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id="toc-Difference_in_pre-_and_post-contact_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Difference_in_pre-_and_post-contact_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Difference in pre- and post-contact slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Difference_in_pre-_and_post-contact_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treatment_and_function_of_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treatment_and_function_of_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Treatment and function of slaves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treatment_and_function_of_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_enslavement_of_Native_Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_enslavement_of_Native_Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 European enslavement of Native Americans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-European_enslavement_of_Native_Americans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle European enslavement of Native Americans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-European_enslavement_of_Native_Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Indian_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Indian_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 The Indian slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Indian_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 New England </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Southeast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Southeast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 American Southeast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_Southeast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Southwest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_Southwest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Slavery in the Southwest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Southwest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Native-American_enslavement_of_Africans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native-American_enslavement_of_Africans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Native-American enslavement of Africans </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Native-American_enslavement_of_Africans-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Native-American enslavement of Africans subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Native-American_enslavement_of_Africans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Native_American_slavery_in_the_Southeast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_American_slavery_in_the_Southeast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Native American slavery in the Southeast </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_American_slavery_in_the_Southeast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Indian_Territory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_Indian_Territory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Slavery in the Indian Territory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Indian_Territory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_Native_Americans'_responses_to_African_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_Native_Americans'_responses_to_African_slavery"> <div 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Native American slavery" and "American Indian slaves" redirect here. For slavery by indigenous people of the Americas more generally, see <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Slavery in Pre-Columbian America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a>. For the enslavement of other indigenous Americans by Europeans, see <a href="/wiki/European_enslavement_of_Indigenous_Americans" title="European enslavement of Indigenous Americans">European enslavement of Indigenous Americans</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Native_American_slaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Native_American_slaves.jpg/300px-Native_American_slaves.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Native_American_slaves.jpg/450px-Native_American_slaves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/Native_American_slaves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Engraving of Spaniards enslaving Native Americans by <a href="/wiki/Theodor_de_Bry" title="Theodor de Bry">Theodor de Bry</a> (1528–1598), published in America. part 6. Frankfurt, 1596.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> in the United States</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.7em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Native America"><img alt="Native America" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/55px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png" decoding="async" width="55" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/83px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png/110px-Blank_USA_Map_w_American_Indian_colors.png 2x" data-file-width="959" data-file-height="593" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide#Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slaves">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_slave_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Native American slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Racism against Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Red Power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American rights">Native American rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_Native_Americans" title="Alcohol and Native Americans">Alcohol and Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_temperance_activists" title="Native American temperance activists">Native American temperance activists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cultures_in_the_United_States" title="Native American cultures in the United States">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_cuisine_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous cuisine of the Americas">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Wars</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">(1858)|Antelope Hills expedition</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars(1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War"> Mohave War(1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War(1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars(1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Political movements</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Women in politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">MMIW</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_Feather_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Eagle Feather law">Eagle Feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Traditional religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic subdivisions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Demographics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Societal statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reservation">Reservations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_disenrollment" title="Tribal disenrollment">Tribal disenrollment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Geography</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by region</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Great_Basin" title="Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin">Great Basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands">Northeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Northwest_Plateau" title="Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau">Northwest Plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest_Coast" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast">Pacific Northwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">The Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Southeastern_Woodlands" title="Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands">Southeastern Woodlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_North_American_Southwest" title="Indigenous peoples of the North American Southwest">Southwest</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> by state</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Iowa" title="Native American tribes in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">war leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">congressional politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">List of federally recognized tribes by state </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Slavery among Native Americans in the United States includes slavery by and enslavement of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> roughly within what is currently the United States of America. Tribal territories and the slave trade ranged over present-day borders. Some <a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American tribe">Native American tribes</a> held <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">war captives</a> as slaves prior to and during <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization</a>. Some Native Americans were captured and sold by others into slavery to Europeans, while others were captured and sold by Europeans themselves. In the late 18th and 19th centuries, a small number of tribes, such as the five so-called "<a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">civilized tribes</a>", began increasing their holding of <a href="/wiki/African-American" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American">African-American</a> slaves.<a href="#cite_note-:3-1">[1]</a> European contact greatly influenced slavery as it existed among <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-contact</a> Native Americans, particularly in scale.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> As they raided other tribes to capture slaves for sales to Europeans, they fell into destructive wars among themselves, and against Europeans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-tperdue1-4">[4]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traditions_of_slavery_by_Native_Americans">Traditions of slavery by Native Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Traditions of slavery by Native Americans">edit</a>]</div> Many Native-American tribes practiced some form of slavery before the European introduction of <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">African slavery</a> into North America.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlingit people">Tlingit</a> peoples who lived along the <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Alaska" title="Southeast Alaska">southeastern Alaskan</a> coast were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary after slaves were taken as <a href="/wiki/Prisoner_of_war" title="Prisoner of war">prisoners of war</a>. Among some <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest" title="Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest</a> tribes, about a quarter of the population were slaves.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Other slave-owning tribes of North America were, for example, <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> of Texas, <a href="/wiki/Creek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek people">Creek</a> of Georgia, the fishing societies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Yurok_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurok people">Yurok</a>, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California; the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Klamath_people" title="Klamath people">Klamath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a> Some tribes held people as captive slaves late in the 19th century. For instance, "Ute Woman", was a <a href="/wiki/Ute_people" title="Ute people">Ute</a> captured by the <a href="/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho">Arapaho</a> and later sold to a <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a>. She was kept by the Cheyenne to be used as a <a href="/wiki/Prostitute" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitute">prostitute</a> to serve American soldiers at <a href="/wiki/Canton,_Oklahoma" title="Canton, Oklahoma">Cantonment</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a>. She lived in slavery until about 1880. She died of a <a href="/wiki/Bleeding" title="Bleeding">hemorrhage</a> resulting from "excessive sexual intercourse".<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Difference_in_pre-_and_post-contact_slavery">Difference in pre- and post-contact slavery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Difference in pre- and post-contact slavery">edit</a>]</div> There were differences between slavery as practiced in the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">pre-colonial era</a> among Native Americans[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>] and slavery as practiced by Europeans after colonization. Whereas many Europeans eventually came to look upon slaves of African descent as being racially inferior, Native Americans[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>] took slaves from other Native American groups, and therefore viewed them as ethnically inferior.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> In some cases, Native American slaves were allowed to live on the fringes of Native American society until they were slowly integrated into the tribe.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> The word "slave" may not accurately apply to such captive people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> When the Europeans made contact with the Native Americans, they began to participate in the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-bailey-10">[10]</a> Native Americans[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>], in their initial encounters with the Europeans, attempted to use their captives from enemy tribes as a "method of playing one tribe against another" in an unsuccessful game of divide and conquer.<a href="#cite_note-bailey-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment_and_function_of_slaves">Treatment and function of slaves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Treatment and function of slaves">edit</a>]</div> Native American groups[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">specify</a>] often enslaved <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">war captives</a>, whom they primarily used for small-scale labor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> Others, however, would stake themselves in gambling situations when they had nothing else, which would put them into servitude for a short time, or in some cases for life; captives were also sometimes tortured as part of religious rites, which sometimes involved <a href="/wiki/Cannibalism_in_the_Americas#Northern_America" title="Cannibalism in the Americas">ritual cannibalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> During times of famine, some Native Americans would also temporarily sell their children to obtain food.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a> The ways in which captives were treated differed widely among Native American groups. Captives could be enslaved for life, killed, or adopted. In some cases, captives were only adopted after a period of slavery. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Iroquoian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Iroquoian people">Iroquoian peoples</a> (not just the Iroquois tribes) often adopted captives, but for religious reasons there was a process, procedures, and many seasons when such adoptions were delayed until the proper spiritual times. In many cases, new tribes adopted captives to replace warriors killed during a raid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> Warrior captives were sometimes made to undergo ritual mutilation or torture that could end in death, as part of a spiritual grief ritual for relatives slain in battle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> Adoptees were expected to fill the economic, military, and familial roles of the departed loved ones, to fit into the societal shoes of the dead relative, and maintain the spirit power of the tribe. Captured individuals were sometimes allowed to assimilate into the tribe, and would later produce a family within the tribe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Creek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek people">Creek</a>, who engaged in this practice and had a <a href="/wiki/Matrilineal" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrilineal">matrilineal</a> system, treated children born of slaves and Creek women as full members of their mothers' clans and of the tribe, as property and hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line. In the cultural practices of the Iroquoian peoples, also rooted in a matrilineal system with men and women having equal value, any child would have the status determined by the woman's clan. More typically, tribes took women and children captives for adoption, as they tended to adapt more easily into new ways.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Several tribes held captives as hostages for payment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> Various tribes also practiced debt slavery or imposed slavery on tribal members who had committed crimes; full tribal status would be restored as the enslaved worked off their obligations to the tribal society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> Obtaining prisoners was also a strong interest for Native American warriors as for the qualification of being considered brave this was especially an interest of male warriors in various tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a> Other slave-owning tribes of North America included the <a href="/wiki/Comanche" title="Comanche">Comanche</a> of Texas; the Creek of Georgia; the fishing societies, such as the <a href="/wiki/Yurok_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Yurok people">Yurok</a>, who lived in Northern California; the <a href="/wiki/Pawnee_people" title="Pawnee people">Pawnee</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Klamath_people" title="Klamath people">Klamath</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-8">[8]</a> When <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine,_Florida" title="St. Augustine, Florida">St. Augustine, Florida</a>, was founded in 1565, the site already had enslaved Native Americans, whose ancestors had migrated from Cuba.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Haida_people" title="Haida people">Haida</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tlingit_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlingit people">Tlingit</a>, who lived along Alaska's southeast coast, were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave-traders, raiding as far as California.<a href="#cite_note-digitalhistory_voices-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-haida_warfare-13">[13]</a> In their society, slavery was hereditary after slaves were taken as prisoners of war<a href="#cite_note-digitalhistory_voices-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-haida_warfare-13">[13]</a>—children of slaves were fated to be slaves themselves.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Among a few <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Pacific_Northwest" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest">Pacific Northwest tribes</a>, as many as one-fourth of the population were slaves.<a href="#cite_note-digitalhistory_voices-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-haida_warfare-13">[13]</a> They were typically captured by raids on enemy tribes, or purchased on inter-tribal slave markets. Slaves would be bought, sold, or given away at <a href="/wiki/Potlatch" title="Potlatch">potlatches</a> like any other property. Some were killed ceremonially because of a death or important event; at a potlatch they might be killed to demonstrate their owner's wealth. Slaves were also sometimes freed to show favor to them or to honor a relative.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_enslavement_of_Native_Americans">European enslavement of Native Americans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: European enslavement of Native Americans">edit</a>]</div> When Europeans arrived as <a href="/wiki/Colonists" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonists">colonists</a> in North America, Native Americans changed their practice of <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> dramatically.<a href="#cite_note-tperdue1-4">[4]</a> Native Americans began selling war captives to Europeans rather than integrating them into their own societies as some had done before. Native Americans were enslaved by the Spanish in Florida and the Southwest under various legal tools.<a href="#cite_note-otherslaver-17">[17]</a> One tool was the <a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">encomienda</a> system;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191348–62-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-guitar-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-lehr-20">[20]</a> new encomiendas were outlawed in the <a href="/wiki/New_Laws" title="New Laws">New Laws</a> of 1542, but old ones continued, and the 1542 restriction was revoked in 1545.<a href="#cite_note-crf99-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-e1545-22">[22]</a> As the demand for labor in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> grew with the cultivation of <a href="/wiki/Sugarcane" title="Sugarcane">sugarcane</a>, Europeans exported enslaved Native Americans to the "sugar islands". Historian <a href="/wiki/Alan_Gallay" title="Alan Gallay">Alan Gallay</a> estimates that between 1670 and 1715, 24,000 to 51,000 captive <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a> were exported through Carolina ports, of which more than half, 15,000-30,000, were brought from then-Spanish Florida.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> These numbers were more than the number of Africans imported to the Carolinas during the same period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> Gallay also says that "the trade in Indian slaves was at the center of the English empire's development in the American South. The trade in Indian slaves was the most important factor affecting the South in the period 1670 to 1715"; intertribal wars to capture slaves destabilized English colonies, Florida and Louisiana.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> Additional enslaved Native Americans were exported from South Carolina to Virginia, Pennsylvania, New York, Rhode Island and Massachusetts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> Starting in 1698, Parliament allowed competition among importers of enslaved Africans, raising purchase prices for slaves in Africa, so they cost more than enslaved Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> British settlers, especially those in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Colonies" title="Southern Colonies">Southern Colonies</a>, purchased or captured Native Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo. Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist. Slavery in <a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial America</a> became a caste of people who were foreign to English colonists: Native Americans and Africans, who were predominantly non-Christian. The <a href="/wiki/Virginia_General_Assembly" title="Virginia General Assembly">Virginia General Assembly</a> defined some terms of slavery in 1705:<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">All servants imported and brought into the Country ... who were not Christians in their native Country ... shall be accounted and be slaves. All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion ... shall be held to be real estate. If any slave resists his master ... correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction ... the master shall be free of all punishment ... as if such accident never happened.</blockquote> The slave trade of Native Americans lasted until around 1730. It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the <a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a> of the early 18th century, combined with the increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by 1750. Colonists found that Native American slaves could easily escape, as they knew the country. The wars cost the lives of numerous colonial slave traders and disrupted their early societies. The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength. Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast strengthened their loose coalitions of language groups and joined confederacies such as the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_(Creek)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee (Creek)">Creek</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Catawba_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catawba (tribe)">Catawba</a> for protection. Native American women were at risk for rape whether they were enslaved or not; during the early colonial years, settlers were disproportionately male. They turned to Native women for sexual relationships.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Both Native American and African enslaved women <a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">suffered rape and sexual harassment</a> by male slaveholders and other white men. The exact number of Native Americans who were enslaved is unknown because vital statistics and census reports were at best infrequent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Res%C3%A9ndez" title="Andrés Reséndez">Andrés Reséndez</a> estimates that between 147,000 and 340,000 Native Americans were enslaved in North America, excluding Mexico.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReséndez2016324-27">[27]</a> Linford Fisher's estimates 2.5 million to 5.5 million Natives enslaved in the entire Americas.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Even though records became more reliable in the later colonial period, Native American slaves received little to no mention, or they were classed with African slaves with no distinction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> For example, in the case of "Sarah Chauqum of Rhode Island", her master listed her as mulatto in the bill of sale to Edward Robinson, but she won her freedom by asserting her <a href="/wiki/Narragansett_people" title="Narragansett people">Narragansett</a> identity.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> Little is known about Native Americans that were forced into labor.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> Two myths have complicated the history of Native American slavery: that Native Americans were undesirable as servants, and that Native Americans were exterminated or pushed out after <a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> The precise legal status for some Native Americans is at times difficult to establish, as involuntary servitude and slavery were poorly defined in 17th-century <a href="/wiki/British_North_America" title="British North America">British North America</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> Some masters asserted ownership over the children of Native American servants, seeking to turn them into slaves.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> The historical uniqueness of slavery in America is that European settlers drew a rigid line between insiders, "people like themselves who could never be enslaved", and nonwhite outsiders, "mostly Africans and Native Americans who could be enslaved".<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> A unique feature between natives and colonists was that colonists gradually asserted sovereignty over the native inhabitants during the seventeenth century, ironically transforming them into subjects with collective rights and privileges that Africans could not enjoy.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> The <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a> developed as plantation societies prior to the Chesapeake Bay region and had a demand for labor. In the Spanish colonies, the church assigned Spanish surnames to Native Americans and recorded them as servants rather than slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Ekberg-30">[30]</a> Many members of Native American tribes in the Western United States were taken for life as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Ekberg-30">[30]</a> In some cases, courts served as conduits for enslavement of Indians, as evidenced by the enslavement of the <a href="/wiki/Hopi" title="Hopi">Hopi</a> man Juan Suñi in 1659 by a court in <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico" title="Santa Fe, New Mexico">Santa Fe</a> for theft of food and trinkets from the governor's mansion.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In the East, Native Americans were recorded as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-SS-32">[32]</a> Slaves in Indian Territory across the United States were used for many purposes, from work in the plantations of the East, to guides across the wilderness, to work in deserts of the West, or as soldiers in wars. Native American slaves <a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">suffered from European diseases</a> and inhumane treatment, and many died while in captivity.<a href="#cite_note-SS-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Indian_slave_trade">The Indian slave trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Indian slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pdx_washpark_sacajawea_w.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Pdx_washpark_sacajawea_w.jpeg/220px-Pdx_washpark_sacajawea_w.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Pdx_washpark_sacajawea_w.jpeg/330px-Pdx_washpark_sacajawea_w.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Pdx_washpark_sacajawea_w.jpeg/440px-Pdx_washpark_sacajawea_w.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="2112" data-file-height="2816" /></a><figcaption>Statue representing <a href="/wiki/Sacagawea" title="Sacagawea">Sacagawea</a> (ca. 1788–1812), a <a href="/wiki/Lemhi_Shoshone" title="Lemhi Shoshone">Lemhi Shoshone</a> who was taken captive by the <a href="/wiki/Hidatsa_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Hidatsa people">Hidatsa people</a> and sold to <a href="/wiki/Toussaint_Charbonneau" title="Toussaint Charbonneau">Toussaint Charbonneau</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a></figcaption></figure> European colonists caused a change in Native American slavery, as they created a new demand market for captives of raids.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> Especially in the southern colonies, initially developed for resource exploitation rather than settlement, colonists purchased or captured Native Americans to be used as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, and, by the eighteenth century, rice, and indigo.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> To acquire trade goods, Native Americans began selling war captives to whites rather than integrating them into their own societies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> Traded goods, such as axes, bronze kettles, Caribbean rum, European jewelry, needles, and scissors, varied among the tribes, but the most prized were rifles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> English colonists aped the rationales of their Spanish and Portuguese counterparts: they saw the enslavement of Africans and Native Americans as a moral, legal, and socially acceptable institution; a rationale for enslavement was as part of a "<a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">just war</a>", where the taking of captives and using them as slave labour was viewed as an alternative to a death sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> The escape of Native American slaves was frequent, because they had a better understanding of the land, which African slaves did not. Consequently, the Natives who were captured and sold into slavery were often sent to the West Indies, or far away from their home.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> The first African slave on record was located in <a href="/wiki/Jamestown,_Virginia" title="Jamestown, Virginia">Jamestown</a>. Before the 1630s, indentured servitude was dominant form of bondage in the colonies, but by 1636 only Caucasians could lawfully receive contracts as <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servants" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servants">indentured servants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a> The oldest known record of a permanent Native American slave was a native man from Massachusetts in 1636.<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a> By 1661 slavery had become legal in all of the existing colonies.<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a> Virginia would later declare that "Indians, Mulattos, and Negros to be real estate", and in 1682, New York forbade African or Native American slaves from leaving their master's home or plantation without permission.<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a> Europeans also viewed the enslavement of Native Americans differently than the enslavement of Africans in some cases; a belief that Africans were "brutish people" was dominant. While both Native Americans and Africans were considered savages, Native Americans were romanticized as noble people that could be elevated into Christian civilization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_England">New England</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: New England">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pequot_Enslaved.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Pequot_Enslaved.jpg/220px-Pequot_Enslaved.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Pequot_Enslaved.jpg/330px-Pequot_Enslaved.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Pequot_Enslaved.jpg 2x" data-file-width="380" data-file-height="253" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a> resulted in the enslavement of some of the surviving Pequot by English colonists in New England.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a> of 1636 led to the enslavement of war captives and other members of the <a href="/wiki/Pequot" class="mw-redirect" title="Pequot">Pequot</a> by Europeans, almost immediately after the founding of Connecticut as a colony. The Pequot thus became an important part of New England's culture of slavery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> The Pequot War was devastating: the <a href="/wiki/Niantic_people" title="Niantic people">Niantic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Narragansett_people" title="Narragansett people">Narragansett</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mohegan" title="Mohegan">Mohegan</a> tribes were persuaded into helping the Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth colonists massacre the Pequot, with at least 700 of the Pequot killed. Most enslaved Pequot were noncombatant women and children, with court records indicating that most served as chattel slaves for life. Some court records show bounties on runaway native slaves more than 10 years after the War.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> What further aided the Indian slave trade throughout New England and the South was that different tribes did not recognize themselves as members of the same race, dividing the tribes among each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The Chickasaw and Westos, for example, sold captives of other tribes indiscriminately so as to augment their political and economic power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> Furthermore, Rhode Island also participated in the enslavement of Native Americans, but records are incomplete or non-existent, making the exact number of slaves unknown.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> The New England governments would promise plunder as part of their payment, and commanders like <a href="/wiki/Israel_Stoughton" title="Israel Stoughton">Israel Stoughton</a> viewed the right to claim Native American women and children as part of their due.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> Because of lack of records it can only be speculated if the soldiers demanded these captives as sexual slaves or solely as servants.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> Few colonial leaders questioned the policies of the colonies' treatment of slaves, but <a href="/wiki/Roger_Williams" title="Roger Williams">Roger Williams</a>, who tried to maintain positive connections with the Narragansett, was conflicted. As a Christian he felt that identifiable Indian murderers "deserved death", but he condemned the murder of Native American women and children, though most of his criticisms were kept private.<a href="#cite_note-MENcolonial-29">[29]</a> Massachusetts originally kept peace with the Native American tribes in the region, but that changed, and the enslavement of Native Americans became inevitable. Boston newspapers mention escaped slaves as late as 1750.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> In 1790, the United States census report indicated that the number of slaves in the state was 6,001, with an unknown proportion of Native Americans, but at least 200 were cited as half-breed Indians (meaning half African).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> Since Massachusetts took the advance in the fighting of the <a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a> and the Pequot War; it is most likely the Massachusetts colony greatly exceeded that of either Connecticut or Rhode Island in the number of Native American slaves owned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> In 1676, Massachusetts Bay Colony treasurer <a href="/wiki/John_Hull_(merchant)" title="John Hull (merchant)">John Hull</a> arranged public sales of at least 185 Native American captives from King Philip's War into slavery. Hull also transported more than 100 Native Americans to be sold at slave markets in <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cádiz</a> and <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a>.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> New Hampshire was unique: it had very few slaves, and maintained a somewhat peaceful stance with various tribes during the Pequot War and King Philip's War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> Colonists in the South began to capture and enslave Native Americans for sale and export to the "sugar islands" such as <a href="/wiki/Jamaica" title="Jamaica">Jamaica</a>, as well as to northern colonies.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The resulting Native American slave trade devastated the southeastern Native American populations and transformed tribal relations throughout the Southeast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a> In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the English at <a href="/wiki/Charleston,_South_Carolina" title="Charleston, South Carolina">Charles Town</a> (in modern South Carolina), the Spanish in Florida, and the French in Louisiana sought trading partners and allies among the Native Americans by offering goods such as metal knives, axes, firearms and ammunition, liquor, beads, cloth, and hats in exchange for furs (deerskins) and Native American slaves.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> Traders, frontier settlers, and government officials encouraged Native Americans to make war on each other, to reap the profits of the slaves captured in such raids or to weaken the warring tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">[2]</a> Starting in 1610, the Dutch traders had developed a lucrative trade with the Iroquois.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The Iroquois gave the Dutch beaver pelts; in exchange the Dutch gave them clothing, tools, and firearms, which gave them more power than neighboring tribes had.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The trade allowed the Iroquois to have war campaigns against other tribes, like the <a href="/wiki/Eries" class="mw-redirect" title="Eries">Eries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyandot_people" title="Wyandot people">Huron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petun" title="Petun">Petun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Susquehannocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Susquehannocks">Susquehannocks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The Iroquois also began to take war captives and sell them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The increased power of the Iroquois, combined with the diseases the Europeans unknowingly brought, devastated many eastern tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Southeast">American Southeast</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: American Southeast">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_slave_trade_in_the_American_Southeast" title="Indian slave trade in the American Southeast">Indian slave trade in the American Southeast</a></div> Carolina, which originally included today's North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, was unique among the North American English colonies because the colonists thought of slavery as essential to their success.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> In 1680, proprietors ordered the Carolina government to ensure that enslaved Native Americans had equal justice[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">further explanation needed</a>] and to treat them better than African slaves; these regulations were widely publicized, so no one could claim ignorance of them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> The change in policy in Carolina was rooted in fear that escaped slaves would inform their tribes, resulting in even more devastating attacks on plantations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> The new policy proved almost impossible to enforce, as both colonists and local officials viewed Native Americans and Africans as the same, and the exploitation of both as the easiest way to wealth, though the proprietors continued to attempt to enforce the changes for profit reasons.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">further explanation needed</a>]<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> In the other colonies slavery developed into a predominant form of labor over time.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> It is estimated that Carolina traders operating out of Charles Towne exported an estimated 30,000 to 51,000 Native American captives between 1670 and 1715 in a profitable slave trade with the Caribbean, Spanish Hispaniola, and Northern colonies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer201317–45-39">[39]</a> It was more profitable to have Native American slaves because African slaves had to be shipped and purchased, while native slaves could be captured and immediately taken to plantations; whites in the Northern colonies sometimes preferred Native American slaves, especially Native women and children, to Africans because Native American women were agriculturalist and children could be trained more easily.<a href="#cite_note-Ekberg-30">[30]</a> However, Carolinians had more of a preference for African slaves but also capitalized on the Indian slave trade combining both.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> In December 1675, Carolina's grand council created a written justification of the enslavement and sale of Native Americans, claiming that those who were enemies of tribes the English colonists had befriended were targets, stating those enslaved were not "innocent Indians".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> The council also claimed it was within the wishes of their "Indian allies" to take their prisoners and that the prisoners were willing to work in the country or be transported elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> The council used this to please the proprietors, and to fulfill the practice of enslaving no one against their wishes or be transported without his own consent out of Carolina, though this is what the colonists did.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">[35]</a> In John Norris' "Profitable Advice for Rich and Poor" (1712), he recommends buying 18 native women, 15 African men, and 3 African women.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> Slave traders preferred captive Native Americans who were under 18 years old, as they were believed to be more easily trained to new work.<a href="#cite_note-Ekberg-30">[30]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Illinois_Country" title="Illinois Country">Illinois Country</a>, French colonists baptized the Native American slaves whom they bought for labor.<a href="#cite_note-Ekberg-30">[30]</a> They believed it essential to convert Native Americans to Catholicism.<a href="#cite_note-Ekberg-30">[30]</a> Church baptismal records have thousands of entries for Indian slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Ekberg-30">[30]</a> In the eastern colonies it became common practice to enslave Native American women and African men with a parallel growth of enslavement for both Africans and Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> This practice also lead to large number of unions between Africans and Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-ism-40">[40]</a> This practice of combining African slave men and Native American women was especially common in South Carolina.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> Native American women were cheaper to buy than Native American men or Africans. Moreover, it was more efficient to have native women because they were skilled laborers, the primary agriculturalists in their communities.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> During this era it was not uncommon for reward notices in colonial newspapers to mention runaway slaves speaking of Africans, Native Americans, and those of a partial mix between them.<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a> Many early laborers, including Africans, entered the colonies as <a href="/wiki/Indentured" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured">indentured</a> servants and could be free after paying off their passage. Slavery was associated with people who were non-Christian and non-European. In a <a href="/wiki/Virginia_General_Assembly" title="Virginia General Assembly">Virginia General Assembly</a> declaration of 1705, some terms were defined:<a href="#cite_note-VaGA1705-41">[41]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">non-primary source needed</a>] <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">And also be in [sic.] enacted, by the authority aforesaid, and it is hereby enacted, That all servants imported and brought into the Country... who were not <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">christians</a> in their native country, (except... Turks and Moors in amity with her majesty, and others that can make due proof of their being free in England, or any other christian country, before they were shipped...) shall be accounted and be slaves, and such be here bought and sold notwithstanding a conversion to christianity afterward. [Section IV.] And if any slave resists his master, or owner, or other person, by his or her order, correcting such slave, and shall happen to be killed in such correction, it shall not be accounted felony; but the master, owner, and every such other person so giving correction, shall be free and acquit of all punishment and accusation for the same, as if such incident had never happened... [Section XXXIV.]<a href="#cite_note-VaGA1705-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-pbsafna-42">[42]</a></blockquote> In the mid-18th century, South Carolina colonial governor <a href="/wiki/James_Glen" title="James Glen">James Glen</a> began to promote an official policy that aimed to create in Native Americans an "aversion" to African Americans in an attempt to thwart possible alliances between them.<a href="#cite_note-PatrickMinges-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-KimberleyTolley-44">[44]</a> In 1758, James Glen wrote: "It has always been the policy of this government to create an aversion in them Indians to Negroes."<a href="#cite_note-afch-45">[45]</a> The dominance of the Native American slave trade lasted until around 1730, when it led to a series of devastating wars among the tribes.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> The slave trade created tensions that were not present among different tribes and even large scale abandonment of original homelands to escape the wars and slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The majority of the Indian wars occurred in the south.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913118–153-46">[46]</a> The Westos originally lived near <a href="/wiki/Lake_Erie" title="Lake Erie">Lake Erie</a> in the 1640s but relocated to escape the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois</a> mourning wars designed to repopulate the Iroquois Confederacy due to large number of deaths due to wars and disease.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The Westos eventually moved to Virginia and then South Carolina to take advantage of trading routes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>]<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The Westos strongly contributed to the rising involvement of southeastern Native American communities in the Indian slave trade especially with Westos expansion.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The increased rise of the gun-slave trade forced the other tribes to participate or their refusal to engage in enslaving meant they would become targets of slavers.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> Before 1700, the <a href="/wiki/Westo_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Westo tribe">Westos</a> in Carolina dominated much of the Native American slave trade, enslaving natives of southern tribes indiscriminately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The Westos gained power rapidly, but British colonists began to fear them as they were well-armed with a lot of rifle power through trading; from 1680 to 1682, the colonists joined forces with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Savannah_tribe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Savannah tribe (page does not exist)">Savannah</a>, who resented Westo control of the slave trade, and wiped them out- killing most of the men and selling most of the women and children that could be captured.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> As a result, the Westo tribal group was completely eliminated culturally; its survivors were scattered or else sold into slavery in <a href="/wiki/Antigua" title="Antigua">Antigua</a>.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> Those Native Americans nearer to European colonial settlements raided tribes farther into the interior in the quest for slaves to be sold, especially to British colonists in Carolina.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> In response, the southeastern tribes intensified their warring and hunting, which increasingly challenged their traditional reasons for hunting or warring.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The traditional reasoning for war was revenge not for profit.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The Chickasaw war parties had pushed the <a href="/wiki/Houmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Houmas">Houmas</a> tribe further south where the tribe struggled to find stability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> In 1704, the Chickasaw alliance with the French had weakened, and British colonists used the opportunity to make an alliance with the Chickasaw, bringing them 12 Taensa slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> In Mississippi and Tennessee the <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a> played both the French and British against each other, and preyed on the Choctaw, who were traditional allies of the French, as well as the Arkansas, the <a href="/wiki/Tunica_people" title="Tunica people">Tunica</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Taensa" title="Taensa">Taensa</a>, establishing slave depots throughout their territories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> In 1705, the Chickasaw activated their war parties again targeting the unexpected Choctaw since a friendship had been established between the two tribes; several Choctaw families were taken into captivity rekindling a war between the two tribes and ending their alliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> A single Chickasaw raid in 1706 on the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> yielded 300 Native American captives, which were promptly sold to English colonists in Charles Towne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> The warring between them continued through the early 18th century with the worse incident for the Choctaw occurring in 1711 as a group of British colonist also attacked the Choctaw simultaneously, fearing them more because they were allies to the French.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> It is estimated that this conflict mixed with enslavement and epidemics devastated the Chickasaw, it is estimated that in 1685 their population was 7,000 plus but by 1715 it was as low as 4,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> As the southern tribes continued their involvement in slave trade they became more involved economically and began to amass significant debts.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The Yamasee amassed a great debt in 1711 for rum, but the General Assembly had voted to forgive their debts, but the tribe replied by stating they were preparing for war to pay their debts.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The Indian slave trade began to negatively affect the social organization in many of the southern tribes particularly in gender roles in their communities.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> As male warriors began to interact more with colonial men and societies which were heavily patriarchal they began to increasingly sought out control over captives to trade with European men.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> Among the Cherokee the undermining of women's power began to create tensions among their communities e.g. warriors started to undermine women's power to determine when to wage war.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> In the Cherokee and other tribes' societies "war women" and "beloved women" were those who had proven themselves in battle, and were respected with vested privileges to decide what to do with captives.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-warwomen-47">[47]</a> The incidents led warring women to dress as traders in effort to get captives before warriors.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> A similar pattern of friendly and then hostile relations among the English and Native Americans followed in the southeastern colonies.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Creek_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek tribe">Creek</a>, a loose confederacy of many different groups who had banded together to defend themselves against slave-raiding, allying with the English and moving on the <a href="/wiki/Apalachee" title="Apalachee">Apalachee</a> in Spanish Florida, <a href="/wiki/Apalachee_massacre" title="Apalachee massacre">destroying them as a group of people</a> in the quest for slaves.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a> These raids also destroyed several other Florida tribes, including the <a href="/wiki/Timucua" title="Timucua">Timucua</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913118–153-46">[46]</a> In 1685, the Yamasee were persuaded by Scottish slave traders to attack the Timucuans, the attack was devastating.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> Most of the colonial-era Native Americans of Florida were killed, enslaved, or scattered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> It is estimated that these raids on Florida yielded 4,000 Native American slaves between 1700 and 1705.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> A few years later, the <a href="/wiki/Shawnee" title="Shawnee">Shawnee</a> raided the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a> in similar fashion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> In North Carolina, the <a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuscarora (tribe)">Tuscarora</a>, fearing among other things that encroaching English colonists planned to enslave them as well as take their land, attacked them in <a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">a war</a> that lasted from 1711 to 1713.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> In this war, Carolina settlers, aided by the <a href="/wiki/Yamasee" title="Yamasee">Yamasee</a>, completely vanquished the Tuscarora, taking thousands of captives as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913118–153-46">[46]</a> Within a few years, a similar fate befell the <a href="/wiki/Yuchis" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuchis">Yuchis</a> and the Yamasee, who had fallen out of favor with the British.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> The French armed the Natchez tribe, who lived on the banks of the Mississippi, and the Illinois against the Chickasaw.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> By 1729, the <a href="/wiki/Natchez_people" title="Natchez people">Natchez</a>, along with a number of enslaved and runaway Africans who lived among them, <a href="/wiki/Natchez_revolt" title="Natchez revolt">rose up against the French</a>. An army composed of French soldiers, Choctaw warriors, and enslaved Africans defeated them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> Trade behavior of several tribes also began to change returning to more traditional ways of adopting war captives instead of immediately selling them to white slave traders or holding them for three days before deciding to sell them or not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> This was due to the heavy losses many of the tribes were obtaining in the numerous wars that continued throughout the 18th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a> The lethal combination of slavery, disease, and warfare dramatically decreased the free southern Native American populations; it is estimated that the southern tribes numbered around 199,400 in 1685 but decreased to 90,100 in 1715.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> The Indian wars of the early 18th century, combined with the growing availability of African slaves, essentially ended the Native American slave trade by 1750.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> Numerous colonial slave traders had been killed in the fighting, and the remaining Native American groups banded together, more determined to face the Europeans from a position of strength rather than be enslaved.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay20087,_299–320-23">[23]</a> During this time records also show that many Native American women bought African men but, unknown to the European sellers, the women freed and married the men into their tribe.<a href="#cite_note-nawomen-48">[48]</a> Though the Indian slave trade ended the practice of enslaving Native Americans continued, records from June 28, 1771 show Native American children were kept as slaves in <a href="/wiki/Long_Island,_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="Long Island, New York">Long Island, New York</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a> Native Americans had also married while enslaved creating families both native and some of partial African descent.<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a> Occasional mentioning of Native American slaves running away, being bought, or sold along with Africans in newspapers is found throughout the later colonial period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> Many of the Native American remnant tribes joined confederacies such as the Choctaw, the Creek, and the Catawba for protection, making them less easy victims of European slavers.<a href="#cite_note-DBcolonial-38">[38]</a> There are also many accounts of former slaves mentioning having a parent or grandparent who was Native American or of partial descent.<a href="#cite_note-ism-40">[40]</a> Records and slave narratives obtained by the WPA (Works Progress Administration) clearly indicate that the enslavement of Native Americans continued in the 1800s, mostly through kidnappings.<a href="#cite_note-ism-40">[40]</a> One example is a documented WPA interview from a former slave, Dennis Grant, whose mother was full-blooded Native American.<a href="#cite_note-ism-40">[40]</a> She was kidnapped as a child near <a href="/wiki/Beaumont,_Texas" title="Beaumont, Texas">Beaumont, Texas</a>, in the 1850s, and made a slave, later becoming the forced wife of another enslaved person.<a href="#cite_note-ism-40">[40]</a> The abductions showed that even in the 1800s little distinction was still made between African Americans and Native Americans.<a href="#cite_note-ism-40">[40]</a> Both Native American and African-American enslaved people were at risk of sexual abuse by slaveholders and other white men of power.<a href="#cite_note-udayu-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-poca2-50">[50]</a> The pressures of slavery also gave way to the creation of colonies of runaway slaves and Native Americans living in <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, called <a href="/wiki/Maroons" title="Maroons">Maroons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-sembir-51">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_the_Southwest">Slavery in the Southwest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Southwest">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unfree_labor_in_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Unfree labor in California">Unfree labor in California</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">History of slavery in New Mexico</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">History of slavery in Utah</a></div> Enslavement of Indigenous people by Europeans in the present-day Southwest began with Spanish expeditions to explore and conquer land in Central and North America in the sixteenth century. According to historian Almon Wheeler Lauber these expeditions all captured and enslaved people indigenous to the regions they explored, and in many cases the taking of slaves was as integral a part of these expeditions' goals as conquest and exploration were.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191349-52">[52]</a> Enslavement of Indigenous people by Spanish subjects was theoretically illegal, however the persistence of diverse forms of Indigenous slavery such as encomiendas, repartimientos, congregaciones, and capture in conflicts deemed "just" due to being fought against non-Christians show that this ban was generally enforced poorly or not at all.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Laws_of_the_Indies" title="Laws of the Indies">1680 Recopilación de las Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias</a> upheld the ban, but also encouraged Spanish subjects to ransom Indigenous people held by Indigenous captors, convert them to Catholicism, and "detribalize" them through assimilation into Spanish culture. These ransomed captives would be assigned the legal status of "indios de rescate" (reformed Indigenous), and owed their ransomers loyalty and service in exchange for the cost of the ransom. As servants, the treatment of these people fell under the laws governing slavery.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Continued enslavement of Indigenous people was justified by their Spanish captors through Christian theories of <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory#Christian_views" title="Just war theory">"just war"</a>, which held that slavery was justified as a means of converting those who rejected Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191348–49-55">[55]</a> Captives taken in just wars were generally expected to be freed following a finite term of ten to twenty years, but this was not well-enforced and public opinion sometimes dictated that perpetual servitude was more appropriate.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> The practice of procuring slaves through "just" wars declined in popularity following the 1692-1695 Spanish Reconquest of New Mexico. During the 18th and early 19th centuries the slave trade in New Mexico took two main forms: large-scale annual trading fairs in which captives were formally ransomed, and small-scale bartering over captives in villages and trading places.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Historian James F Brooks estimates that around 3 thousand members of nomadic and pastoralist Indigenous groups bordering New Mexico entered colonial society as slaves, servants, or orphans in this period.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The practice surged in popularity following the expulsion of the Navajo from their lands in the <a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">1864–1865 Navajo Campaign</a>, with between 1,500 and 3,000 Indigenous people being enslaved in the territory at the time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReséndez2016293-59">[59]</a> During the 1860s the Federal government stamped down on the enslavement of Indigenous people. While this reduced the frequency of the practice it was never fully stamped out, continuing on into at least the 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReséndez2016313–314-60">[60]</a> Following the 1847–1848 <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">invasion by U.S. troops</a>, indigenous peoples in California were enslaved in the new state from statehood in 1850 to 1867.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> Enslaving an Indigenous person required the posting of a bond by the slave holder.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Enslavement occurred through raids[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] and through a four-month servitude imposed in 1846 as a punishment for Indigenous <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy_(people)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vagrancy (people)">"vagrancy"</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Native-American_enslavement_of_Africans">Native-American enslavement of Africans</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Native-American enslavement of Africans">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Two_Black_Indians.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Two_Black_Indians.jpg/220px-Two_Black_Indians.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Two_Black_Indians.jpg/330px-Two_Black_Indians.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Two_Black_Indians.jpg/440px-Two_Black_Indians.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1120" /></a><figcaption>L to R: Mrs. Amos Chapman, her daughter, sister (all <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a>), and an unidentified girl of African-American descent. 1886<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Native_American_slave_ownership" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American slave ownership">Native American slave ownership</a></div> The earliest record of African and Native American contact occurred in April 1502, when Spanish explorers brought an African slave with them and encountered a Native American band.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Thereafter, in the early colonial days, Native Americans interacted with enslaved Africans and African Americans in every way possible; Native Americans were enslaved along with Africans, and both often worked with European <a href="/wiki/Indentured" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured">indentured</a> laborers.<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913105–117-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-nawomen_b-66">[66]</a> "They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried."<a href="#cite_note-slavbeg-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-afrna-67">[67]</a> Because both races were non-Christian, and because of their differing skin color and physical features, Europeans considered them other and inferior to Europeans. The Europeans thus worked to make enemies of the two groups. In some areas, Native Americans began to slowly absorb white culture, and in time some Native American tribes came to own African slaves.<a href="#cite_note-introcolonial-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-tperdue1-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Native_American_slavery_in_the_Southeast">Native American slavery in the Southeast</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Native American slavery in the Southeast">edit</a>]</div> The Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole made the largest efforts of all the Native American peoples to assimilate into white society by implementing some of the practices which they saw as beneficial; adoption of slavery was one of them.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> They were the most receptive to whites' pressures to adopt European cultures. The pressures from European Americans to assimilate, the economic shift of furs and deerskins, and the government's continued attempts to "civilize" native tribes in the south led to them adopting an economy based on agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-:2-71">[71]</a> Slavery itself was not a new concept to indigenous American peoples as in inter-Native American conflict tribes often kept prisoners of war, but these captures often replaced slain tribe members.<a href="#cite_note-tperdue1-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-katover-72">[72]</a> Native Americans did not originally distinguish between groups of people based on color, but rather traditions.<a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a> There are conflicting theories as to what caused the shift between traditional Native American servitude to the enslavement the <a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a> adopted. One theory is the "civilized" tribes adopted slavery as means to defend themselves from federal pressure believing that it would help them maintain their southern lands.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> Another narrative postulates that Native Americans began to feed into the European belief that Africans were inferior to whites and themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer2013Ch._4-74">[74]</a> Some indigenous nations such as the Chickasaws and the Choctaws began to embrace the concept that African bodies were property, and equated blackness to hereditary inferiority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer201317–19-75">[75]</a> In either case, "The system of racial classification and hierarchy took shape as Europeans and Euro-Americans sought to subordinate and exploit Native Americans' and Africans' land, bodies, and labor.<a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a> Whether strategically or racially motivated the slave trade promoted African slaves owned by Native Americans which led to new power relations among Native societies, elevating groups such as the Five Civilized Tribes to power and serving, ironically, to preserve native order.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_the_Indian_Territory">Slavery in the Indian Territory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Indian Territory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></div> In the 1830s, all of the Five Civilized Tribes were relocated, many of them forcibly to the Indian Territory (later, the state of Oklahoma). The incident is known as the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a>, and the institution of owning enslaved Africans came with them. Of the estimated 4,500 to 5,000 blacks who formed the slave class in the Indian Territory by 1839, the great majority were in the possession of the mixed bloods.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Native_Americans'_responses_to_African_slavery">Other Native Americans' responses to African slavery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Other Native Americans' responses to African slavery">edit</a>]</div> Tensions varied between African Americans and Native Americans in the south, as each nation dealt with the ideology behind the enslavement of Africans differently.<a href="#cite_note-:2-71">[71]</a> In the late 1700s and 1800s, some Native American nations gave sanctuary to runaway slaves while others were more likely to capture them, and return them to their white masters or even re-enslave them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer2013Ch._4-74">[74]</a> Still others incorporated runaway slaves into their societies, sometimes resulting in intermarriage between the Africans and Native Americans, which was commonplace among tribes like the <a href="/wiki/Creek_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Creek tribe">Creek</a> and Seminole.<a href="#cite_note-:5-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a> Some Native Americans may have had a strong dislike of slavery, because they too were seen as a people of a subordinate race than whites of European descent, they lacked the political power to influence the racialistic culture that pervaded the Non-Indian South.<a href="#cite_note-:0-73">[73]</a> It is unclear if some Native American slaveholders sympathized with African-American slaves along racial lines.<a href="#cite_note-:1-70">[70]</a> Missionary work was an efficient method the United States used to persuade Native Americans to accept European methods of living. Missionaries vociferously denounced Indian removal as cruel, oppressive, and feared such actions would push Native Americans away from converting.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer201346–76-78">[78]</a> These same missionaries reported that Native American slave owners were brutal masters, even though accounts of Indian freedmen gave different accounts of being treated relatively well without tyrannical treatment.<a href="#cite_note-:5-77">[77]</a> In 1718, the Lenape threatened war if Penn’s Quakers allowed slavery in Pennsylvania. To preserve the peace, the Quakers began restricting slavery and eventually banned it.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_Civil_War">American Civil War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: American Civil War">edit</a>]</div> Traditionalist groups, such as Pin Indians and the intertribal <a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a>, were outspoken opponents of slavery during the Civil War.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Government_and_Protection_of_Indians" title="Act for the Government and Protection of Indians">Act for the Government and Protection of Indians</a> (1850, California)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_relief_of_Indian_Slaves_and_Prisoners" title="Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners">Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners</a> (1852, Utah Territory)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive Slave Act">Fugitive Slave Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_Indians" title="Mission Indians">Mission Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_shatter_zone" title="Mississippian shatter zone">Mississippian shatter zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peonage_Act_of_1867" title="Peonage Act of 1867">Peonage Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Revolt" title="Pueblo Revolt">Pueblo Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_unfree_labor_in_the_United_States" title="History of unfree labor in the United States">History of unfree labor in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_labor_law" title="United States labor law">United States labor law</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:3-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_1-1">b</a> Smith, Ryan P. 6 March 2018. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/how-native-american-slaveholders-complicate-trail-tears-narrative-180968339/">How Native American Slaveholders Complicate the Trail of Tears Narrative</a>." <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_(magazine)" title="Smithsonian (magazine)">Smithsonian Magazine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191325–47_2-16">q</a> <a href="#CITEREFLauber1913">Lauber 1913</a>, pp. 25–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-introcolonial-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-introcolonial_3-22">w</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGallay2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Gallay" title="Alan Gallay">Gallay, Alan</a>, ed. (2009). "Introduction: Indian Slavery in Historical Context". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HT69BbA3Is8C&pg=PA1">Indian Slavery in Colonial America</a>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803222007" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803222007"><bdi>978-0803222007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+Indian+Slavery+in+Historical+Context&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pages=1-32&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0803222007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHT69BbA3Is8C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tperdue1-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tperdue1_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tperdue1_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tperdue1_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tperdue1_4-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue1979" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7o_U2FurKRIC">Slavery and the Evolution of Cherokee Society, 1540–1866</a>. University of Tennessee Press. p. 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870495304" title="Special:BookSources/9780870495304"><bdi>9780870495304</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+the+Evolution+of+Cherokee+Society%2C+1540%E2%80%931866&rft.pages=207&rft.pub=University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=9780870495304&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7o_U2FurKRIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/">"UH - Digital History"</a>. www.digitalhistory.uh.edu. Retrieved December 29, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.digitalhistory.uh.edu&rft.atitle=UH+-+Digital+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitalhistory.uh.edu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilization.ca/aborig/haida/havwa01e.html">"Haida Warfare"</a>, civilization.ca. Retrieved October 24, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Barba, Paul. Country of the Cursed and the Driven: Slavery and the Texas Borderlands. U of Nebraska Press, 2021. </li> <li id="cite_note-britannica-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-britannica_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-britannica_8-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071014041044/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24158">"Slavery in America"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24158">the original</a> on October 14, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+America&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%27s+Guide+to+Black+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerthrong1976" class="citation book cs1">Berthrong, Donald J. (1976). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3AZR7KdHhtIC&pg=PA124">The Cheyenne and Arapaho Ordeal: Reservation and Agency Life in the Indian Territory, 1875 to 1907</a>. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0806112770" title="Special:BookSources/978-0806112770"><bdi>978-0806112770</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cheyenne+and+Arapaho+Ordeal%3A+Reservation+and+Agency+Life+in+the+Indian+Territory%2C+1875+to+1907&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0806112770&rft.aulast=Berthrong&rft.aufirst=Donald+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3AZR7KdHhtIC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bailey-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bailey_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bailey_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey1966" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, Lynn R. 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New York: Tower Publications. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/716572278">716572278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slave+Trade+in+the+Southwest&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Tower+Publications&rft.date=1966&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F716572278&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Lynn+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.charlotteobserver.com/living/travel/article9091931.html">"Picnic with cannibals: Wisconsin's Aztalan State Park was home to mysterious, ancient city whose residents ate their enemies"</a>. Charlotte Observer. Retrieved July 4, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Charlotte+Observer&rft.atitle=Picnic+with+cannibals%3A+Wisconsin%27s+Aztalan+State+Park+was+home+to+mysterious%2C+ancient+city+whose+residents+ate+their+enemies&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.charlotteobserver.com%2Fliving%2Ftravel%2Farticle9091931.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-digitalhistory_voices-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-digitalhistory_voices_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-digitalhistory_voices_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-digitalhistory_voices_12-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMintz,_S.2007" class="citation web cs1">Mintz, S. 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(retrieved November 1, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110719231912/http://www.shoshoneindian.com/sacajawea_002.htm">Archived</a> July 19, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnyder201046–79_34-22">w</a> <a href="#CITEREFSnyder2010">Snyder 2010</a>, pp. 46–79. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGallay2009a109–146_35-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFGallay2009a">Gallay 2009a</a>, pp. 109–146. </li> <li id="cite_note-slavbeg-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-slavbeg_36-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz1996" class="citation book cs1">Katz, William Loren (1996). "Their Mixing is to be Prevented". Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage. Atheneum Books For Young Readers. pp. 109–125.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Their+Mixing+is+to+be+Prevented&rft.btitle=Black+Indians%3A+A+Hidden+Heritage&rft.pages=109-125&rft.pub=Atheneum+Books+For+Young+Readers&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=William+Loren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPeterson2019">Peterson 2019</a>, pp. 129–132 </li> <li id="cite_note-DBcolonial-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DBcolonial_38-25">z</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBossy2009" class="citation book cs1">Bossy, Denise I. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HT69BbA3Is8C&pg=PA207">"Indian Slavery in Southeastern Indian and British Societies, 1670–1730"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Alan_Gallay" title="Alan Gallay">Gallay, Alan</a> (ed.). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 207–250. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803222007" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803222007"><bdi>978-0803222007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Southeastern+Indian+and+British+Societies%2C+1670%E2%80%931730&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pages=207-250&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0803222007&rft.aulast=Bossy&rft.aufirst=Denise+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHT69BbA3Is8C%26pg%3DPA207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer201317–45-39"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer201317–45_39-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrauthamer2013">Krauthamer 2013</a>, pp. 17–45. </li> <li id="cite_note-ism-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ism_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ism_40-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ism_40-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ism_40-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ism_40-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ism_40-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYarbrough2008" class="citation book cs1">Yarbrough, Fay A. (2008). "Indian Slavery and Memory: Interracial sex from the slaves' perspective". Race and the Cherokee Nation. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 112–123.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indian+Slavery+and+Memory%3A+Interracial+sex+from+the+slaves%27+perspective&rft.btitle=Race+and+the+Cherokee+Nation&rft.pages=112-123&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Yarbrough&rft.aufirst=Fay+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-VaGA1705-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VaGA1705_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-VaGA1705_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVirginia_General_Assembly2012" class="citation book cs1">Virginia General Assembly (2012) [1705]. "An Act Concerning Servants and Slaves (1705) [Sections IV. and XXXIV., Transcription From Original]". In Gibson, Matthew (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/_An_act_concerning_Servants_and_Slaves_1705">Encyclopedia Virginia</a>. Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Foundation for the Humanities. Retrieved March 8, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=An+Act+Concerning+Servants+and+Slaves+%281705%29+%5BSections+IV.+and+XXXIV.%2C+Transcription+From+Original%5D&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Virginia&rft.place=Charlottesville%2C+VA&rft.pub=Virginia+Foundation+for+the+Humanities&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Virginia+General+Assembly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediavirginia.org%2F_An_act_concerning_Servants_and_Slaves_1705&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> Cited is a digital version of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Waller_Hening,_Ed.1823" class="citation book cs1">William Waller Hening, Ed. (1823). The Statutes at Large; Being a Collection of All the Laws of Virginia from the First Session of the Legislature, in the Year 1619. Vol. 3. Philadelphia, PA: R. & W. & G. Bartow. pp. 447–463, esp. 447f, 459.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Statutes+at+Large%3B+Being+a+Collection+of+All+the+Laws+of+Virginia+from+the+First+Session+of+the+Legislature%2C+in+the+Year+1619&rft.place=Philadelphia%2C+PA&rft.pages=447-463%2C+esp.+447f%2C+459&rft.pub=R.+%26+W.+%26+G.+Bartow&rft.date=1823&rft.au=William+Waller+Hening%2C+Ed.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> Primary source. </li> <li id="cite_note-pbsafna-42"><a href="#cite_ref-pbsafna_42-0">^</a> For a popular work that uses this quoted section, but that misquotes this primary source, and includes further untraceable material, see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrotty,_PattyWoods,_MeredithGaffney,_Dennis2017" class="citation web cs1">Crotty, Patty; Woods, Meredith; Gaffney, Dennis (2017) [1999]. Sicker, Ted (Prod.) (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1narr3_txt.html">"Part 1, 1450–1750: Narrative, From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery"</a>. Africans in America. Boston, MA: WGBH and PBS. Retrieved March 8, 2017 – via PBS.org/WGBH/AIA.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Africans+in+America&rft.atitle=Part+1%2C+1450%E2%80%931750%3A+Narrative%2C+From+Indentured+Servitude+to+Racial+Slavery&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Crotty%2C+Patty&rft.au=Woods%2C+Meredith&rft.au=Gaffney%2C+Dennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Faia%2Fpart1%2F1narr3_txt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/credits.html">Full production credits</a> are available for the series and accompanying materials. </li> <li id="cite_note-PatrickMinges-43"><a href="#cite_ref-PatrickMinges_43-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_Minges2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Minges" title="Patrick Minges">Patrick Minges</a> (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X9W31OHDxQYC">Slavery in the Cherokee Nation: the Keetoowah Society and the defining of a people, 1855–1867</a>, Psychology Press, p. 27, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94586-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94586-8"><bdi>978-0-415-94586-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Cherokee+Nation%3A+the+Keetoowah+Society+and+the+defining+of+a+people%2C+1855%E2%80%931867&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-415-94586-8&rft.au=Patrick+Minges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX9W31OHDxQYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-KimberleyTolley-44"><a href="#cite_ref-KimberleyTolley_44-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimberley_Tolley2007" class="citation cs2">Kimberley Tolley (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eoQ-aRXS4WwC">Transformations in Schooling: Historical and Comparative Perspectives</a>, Macmillan, p. 228, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7404-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-7404-4"><bdi>978-1-4039-7404-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+in+Schooling%3A+Historical+and+Comparative+Perspectives&rft.pages=228&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-7404-4&rft.au=Kimberley+Tolley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeoQ-aRXS4WwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-afch-45"><a href="#cite_ref-afch_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiya_Miles2008" class="citation book cs1">Tiya Miles (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xpusu6xQq6QC&pg=PA33">Ties That Bind: The story of an Afro-Cherokee family in slavery and freedom</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520250024" title="Special:BookSources/9780520250024"><bdi>9780520250024</bdi></a>. Retrieved October 27, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ties+That+Bind%3A+The+story+of+an+Afro-Cherokee+family+in+slavery+and+freedom&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780520250024&rft.au=Tiya+Miles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxpusu6xQq6QC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber1913118–153-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber1913118–153_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber1913118–153_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber1913118–153_46-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLauber1913">Lauber 1913</a>, pp. 118–153. </li> <li id="cite_note-warwomen-47"><a href="#cite_ref-warwomen_47-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerdue1998" class="citation book cs1">Perdue, Theda (1998). "Defining Community". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cherokeewomengen0000perd">Cherokee Women</a>. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln & London. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cherokeewomengen0000perd/page/41">41</a>–59.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Defining+Community&rft.btitle=Cherokee+Women&rft.pages=41-59&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press%2C+Lincoln+%26+London&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Perdue&rft.aufirst=Theda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcherokeewomengen0000perd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nawomen-48"><a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_48-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorothy_A._Mays2004" class="citation book cs1">Dorothy A. Mays (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UYWs-GQDiOkC&pg=PA218">Women in Early America: Struggle, Survival, and Freedom in a New World</a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 214. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851094295" title="Special:BookSources/9781851094295"><bdi>9781851094295</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+Early+America%3A+Struggle%2C+Survival%2C+and+Freedom+in+a+New+World&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781851094295&rft.au=Dorothy+A.+Mays&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUYWs-GQDiOkC%26pg%3DPA218&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-udayu-49"><a href="#cite_ref-udayu_49-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowne-Marshall,_Gloria_J.2011" class="citation book cs1">Browne-Marshall, Gloria J. (2011) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111211015052/http://academic.udayton.edu/race/05intersection/gender/rape.htm">"The Realities of Enslaved Female Africans in America"</a>. Race, Racism and the Law: Speaking Truth to Power!!. Dayton, OH: University of Dayton, School of Law. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://academic.udayton.edu/race/05intersection/gender/rape.htm">the original</a> on December 11, 2011. Retrieved March 8, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Realities+of+Enslaved+Female+Africans+in+America&rft.btitle=Race%2C+Racism+and+the+Law%3A+Speaking+Truth+to+Power%21%21&rft.place=Dayton%2C+OH&rft.pub=University+of+Dayton%2C+School+of+Law&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Browne-Marshall%2C+Gloria+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Facademic.udayton.edu%2Frace%2F05intersection%2Fgender%2Frape.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-poca2-50"><a href="#cite_ref-poca2_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinwood_Custalow_&_Angela_L._Daniel2009" class="citation book cs1">Linwood Custalow & Angela L. Daniel (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b2A20GQSn-AC&pg=PA35">The true story of Pocahontas</a>. Fulcrum Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781555916329" title="Special:BookSources/9781555916329"><bdi>9781555916329</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+true+story+of+Pocahontas&rft.pub=Fulcrum+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781555916329&rft.au=Linwood+Custalow+%26+Angela+L.+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db2A20GQSn-AC%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-sembir-51"><a href="#cite_ref-sembir_51-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Loren_Katz1996" class="citation book cs1">William Loren Katz (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0XKBwAAQBAJ">Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage Chap. 4 The Finest Looking People I Have Ever Seen</a>. Atheneum Books For Young Readers. pp. 53–68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442446373" title="Special:BookSources/9781442446373"><bdi>9781442446373</bdi></a>. Retrieved April 2, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Indians%3A+A+Hidden+Heritage+Chap.+4+The+Finest+Looking+People+I+Have+Ever+Seen&rft.pages=53-68&rft.pub=Atheneum+Books+For+Young+Readers&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9781442446373&rft.au=William+Loren+Katz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0XKBwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191349-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191349_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLauber1913">Lauber 1913</a>, p. 49. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallayJuliana_Barr2009" class="citation book cs1">Gallay, Alan; <a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Spectrum_of_Indian_Bondage_in_Spanish_Texas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Spectrum of Indian Bondage in Spanish Texas (page does not exist)">Juliana Barr</a> (2009). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Nebraska: Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. p. 283.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Nebraska&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Board+of+Regents+of+the+University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gallay&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Juliana+Barr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallayJames_F._Brooks2009" class="citation book cs1">Gallay, Alan; <a href="/w/index.php?title=%22We_Betray_Our_Own_Nation%22:_Indian_Slavery_and_Multi-ethnic_Communities_in_the_Southwest_Bordlerands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title=""We Betray Our Own Nation": Indian Slavery and Multi-ethnic Communities in the Southwest Bordlerands (page does not exist)">James F. Brooks</a> (2009). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Nebraska: Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. p. 324.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Nebraska&rft.pages=324&rft.pub=Board+of+Regents+of+the+University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gallay&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=James+F.+Brooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELauber191348–49-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELauber191348–49_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLauber1913">Lauber 1913</a>, pp. 48–49. </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallayJuliana_Barr2009" class="citation book cs1">Gallay, Alan; <a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Spectrum_of_Indian_Bondage_in_Spanish_Texas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Spectrum of Indian Bondage in Spanish Texas (page does not exist)">Juliana Barr</a> (2009). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Nebraska: Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. p. 289.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Nebraska&rft.pages=289&rft.pub=Board+of+Regents+of+the+University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gallay&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Juliana+Barr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallayJames_F._Brooks2009" class="citation book cs1">Gallay, Alan; <a href="/w/index.php?title=%22We_Betray_Our_Own_Nation%22:_Indian_Slavery_and_Multi-ethnic_Communities_in_the_Southwest_Bordlerands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title=""We Betray Our Own Nation": Indian Slavery and Multi-ethnic Communities in the Southwest Bordlerands (page does not exist)">James F. Brooks</a> (2009). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Nebraska: Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. p. 325.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Nebraska&rft.pages=325&rft.pub=Board+of+Regents+of+the+University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gallay&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=James+F.+Brooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallayJames_F._Brooks2009" class="citation book cs1">Gallay, Alan; <a href="/w/index.php?title=%22We_Betray_Our_Own_Nation%22:_Indian_Slavery_and_Multi-ethnic_Communities_in_the_Southwest_Bordlerands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title=""We Betray Our Own Nation": Indian Slavery and Multi-ethnic Communities in the Southwest Bordlerands (page does not exist)">James F. Brooks</a> (2009). Indian Slavery in Colonial America. Nebraska: Board of Regents of the University of Nebraska. p. 326.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Nebraska&rft.pages=326&rft.pub=Board+of+Regents+of+the+University+of+Nebraska&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Gallay&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=James+F.+Brooks&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReséndez2016293-59"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReséndez2016293_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReséndez2016">Reséndez 2016</a>, p. 293. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReséndez2016313–314-60"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReséndez2016313–314_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFReséndez2016">Reséndez 2016</a>, pp. 313–314. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Castillo, E.D. 1998. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ceres.ca.gov/nahc/califindian.html">"Short Overview of California Indian History"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061214031402/http://www.ceres.ca.gov/nahc/califindian.html">Archived</a> December 14, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, California Native American Heritage Commission, 1998. Retrieved October 24, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeasley1918" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Delilah_L._Beasley" class="mw-redirect" title="Delilah L. Beasley">Beasley, Delilah L.</a> (1918). "Slavery in California". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Negro History">Journal of Negro History</a>. 3 (1): 33–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2713792">10.2307/2713792</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713792">2713792</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149542384">149542384</a>. <q>The subject of slavery in California was officially called to the attention of the inhabitants through the issuance of a proclamation by the Commander in Chief of the District in regard to the unlawful enslaving of the Indians. He was endeavoring to protect them, but they were enslaved in spite of his efforts. The legislature undertook to perpetuate this system by enacting a law permitting the enslavement of Indians, the only condition upon the master being a bond of a small sum, that he would not abuse or cruelly treat the slaves.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+California&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-44&rft.date=1918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149542384%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2713792%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2713792&rft.aulast=Beasley&rft.aufirst=Delilah+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Compare: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeasley1918" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Delilah_L._Beasley" class="mw-redirect" title="Delilah L. Beasley">Beasley, Delilah L.</a> (1918). "Slavery in California". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Negro_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Negro History">Journal of Negro History</a>. 3 (1): 33–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2713792">10.2307/2713792</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2713792">2713792</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:149542384">149542384</a>. <q>The subject of slavery in California was officially called to the attention of the inhabitants through the issuance of a proclamation by the Commander in Chief of the District in regard to the unlawful enslaving of the Indians. He was endeavoring to protect them, but they were enslaved in spite of his efforts. The legislature undertook to perpetuate this system by enacting a law permitting the enslavement of Indians, the only condition upon the master being a bond of a small sum, that he would not abuse or cruelly treat the slaves. Under the provision of the same law, Indians could be arrested as vagrants and sold to the highest bidder within twenty-four hours after the arrest, and the buyer had the privilege of the labor for a period not exceeding four months.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Negro+History&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+California&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=33-44&rft.date=1918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A149542384%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2713792%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2713792&rft.aulast=Beasley&rft.aufirst=Delilah+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090228182201/http://okhistory.cuadra.com/starweb3/b.archives/servlet.starweb3">"Czarina Conlan Collection: Photographs"</a>. Oklahoma Historical Society Star Archives. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://okhistory.cuadra.com/starweb3/b.archives/servlet.starweb3">the original</a> on February 28, 2009. Retrieved August 23, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Czarina+Conlan+Collection%3A+Photographs&rft.pub=Oklahoma+Historical+Society+Star+Archives&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fokhistory.cuadra.com%2Fstarweb3%2Fb.archives%2Fservlet.starweb3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDirks,_Jerald_F.2006" class="citation book cs1">Dirks, Jerald F. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1590080440">Muslims in American History: A Forgotten Legacy</a>. Beltsville, MD: Amana Publications. p. 204. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1590080440" title="Special:BookSources/1590080440"><bdi>1590080440</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 8, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Muslims+in+American+History%3A+A+Forgotten+Legacy&rft.place=Beltsville%2C+MD&rft.pages=204&rft.pub=Amana+Publications&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1590080440&rft.au=Dirks%2C+Jerald+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fisbn%3D1590080440&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-nawomen_b-66"><a href="#cite_ref-nawomen_b_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDorothy_A._Mays2008" class="citation book cs1">Dorothy A. Mays (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UYWs-GQDiOkC&pg=PA214">Women in early America</a>. ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851094295" title="Special:BookSources/9781851094295"><bdi>9781851094295</bdi></a>. Retrieved May 29, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+early+America&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781851094295&rft.au=Dorothy+A.+Mays&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUYWs-GQDiOkC%26pg%3DPA214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-afrna-67"><a href="#cite_ref-afrna_67-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown,_AudreyKnapp,_Anthony2008" class="citation web cs1">Brown, Audrey; Knapp, Anthony; et al. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080121120237/http://www.nps.gov/history/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/lowCountry_furthRdg1.htm">"Work, Marriage, Christianity"</a>. African American Heritage and Ethnography. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nps.gov/history/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/lowCountry_furthRdg1.htm">the original</a> on January 21, 2008. Retrieved March 8, 2017 – via nps.gov.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=African+American+Heritage+and+Ethnography&rft.atitle=Work%2C+Marriage%2C+Christianity&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Brown%2C+Audrey&rft.au=Knapp%2C+Anthony&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fhistory%2Fethnography%2Faah%2Faaheritage%2FlowCountry_furthRdg1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070703195032/http://www.nps.gov/history/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/credits.htm">Content production credits</a> are available for these materials. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Goins, Charles Robert, Danney Goble, and James H. Anderson. 2006. Historical Atlas of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 52: "The concept of the 'Five Civilized Tribes' has been an important interpretive tool for students of the history of Indian Territory and Oklahoma. But it is an ethnocentric idea that is no longer meaningful." </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Ray, Michael. [2017] 2019. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Five-Civilized-Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a>." <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>: "Five Civilized Tribes, term that has been used officially and unofficially since at least 1866 to designate the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole Indians in Oklahoma (former Indian Territory).... [B]ut there has never been any unification or overall organization of these tribes under that name." </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_70-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_70-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoran1978" class="citation journal cs1">Doran, Michael (1978). "Negro Slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 68 (3). Taylor & Francis, Ltd: 335–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x">10.1111/j.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2561972">2561972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=Negro+Slaves+of+the+Five+Civilized+Tribes&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=335-350&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2561972%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Doran&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_71-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Turner_Strong" title="Pauline Turner Strong">Strong, Pauline Turner</a>. 2002. "Transforming Outsiders: Captivity, Adoption, and Slavery Reconsidered." Pp. 339–56 in A Companion to American Indian History, edited by <a href="/wiki/Philip_J._Deloria" title="Philip J. Deloria">P. J. Deloria</a> and N. Salisbury. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405121316" title="Special:BookSources/9781405121316">9781405121316</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470996461.ch20">10.1002/9780470996461.ch20</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-katover-72"><a href="#cite_ref-katover_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2012" class="citation book cs1">Katz, William Loren (January 3, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z0XKBwAAQBAJ&q=black+indians">Black Indians: A Hidden Heritage</a>. Simon and Schuster. p. 254. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781442446373" title="Special:BookSources/9781442446373"><bdi>9781442446373</bdi></a>. Retrieved March 1, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Indians%3A+A+Hidden+Heritage&rft.pages=254&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2012-01-03&rft.isbn=9781442446373&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=William+Loren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz0XKBwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dblack%2Bindians&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-3">d</a> <a href="/wiki/Tiya_Alicia_Miles" class="mw-redirect" title="Tiya Alicia Miles">Miles, Tiya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Krauthamer" title="Barbara Krauthamer">Barbara Krauthamer</a>. 2004. "Africans and Native Americans." Pp. 121–39 Companion to African American History, edited by A. 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Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 42. Harvard University Press: 301–302. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1162%2Fjinh_r_00232">10.1162/jinh_r_00232</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:141954638">141954638</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Interdisciplinary+History&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+Indian+Country%3A+The+Changing+Face+of+Captivity+in+Early+America+%28review%29&rft.volume=42&rft.pages=301-302&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1162%2Fjinh_r_00232&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141954638%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bragdon&rft.aufirst=Kathleen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F447895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_77-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoran1978" class="citation journal cs1">Doran, Michael (1978). "Negro Slaves of the Five Civilized Tribes". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 68 (3). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 342. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x">10.1111/j.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2561972">2561972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+Association+of+American+Geographers&rft.atitle=Negro+Slaves+of+the+Five+Civilized+Tribes&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=342&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8306.1978.tb01198.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2561972%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Doran&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer201346–76-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKrauthamer201346–76_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKrauthamer2013">Krauthamer 2013</a>, pp. 46–76. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://merionwest.com/2020/12/06/america-was-founded-in-brotherly-love-not-slavery/">"America Was Founded in "Brotherly Love"—Not Slavery"</a>. December 6, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=America+Was+Founded+in+%22Brotherly+Love%22%E2%80%94Not+Slavery&rft.date=2020-12-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmerionwest.com%2F2020%2F12%2F06%2Famerica-was-founded-in-brotherly-love-not-slavery%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Slagle, Allogan. 1993. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.keetoowahsociety.org/BurningPhoenix.htm">"Burning Phoenix."</a> <a href="/wiki/Original_Keetoowah_Society" title="Original Keetoowah Society">Original Keetoowah Society</a>. Retrieved June 14, 2011. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography of slavery in the United States</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallay2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Gallay" title="Alan Gallay">Gallay, Alan</a> (2008) [2002]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ikISTgwRAYMC">The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670-1717</a>. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300087543" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300087543"><bdi>978-0300087543</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Slave+Trade%3A+The+Rise+of+the+English+Empire+in+the+American+South%2C+1670-1717&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+Univ.+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0300087543&rft.aulast=Gallay&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DikISTgwRAYMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGallay2009a" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alan_Gallay" title="Alan Gallay">Gallay, Alan</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HT69BbA3Is8C">Indian Slavery in Colonial America</a>. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803222007" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803222007"><bdi>978-0803222007</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Lincoln&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0803222007&rft.aulast=Gallay&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHT69BbA3Is8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauthamer2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Krauthamer" title="Barbara Krauthamer">Krauthamer, Barbara</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLxhEz5cIdgC">Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South</a>. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1469607108" title="Special:BookSources/978-1469607108"><bdi>978-1469607108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Slaves%2C+Indian+Masters%3A+Slavery%2C+Emancipation%2C+and+Citizenship+in+the+Native+American+South&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+NC&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1469607108&rft.aulast=Krauthamer&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjLxhEz5cIdgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauber1913" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lauber, Almon Wheeler (1913). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/indianslaveryinc54laubuoft">Indian Slavery in Colonial Times Within the Present Limits of the United States</a>. Studies in History, Economics and Public Law. Vol. 54, no. 3, issue 134. New York: Columbia University. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0231915649" title="Special:BookSources/978-0231915649"><bdi>978-0231915649</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Slavery+in+Colonial+Times+Within+the+Present+Limits+of+the+United+States&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Studies+in+History%2C+Economics+and+Public+Law&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=978-0231915649&rft.aulast=Lauber&rft.aufirst=Almon+Wheeler&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Findianslaveryinc54laubuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeterson2019" class="citation book cs1">Peterson, Mark A. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/book/64409">The City-State of Boston: The Rise and Fall of an Atlantic Power, 1630-1865</a>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18548-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-18548-4"><bdi>978-0-691-18548-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+City-State+of+Boston%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+an+Atlantic+Power%2C+1630-1865&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-691-18548-4&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Mark+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fbook%2F64409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReséndez2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9s_Res%C3%A9ndez" title="Andrés Reséndez">Reséndez, Andrés</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2gpCgAAQBAJ">The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America</a>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-544-94710-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-544-94710-8"><bdi>978-0-544-94710-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Other+Slavery%3A+The+Uncovered+Story+of+Indian+Enslavement+in+America&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-544-94710-8&rft.aulast=Res%C3%A9ndez&rft.aufirst=Andr%C3%A9s&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2gpCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder2010" class="citation book cs1">Snyder, Christina (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cXhONCyfy2gC">Slavery in Indian Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America</a>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0674048904" title="Special:BookSources/978-0674048904"><bdi>978-0674048904</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+Indian+Country%3A+The+Changing+Face+of+Captivity+in+Early+America&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0674048904&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Christina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcXhONCyfy2gC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAblavsky2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ablavsky, Gregory (May 3, 2011). "Making Indians 'White': The Judicial Abolition of Native Slavery in Revolutionary Virginia and its Racial Legacy". <a href="/wiki/University_of_Pennsylvania_Law_Review" title="University of Pennsylvania Law Review">University of Pennsylvania Law Review</a>. 159: 1457. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1830592">1830592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pennsylvania+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Making+Indians+%27White%27%3A+The+Judicial+Abolition+of+Native+Slavery+in+Revolutionary+Virginia+and+its+Racial+Legacy&rft.volume=159&rft.pages=1457&rft.date=2011-05-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1830592%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Ablavsky&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASlavery+among+Native+Americans+in+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Blackhawk, Ned. Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 2006.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Brooks" title="James F. Brooks">Brooks, James F.</a> Captives and Cousins: Slavery, Kinship, and Community in the Southwest Borderlands. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press 2002.</li> <li>Ethridge, Robbie and Sheri M. Shuck-Hall, eds. Mapping the Mississippian Shatter Zone: The Colonial Indian Slave Trade and Regional Instability in the American South. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2009.</li> <li>Hämäläinen, Pekka. The Comanche Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press 2008.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/11/native-americans-indigenous-slavery-west/620785/">What Slavery Looked Like in the West</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.historytoday.com/archive/feature/americas-western-problem">America's Western Problem: Indigenous peoples in the West of the United States continued to be held in bondage long after the abolition of plantation slavery in the South.</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Native_American_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" 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title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F0E68C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_rights" title="Template talk:Native American rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Rights</a> of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a> (1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a> (1831)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a> (1832)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a> (D. Neb. 1879)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a> (1884)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a> (1959)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a> (1974)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a> (2004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a> (2013)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> and <a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a> (2022)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_arts_and_crafts_laws" title="Indian arts and crafts laws">Indian arts and crafts laws</a> (1935–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Truth_in_Advertising_for_Native_Art" title="Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art">Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and <a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="text-align:left;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of slavery in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">States</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alabama" title="History of slavery in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Alaska" title="History of slavery in Alaska">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Arkansas" title="History of slavery in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_California" title="History of slavery in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Colorado" title="History of slavery in Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Connecticut" title="History of slavery in Connecticut">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Delaware" title="History of slavery in Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Florida" title="History of slavery in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Hawaii (page does not exist)">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Idaho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Idaho (page does not exist)">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Illinois" title="History of slavery in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Indiana" title="History of slavery in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Iowa" title="History of slavery in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kansas" title="History of slavery in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Kentucky" title="History of slavery in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Maine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Maine (page does not exist)">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Maryland" title="History of slavery in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Massachusetts" title="History of slavery in Massachusetts">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Michigan" title="History of slavery in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Minnesota" title="History of slavery in Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Mississippi" title="History of slavery in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Missouri" title="History of slavery in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Montana" title="History of slavery in Montana">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Nebraska" title="History of slavery in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Nevada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Nevada (page does not exist)">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Hampshire" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Jersey" title="History of slavery in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_Mexico" title="History of slavery in New Mexico">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Carolina" title="History of slavery in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in North Dakota">North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Ohio" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Oklahoma" title="History of slavery in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Oregon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Oregon (page does not exist)">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Pennsylvania" title="History of slavery in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Rhode_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Rhode Island">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Carolina" title="History of slavery in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_South_Dakota" title="History of slavery in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Tennessee" title="History of slavery in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Texas" title="History of slavery in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Utah" title="History of slavery in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Vermont" title="History of slavery in Vermont">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Virginia" title="History of slavery in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Washington_(state)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Washington (state) (page does not exist)">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_West_Virginia" title="History of slavery in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="History of slavery in Wyoming (page does not exist)">Wyoming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_district" title="Federal district">Federal district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of slavery in District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Puerto_Rico" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Danish_period" title="United States Virgin Islands">U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:right;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Slavery among Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_Spain" title="Slavery in New Spain">Slavery in New Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">Slavery in New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Slave trade in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States" title="Slave markets and slave jails in the United States">Slave markets and slave jails in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidnapping_into_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Kidnapping into slavery in the United States">Kidnapping into slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">Slave states and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_labor_on_United_States_military_installations_1799%E2%80%931863" title="Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863">Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_American_colleges_and_universities" title="Slavery at American colleges and universities">Slavery at American colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_American_slavery" title="Glossary of American slavery">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Bibliography of slavery in the United States">Bibliography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural and social history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_proslavery_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American proslavery movement">American proslavery movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_as_a_positive_good_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery as a positive good in the United States">Slavery as a positive good in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treatment_of_the_slaves_in_the_United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Treatment of the slaves in the United States (page does not exist)">Treatment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_health_on_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="Slave health on plantations in the United States">Health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-literacy_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-literacy laws in the United States">Mandatory illiteracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_quarters_in_the_United_States" title="Slave quarters in the United States">Slave quarters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">Domestic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_slave_traders" class="mw-redirect" title="List of American slave traders">List of American slave traders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_slave_ad" class="mw-redirect" title="Runaway slave ad">Runaway slave ad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">Freedmen's towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">List of abolitionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gang_system" title="Gang system">Gang system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_system" title="Task system">Task system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">Planter class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plantations_in_the_United_States" title="List of plantations in the United States">List of plantations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">Amerindian slave ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_slave_owners" title="African-American slave owners">African-American slave owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">American Colonization Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law and politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Slavery and the United States Constitution">Slavery and the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_slave_court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="American slave court cases">American slave court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Freedom_suits_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Freedom suits in the United States">Freedom suits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Clause" title="Fugitive Slave Clause">Fugitive Slave Clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-fifths_Compromise" title="Three-fifths Compromise">Three-fifths Compromise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_and_free_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave and free states">Slave and free states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="History of slavery in the United States by state">History of slavery by U.S. state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1793" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1793">Fugitive Slave Act of 1793</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_Prohibiting_Importation_of_Slaves" title="Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves">Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves</a> (1808)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gag_rule_(United_States)" title="Gag rule (United States)">Gag rule (1836–1840)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nullifier_Party" title="Nullifier Party">Nullifier Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-Eaters" title="Fire-Eaters">Fire-Eaters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movement_to_reopen_the_transatlantic_slave_trade" title="Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade">Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Act_of_1850" title="Fugitive Slave Act of 1850">Fugitive Slave Act of 1850</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Presidents and slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">George Washington and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Thomas Jefferson and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Madison_and_slavery" title="James Madison and slavery">James Madison and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">John Quincy Adams and abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tyler_and_slavery" title="John Tyler and slavery">John Tyler and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zachary_Taylor_and_slavery" title="Zachary Taylor and slavery">Zachary Taylor and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Abraham Lincoln and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson_and_slavery" title="Andrew Johnson and slavery">Andrew Johnson and slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vice_presidents_of_the_United_States_who_owned_slaves" title="List of vice presidents of the United States who owned slaves">Vice presidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_States_Congress_who_owned_slaves" title="List of members of the United States Congress who owned slaves">Members of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_Justices_who_owned_slaves" title="List of United States Supreme Court Justices who owned slaves">Supreme Court Justices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Marriage, sexual slavery and procreation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sexual_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="History of sexual slavery in the United States">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">Female slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States#Sexual_relations_and_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Sexual relations and rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">Slave breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">Plaçage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_family" title="Shadow family">Shadow family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War and after</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Origins of the American Civil War">Origins of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery during the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="End of slavery in the United States">End of slavery in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation_in_the_United_States" title="Compensated emancipation in the United States">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraband_(American_Civil_War)" title="Contraband (American Civil War)">Contraband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">Colored Troops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_reunification_ads_after_emancipation" title="Family reunification ads after emancipation">Family reunification ads after emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_town" title="Freedmen's town">Freedmen's town</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freedmen%27s_towns" title="List of freedmen's towns">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Agriculture_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Template:Agriculture in the United States"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Template talk:Agriculture in the United States"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Agriculture in the United States"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Agriculture_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="History of agriculture in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rural_American_history" title="Rural American history">Rural American history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">African-American</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_land_loss_in_the_United_States" title="Black land loss in the United States">Black land loss</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Hawaiian_aquaculture" title="Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture">Ancient Hawaiian aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_drives_in_the_United_States" title="Cattle drives in the United States">Cattle drives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbian_exchange" title="Columbian exchange">Columbian exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_history_of_food_regulation_in_the_United_States" title="Early history of food regulation in the United States">Early history of food regulation in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_British_America" title="Indentured servitude in British America">Indentured servitude in British America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Virginia" title="Indentured servitude in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude_in_Pennsylvania" title="Indentured servitude in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_World_crops" title="New World crops">New World crops</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_food_plants_native_to_the_Americas" title="List of food plants native to the Americas">List of food plants native to the Americas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_agriculture_in_Virginia" title="Native American agriculture in Virginia">Native American in Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_on_the_Great_Plains" title="Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains">Prehistoric agriculture on the Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Prehistoric agriculture in the Southwestern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_wine" title="History of American wine">Wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Range_war" title="Range war">Range war</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sheep_wars" title="Sheep wars">Sheep wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Colonial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:IHC_corn_picker,_Story_County,_Iowa,_2011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/100px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/150px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg/200px-IHC_corn_picker%2C_Story_County%2C_Iowa%2C_2011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1363" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_production_in_the_United_States" title="Banana production in the United States">Banana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beekeeping_in_the_United_States" title="Beekeeping in the United States">Bee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackcurrant_production_in_the_United_States" title="Blackcurrant production in the United States">Blackcurrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_the_United_States" title="Cannabis in the United States">Cannabis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemp_in_the_United_States" title="Hemp in the United States">Hemp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_production_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Cherry production in the United States">Cherry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_tree_production_in_the_United_States" title="Christmas tree production in the United States">Christmas tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_production_in_the_United_States" title="Corn production in the United States">Corn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_production_in_the_United_States" title="Cotton production in the United States">Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cider_in_the_United_States" title="Cider in the United States">Cider</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dairy_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Dairy industry in the United States">Dairy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hop_production_in_the_United_States" title="Hop production in the United States">Hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poultry_farming_in_the_United_States" title="Poultry farming in the United States">Poultry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_production_in_the_United_States" title="Rice production in the United States">Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinach_in_the_United_States" title="Spinach in the United States">Spinach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_industry_of_the_United_States" title="Sugar industry of the United States">Sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_production_in_the_United_States" title="Tea production in the United States">Tea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Tobacco</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_shade_tobacco" title="Connecticut shade tobacco">Connecticut shade tobacco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheat_production_in_the_United_States" title="Wheat production in the United States">Wheat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_wine" title="American wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">State, commonwealth, or territory-specific</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Alabama">Alabama</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_wine" title="Alabama wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Alaska" title="Agriculture in Alaska">Alaska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Alaska" title="Aquaculture in Alaska">aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Alaska" title="Cannabis in Alaska">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_wine" title="Alaska wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Arizona <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arizona_wine" title="Arizona wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Arizona" title="Cannabis in Arizona">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li>Arkansas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rice_cultivation_in_Arkansas" title="Rice cultivation in Arkansas">rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_wine" title="Arkansas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_California" title="Agriculture in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Almonds_in_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Almonds in California">almonds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_California" title="Cannabis in California">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walnuts_in_California" title="Walnuts in California">walnuts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_wine" title="California wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Colorado" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Colorado">Colorado</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_wine" title="Colorado wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Colorado" title="Cannabis in Colorado">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Connecticut" title="Agriculture in Connecticut">Connecticut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Connecticut" title="Cannabis in Connecticut">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_wine" title="Connecticut wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Delaware <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Delaware" title="Cannabis in Delaware">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_wine" title="Delaware wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Florida" title="Agriculture in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Florida_wine" title="Florida wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomato_production_in_Florida" title="Tomato production in Florida">tomato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mango_production_in_Florida" title="Mango production in Florida">mango</a></li></ul></li> <li>Georgia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)_wine" title="Georgia (U.S. state) wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Hawaii" title="Agriculture in Hawaii">Hawaii</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Hawaii" title="Coffee production in Hawaii">coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sugar_plantations_in_Hawaii" title="Sugar plantations in Hawaii">sugar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_wine" title="Hawaii wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_in_Hawaii" title="Genetically modified food in Hawaii">genetically modified food</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Idaho" title="Agriculture in Idaho">Idaho</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_wine" title="Idaho wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Illinois <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Illinois" title="Cannabis in Illinois">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_wine" title="Illinois wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Indiana">Indiana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_wine" title="Indiana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_wine" title="Iowa wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Kansas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_wine" title="Kansas wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Kentucky" title="Agriculture in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_wine" title="Kentucky wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Louisiana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_wine" title="Louisiana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maine <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_in_Maine" title="Aquaculture in Maine">aquaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Maine" title="Cannabis in Maine">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_wine" title="Maine wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Maryland" title="Agriculture in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Maryland" title="Cannabis in Maryland">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_wine" title="Maryland wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Massachusetts" title="Cannabis in Massachusetts">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_wine" title="Massachusetts wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Michigan" title="Cannabis in Michigan">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherry_production_in_Michigan" title="Cherry production in Michigan">cherries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_wine" title="Michigan wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Minnesota <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_wine" title="Minnesota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Mississippi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_wine" title="Mississippi wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Missouri <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Missouri" title="Cannabis in Missouri">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_wine" title="Missouri wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Montana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Montana" title="Cannabis in Montana">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_wine" title="Montana wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nebraska <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_wine" title="Nebraska wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Nevada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Nevada" title="Cannabis in Nevada">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_wine" title="Nevada wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>New Hampshire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Hampshire_wine" title="New Hampshire wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>New Jersey <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_Jersey" title="Cannabis in New Jersey">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_wine" title="New Jersey wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_New_York" title="Agriculture in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_York" title="Cannabis in New York">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_wine" title="New York wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>New Mexico <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_New_Mexico" title="Cannabis in New Mexico">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_chile" title="New Mexico chile">chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_wine" title="New Mexico wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture in North Carolina">North Carolina</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_wine" title="North Carolina wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>North Dakota <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Dakota_wine" title="North Dakota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Ohio <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_wine" title="Ohio wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Oklahoma <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_wine" title="Oklahoma wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Oregon <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_wine" title="Oregon wine">wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Oregon" title="Cannabis in Oregon">cannabis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Pennsylvania" title="Agriculture in Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_wine" title="Pennsylvania wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Agriculture in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Cannabis in Puerto Rico">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_production_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Coffee production in Puerto Rico">coffee</a></li></ul></li> <li>Rhode Island <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Rhode_Island" title="Cannabis in Rhode Island">cannabis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_wine" title="Rhode Island wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Carolina <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_wine" title="South Carolina wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>South Dakota <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_wine" title="South Dakota wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Tennessee <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_wine" title="Tennessee wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Utah <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utah_wine" title="Utah wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vermont <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_in_Vermont" title="Cannabis in 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Southwestern_United_States" title="Agriculture in the Southwestern United States">Southwestern United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Dirt_Region" title="Black Dirt Region">Black Dirt Region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corn_Belt" title="Corn Belt">Corn Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Belt" title="Cotton Belt">Cotton Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_Belt" title="Fruit Belt">Fruit Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rice_Belt" title="Rice Belt">Rice Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_oyster_industry" title="Pacific Northwest oyster industry">Pacific Northwest oyster industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture" title="United States Department of 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href="/wiki/Agriculture_Risk_Protection_Act_of_2000" title="Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000">Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_Agricultural_Labor_Relations_Act_of_1975" title="California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975">California Agricultural Labor Relations Act of 1975</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capper%E2%80%93Volstead_Act" title="Capper–Volstead Act">Capper–Volstead Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Act_for_Responsible_Employment" title="Children's Act for Responsible Employment">Children's Act for Responsible Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_farm_bill" title="United States farm bill">Farm bill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_Security_Act_of_1985" title="Food Security Act of 1985">Food Security Act of 1985</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food,_Agriculture,_Conservation,_and_Trade_Act_of_1990" title="Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990">Food, Agriculture, Conservation, and Trade Act of 1990</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Agriculture_Improvement_and_Reform_Act_of_1996" title="Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996">Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_Futures_Act" title="Grain Futures Act">Grain Futures Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packers_and_Stockyards_Act" title="Packers and Stockyards Act">Packers and Stockyards Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Food_and_Drug_Act" title="Pure Food and Drug Act">Pure Food and Drug Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Grazing_Act_of_1934" title="Taylor Grazing Act of 1934">Taylor Grazing Act of 1934</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health_in_United_States_agricultural_workers" title="Mental health in United States agricultural workers">Agricultural workers mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmers%27_suicides_in_the_United_States" title="Farmers' suicides in the United States">Farmer suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_in_the_United_States" title="Genetically modified food in the United States">Genetically modified food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer" title="Ogallala Aquifer">Ogallala Aquifer</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Crime</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adulterated_food_in_the_United_States" title="Adulterated food in the United States">Adulterated food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_nut_crimes" title="California nut crimes">California nut crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_raiding" title="Cattle raiding">Cattle raiding</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Farmworkers_in_the_United_States" title="Farmworkers in the United States">Labor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bracero_Program" title="Bracero Program">Bracero Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convict_leasing" title="Convict leasing">Convict leasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm_Labor_Organizing_Committee" title="Farm Labor Organizing Committee">Farm Labor Organizing Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H-2A_visa" title="H-2A visa">H-2A visa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Blooming_Onion" title="Operation Blooming Onion">Operation Blooming Onion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Farm_Workers" title="United Farm Workers">United Farm Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Food_and_Commercial_Workers" title="United Food and Commercial Workers">United Food and Commercial Workers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman%27s_Land_Army_of_America" title="Woman's Land Army of America">Woman's Land Army of America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corn_maze" title="Corn maze">Corn maze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranch" title="Ranch">Ranch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cowboy" title="Cowboy">Cowboy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dude_ranch" class="mw-redirect" title="Dude ranch">Dude ranch</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&oldid=1258059451">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States&oldid=1258059451</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African%E2%80%93Native_American_relations" title="Category:African–Native American relations">African–Native American relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Native 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