign">North Africa campaign</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Operation Torch</a> </td> <td>8 November 1942 </td> <td>Three Allied task-forces covering the coasts of <a href="/wiki/US_Naval_Bases_North_Africa" title="US Naval Bases North Africa">French Morocco and Algeria</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sicily </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Husky" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Husky">Operation Husky</a> </td> <td>9 July 1943 </td> <td>Largest amphibious operation of World War II in terms of size of landing-zone and number of divisions put ashore on the first day; see also <a href="/wiki/Operation_Mincemeat" title="Operation Mincemeat">Operation Mincemeat</a> (disinformation), <a href="/wiki/Operation_Ladbroke" title="Operation Ladbroke">Operation Ladbroke</a> (glider landings) and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Fustian" title="Operation Fustian">Operation Fustian</a> (parachute brigade, with glider-borne forces in support) </td></tr> <tr> <td>Salerno </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Avalanche_(World_War_II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Avalanche (World War II)">Operation Avalanche</a> </td> <td>9 September 1943 </td> <td>Also involved two supporting operations: in Calabria (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Baytown" title="Operation Baytown">Operation Baytown</a>, 3 Sept) and Taranto (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Slapstick" title="Operation Slapstick">Operation Slapstick</a>, 9 September). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Crimea </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kerch-Eltigen_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Kerch-Eltigen Operation">Kerch-Eltigen Operation</a> </td> <td>November 1943 </td> <td>Soviet landings preceding the recapture of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Peninsula">Crimean Peninsula</a> from German and Romanian forces. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Anzio </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Shingle" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Shingle">Operation Shingle</a> </td> <td>22 January 1944 </td> <td>Bridgehead pinned down until 23 May 1944, when a breakout (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Diadem" title="Operation Diadem">Operation Diadem</a>) allowed a move on Rome </td></tr> <tr> <td>Southern France </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Dragoon</a> </td> <td>15 August 1944 </td> <td>Operation Dragoon forced a German retreat and accelerated the liberation of France. See also preliminary effort (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon#Planning" title="Operation Dragoon">Operation Sitka</a>), diversion (<a href="/wiki/Operation_Span" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Span">Operation Span</a>), airborne operations (<a href="/wiki/1st_Airborne_Task_Force_(Allied)" title="1st Airborne Task Force (Allied)">1st Airborne Task Force</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Pacific:</b> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Location </th> <th>Operation </th> <th>Date </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Malaya </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Malaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese invasion of Malaya">Battle of Kota Bharu</a> </td> <td>8 December 1941 </td> <td>Following failure to implement <a href="/wiki/Operation_Matador_(1941)" title="Operation Matador (1941)">Operation Matador (1941)</a>, ~5,200 Japanese troops landed on beaches at <a href="/wiki/Kota_Bharu" title="Kota Bharu">Kota Bharu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Philippines </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippines_campaign_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Philippines campaign (1941–1942)">Philippines campaign (1941–1942)</a> </td> <td>8 December 1941 </td> <td>Preliminary landings on <a href="/wiki/Batan_Island" title="Batan Island">Batan Island</a> then <a href="/wiki/Camiguin_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Camiguin Island">Camiguin Island</a>, north of Luzon, and at <a href="/wiki/Vigan" title="Vigan">Vigan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aparri" title="Aparri">Aparri</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gonzaga,_Cagayan" title="Gonzaga, Cagayan">Gonzaga</a> (northern Luzon) were followed by main attack—43,110 men, supported by artillery and approximately 90 tanks, landed at three points along the east coast of <a href="/wiki/Lingayen_Gulf" title="Lingayen Gulf">Lingayen Gulf</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Guadalcanal </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Guadalcanal Campaign">Guadalcanal Campaign</a> </td> <td>7 August 1942 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tarawa </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tarawa" title="Battle of Tarawa">Battle of Tarawa</a> </td> <td>20 November 1943 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Makin atoll </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Makin" title="Battle of Makin">Battle of Makin</a> </td> <td>20 November 1943 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Philippines </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Philippines_Campaign_(1944%E2%80%9345)" class="mw-redirect" title="Philippines Campaign (1944–45)">Philippines Campaign (1944–45)</a> </td> <td>20 October 1944 </td> <td>After capture of the <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Islands" title="Gilbert Islands">Gilbert Islands</a>, some of the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a>, and most of the <a href="/wiki/Marianas_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Marianas Islands">Marianas Islands</a>, landings on <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leyte" title="Battle of Leyte">Leyte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mindoro" title="Battle of Mindoro">Mindoro</a> allowed some 175,000 men to cross the broad beachhead and participate in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Luzon" title="Battle of Luzon">Battle of Luzon</a> within a few days </td></tr> <tr> <td>Iwo Jima </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a> </td> <td>19 February 1945 </td> <td>As part of the American invasion of the island of <a href="/wiki/Iwo_Jima" title="Iwo Jima">Iwo Jima</a>, designated Operation Detachment, during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">Battle of Iwo Jima</a> the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">U.S. Marines</a> landed on and eventually captured the island of Iwo Jima. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Okinawa </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa" title="Battle of Okinawa">Battle of Okinawa</a> </td> <td>1 April 1945 </td> <td>The series of battles fought in the <a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_Islands" title="Ryukyu Islands">Ryukyu Islands</a>, centered on the island of <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Island" title="Okinawa Island">Okinawa</a>, included the largest amphibious assault in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the 1 April 1945 invasion of the island of Okinawa itself.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Seishin_Landing_Operation" class="mw-redirect" title="Seishin Landing Operation">Seishin Landing Operation</a> </td> <td>13 August 1945 </td> <td>Three Soviet amphibious landings in northern <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Korea</a> in the rear of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Malaya </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Zipper" title="Operation Zipper">Operation Zipper</a> </td> <td>planned 9 September 1945 </td> <td>British-planned <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> amphibious assault to capture <a href="/wiki/Port_Swettenham" class="mw-redirect" title="Port Swettenham">Port Swettenham</a> as a staging area for a later invasion of <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a>. Cancelled after the <a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a>, replaced by the unopposed <a href="/wiki/Operation_Jurist" title="Operation Jurist">Operation Jurist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Mailfist" title="Operation Mailfist">Operation Mailfist</a> on 28 August 1945. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Japanese_home_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese home islands">Japanese home islands</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Operation_Downfall" title="Operation Downfall">Operation Downfall</a> </td> <td>planned 1 November 1945 </td> <td>Massive <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II" title="Allies of World War II">Allied</a> invasion planned for <a href="/wiki/Kyushu" title="Kyushu">Kyushu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Honshu" title="Honshu">Honshu</a>, would have been the largest amphibious invasion in history. Canceled after the Surrender of Japan, US troops <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan#Japanese_surrender_and_initial_landings" title="Occupation of Japan">occupy Tokyo</a> unopposed on 28 August 1945 instead </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Korean_War">Korean War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Korean War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landing_craft_approaching_Inchon,_Korea,_on_15_September_1950_(NH_42351).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Landing_craft_approaching_Inchon%2C_Korea%2C_on_15_September_1950_%28NH_42351%29.jpg/220px-Landing_craft_approaching_Inchon%2C_Korea%2C_on_15_September_1950_%28NH_42351%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Landing_craft_approaching_Inchon%2C_Korea%2C_on_15_September_1950_%28NH_42351%29.jpg/330px-Landing_craft_approaching_Inchon%2C_Korea%2C_on_15_September_1950_%28NH_42351%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Landing_craft_approaching_Inchon%2C_Korea%2C_on_15_September_1950_%28NH_42351%29.jpg/440px-Landing_craft_approaching_Inchon%2C_Korea%2C_on_15_September_1950_%28NH_42351%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4476" data-file-height="4484" /></a><figcaption>Landing craft approach Blue Beach during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Inchon" title="Battle of Inchon">Inchon landings</a> on 15 September 1950, covered by the U.S. Navy <a href="/wiki/Destroyer" title="Destroyer">destroyer</a> <a href="/wiki/USS_De_Haven_(DD-727)" title="USS De Haven (DD-727)">USS <i>De Haven</i> (DD-727)</a> (bottom center).</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a> the U.S. <a href="/wiki/X_Corps_(United_States)" title="X Corps (United States)">X Corps</a>, consisting of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Marine_Division_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Marine Division (United States)">1st Marine Division</a> and <a href="/wiki/7th_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="7th Infantry Division (United States)">7th Infantry Division</a> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Inchon" title="Battle of Inchon">landed at Inchon</a>. Conceived of and commanded by U.S. <a href="/wiki/Douglas_MacArthur" title="Douglas MacArthur">General Douglas MacArthur</a>, this landing is considered by many military historians to have been a tactical jewel, one of the most brilliant amphibious maneuvers in history <sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Inchon#Analysis" title="Battle of Inchon">analysis in main article</a>). </p><p>The success of this battle eventually resulted in link up with U.S. Army forces that broke out of the Pusan perimeter, and led by the 1st Cavalry Division and its Task Force Lynch, cleared much of South Korea. A second landing by the Tenth Corps on the east coast approached the Chosin Reservoir and hydroelectric plants that powered much of Communist China's heavy industry, and led to intervention by <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> forces on behalf of <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a>. Amphibious landings also took place during the <a href="/wiki/First_Indochina_War" title="First Indochina War">First Indochina War</a>, notably during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Camargue" title="Operation Camargue">Operation Camargue</a>, one of the largest of the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suez_Crisis_and_Falklands_War">Suez Crisis and Falklands War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Suez Crisis and Falklands War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The British <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a> made their first post-World War II amphibious assault during the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> of 1956 when they successfully landed at <a href="/wiki/Suez" title="Suez">Suez</a> on 6 November as part of a joint seaborne/airborne operation code-named MUSKETEER. </p><p>Despite all the progress that was seen during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be relatively free of obstacles, and have the right <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tidal</a> conditions and the correct slope. However, the development of the helicopter fundamentally changed the equation. </p><p>The first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the Anglo-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt in 1956 (the <a href="/wiki/Suez_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Suez War">Suez War</a>). Two British light fleet carriers were pressed into service to carry helicopters, and a <a href="/wiki/Battalion" title="Battalion">battalion</a>-sized airborne assault was made. Two of the other carriers involved, <a href="/wiki/HMS_Bulwark_(R08)" title="HMS Bulwark (R08)">HMS <i>Bulwark</i> (R08)</a> and <a href="/wiki/HMS_Albion_(R07)" title="HMS Albion (R07)">HMS <i>Albion</i></a>, were converted in the late 1950s into dedicated "commando <a href="/wiki/Landing_Platform_Helicopter#Royal_Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="Landing Platform Helicopter">carriers</a>." </p><p>Nearly 30 years later in the <a href="/wiki/Falklands_War" title="Falklands War">Falklands War</a>, the 1st Marines Brigade of the <a href="/wiki/Argentine_Marine_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Argentine Marine Corps">Argentine Marine Corps</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_Commandos_Group" title="Amphibious Commandos Group">Navy's Special Forces</a> performed <a href="/wiki/Operation_Rosario" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Rosario">Operation Rosario</a> landing at <a href="/wiki/Mullet_Creek" title="Mullet Creek">Mullet Creek</a> near <a href="/wiki/Stanley,_Falkland_Islands" title="Stanley, Falkland Islands">Stanley</a> on 2 April 1982, while later the Royal Marines' <a href="/wiki/3_Commando_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="3 Commando Brigade">3 Commando Brigade</a>, (augmented by the <a href="/wiki/British_Army" title="British Army">British Army</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Parachute_Regiment_(United_Kingdom)" title="Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)">Parachute Regiment</a>) landed at <a href="/wiki/Port_San_Carlos" title="Port San Carlos">Port San Carlos</a> on 21 May 1982 during <a href="/wiki/Operation_Sutton" title="Operation Sutton">Operation Sutton</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landing_at_Cyprus">Landing at Cyprus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Landing at Cyprus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Armed_Forces" title="Turkish Armed Forces">Turkish Armed Forces</a> launched an amphibious assault on 20 July 1974, on <a href="/wiki/Kyrenia" title="Kyrenia">Kyrenia</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/1974_Cypriot_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1974 Cypriot coup d'état">1974 Cypriot coup d'état</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkish</a> naval force provided naval gunfire support during the landing operation and transported the amphibious forces from the port of <a href="/wiki/Mersin" title="Mersin">Mersin</a> to the island. The Turkish landing forces consisted of around 3,000 troops, tanks, armoured personnel carriers and artillery pieces.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_operations_during_the_Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus" title="Military operations during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus">Military operations during the Turkish invasion of Cyprus</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iran-Iraq_war">Iran-Iraq war</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Iran-Iraq war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_al-Faw" title="First Battle of al-Faw">First Battle of al-Faw</a></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>, the Iranians launched Operation Dawn 8 (<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>: عملیات والفجر ۸), in which 100,000 troops comprising 5 Army divisions and 50,000 men from the <a href="/wiki/IRGC" class="mw-redirect" title="IRGC">IRGC</a> and the Basij advanced in a two-pronged offensive into southern Iraq. Taking place between 9 and 25 February, the assault across the Shatt al-Arab achieved significant tactical and operational surprise. The Iranians launched their assault on the peninsula at night, their men arriving on rubber boats. Iranian Navy SEALs spearheaded the offensive despite a shortage of gear. Prior to this action Iranian Naval Commandos performed reconnaissance of the Faw Peninsula. The Iranian SEALs penetrated an obstacle belt and isolated Iraqi bunkers whose troops had taken cover from the heavy rains inside or were sleeping. Iranian demolition teams detonated charges on the obstacles to create a path for the Iranian infantry waiting to begin their assault. </p><p>Not only did the amphibious landings provide a significant lodgement behind Iraq's tactical front, but they also created a psychological shock wave throughout the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> region. Soon after the initial landings, Iranian combat engineers were able to construct bridges to improve the flow of ground troops into the lodgement area. Iran managed to maintain their foothold in Al-Faw against several Iraqi counter-offensives and chemical attacks for another month despite heavy casualties until a stalemate was reached. The Faw Peninsula was later <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_al-Faw" title="Second Battle of al-Faw">recaptured</a> by Iraqi forces, by the massive and illegal <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_chemical_attacks_against_Iran" title="Iraqi chemical attacks against Iran">use of chemical weapons</a>, the same day as the US launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Praying_Mantis" title="Operation Praying Mantis">Operation Praying Mantis</a> on Iran, destroying their navy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persian_Gulf_War">Persian Gulf War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Persian Gulf War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assault_Craft_Unit_5" title="Assault Craft Unit 5">Assault Craft Unit 5</a> was able to position U.S. Marine and naval support off the coast of <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a>. This force was composed of 40 <a href="/wiki/Amphibious_assault_ship" title="Amphibious assault ship">amphibious assault ships</a>, the largest such force to be assembled since the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Inchon" title="Battle of Inchon">Battle of Inchon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The objective was to fix the six Iraqi divisions deployed along the Kuwaiti coast. The purpose behind this amphibious maneuver (known as an amphibious demonstration) was to prevent 6 Iraqi divisions poised for the defense of the littorals from being able to actively engage in combat at the real front. The operation was extremely successful in keeping more than 41,000 Iraqi forces from repositioning to the main battlefield. As a result, the Marines maneuvered through the Iraq defense of southern Kuwait and outflanked the Iraqi coastal defense forces. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Elem_War">Elem War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Elem War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Loading_LTTE_cadres_in_calm_sea.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Loading_LTTE_cadres_in_calm_sea.jpg/220px-Loading_LTTE_cadres_in_calm_sea.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Loading_LTTE_cadres_in_calm_sea.jpg/330px-Loading_LTTE_cadres_in_calm_sea.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Loading_LTTE_cadres_in_calm_sea.jpg/440px-Loading_LTTE_cadres_in_calm_sea.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>LTTE cadres embarking a <a href="/wiki/Sea_Tigers" title="Sea Tigers">Sea Tigers</a> boat.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_civil_war" title="Sri Lankan civil war">Sri Lankan civil war</a> the <a href="/wiki/LTTE" class="mw-redirect" title="LTTE">LTTE</a> used amphibious warfare in some of their successful battles such as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pooneryn" title="Battle of Pooneryn">Battle of Pooneryn</a> in 1992 and <a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Elephant_Pass" title="Second Battle of Elephant Pass">Second Battle of Elephant Pass</a> in 2000 to overrun and capture Sri Lankan Army bases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraq_War">Iraq War</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Iraq War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:U.S._Marines_humping_in_Afghanistan,_November_2001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/U.S._Marines_humping_in_Afghanistan%2C_November_2001.jpg/200px-U.S._Marines_humping_in_Afghanistan%2C_November_2001.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/U.S._Marines_humping_in_Afghanistan%2C_November_2001.jpg/300px-U.S._Marines_humping_in_Afghanistan%2C_November_2001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/U.S._Marines_humping_in_Afghanistan%2C_November_2001.jpg/400px-U.S._Marines_humping_in_Afghanistan%2C_November_2001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1516" data-file-height="1016" /></a><figcaption>In late 2001, <a href="/wiki/USS_Peleliu" title="USS Peleliu">USS <i>Peleliu</i> (LHA-5)</a> <a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_Strike_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Expeditionary Strike Group">amphibious group</a> sent ashore <a href="/wiki/15th_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit" title="15th Marine Expeditionary Unit">15th MEU</a> into Northern Pakistan and Afghanistan.</figcaption></figure> <p>An amphibious assault was carried out by <a href="/wiki/Royal_Marines" title="Royal Marines">Royal Marines</a>, <a href="/wiki/U.S._Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Marines">U.S. Marines</a> and units of the Polish <a href="/wiki/GROM" class="mw-redirect" title="GROM">special forces</a> when they <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Al_Faw_(2003)" title="Battle of Al Faw (2003)">landed</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Al-Faw_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Faw Peninsula">Al-Faw Peninsula</a> on 20 March 2003 during the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">Iraq War</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_of_Anjouan">Invasion of Anjouan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Invasion of Anjouan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 25 March 2008, <a href="/wiki/2008_invasion_of_Anjouan" title="2008 invasion of Anjouan">Operation Democracy in Comoros</a> was launched in the <a href="/wiki/Comoros" title="Comoros">Comoros</a> by government and African Union troops. The amphibious assault led to the ousting of Colonel Bacar's government, which had taken over the autonomous state of Adjouan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Battle_of_Kismayo_(2012)"><span id="Battle_of_Kismayo_.282012.29"></span>Battle of Kismayo (2012)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Battle of Kismayo (2012)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 28 September to 1 October 2012, the <a href="/wiki/Somali_National_Army" title="Somali National Army">Somali National Army</a> launched an assault in conjuncture with allied militia led by <a href="/wiki/Kenya_Defense_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Kenya Defense Forces">Kenya Defense Forces</a> to liberate the city of Kismayo from insurgent control in a first of its kind by an African military. The operation, known as <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kismayo_(2012)" title="Battle of Kismayo (2012)">Operation Sledge Hammer</a>, started with the landing of Somali and Kenyan troops outside the city of <a href="/wiki/Kismayo" title="Kismayo">Kismayo</a>. By 1 October, the coalition forces were able to push <a href="/wiki/Al-Shabaab_(militant_group)" title="Al-Shabaab (militant group)">Al-Shabaab</a> out of the city. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marines_and_similar_forces" title="List of marines and similar forces">List of marines and similar forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raid_(military)#Seaborne" title="Raid (military)">Raid (military)#Seaborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_Amphibious_Training_Base" title="US Amphibious Training Base">US Amphibious Training Base</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The first LVT prototypes were named <i><a href="/wiki/Alligator" title="Alligator">Alligator</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Crocodile" title="Crocodile">Crocodile</a></i>, though neither species is actual <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibian</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Speller, Ian & Tuck, Christopher, <i>Amphibious warfare</i>, Strategy and tactics series, Spellmount, 2001, p. 7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harding, Richard, <i>The Royal Navy, 1930–2000: Innovation And Defense</i>, Taylor & Francis, 2005, p. 44</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_González2017" class="citation book cs1">Rodríguez González, Agustín (2017). <i>Álvaro de Bazán, Capitán general del Mar Océano</i>. EDAF. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8441437791" title="Special:BookSources/978-8441437791"><bdi>978-8441437791</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%81lvaro+de+Baz%C3%A1n%2C+Capit%C3%A1n+general+del+Mar+Oc%C3%A9ano&rft.pub=EDAF&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-8441437791&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Agust%C3%ADn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkman1897" class="citation book cs1">Parkman, Francis (1897). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hV89AAAAYAAJ"><i>A Half-Century of Conflict</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/France_and_England_in_North_America" title="France and England in North America">France and England in North America</a>, Part 6. Vol. II. Boston: Little Brown and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Half-Century+of+Conflict&rft.place=Boston&rft.series=France+and+England+in+North+America%2C+Part+6&rft.pub=Little+Brown+and+Company&rft.date=1897&rft.aulast=Parkman&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhV89AAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnston2007" class="citation book cs1">Johnston, A.J.B. (2007). <i>Endgame 1758: The Promise, the Glory and the Despair of Louisbourg's Last Decade</i>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endgame+1758%3A+The+Promise%2C+the+Glory+and+the+Despair+of+Louisbourg%27s+Last+Decade&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Johnston&rft.aufirst=A.J.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid2003" class="citation cs2">Reid, Stuart (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1GKCbzUCMUEC&q=Quebec%201759%3A%20The%20Battle%20That%20Won%20Canada&pg=PA1"><i>Quebec 1759: The Battle That Won Canada</i></a>, Oxford: Osprey Publishing, p. 50, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85532-605-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85532-605-1"><bdi>1-85532-605-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quebec+1759%3A+The+Battle+That+Won+Canada&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=50&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-85532-605-1&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1GKCbzUCMUEC%26q%3DQuebec%25201759%253A%2520The%2520Battle%2520That%2520Won%2520Canada%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2000" class="citation cs2">Anderson, Fred (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-vMxLslZopgC&q=Crucible%20of%20War%3A%20The%20Seven%20Years%E2%80%99%20War%20and%20the%20Fate%20of%20Empire%20in%20British%20North%20America%2C%201754-1766&pg=PR1"><i>Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766</i></a>, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, p. 353, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-40642-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-40642-5"><bdi>0-375-40642-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crucible+of+War%3A+The+Seven+Years%27+War+and+the+Fate+of+Empire+in+British+North+America%2C+1754%E2%80%931766&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=353&rft.pub=Alfred+A.+Knopf&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-375-40642-5&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-vMxLslZopgC%26q%3DCrucible%2520of%2520War%253A%2520The%2520Seven%2520Years%25E2%2580%2599%2520War%2520and%2520the%2520Fate%2520of%2520Empire%2520in%2520British%2520North%2520America%252C%25201754-1766%26pg%3DPR1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacFarlane1891" class="citation book cs1">MacFarlane, Thomas (1891). <i>Within the Empire; An Essay on Imperial Federation</i>. Ottawa: James Hope & Co. p. 29. <q>Besides the Imperial fortress of Malta, Gibraltar, Halifax and Bermuda it has to maintain and arm coaling stations and forts at Siena Leone, St. Helena, Simons Bay (at the Cape of Good Hope), Trincomalee, Jamaica and Port Castries (in the island of Santa Lucia).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Within+the+Empire%3B+An+Essay+on+Imperial+Federation&rft.place=Ottawa&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=James+Hope+%26+Co.&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=MacFarlane&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy,_R.N.1885" class="citation magazine cs1">Kennedy, R.N., Captain W. R. (1 July 1885). "An Unknown Colony: Sport, Travel and Adventure in Newfoundland and the West Indies". <i>Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine</i>. Edinburgh and London: William Blackwood & Sons. p. 111. <q>As a fortress, Bermuda is of the first importance. It is situated almost exactly half-way between the northern and the southern naval stations; while nature has made it practically impregnable. The only approach lies through that labyrinth of reefs and narrow channels which Captain Kennedy has described. The local pilots are sworn to secrecy ; and, what is more reassuring, by lifting buoys and laying down torpedoes, hostile vessels trying to thread the passage must come to inevitable grief, So far Bermuda may be considered safe, whatever may be the condition of the fortifications and the cannon in the batteries. Yet the universal neglect of our colonial defences is apparent in the fact that no telegraphic communication has hitherto been established with the West Indies on the one side, or with the Dominion of Canada on the other.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Blackwood%27s+Edinburgh+Magazine&rft.atitle=An+Unknown+Colony%3A+Sport%2C+Travel+and+Adventure+in+Newfoundland+and+the+West+Indies&rft.pages=111&rft.date=1885-07-01&rft.aulast=Kennedy%2C+R.N.&rft.aufirst=Captain+W.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVERAX1889" class="citation magazine cs1">VERAX, (anonymous) (1 May 1889). "The Defense of Canada. (From Colburn's United Service Magazine)". <i>The United Service: A Quarterly Review of Military and Naval Affairs</i>. Philadelphia, New York, and London: LR Hamersly & Co. p. 552. <q>The objectives for America are clearly marked,—Halifax, Quebec, Montreal, Prescott, Kingston, Ottawa, Toronto, Winnipeg, and Vancouver. Halifax and Vancouver are certain to be most energetically attacked, for they will be the naval bases, besides Bermuda, from which England would carry on her naval attack on the American coasts and commerce.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+United+Service%3A+A+Quarterly+Review+of+Military+and+Naval+Affairs&rft.atitle=The+Defense+of+Canada.+%28From+Colburn%27s+United+Service+Magazine%29&rft.pages=552&rft.date=1889-05-01&rft.aulast=VERAX&rft.aufirst=%28anonymous%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawsonSutherland1898" class="citation book cs1">Dawson, George M.; Sutherland, Alexander (1898). <i>MacMillan's Geographical Series: Elementary Geography of the British Colonies</i>. London and New York: MacMillan and Co. p. 184. <q>There is a strongly fortified dockyard, and the defensive works, together with the intricate character of the approaches to the harbour, render the islands an almost impregnable fortress. Bermuda is governed as a Crown colony by a Governor who is also Commander-in-Chief, assisted by an appointed Executive Council and a representative House of Assembly.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=MacMillan%27s+Geographical+Series%3A+Elementary+Geography+of+the+British+Colonies&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=MacMillan+and+Co.&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Dawson&rft.aufirst=George+M.&rft.au=Sutherland%2C+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeith1909" class="citation book cs1">Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1909). <i>Responsible Government in The Dominions</i>. London: Stevens and Sons Ltd. p. 5. <q>Bermuda is still an Imperial fortress</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Responsible+Government+in+The+Dominions&rft.place=London&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Stevens+and+Sons+Ltd&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=Keith&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Berriedale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMay,_CMG,_Royal_Artillery1903" class="citation book cs1">May, CMG, Royal Artillery, Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Edward Sinclair (1903). <i>Principles and Problems of Imperial Defence</i>. London and New York: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Limited, London; E. P. Dutton & Co., New York. p. 145. <q>In the North American and West Indian station the naval base is at the Imperial fortress of Bermuda, with a garrison numbering 3068 men, of whom 1011 are Colonials; while at Halifax, Nova Scotia, we have another naval base of the first importance which is to be classed amongst our Imperial fortresses, and has a garrison of 1783 men.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+and+Problems+of+Imperial+Defence&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Swan+Sonnenschein+%26+Co.%2C+Limited%2C+London%3B+E.+P.+Dutton+%26+Co.%2C+New+York&rft.date=1903&rft.aulast=May%2C+CMG%2C+Royal+Artillery&rft.aufirst=Lieutenant-Colonel+Sir+Edward+Sinclair&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNapier,_K.C.B.1857" class="citation book cs1">Napier, K.C.B., Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Patrick (1857). <i>The Life and Opinions of General Sir Charles James Napier, G.C.B. Volume I (of IV)</i>. London, England: John Murray, Albemarle Street.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+and+Opinions+of+General+Sir+Charles+James+Napier%2C+G.C.B.+Volume+I+%28of+IV%29&rft.place=London%2C+England&rft.pub=John+Murray%2C+Albemarle+Street&rft.date=1857&rft.aulast=Napier%2C+K.C.B.&rft.aufirst=Lieutenant-General+Sir+William+Francis+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2012" class="citation news cs1">Harris, Dr. Edward Cecil (21 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.royalgazette.com/archive/lifestyle/article/20120121/bermudas-role-in-the-sack-of-washington/">"Bermuda's role in the Sack of Washington"</a>. <i>The Royal Gazette</i>. City of Hamilton, Pembroke, Bermuda<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Royal+Gazette&rft.atitle=Bermuda%27s+role+in+the+Sack+of+Washington&rft.date=2012-01-21&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Dr.+Edward+Cecil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.royalgazette.com%2Farchive%2Flifestyle%2Farticle%2F20120121%2Fbermudas-role-in-the-sack-of-washington%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrove2021" class="citation magazine cs1">Grove, Tim (22 January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chesapeakebaymagazine.com/fighting-the-power/">"Fighting The Power"</a>. <i>Chesapeake Bay Magazine</i>. Annapolis: Chesapeake Bay Media, LLC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chesapeake+Bay+Magazine&rft.atitle=Fighting+The+Power&rft.date=2021-01-22&rft.aulast=Grove&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchesapeakebaymagazine.com%2Ffighting-the-power%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoiner2007" class="citation book cs1">Joiner, Gary D. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ox2kdwbVbEC&q=ellet"><i>Mr. Lincoln's Brown Water Navy – The Mississippi Squadron</i></a>. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5097-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5097-1"><bdi>978-0-7425-5097-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mr.+Lincoln%27s+Brown+Water+Navy+%E2%80%93+The+Mississippi+Squadron&rft.place=Lanham%2C+Maryland&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield+Publishers%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5097-1&rft.aulast=Joiner&rft.aufirst=Gary+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-Ox2kdwbVbEC%26q%3Dellet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See W.F.Sater, "Andean Tragedy", p. 20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Bruce W. Farcau, <i>The Ten Cents War</i>, p. 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurk1987" class="citation book cs1">Turk, Richard W. (1987). <i>The Ambiguous Relationship: Theodore Roosevelt and Alfred Thayer Mahan</i>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-25644-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-25644-8"><bdi>978-0-313-25644-8</bdi></a>. <q>What was at hand, in the library of the English Club in Lima, was <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodore Mommsen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome_(Mommsen)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Rome (Mommsen)"><i>History of Rome</i></a>. Mahan began to envision the sea as both a commercial highway and an avenue for one power to launch an attack upon another. He next began to consider sources of 'maritime power or weakness': material, personnel, national aptitude, harbors, coastlines, control of commercial routes.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ambiguous+Relationship%3A+Theodore+Roosevelt+and+Alfred+Thayer+Mahan&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-313-25644-8&rft.aulast=Turk&rft.aufirst=Richard+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerreiro2008" class="citation journal cs1">Ferreiro, Larrie D. (2008). "Mahan and the "English Club" of Lima, Peru: The Genesis of The Influence of Sea Power upon History". <i>The Journal of Military History</i>. <b>72</b> (3): 901–906. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0046">10.1353/jmh.0.0046</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159553860">159553860</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Project_Muse" title="Project Muse">Project MUSE</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/241173">241173</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Mahan+and+the+%22English+Club%22+of+Lima%2C+Peru%3A+The+Genesis+of+The+Influence+of+Sea+Power+upon+History&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=901-906&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjmh.0.0046&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159553860%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ferreiro&rft.aufirst=Larrie+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1069949/">"The Australian War Memorial"</a>. <i>www.awm.gov.au</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.awm.gov.au&rft.atitle=The+Australian+War+Memorial&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.awm.gov.au%2Fcollection%2FRCDIG1069949%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_Lettow-Vorbeck1920" class="citation book cs1">von Lettow-Vorbeck, Paul (1920). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/meineerinnerunge00lettuoft"><i>Meine Erinnerungen aus Ostafrika</i></a>. Hase & Köhler.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Meine+Erinnerungen+aus+Ostafrika&rft.pub=Hase+%26+K%C3%B6hler&rft.date=1920&rft.aulast=von+Lettow-Vorbeck&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmeineerinnerunge00lettuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-halpern-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-halpern_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalpern2012" class="citation book cs1">Halpern, Paul G. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wK4_6LF60GsC"><i>A Naval History of World War I</i></a>. Naval Institute Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1612511726" title="Special:BookSources/978-1612511726"><bdi>978-1612511726</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Naval+History+of+World+War+I&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1612511726&rft.aulast=Halpern&rft.aufirst=Paul+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwK4_6LF60GsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110611021804/http://www.merchantnavyofficers.com/rm2.html">"1914–1926"</a>. <i>Royal Mail Steam Packet Company</i>. Merchant Navy Officers. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merchantnavyofficers.com/rm2.html">the original</a> on 11 June 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Royal+Mail+Steam+Packet+Company&rft.atitle=1914%E2%80%931926&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merchantnavyofficers.com%2Frm2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fletcher, D <i>British Mark IV tank</i> New Vanguard, Osprey Publishing</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wahlert-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wahlert_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wahlert_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWahlert2008" class="citation book cs1">Wahlert, Glenn (2008). <i>Exploring Gallipoli: An Australian Army Battlefield Guide</i>. Australian Army Campaign Series. Vol. 4. Canberra: Army History Unit. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9804753-5-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9804753-5-7"><bdi>978-0-9804753-5-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploring+Gallipoli%3A+An+Australian+Army+Battlefield+Guide&rft.place=Canberra&rft.series=Australian+Army+Campaign+Series&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Army+History+Unit&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-9804753-5-7&rft.aulast=Wahlert&rft.aufirst=Glenn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmes2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Holmes_(military_historian)" title="Richard Holmes (military historian)">Holmes, Richard</a>, ed. (2001). <i>The Oxford Companion to Military History</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 343. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-866209-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-866209-2"><bdi>0-19-866209-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Military+History&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=343&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-19-866209-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGatchel1996" class="citation book cs1">Gatchel, Theodore L. (1996). <i>At the Water's Edge: Defending Against the Modern Amphibious Assault</i>. Naval Institute Press. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-308-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55750-308-4"><bdi>978-1-55750-308-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=At+the+Water%27s+Edge%3A+Defending+Against+the+Modern+Amphibious+Assault&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=Naval+Institute+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-55750-308-4&rft.aulast=Gatchel&rft.aufirst=Theodore+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeigley2005" class="citation book cs1">Weigley, Russell F. (2005). "Normandy to Falaise: A Critique of Allied Operational Planning in 1944". In Krause, Michael D.; Phillips, R. Cody (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140220033559/http://www.history.army.mil/books/OpArt/us3.htm"><i>Historical Perspectives of the Operational Art</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, United States Army. pp. 393–396. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71603395">71603395</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.army.mil/books/OpArt/us3.htm">the original</a> on 20 February 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Normandy+to+Falaise%3A+A+Critique+of+Allied+Operational+Planning+in+1944&rft.btitle=Historical+Perspectives+of+the+Operational+Art&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=393-396&rft.pub=Center+of+Military+History%2C+United+States+Army&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71603395&rft.aulast=Weigley&rft.aufirst=Russell+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.army.mil%2Fbooks%2FOpArt%2Fus3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFÓ_Confhaola,_Padhraic2009" class="citation book cs1">Ó Confhaola, Padhraic (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/1148968667"><i>The Naval Forces of the Irish State, 1922–1977</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1148968667">1148968667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Naval+Forces+of+the+Irish+State%2C+1922%E2%80%931977&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1148968667&rft.au=%C3%93+Confhaola%2C+Padhraic&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1148968667&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rose, Lisle A., <i>Power at Sea, Volume 2: The Breaking Storm, 1919–1945</i>, University of Missouri (2006) p. 141. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826217028" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826217028">978-0826217028</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/SNLF.html">"Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces"</a>. <i>Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forgotten+Campaign%3A+The+Dutch+East+Indies+Campaign+1941%E2%80%931942&rft.atitle=Japanese+Special+Naval+Landing+Forces&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwarfare.gq%2Fdutcheastindies%2FSNLF.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maund-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maund_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maund_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maund_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maund_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maund_35-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maund_35-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Maund, LEH. <i>Assault From the Sea</i>, Methuen & Co. Ltd., London 1949. pp. 3–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buffetaut, Yves <i>D-Day Ships</i>, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-152-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-152-1">1-55750-152-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* Bruce, Colin J <i>Invaders</i>, Chatham Publishing, London, 1999. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84067-533-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84067-533-0">1-84067-533-0</a> <ul><li>Buffetaut, Yves <i>D-Day Ships</i>, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55750-152-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-55750-152-1">1-55750-152-1</a>, p. 11</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Fergusson-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fergusson_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fergusson_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fergusson_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fergusson_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fergusson_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fergusson, Bernard <i>The Watery Maze; the story of Combined Operations</i>, Holt, New York, 1961. pp. 38–43</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHouterman" class="citation web cs1">Houterman, J.N. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unithistories.com/officers/RN_officersM2.html">"Royal Navy (RN) Officers 1939–1945 – M"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Royal+Navy+%28RN%29+Officers+1939%E2%80%931945+%E2%80%93+M&rft.aulast=Houterman&rft.aufirst=J.N.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unithistories.com%2Fofficers%2FRN_officersM2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ladd, JD. <i>Assault From the Sea: 1939–1945</i>, Hippocrene Books, Inc., New York, 1976. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88254-392-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-88254-392-X">0-88254-392-X</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William F Buckingham. <i>D-Day the First 72 hours</i> Tempus Publishing, Stroud. 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maund, LEH Assault From the Sea, Methuen & Co. Ltd., London 1949</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis,_ch_12-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis,_ch_12_43-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis,_ch_12_43-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Millett, <i>Semper Fidelis,</i> ch 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John J. Reber, "Pete Ellis: Amphibious Warfare Prophet," <i>U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings</i> (1977) 103#11 pp. 53–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160805081229/https://www.mca-marines.org/sites/default/files/OperationPlan712H.pdf">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Advanced Base Operations in Micronesia' (Marine Corps Association and Foundation)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mca-marines.org/sites/default/files/OperationPlan712H.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 5 August 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 December</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Advanced+Base+Operations+in+Micronesia%27+%28Marine+Corps+Association+and+Foundation%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mca-marines.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FOperationPlan712H.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeter A. Isely and Philip A. Crowl, <i>The U.S. Marines and Amphibious War Its Theory and Its Practice in the Pacific</i> (1951) ch 1–2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Millett,_Semper_Fidelis_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allan R. Millett, <i>"Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps"</i>, (New York: The Free Press, 1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buffetaut_1994,_p._27-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buffetaut_1994,_p._27_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buffetaut 1994, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maund 1949, p. 41</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naval-history.net/WW2BritishLosses4Amphib.htm">"British vessels lost at sea in World War 2 – landing ships and craft, LSI, LST, LCT, LCG, LCV, LCVP etc"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=British+vessels+lost+at+sea+in+World+War+2+%E2%80%93+landing+ships+and+craft%2C+LSI%2C+LST%2C+LCT%2C+LCG%2C+LCV%2C+LCVP+etc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naval-history.net%2FWW2BritishLosses4Amphib.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buffetaut,_p._26-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buffetaut,_p._26_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buffetaut, p. 26</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saunders_1943,_p._11-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Saunders_1943,_p._11_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Saunders 1943, p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/02/706/00000100.pdf">Welding & Fabrication of Ships Structure</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010706183629/http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/02/706/00000100.pdf">Archived</a> 6 July 2001 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> MOD</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Buff49-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Buff49_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buffetaut 1994, p. 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce, p. 10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ladd, 1976, p. 42</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tinarmada-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tinarmada_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tinarmada_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBasil_Hearde" class="citation web cs1">Basil Hearde. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110902182446/http://ww2lct.org/history/stories/tin_armada.htm">"The Tin Armada: Saga of the LCT"</a>. <i>ww2lct.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww2lct.org/history/stories/tin_armada.htm">the original</a> on 2 September 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ww2lct.org&rft.atitle=The+Tin+Armada%3A+Saga+of+the+LCT&rft.au=Basil+Hearde&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fww2lct.org%2Fhistory%2Fstories%2Ftin_armada.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, D.K. (Ed.), <i>The Design And Construction Of British Warships 1939–1945</i>, Vol 3 Amphibious Warfare Vessels And Auxiliaries. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85177-675-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-85177-675-2">0-85177-675-2</a>, p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brown, D.K. p. 143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isely and Crowl, <i>The U.S. Marines and Amphibious War Its Theory and Its Practice in the Pacific</i> (1951) ch 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.combinedops.com/pluto.htm">"Pipeline Under The Ocean"</a>. <i>Combined Operations</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Combined+Operations&rft.atitle=Pipeline+Under+The+Ocean&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.combinedops.com%2Fpluto.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/picture_gallery/04/uk_d_day_inventions/html/6.stm">"BBC News – In pictures: Pluto"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BBC+News+%E2%80%93+In+pictures%3A+Pluto&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fshared%2Fspl%2Fhi%2Fpicture_gallery%2F04%2Fuk_d_day_inventions%2Fhtml%2F6.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508165003/http://www.combinedops.com/Mulberry%20Harbours.htm">"Mulberry Harbours"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.combinedops.com/Mulberry%20Harbours.htm">the original</a> on 8 May 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Mulberry+Harbours&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.combinedops.com%2FMulberry%2520Harbours.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guy Hartup, <i>Code Name Mulberry: The Planning Building and Operation of the Normandy Harbours</i>, p. 94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thames Tugs. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thamestugs.co.uk/BRITISH-TUGS.php"><i>Mulberry Harbour: British, French and Dutch tugs</i></a>. Retrieved on 20 April 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/dday/article-9344572">Mulberry</a> Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Normandy 1944</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chris Trueman <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/mulberry_harbour.htm">The Mulberry Harbour</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/about-the-author.htm">www.historylearningsite.co.uk</a>. Accessed 25 April 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historynet.com/battle-of-okinawa-operation-iceberg.htm">"Battle Of Okinawa: Summary, Fact, Pictures and Casualties ('largest amphibious landing in the Pacific theater of World War II')"</a>. Historynet.com. 12 June 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Battle+Of+Okinawa%3A+Summary%2C+Fact%2C+Pictures+and+Casualties+%28%27largest+amphibious+landing+in+the+Pacific+theater+of+World+War+II%27%29&rft.pub=Historynet.com&rft.date=2006-06-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historynet.com%2Fbattle-of-okinawa-operation-iceberg.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker1995" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer C. (1995). "Inchon Landings, 1950". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/31900252"><i>The Korean War : an encyclopedia</i></a>. Stanley Sandler. New York: Garland Pub. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8240-4445-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8240-4445-2"><bdi>0-8240-4445-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/31900252">31900252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Inchon+Landings%2C+1950&rft.btitle=The+Korean+War+%3A+an+encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=145&rft.pub=Garland+Pub&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F31900252&rft.isbn=0-8240-4445-2&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F31900252&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Fall" class="mw-redirect" title="Bernard Fall">Fall, Bernard</a>, <i>Street Without Joy</i>, 1961. p. 144.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayden,_Thomas1995" class="citation magazine cs1">Hayden, Thomas (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060106120916/http://www.mca-marines.org/gazette/2005/05hayden.html/">"Amphibious Operations in the Gulf War: 1990–91"</a>. <i>Marine Corps Gazette</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mca-marines.org/Gazette/2005/05hayden.html">the original</a> on 6 January 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Corps+Gazette&rft.atitle=Amphibious+Operations+in+the+Gulf+War%3A+1990%E2%80%9391&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Hayden%2C+Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mca-marines.org%2FGazette%2F2005%2F05hayden.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Alexander, Joseph H., and Merrill L. Bartlett. <i>Sea Soldiers in the Cold War: Amphibious Warfare, 1945–1991</i> (1994)</li> <li>Bartlett, Merrill L. <i>Assault from the Sea: Essays on the History of Amphibious Warfare</i> (1993)</li> <li>Dwyer, John B. <i>Commandos From The Sea: The History Of Amphibious Special Warfare In World War II And The Korean War</i> (1998)</li> <li>Heck, Timothy; Friedman, B. A., eds. <i>On Contested Shores: The Evolving Role of Amphibious Operations</i> (Marine Corps University Press, 2020) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=59495">online review of this book</a></li> <li>Ireland, Bernard. <i>The World Encyclopedia of Amphibious Warfare Vessels: An illustrated history of modern amphibious warfare</i> (2011)</li> <li>Isely, Jeter A., Philip A. Crowl. <i>The U.S. Marines and Amphibious War Its Theory and Its Practice in the Pacific</i> (1951)</li> <li>Millett, Allan R. <i> Semper Fidelis: History of the United States Marine Corps</i> (2nd ed. 1991) ch 12–14</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1982" class="citation journal cs1">Moore, Richard S (November 1982). "Ideas and Direction: Building Amphibious Doctrine". <i>Marine Corps Gazette</i>. <b>66</b> (11): 49–58. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/206354619">206354619</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Marine+Corps+Gazette&rft.atitle=Ideas+and+Direction%3A+Building+Amphibious+Doctrine&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=49-58&rft.date=1982-11&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Richard+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReber1977" class="citation journal cs1">Reber, John J (1977). "Pete Ellis: Amphibious Warfare Prophet". <i>U.S. Naval Institute Proceedings</i>. <b>103</b> (11): 53–64.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Naval+Institute+Proceedings&rft.atitle=Pete+Ellis%3A+Amphibious+Warfare+Prophet&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=53-64&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Reber&rft.aufirst=John+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAmphibious+warfare" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Venzon, Anne Cipriano. <i>From Whaleboats to Amphibious Warfare: Lt. Gen. "Howling Mad" Smith and the U.S. Marine Corps</i> (Praeger, 2003)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Amphibious_warfare&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a 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I">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Australia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Australia (page does not exist)">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Austria-Hungary&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Austria-Hungary (page does not exist)">Austria-Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Belgium&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Belgium (page does not exist)">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Bulgaria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Bulgaria (page does not exist)">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Canada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Canada (page does not exist)">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_France&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of France (page does not exist)">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_weapons_of_World_War_I" title="List of German weapons of World War I">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_equipment_of_the_Hellenic_Armed_Forces#Interwar_(1923–1939)_and_World_War_II_(1940–1945)" title="List of former equipment of the Hellenic Armed Forces">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_India&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of India (page does not exist)">India</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Italy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Italy (page does not exist)">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Japan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Japan (page does not exist)">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Montenegro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Montenegro (page does not exist)">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_New_Zealand&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of New Zealand (page does not exist)">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Portugal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Portugal (page does not exist)">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_military_equipment_of_World_War_I" title="Romanian military equipment of World War I">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Russia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Russia (page does not exist)">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Serbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Serbia (page does not exist)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_Turkey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of Turkey (page does not exist)">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of the United Kingdom (page does not exist)">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_World_War_I_weapons_of_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of World War I weapons of the United States (page does not exist)">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_infantry_weapons_of_World_War_I" title="List of infantry weapons of World War I">Infantry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chaco_War_firearms" title="List of Chaco War firearms">Chaco War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Civil_War_weapons_of_the_Nationalists" title="List of Spanish Civil War weapons of the Nationalists">Nationalist</a>/<a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_Civil_War_weapons_of_the_Republicans" title="List of Spanish Civil War weapons of the Republicans">Republican</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Second Sino-Japanese War (page does not exist)">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_infantry_weapons_used_in_the_Second-Sino_Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War">Japanese</a>/<a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_National_Revolutionary_Army_infantry_weapons_used_in_the_Second-Sino_Japanese_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of National Revolutionary Army infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War (page does not exist)">National Revolutionary Army</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons" title="List of World War II weapons">World War II</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Australian military equipment of World War II">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Austrian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Austrian military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Belgian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Belgian military equipment of World War II">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Brazilian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Brazilian military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Bulgarian military equipment of World War II">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_of_the_Canadian_Army_in_World_War_II" title="List of military equipment of the Canadian Army in World War II">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_military_equipment_in_World_War_II" title="List of Chinese military equipment in World War II">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Croatian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Croatian military equipment of World War II">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Czechoslovakian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Czechoslovakian military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Czechoslovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Danish_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Danish military equipment of World War II">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Finnish_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Finnish military equipment of World War II">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons_of_France" title="List of World War II weapons of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of German military equipment of World War II">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_equipment_of_the_Hellenic_Armed_Forces#Interwar_(1923–1939)_and_World_War_II_(1940–1945)" title="List of former equipment of the Hellenic Armed Forces">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Hungarian military equipment of World War II">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_Army_equipment_in_World_War_II" title="List of Italian Army equipment in World War II">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Japanese military equipment of World War II">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Mexican_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Mexican military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Dutch military equipment of World War II">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_New_Zealand_military_equipment_of_World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of New Zealand military equipment of World War II (page does not exist)">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Norwegian military equipment of World War II">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_military_equipment_of_Poland" title="List of World War II military equipment of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Romanian military equipment of World War II">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Soviet_Union_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Soviet Union military equipment of World War II">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thailand_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Thailand military equipment of World War II">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="List of World War II weapons of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_weapons_of_the_United_States" title="List of World War II weapons of the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Yugoslav_military_equipment_of_World_War_II" title="List of Yugoslav military equipment of World War II">Yugoslavia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_War_II_infantry_weapons" title="List of World War II infantry weapons">Infantry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>First Indochina War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Korean_War_weapons" title="List of Korean War weapons">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Vietnam_War" title="Weapons of the Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Six-Day_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Six-Day War (page does not exist)">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Araguaia_Guerrilla_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Araguaia Guerrilla War (page does not exist)">Araguaia Guerilla War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Portuguese_Colonial_War" title="List of weapons of the Portuguese Colonial War">Portuguese Colonial War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Rhodesian_Bush_War" title="List of weapons of the Rhodesian Bush War">Rhodesian Bush War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_South_African_Border_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the South African Border War (page does not exist)">South African Border War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Cambodian_Civil_War" title="Weapons of the Cambodian Civil War">Cambodian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_military_equipment_of_Cambodian%E2%80%93Vietnamese_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List military equipment of Cambodian–Vietnamese War (page does not exist)">Cambodian–Vietnamese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of the Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Laotian_Civil_War" title="Weapons of the Laotian Civil War">Laotian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_of_the_Lebanese_Civil_War" title="List of weapons of the Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Dominican_Civil_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Dominican Civil War (page does not exist)">Dominican Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Weapons_of_the_Nicaraguan_Revolution&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Weapons of the Nicaraguan Revolution (page does not exist)">Nicaraguan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_the_Salvadoran_Civil_War" title="Weapons of the Salvadoran Civil War">Salvadoran Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_used_by_mujahideen_during_Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of military equipment used by mujahideen during Soviet–Afghan War">Soviet–Afghan War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Gulf_War_military_equipment" title="List of Gulf War military equipment">Gulf War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-Cold_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-Cold War">Post-Cold War</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Yugoslav_Wars_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Yugoslav Wars military equipment (page does not exist)">Yugoslav Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Afghanistan_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Afghanistan War military equipment (page does not exist)">Afghanistan War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Iraq_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Iraq War military equipment (page does not exist)">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Russo-Georgian_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Russo-Georgian War military equipment (page does not exist)">Russo-Georgian War</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_Syrian_Civil_War_military_equipment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of Syrian Civil War military equipment (page does not exist)">Syrian Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russo-Ukrainian_War_military_equipment" title="List of Russo-Ukrainian War military equipment">Russo-Ukrainian War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_aircraft_weapons" title="List of aircraft weapons">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancillary_weapon" title="Ancillary weapon">Ancillary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-aircraft_warfare" title="Anti-aircraft warfare">Anti-aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-ballistic_weapon" title="Anti-ballistic weapon">Anti-ballistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-personnel_weapon" title="Anti-personnel weapon">Anti-personnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_warfare" title="Anti-tank warfare">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Area denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_agent" title="Biological agent">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blunt_instrument" title="Blunt instrument">Blunt instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_weapon" title="Ceremonial weapon">Ceremonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_weapon" title="Chemical weapon">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_weapon" title="Cold weapon">Cold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_weapon" title="Conventional weapon">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crew-served_weapon" title="Crew-served weapon">Crew-served</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deadly_weapon" title="Deadly weapon">Deadly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed-energy_weapon" title="Directed-energy weapon">Directed-energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explosive_weapon" title="Explosive weapon">Explosive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">Depth charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_bombs" title="List of bombs">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firearm" title="Firearm">Firearm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_weapon" title="Hunting weapon">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Improvised_weapon" title="Improvised weapon">Improvised</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incendiary_device" title="Incendiary device">Incendiary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_weapons_and_tactics" title="Insurgency weapons and tactics">Insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_martial_arts_weapons" title="List of martial arts weapons">Martial arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_of_mass_destruction" title="Weapon of mass destruction">Mass destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-lethal_weapon" title="Non-lethal weapon">Non-lethal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_weapon" title="Offensive weapon">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_pistol" title="Service pistol">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumatic_weapon" title="Pneumatic weapon">Pneumatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_practice_weapons" title="List of practice weapons">Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranged_weapon" title="Ranged weapon">Ranged</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonic_weapon" title="Tectonic weapon">Tectonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">Torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_gun" title="Toy gun">Toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle" title="Military vehicle">Vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combat_vehicle" title="Combat vehicle">Combat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arsenal" title="Arsenal">Arsenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arms_industry" title="Arms industry">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapon_mount" title="Weapon mount">Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_ownership" title="Gun ownership">Civilian gun ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weapons_in_science_fiction" title="Weapons in science fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Weapons" title="Category:Weapons">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q348120#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q348120#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q348120#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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