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id="toc-Hadean_Eon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hadean_Eon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Hadean Eon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hadean_Eon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Archean_Eon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archean_Eon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Archean Eon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archean_Eon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proterozoic_Eon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proterozoic_Eon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Proterozoic Eon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proterozoic_Eon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phanerozoic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phanerozoic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phanerozoic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phanerozoic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phanerozoic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phanerozoic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleozoic_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleozoic_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Paleozoic Era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleozoic_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cambrian_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cambrian_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Cambrian Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cambrian_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ordovician_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ordovician_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Ordovician period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ordovician_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Silurian_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silurian_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Silurian Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silurian_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Devonian_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Devonian_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Devonian Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Devonian_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carboniferous_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carboniferous_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Carboniferous Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carboniferous_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permian_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permian_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.6</span> <span>Permian Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permian_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mesozoic_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesozoic_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mesozoic Era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesozoic_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Triassic_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Triassic_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Triassic Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Triassic_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jurassic_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jurassic_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Jurassic Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jurassic_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cretaceous_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cretaceous_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Cretaceous Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cretaceous_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cenozoic_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cenozoic_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Cenozoic Era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cenozoic_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleogene_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleogene_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Paleogene Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleogene_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleocene_Epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleocene_Epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.1</span> <span>Paleocene Epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleocene_Epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eocene_Epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eocene_Epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.2</span> <span>Eocene Epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eocene_Epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oligocene_Epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oligocene_Epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1.3</span> <span>Oligocene Epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oligocene_Epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neogene_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neogene_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>Neogene Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neogene_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Miocene_Epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miocene_Epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.1</span> <span>Miocene Epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miocene_Epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pliocene_Epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pliocene_Epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2.2</span> <span>Pliocene Epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pliocene_Epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quaternary_Period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quaternary_Period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Quaternary Period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quaternary_Period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pleistocene_Epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleistocene_Epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3.1</span> <span>Pleistocene Epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleistocene_Epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holocene_Epoch" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holocene_Epoch"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3.2</span> <span>Holocene Epoch</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holocene_Epoch-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geological history of Earth</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A" title="تاريخ الأرض الجيولوجي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الأرض الجيولوجي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="পৃথিবীর ভূতাত্ত্বিক ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পৃথিবীর ভূতাত্ত্বিক ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes_daearegol" title="Hanes daearegol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hanes daearegol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_geol%C3%B3gica_de_la_Tierra" title="Historia geológica de la Tierra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia geológica de la Tierra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurraren_historia_geologikoa" title="Lurraren historia geologikoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lurraren historia geologikoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="تاریخ زمین‌شناختی زمین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ زمین‌شناختی زمین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Երկրաբանական ժամանակագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Երկրաբանական ժամանակագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="पृथ्वी का भूवैज्ञानिक इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पृथ्वी का भूवैज्ञानिक इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_geologi_Bumi" title="Sejarah geologi Bumi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah geologi Bumi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jar%C3%B0saga" title="Jarðsaga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Jarðsaga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%96%D7%9E%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99" title="זמן גאולוגי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="זמן גאולוגי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="დედამიწის გეოლოგიური ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დედამიწის გეოლოგიური ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_geologi_Bumi" title="Sejarah geologi Bumi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah geologi Bumi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerning_geologik_tarixi" title="Yerning geologik tarixi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yerning geologik tarixi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B6%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="زمین دی ارضیاتی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="زمین دی ارضیاتی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A%DA%A9%D9%8A_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DA%86%D9%87" title="د ځمکې جیولوژيکي تاریخچه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ځمکې جیولوژيکي تاریخچه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_geol%C3%B3gica_da_Terra" title="História geológica da Terra – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História geológica da Terra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For broader coverage of this topic, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg/325px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png" decoding="async" width="325" height="312" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg/488px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg/650px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Geologic time shown in a diagram called a geological clock, showing the relative lengths of the eons of Earth's history and noting major events</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>geological history of the Earth</b> follows the major geological events in Earth's past based on the <a href="/wiki/Geological_time_scale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological time scale">geological time scale</a>, a system of <a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">chronological measurement</a> based on the study of the planet's rock layers (<a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a>). Earth formed <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">about 4.54 billion years ago</a> by accretion from the <a href="/wiki/Solar_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar nebula">solar nebula</a>, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. </p><p>Initially, Earth was molten due to extreme <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth. <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">Outgassing</a> and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensing</a> <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a>, augmented by ice delivered from <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">produced the oceans</a>. However, in 2020, researchers reported that <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">sufficient water to fill the oceans</a> may have always been on the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> since the beginning of the planet's formation.<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20200828_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20200828-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20200827wu_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20200827wu-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20200827aa_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20200827aa-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke apart. They <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">migrated across the surface</a>, occasionally combining to form a <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a>. Roughly <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=750">750</a> million years ago</span>, the earliest-known supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a>, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form <a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a>, <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=600–540">600 to 540</a> million years ago</span>, then finally <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>, which broke apart <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200">200</a> million years ago</span>. </p><p>The present pattern of <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> began about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=40">40</a> million years ago</span>, then intensified at the end of the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thawing, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years. The <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">Last Glacial Period</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">current ice age</a> ended about 10,000 years ago. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/250px--Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="250" height="150" data-durationhint="41" data-mwtitle="Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="800" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9"" data-width="800" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="400" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/f/f2/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm/Tectonic_plate_model_1Ga.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="600" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Plate tectonics from the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> to present<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Precambrian">Precambrian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Precambrian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a></div> <p>The Precambrian includes approximately 90% of geologic time. It extends from 4.6 billion years ago to the beginning of the Cambrian Period (about 539 <a href="/wiki/Annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Annum">Ma</a>). It includes the first three of the four <a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eons</a> of Earth's prehistory (the <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a>) and precedes the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> eon.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major volcanic events altering the Earth's environment and causing <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinctions</a> may have occurred 10 times in the past 3 billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hadean_Eon">Hadean Eon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Hadean Eon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Mysterious_Case_of_the_Disappearing_Dust.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/The_Mysterious_Case_of_the_Disappearing_Dust.jpg/250px-The_Mysterious_Case_of_the_Disappearing_Dust.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/The_Mysterious_Case_of_the_Disappearing_Dust.jpg/375px-The_Mysterious_Case_of_the_Disappearing_Dust.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/The_Mysterious_Case_of_the_Disappearing_Dust.jpg/500px-The_Mysterious_Case_of_the_Disappearing_Dust.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of a <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Protoplanetary disc">protoplanetary disc</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During Hadean time (4.6–4 <a href="/wiki/Annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Annum">Ga</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> was forming, probably within a large cloud of gas and dust around the Sun, called an <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Accretion disc">accretion disc</a> from which <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth#Origin_of_life" title="History of Earth">Earth formed</a> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4,500">4,500</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-age_earth_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-age_earth-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Hadean Eon is not formally recognized, but it essentially marks the era before we have adequate record of significant solid rocks. The oldest dated <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircons</a> date from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4,400">4,400</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hadean.png/250px-Hadean.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hadean.png/375px-Hadean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hadean.png/500px-Hadean.png 2x" data-file-width="2092" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of a Hadean landscape and the Moon looming large in the sky, both bodies still under extreme <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> was initially molten due to extreme <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a> and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the <a href="/wiki/Giant_impact_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant impact hypothesis">impact</a> of a large planetoid with the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More recent potassium isotopic studies suggest that the Moon was formed by a smaller, high-energy, high-angular-momentum giant impact cleaving off a significant portion of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of this object's mass merged with Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form the orbiting Moon. Outgassing and <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a>, augmented by ice delivered from <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_world%27s_oceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of the world's oceans">produced the oceans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 2020, researchers reported that <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">sufficient water to fill the oceans</a> may have always been on the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> since the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Earth#Formation" title="Earth">planet's formation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20200828_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20200828-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20200827wu_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20200827wu-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20200827aa_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20200827aa-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Hadean the <a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a> occurred (approximately <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4100–3800">4,100 to 3,800</a> million years ago</span>) during which a large number of impact craters are believed to have formed on the Moon, and by inference on Earth, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> as well. However, some scientists argue against this hypothetical Late Heavy Bombardment, pointing out that the conclusion has been drawn from data which are not fully representative (only a few crater hotspots on the Moon have been analyzed).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archean_Eon">Archean Eon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Archean Eon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Archean.png/290px-Archean.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Archean.png/435px-Archean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Archean.png/580px-Archean.png 2x" data-file-width="2510" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of Earth during its second <a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eon</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a>. The eon started with the <a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a> around 4.031 billion years ago. As depicted, Earth's <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">planetary crust</a> had largely cooled, leaving a water-rich barren <a href="/wiki/Planetary_surface" title="Planetary surface">surface</a> marked by <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>, eventually developing <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">round</a> <a href="/wiki/Microbialite" title="Microbialite">microbialites</a>. The Moon orbited Earth much closer, appearing much larger, producing more frequent and wider <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Tidal_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal effect">tidal effects</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunar_and_Planetary_Institute_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunar_and_Planetary_Institute-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Earth of the early Archean (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=4031–2500">4,031 to 2,500</a> million years ago</span>) may have had a different tectonic style. It is widely believed that the early Earth was dominated by vertical tectonic processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Stagnant_lid" class="mw-redirect" title="Stagnant lid">stagnant lid</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Heat-pipe_tectonics" title="Heat-pipe tectonics">heat-pipe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sagduction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sagduction (page does not exist)">sagduction</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which eventually transitioned to plate tectonics during the planet's mid-stage evolution. However, an alternative view proposes that Earth never experienced a vertical tectonic phase and that plate tectonics have been active throughout its entire history.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this time, the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter in the past,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratonization</a> and continent formation until the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduct</a> and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a> events. Some geologists view the sudden increase in aluminum content in zircons as an indicator of the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> rocks, Archean rocks are distinguished by the presence of heavily metamorphosed deep-water sediments, such as <a href="/wiki/Graywacke" class="mw-redirect" title="Graywacke">graywackes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">mudstones</a>, volcanic sediments and <a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">banded iron formations</a>. <a href="/wiki/Greenstone_belt" title="Greenstone belt">Greenstone belts</a> are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high- and low-grade metamorphic rocks. The high-grade rocks were derived from volcanic <a href="/wiki/Island_arc" title="Island arc">island arcs</a>, while the low-grade metamorphic rocks represent deep-sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island rocks and deposited in a <a href="/wiki/Forearc" title="Forearc">forearc basin</a>. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> was established 3.5 billion years ago. The <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> flux was about 100 times the value of the modern <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, so the presence of the magnetic field helped prevent the planet's atmosphere from being stripped away, which is what probably happened to the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Mars" title="Atmosphere of Mars">atmosphere of Mars</a>. However, the field strength was lower than at present and the <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> was about half the modern radius.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proterozoic_Eon">Proterozoic Eon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Proterozoic Eon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a></div> <p>The geologic record of the Proterozoic (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2500–538.8">2,500 to 538.8</a> million years ago</span><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is more complete than that for the preceding <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a>. In contrast to the deep-water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many <a href="/wiki/Stratum" title="Stratum">strata</a> that were laid down in extensive shallow <a href="/wiki/Epeiric_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Epeiric Sea">epicontinental seas</a>; furthermore, many of these rocks are less <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphosed</a> than Archean-age ones, and plenty are unaltered.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Study of these rocks shows that the eon featured massive, rapid <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continental</a> accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent_cycle" title="Supercontinent cycle">supercontinent cycles</a>, and wholly modern <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenic</a> activity.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roughly <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=750">750</a> million years ago</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2008_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2008-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the earliest-known supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a>, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form <a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a>, 600–540 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first-known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic, one that began shortly after the beginning of the eon, while there were at least four during the Neoproterozoic, climaxing with the <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a> of the Varangian glaciation.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snowball_Huronian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Snowball_Huronian.jpg/250px-Snowball_Huronian.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Snowball_Huronian.jpg/375px-Snowball_Huronian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Snowball_Huronian.jpg/500px-Snowball_Huronian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Artist's rendition of a fully-frozen <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a> with no remaining liquid surface water.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phanerozoic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a></div> <p>The <b>Phanerozoic</b> Eon is the current eon in the geologic timescale. It covers roughly 539 million years. During this period continents drifted apart, but eventually collected into a single landmass known as <a href="/wiki/Pangea" class="mw-redirect" title="Pangea">Pangea</a>, before splitting again into the current continental landmasses.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras – the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>. </p><p>Most of the evolution of multicellular life occurred during this time period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Paleozoic_Era">Paleozoic Era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Paleozoic Era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a></div> <p>The <b>Paleozoic</b> era spanned roughly <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=539–251">539 to 251</a> million years ago</span> (Ma)<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is subdivided into six <a href="/wiki/Period_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (geology)">geologic periods</a>: from oldest to youngest, they are the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a>. Geologically, the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called <a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a> and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early Paleozoic, Earth's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era, the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>, which included most of Earth's land area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cambrian_Period">Cambrian Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cambrian Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a></div> <p>The <b>Cambrian</b> is a major division of the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_timescale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic timescale">geologic timescale</a> that begins about 538.8 ± 0.2 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> continents are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> supercontinent called Pannotia. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. Continental drift rates may have been anomalously high. <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> remained independent continents following the break-up of the supercontinent of Pannotia. <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> started to drift toward the South Pole. <a href="/wiki/Panthalassa" title="Panthalassa">Panthalassa</a> covered most of the southern hemisphere, and minor oceans included the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Tethys_Ocean" title="Proto-Tethys Ocean">Proto-Tethys Ocean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iapetus_Ocean" title="Iapetus Ocean">Iapetus Ocean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khanty_Ocean" title="Khanty Ocean">Khanty Ocean</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ordovician_period">Ordovician period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ordovician period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a></div> <p>The <b>Ordovician</b> period started at a major extinction event called the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian%E2%80%93Ordovician_extinction_event" title="Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event">Cambrian–Ordovician extinction event</a> some time about 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> the southern continents were collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in the equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician the continents Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica were still independent continents (since the break-up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a> began to move toward Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean to shrink between them. Also, <a href="/wiki/Avalonia" title="Avalonia">Avalonia</a> broke free from Gondwana and began to head north toward Laurentia. The <a href="/wiki/Rheic_Ocean" title="Rheic Ocean">Rheic Ocean</a> was formed as a result of this. By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Ordovician came to a close in a series of <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">extinction events</a> that, taken together, comprise the second-largest of the five major extinction events in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">Earth's history</a> in terms of percentage of <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> that became extinct. The only larger one was the Permian-Triassic extinction event. The extinctions occurred approximately <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=447–444">447 to 444</a> million years ago</span> <sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and mark the boundary between the Ordovician and the following <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a> Period. </p><p>The most-commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of an <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a>, in the Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a> conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long-lasting as once thought; study of oxygen <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps has been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then-adjacent northeastern South America, which were south-polar locations at the time.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Silurian_Period">Silurian Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Silurian Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a></div> <p>The <b>Silurian</b> is a major division of the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_timescale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic timescale">geologic timescale</a> that started about 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian ice caps were less extensive than those of the late Ordovician glaciation. The melting of ice caps and glaciers contributed to a rise in <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea levels</a>, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an <a href="/wiki/Unconformity" title="Unconformity">unconformity</a>. Other <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratons</a> and continent fragments drifted together near the equator, starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as <a href="/wiki/Euramerica" title="Euramerica">Euramerica</a>. The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include Proto-Tethys, Paleo-Tethys, Rheic Ocean, a seaway of Iapetus Ocean (now in between Avalonia and Laurentia), and newly formed <a href="/wiki/Ural_Ocean" title="Ural Ocean">Ural Ocean</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Devonian_Period">Devonian Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Devonian Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a></div> <p>The <b>Devonian</b> spanned roughly from 419 to 359 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period was a time of great tectonic activity, as <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> and Gondwana drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the <a href="/wiki/Tropic_of_Capricorn" title="Tropic of Capricorn">Tropic of Capricorn</a>. In these near-deserts, the <a href="/wiki/Old_Red_Sandstone" title="Old Red Sandstone">Old Red Sandstone</a> sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (<a href="/wiki/Hematite" title="Hematite">hematite</a>) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator Pangaea began to consolidate from the plates containing North America and Europe, further raising the northern <a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian Mountains</a> and forming the <a href="/wiki/Caledonian_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Caledonian Mountains">Caledonian Mountains</a> in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Great Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent of <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean") covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo-Tethys, Proto-Tethys, Rheic Ocean and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carboniferous_Period">Carboniferous Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Carboniferous Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a></div> <p>The <b>Carboniferous</b> extends from about 358.9 ± 0.4 to about 298.9 ± 0.15 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A global drop in sea level at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a>; this created the widespread epicontinental seas and carbonate deposition of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippian age">Mississippian</a>. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern Gondwana was glaciated throughout the period, though it is uncertain if the ice sheets were a holdover from the Devonian or not. These conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> swamps flourished within 30 degrees of the northernmost glaciers. A mid-Carboniferous drop in sea-level precipitated a major marine extinction, one that hit <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">crinoids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ammonite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammonite">ammonites</a> especially hard. This sea-level drop and the associated unconformity in North America separate the <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippian Period">Mississippian Period</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvanian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Pennsylvanian period">Pennsylvanian period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley,_414_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley,_414-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Carboniferous was a time of active mountain building, as the supercontinent Pangea came together. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America-Europe (<a href="/wiki/Laurussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurussia">Laurussia</a>) along the present line of eastern <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. This continental collision resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Hercynian_orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Hercynian orogeny">Hercynian orogeny</a> in Europe, and the <a href="/wiki/Alleghenian_orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Alleghenian orogeny">Alleghenian orogeny</a> in North America; it also extended the newly uplifted Appalachians southwestward as the <a href="/wiki/Ouachita_Mountains" title="Ouachita Mountains">Ouachita Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the same time frame, much of present eastern <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian Plate</a> welded itself to Europe along the line of the <a href="/wiki/Ural_Mountains" title="Ural Mountains">Ural Mountains</a>. There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous: the Panthalassa and Paleo-Tethys. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed the <a href="/wiki/Rheic_Ocean" title="Rheic Ocean">Rheic Ocean</a> (closed by the assembly of South and North America), the small, shallow <a href="/wiki/Ural_Ocean" title="Ural Ocean">Ural Ocean</a> (which was closed by the collision of <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberia</a> continents, creating the Ural Mountains) and Proto-Tethys Ocean. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pangea_animation_03.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Pangea_animation_03.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="160" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="160" /></a><figcaption>Pangaea separation animation</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Permian_Period">Permian Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Permian Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a></div> <p>The <b>Permian</b> extends from about 298.9 ± 0.15 to 252.17 ± 0.06 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> all the Earth's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (<i><a href="/wiki/Panthalassa" title="Panthalassa">Panthalassa</a></i>, the <i>universal sea</i>), and the <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Tethys_Ocean" title="Paleo-Tethys Ocean">Paleo-Tethys Ocean</a>, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">Deserts</a> seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesozoic_Era">Mesozoic Era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mesozoic Era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:249_global.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/249_global.png/220px-249_global.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/249_global.png/330px-249_global.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/249_global.png/440px-249_global.png 2x" data-file-width="766" data-file-height="771" /></a><figcaption>Plate tectonics - <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=249">249</a> million years ago</span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:290_global.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/290_global.png/220px-290_global.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/290_global.png/330px-290_global.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/290_global.png/440px-290_global.png 2x" data-file-width="780" data-file-height="783" /></a><figcaption>Plate tectonics - <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=290">290</a> million years ago</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Mesozoic</b> extended roughly from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=252–66">252 to 66</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the vigorous convergent plate mountain-building of the late <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> tectonic deformation was comparatively mild. Nevertheless, the era featured the dramatic rifting of the supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>. Pangaea gradually split into a northern continent, <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a>, and a southern continent, <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>. This created the <a href="/wiki/Passive_continental_margin" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive continental margin">passive continental margin</a> that characterizes most of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> coastline (such as along the U.S. East Coast) today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Triassic_Period">Triassic Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Triassic Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a></div> <p>The <b>Triassic</b> Period extends from about 252.17 ± 0.06 to 201.3 ± 0.2 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, almost all the Earth's land mass was concentrated into a single <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> centered more or less on the equator, called <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> ("all the land"). This took the form of a giant "<a href="/wiki/Pac-Man" title="Pac-Man">Pac-Man</a>" with an east-facing "mouth" constituting the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys sea</a>, a vast gulf that opened farther westward in the mid-Triassic, at the expense of the shrinking <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Tethys_Ocean" title="Paleo-Tethys Ocean">Paleo-Tethys Ocean</a>, an ocean that existed during the <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>. </p><p>The remainder was the world-ocean known as <a href="/wiki/Panthalassa" title="Panthalassa">Panthalassa</a> ("all the sea"). All the deep-ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of oceanic plates; thus, very little is known of the Triassic open ocean. The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic—especially late in the period—but had not yet separated. The first nonmarine sediments in the <a href="/wiki/Rift" title="Rift">rift</a> that marks the initial break-up of Pangea—which separated <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a> from <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>—are of Late Triassic age; in the U.S., these thick sediments comprise the <a href="/wiki/Newark_Supergroup" title="Newark Supergroup">Newark Supergroup</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lasdtri_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lasdtri-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of the limited shoreline of one super-continental mass, Triassic marine deposits are globally relatively rare; despite their prominence in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a>, where the Triassic was first studied. In <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west. Thus Triassic <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphy</a> is mostly based on organisms living in lagoons and hypersaline environments, such as <i>Estheria</i> crustaceans and terrestrial vertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jurassic_Period">Jurassic Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Jurassic Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a></div> <p>The <b>Jurassic</b> Period extends from about 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the early <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, the supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> broke up into the northern supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> and the southern supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a> opened in the new rift between North America and what is now <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Yucatan_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Yucatan Peninsula">Yucatan Peninsula</a>. The Jurassic North <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart.<sup id="cite_ref-panjur2_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-panjur2-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Sea</a> closed, and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Basin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean Basin">Neotethys</a> basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciation</a>. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land near either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. The Jurassic geological record is good in western <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of the continent was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic_Coast" title="Jurassic Coast">Jurassic Coast</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Site" title="World Heritage Site">World Heritage Site</a> and the renowned late Jurassic <i><a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätten</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Holzmaden" title="Holzmaden">Holzmaden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solnhofen_limestone" class="mw-redirect" title="Solnhofen limestone">Solnhofen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lasdjur_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lasdjur-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the <a href="/wiki/Epeiric_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Epeiric Sea">epicontinental</a> <a href="/wiki/Sundance_Sea" title="Sundance Sea">Sundance Sea</a> left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the <a href="/wiki/Alluvium" title="Alluvium">alluvial</a> deposits of the <a href="/wiki/Morrison_Formation" title="Morrison Formation">Morrison Formation</a>. The first of several massive <a href="/wiki/Batholith" title="Batholith">batholiths</a> were emplaced in the northern <a href="/wiki/American_cordillera" class="mw-redirect" title="American cordillera">Cordillera</a> beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the <a href="/wiki/Nevadan_orogeny" title="Nevadan orogeny">Nevadan orogeny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, <a href="/wiki/Australasia" title="Australasia">Australasia</a> and the United Kingdom. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cretaceous_Period">Cretaceous Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cretaceous Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:100_global.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/100_global.png/220px-100_global.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/100_global.png/330px-100_global.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/100_global.png/440px-100_global.png 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="736" /></a><figcaption>Plate tectonics - 100 Ma,<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> period</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Cretaceous</b> Period extends from circa <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=145.0">145</a> million years ago</span> to <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=66">66</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>, the late <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>-early Mesozoic <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> completed its breakup into present day <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> widened, the convergent-margin <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogenies</a> that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the <a href="/wiki/American_cordillera" class="mw-redirect" title="American cordillera">North American Cordillera</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Nevadan_orogeny" title="Nevadan orogeny">Nevadan orogeny</a> was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Sevier_orogeny" title="Sevier orogeny">Sevier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laramide_orogeny" title="Laramide orogeny">Laramide orogenies</a>. Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous, <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> itself broke up as <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> rifted away from <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> (though <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Oceans</a> were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">eustatic sea levels</a> worldwide. </p><p>To the north of Africa the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a> continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Western_Interior_Seaway" title="Western Interior Seaway">Western Interior Seaway</a>) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Transgression_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgression (geology)">transgression</a>, one-third of Earth's present land area was submerged.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cretaceous is justly famous for its <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">chalk</a>; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge" title="Mid-ocean ridge">Mid-ocean ridge</a> activity—or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges—enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for <a href="/wiki/Coccolithophores" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccolithophores">calcareous nanoplankton</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These widespread <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonates</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary deposits</a> make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous <a href="/wiki/Geologic_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic formation">formations</a> from North America include the rich marine fossils of <a href="/wiki/Kansas" title="Kansas">Kansas</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Smoky_Hill_Chalk" title="Smoky Hill Chalk">Smoky Hill Chalk Member</a> and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Hell_Creek_Formation" title="Hell Creek Formation">Hell Creek Formation</a>. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. In the area that is now India, massive <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a> beds called the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Traps" title="Deccan Traps">Deccan Traps</a> were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cenozoic_Era">Cenozoic Era</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cenozoic Era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a></div> <p>The <b>Cenozoic</b> Era covers the 66 million years since the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> up to and including the present day. By the end of the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present form. <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> became <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> split into <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, which collided with the Asian plate. This impact gave rise to the Himalayas. The Tethys Sea, which had separated the northern continents from Africa and India, began to close up, forming the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paleogene_Period">Paleogene Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Paleogene Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a></div> <p>The <b>Paleogene</b> (alternatively <b>Palaeogene</b>) <a href="/wiki/Geologic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic period">Period</a> is a unit of <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic time">geologic time</a> that began 66 and ended 23.03 Ma<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and comprises the first part of the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a> Era. This period consists of the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a> Epochs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Paleocene_Epoch">Paleocene Epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Paleocene Epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a></div> <p>The <b>Paleocene</b>, lasted from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=66">66</a> million years ago</span> to <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=56.0">56</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In many ways, the <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a> continued processes that had begun during the late Cretaceous Period. During the Paleocene, the <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> continued to drift toward their present positions. Supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> had not yet separated into three continents. <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> were still connected. <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> were still intermittently joined by a land bridge, while Greenland and North America were beginning to separate.<sup id="cite_ref-Hooker_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hooker-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Laramide_orogeny" title="Laramide orogeny">Laramide orogeny</a> of the late Cretaceous continued to uplift the <a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> in the American west, which ended in the succeeding epoch. South and North America remained separated by equatorial seas (they joined during the <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a>); the components of the former southern supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> continued to split apart, with <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, South America, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> pulling away from each other. Africa was heading north toward <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, slowly closing the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a>, and <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> began its migration to Asia that would lead to a tectonic collision and the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Eocene_Epoch">Eocene Epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Eocene Epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a></div> <p>During the <b><a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a></b> (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=56.0">56</a> million years ago</span> - <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=33.9">33.9</a> million years ago</span>),<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">equatorial</a> currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45 <a href="/wiki/Annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Annum">Ma</a>, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice ages</a> began about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=40">40</a> million years ago</span>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The northern <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> of <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> began to break up, as <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> drifted apart. In western North America, <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">mountain building</a> started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a> finally vanished, while the uplift of the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> isolated its final remnant, the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>, and created another shallow sea with island <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelagos</a> to the north. Though the North <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> continued its journey away from <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and began its collision with <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, creating the <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalayan</a> orogeny. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Oligocene_Epoch">Oligocene Epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Oligocene Epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a></div> <p>The <b>Oligocene</b> Epoch extends from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=34">34</a> million years ago</span> to <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=23">23</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a> the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent <a href="/wiki/Ice_cap" title="Ice cap">ice cap</a>. <a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">Mountain building</a> in western <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> continued, and the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a> started to rise in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> as the <a href="/wiki/African_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="African Plate">African Plate</a> continued to push north into the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Eurasian Plate">Eurasian Plate</a>, isolating the remnants of <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a>. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> since the <a href="/wiki/Fauna_(animals)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fauna (animals)">faunas</a> of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene, <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> was finally detached from <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and drifted north toward <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. It also allowed the <a href="/wiki/Antarctic_Circumpolar_Current" title="Antarctic Circumpolar Current">Antarctic Circumpolar Current</a> to flow, rapidly cooling the continent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neogene_Period">Neogene Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Neogene Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a></div> <p>The <b>Neogene</b> Period is a unit of <a href="/wiki/Geologic_timescale" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic timescale">geologic time</a> starting 23.03 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and ends at 2.588 Ma. The Neogene Period follows the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a> Period. The Neogene consists of the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> and is followed by the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> Period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Miocene_Epoch">Miocene Epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Miocene Epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a></div> <p>The <b>Miocene</b> extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a> continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a> was absent, the subduction zone along the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a> margin of South America caused the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> and the southward extension of the <a href="/wiki/Meso-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Meso-American">Meso-American</a> peninsula. <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> continued to collide with <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> collided with <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkish</a>-<a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabian</a> region between 19 and 12 <a href="/wiki/Annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Annum">Ma</a> (<a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Stratigraphy" title="International Commission on Stratigraphy">ICS</a> 2004). Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean">Mediterranean</a> region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Messinian_salinity_crisis" title="Messinian salinity crisis">Messinian salinity crisis</a> near the end of the Miocene. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pliocene_Epoch">Pliocene Epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pliocene Epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a></div> <p>The <b>Pliocene</b> extends from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=5.333">5.333</a> million years ago</span> to <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2.588">2.588</a> million years ago</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a> continents continued to drift toward their present positions, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 kilometres (155 mi) from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations. </p><p>South America became linked to North America through the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panama" title="Isthmus of Panama">Isthmus of Panama</a> during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America's distinctive <a href="/wiki/Marsupialia" class="mw-redirect" title="Marsupialia">marsupial</a> faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now-isolated Atlantic Ocean. <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>'s collision with <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>, cutting off the remnants of the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Ocean</a>. Sea level changes exposed the land-bridge between <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a> and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2.58">2.58</a> million years ago</span> (the start of the Quaternary Period), the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">current ice age</a> began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000–100,000 years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quaternary_Period">Quaternary Period</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Quaternary Period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pleistocene_Epoch">Pleistocene Epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pleistocene Epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></div> <p>The <b>Pleistocene</b> extends from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2.588">2.588</a> million years ago</span> to 11,700 years before present.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> were essentially at their present positions during the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">plates</a> upon which they sit probably having moved no more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) relative to each other since the beginning of the period. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Holocene_Epoch">Holocene Epoch</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Holocene Epoch"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span class="mw-3d-wrapper" data-label="3D"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_dry_elevation.stl" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Earth_dry_elevation.stl/220px-Earth_dry_elevation.stl.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Earth_dry_elevation.stl/330px-Earth_dry_elevation.stl.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Earth_dry_elevation.stl/440px-Earth_dry_elevation.stl.png 2x" data-file-width="5120" data-file-height="2880" /></a></span><figcaption>Current Earth - without water, elevation greatly exaggerated (click/enlarge to "spin" 3D-globe).</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Holocene</b> Epoch began approximately 11,700 calendar years before present<sup id="cite_ref-ICS2015_9-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS2015-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and continues to the present. During the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a>, continental motions have been less than a kilometer. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Last_glacial_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Last glacial period">last glacial period</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_ice_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary ice age">current ice age</a> ended about 10,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ice melt caused world <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea levels to rise</a> about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about <a href="/wiki/40th_parallel_north" title="40th parallel north">40 degrees north</a> latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from <a href="/wiki/Vermont" title="Vermont">Vermont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michigan" title="Michigan">Michigan</a>. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. <a href="/wiki/Post-glacial_rebound" title="Post-glacial rebound">Post-glacial rebound</a> in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a> resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, including much of <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>. The region continues to rise, still causing weak <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> across <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a>. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Bay" title="Hudson Bay">Hudson Bay</a>, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial <a href="/wiki/Tyrrell_Sea" title="Tyrrell Sea">Tyrrell Sea</a> phase, to near its present boundaries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output 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title="Consilience">Consilience</a>, evidence from independent, unrelated sources can "converge" on strong conclusions</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-SCI-20200828-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20200828_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20200828_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPiani,_Laurette2020" class="citation journal cs1">Piani, Laurette (28 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aba1948">"Earth's water may have been inherited from material similar to enstatite chondrite meteorites"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>369</b> (6507): 1110–1113. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020Sci...369.1110P">2020Sci...369.1110P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aba1948">10.1126/science.aba1948</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32855337">32855337</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221342529">221342529</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Earth%27s+water+may+have+been+inherited+from+material+similar+to+enstatite+chondrite+meteorites&rft.volume=369&rft.issue=6507&rft.pages=1110-1113&rft.date=2020-08-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aba1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221342529%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32855337&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020Sci...369.1110P&rft.au=Piani%2C+Laurette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.aba1948&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCI-20200827wu-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20200827wu_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20200827wu_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWashington_University_in_St._Louis2020" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis" title="Washington University in St. Louis">Washington University in St. Louis</a> (27 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-08/wuis-mss082620.php">"Meteorite study suggests Earth may have been wet since it formed - Enstatite chondrite meteorites, once considered 'dry,' contain enough water to fill the oceans -- and then some"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/EurekAlert!" class="mw-redirect" title="EurekAlert!">EurekAlert!</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EurekAlert%21&rft.atitle=Meteorite+study+suggests+Earth+may+have+been+wet+since+it+formed+-+Enstatite+chondrite+meteorites%2C+once+considered+%27dry%2C%27+contain+enough+water+to+fill+the+oceans+--+and+then+some&rft.date=2020-08-27&rft.au=Washington+University+in+St.+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2020-08%2Fwuis-mss082620.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-SCI-20200827aa-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20200827aa_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20200827aa_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerican_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science2020" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a> (27 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-08/aaft-uao082420.php">"Unexpected abundance of hydrogen in meteorites reveals the origin of Earth's water"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/EurekAlert!" class="mw-redirect" title="EurekAlert!">EurekAlert!</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EurekAlert%21&rft.atitle=Unexpected+abundance+of+hydrogen+in+meteorites+reveals+the+origin+of+Earth%27s+water&rft.date=2020-08-27&rft.au=American+Association+for+the+Advancement+of+Science&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.eurekalert.org%2Fpub_releases%2F2020-08%2Faaft-uao082420.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerdith2020" class="citation book cs1">Merdith, Andrew (16 December 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/4485738">"Plate tectonics, Rodinia, Gondwana, supercontinent cycle"</a>. <i>Plate model for 'Extending Full-Plate Tectonic Models into Deep Time: Linking the Neoproterozoic and the Phanerozoic'<span></span></i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5281%2Fzenodo.4485738">10.5281/zenodo.4485738</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 September</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Plate+tectonics%2C+Rodinia%2C+Gondwana%2C+supercontinent+cycle&rft.btitle=Plate+model+for+%27Extending+Full-Plate+Tectonic+Models+into+Deep+Time%3A+Linking+the+Neoproterozoic+and+the+Phanerozoic%27&rft.date=2020-12-16&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5281%2Fzenodo.4485738&rft.aulast=Merdith&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F4485738&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNisbet1991" class="citation journal cs1">Nisbet, E.G. (1991-12-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F1991%2Fv14i4%2F003">"Of clocks and rocks - The four aeons of Earth"</a>. <i>Episodes</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 327–330. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F1991%2Fv14i4%2F003">10.18814/epiiugs/1991/v14i4/003</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0705-3797">0705-3797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Episodes&rft.atitle=Of+clocks+and+rocks+-+The+four+aeons+of+Earth&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=327-330&rft.date=1991-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18814%2Fepiiugs%2F1991%2Fv14i4%2F003&rft.issn=0705-3797&rft.aulast=Nisbet&rft.aufirst=E.G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.18814%252Fepiiugs%252F1991%252Fv14i4%252F003&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitze" class="citation news cs1">Witze, Alexandra. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/earth-rsquo-s-lost-history-of-planet-altering-eruptions-revealed/?WT.mc_id=SA_FB_ENGYSUS_NEWS">"Earth's Lost History of Planet-Altering Eruptions Revealed"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Earth%27s+Lost+History+of+Planet-Altering+Eruptions+Revealed&rft.aulast=Witze&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fearth-rsquo-s-lost-history-of-planet-altering-eruptions-revealed%2F%3FWT.mc_id%3DSA_FB_ENGYSUS_NEWS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-age_earth-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-age_earth_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalrymple1991" class="citation book cs1">Dalrymple, G.B. (1991). <i>The Age of the Earth</i>. 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(1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu/courses/v1001/10.html">"Great Triassic Assemblages Pt 1 - The Chinle and Newark"</a>. <i>Dinosaurs and the History of Life</i>. Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dinosaurs+and+the+History+of+Life&rft.atitle=Great+Triassic+Assemblages+Pt+1+-+The+Chinle+and+Newark&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Olsen&rft.aufirst=Paul+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu%2Fcourses%2Fv1001%2F10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSereno_P._C.1993" class="citation journal cs1">Sereno P. C. (1993). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.urweltmuseum.de/Englisch/museum_eng/Geologie_eng/Tektonik_eng.htm">the original</a> on 2007-07-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Land+and+sea+during+Jurassic&rft.pub=Urwelt+museum+hauff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.urweltmuseum.de%2FEnglisch%2Fmuseum_eng%2FGeologie_eng%2FTektonik_eng.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140930212425/http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/legend/ages/jurassic.html">"Jurassic Rocks – 208 to 146 million years ago"</a>. <i>nationalatlas.gov</i>. United States Department of the Interior. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/legend/ages/jurassic.html">the original</a> on 2014-09-30<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nationalatlas.gov&rft.atitle=Jurassic+Rocks+%E2%80%93+208+to+146+million+years+ago&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalatlas.gov%2Farticles%2Fgeology%2Flegend%2Fages%2Fjurassic.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonroeWicander1997" class="citation book cs1">Monroe, James S.; Wicander, Reed (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/changingearthexp0002monr"><i>The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and Evolution</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). Belmont: West Publishing Company. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/changingearthexp0002monr/page/607">607</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-314-09577-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-314-09577-2"><bdi>0-314-09577-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Changing+Earth%3A+Exploring+Geology+and+Evolution&rft.place=Belmont&rft.pages=607&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=West+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-314-09577-2&rft.aulast=Monroe&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rft.au=Wicander%2C+Reed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchangingearthexp0002monr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dougal Dixon et al., <i>Atlas of Life on Earth</i>, (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 2001), p. 215.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStanley1999">Stanley 1999</a>, p. 280</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStanley1999">Stanley 1999</a>, pp. 279–281</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hooker-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hooker_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hooker, J.J., "Tertiary to Present: Paleocene", pp. 459-465, Vol. 5. of Selley, Richard C., L. Robin McCocks, and Ian R. Plimer, Encyclopedia of Geology, Oxford: Elsevier Limited, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-636380-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-636380-3">0-12-636380-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff" class="citation web cs1">Staff. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110825080642/http://www.lakepowell.net/sciencecenter/paleoclimate.htm">"Paleoclimatology - The Study of Ancient Climates"</a>. Page Paleontology Science Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lakepowell.net/sciencecenter/paleoclimate.htm">the original</a> on 2011-08-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-03-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Paleoclimatology+-+The+Study+of+Ancient+Climates&rft.pub=Page+Paleontology+Science+Center&rft.au=Staff&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lakepowell.net%2Fsciencecenter%2Fpaleoclimate.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley1999" class="citation book cs1">Stanley, Steven M. (1999). <i>Earth system history</i> (New ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3377-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3377-5"><bdi>978-0-7167-3377-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth+system+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=W.+H.+Freeman&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3377-5&rft.aulast=Stanley&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeological+history+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geological_history_of_Earth&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Geological_history_of_Earth" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070716082613/http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/cosmic_evolution/docs/splash.html">Cosmic Evolution</a> — a detailed look at events from the origin of the universe to the present</li> <li>Valley, John W. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060328222214/http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=0005FA5D-5F7C-1333-9F7C83414B7F0000">A Cool Early Earth?</a>" <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a></i>. 2005 Oct:58–65. – discusses the timing of the formation of the oceans and other major events in Earth's early history.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davies" title="Paul Davies">Davies, Paul</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/story/0,3605,1671164,00.html">Quantum leap of life</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. 2005 Dec 20. – discusses speculation into the role of quantum systems in the origin of life</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnkyrk.com/evolution.html">Evolution timeline</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121022084620/http://johnkyrk.com/evolution.html">Archived</a> 2012-10-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (requires <a href="/wiki/Flash_Player" class="mw-redirect" title="Flash Player">Flash Player</a>). Animated story of life since about 13,700,000,000 shows everything from the big bang to the formation of the Earth and the development of bacteria and other organisms to the ascent of man.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030729055405/http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/Hutton/Hutton.htm">Theory of the Earth and Abstract of the Theory of the Earth</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://issuu.com/sergioluisdasilva/docs/paleomaps_mollweide_longitude_0">Paleomaps Since 600 Ma (Mollweide Projection, Longitude 0)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121020072005/http://issuu.com/sergioluisdasilva/docs/paleomaps_mollweide_longitude_0">Archived</a> 2012-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://issuu.com/sergioluisdasilva/docs/paleomaps_mollweide_longitude_180">Paleomaps Since 600 Ma (Mollweide Projection, Longitude 180)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121020072011/http://issuu.com/sergioluisdasilva/docs/paleomaps_mollweide_longitude_180">Archived</a> 2012-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005493g">Ageing the Earth</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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geology">History of geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geology_articles" title="Index of geology articles">Index of geology articles</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/50px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/75px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/100px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="328" /></a></span><br /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geology" title="History of geology">History of geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geology" title="Timeline of geology">Timeline of geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Composition and structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmochemistry" title="Cosmochemistry">Cosmochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystallography" title="Crystallography">Crystallography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochemistry" title="Geochemistry">Geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">Petrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentology" title="Sedimentology">Sedimentology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Historical_geology" title="Historical geology">Historical geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">Stratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynamic Earth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_geology" title="Structural geology">Structural geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodynamics" title="Geodynamics">Geodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanology" title="Volcanology">Volcanology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogeology" title="Hydrogeology">Hydrogeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_geology" title="Marine geology">Marine geology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td 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geology">Engineering geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geology" title="Environmental geology">Environmental geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_geology" title="Planetary geology">Planetary geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteoritics" title="Meteoritics">Meteoritics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_geology" title="Mining geology">Mining geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologist" title="Geologist">Geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_geologist" title="Petroleum geologist">Petroleum geologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanologist" title="Volcanologist">Volcanologist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WikiProject_Geology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/16px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/24px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/WikiProject_Geology.svg/32px-WikiProject_Geology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_atmosphere" title="Prebiotic atmosphere">Prebiotic atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">Troposphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">Stratosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesosphere" title="Mesosphere">Mesosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">Thermosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosphere" title="Exosphere">Exosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Energy balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">Culture and society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">List of sovereign states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">dependent territories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Day" title="Earth Day">Earth Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Earth" title="Flag of Earth">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_symbol" title="Earth symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">World economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth#Etymology" title="Earth">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_imaging" title="Geophysical imaging">Tomography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Age of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth" title="Extremes on Earth">Extremes on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geological history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">The Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Evolution of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">Location in the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Earth" title="Category:Earth">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Elements_of_nature" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature" title="Template:Nature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">geological</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere <span style="font-size:85%;">(Earth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin <span style="font-size:85%;">(abiogenesis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_topics" title="Template:Time topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_topics" title="Template talk:Time topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Past" title="Past">Past</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present" title="Present">Present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternity" title="Eternity">Eternity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Horology" class="mw-redirect" title="Horology">Measurement</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Time_standard" title="Time standard">standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Chronometry" title="Chronometry">Chronometry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coordinated_Universal_Time" title="Coordinated Universal Time">UTC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Time" title="Universal Time">UT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Time" title="International Atomic Time">TAI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_time" title="Unit of time">Unit of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders_of_magnitude_(time)" title="Orders of magnitude (time)">Orders of magnitude (time)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/System_of_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="System of measurement">Measurement<br />systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_six-hour_clock" title="Italian six-hour clock">Italian six-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_six-hour_clock" title="Thai six-hour clock">Thai six-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/12-hour_clock" title="12-hour clock">12-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/24-hour_clock" title="24-hour clock">24-hour clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_hour" title="Relative hour">Relative hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daylight_saving_time" title="Daylight saving time">Daylight saving time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_timekeeping" title="Traditional Chinese timekeeping">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decimal_time" title="Decimal time">Decimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexadecimal_time" title="Hexadecimal time">Hexadecimal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metric_time" title="Metric time">Metric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_timekeeping" title="Roman timekeeping">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidereal_time" title="Sidereal time">Sidereal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_time" title="Solar time">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calendar#Systems" title="Calendar">Main types</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">Lunisolar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_Hijri_calendar" title="Solar Hijri calendar">Solar Hijri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu Panchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_calendars" title="List of calendars">List</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">Clocks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clock#Types" title="Clock">Main types</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_clock" title="Astronomical clock">astronomical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrarium" title="Astrarium">astrarium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_clock" title="Atomic clock">atomic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum clock">quantum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hourglass" title="Hourglass">hourglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chronometer" title="Marine chronometer">marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundial" title="Sundial">sundial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watch" title="Watch">watch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_watch" title="Mechanical watch">mechanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopwatch" title="Stopwatch">stopwatch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuckoo_clock" title="Cuckoo clock">Cuckoo clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_clock" title="Digital clock">Digital clock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grandfather_clock" title="Grandfather clock">Grandfather clock</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_timekeeping_devices" title="History of timekeeping devices">History</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_time_measurement_inventions" title="Timeline of time measurement inventions">Timeline</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_chronology" title="Astronomical chronology">Astronomical chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar_era" title="Calendar era">Calendar era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periodization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Regnal year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline" title="Timeline">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_series_and_B_series" title="A series and B series">A series and B series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-theory_of_time" title="B-theory of time">B-theory of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronocentrism" title="Chronocentrism">Chronocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duration_(philosophy)" title="Duration (philosophy)">Duration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endurantism" title="Endurantism">Endurantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternal_return" title="Eternal return">Eternal return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)" title="Eternalism (philosophy of time)">Eternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perdurantism" title="Perdurantism">Perdurantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_presentism" title="Philosophical presentism">Presentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_finitism" title="Temporal finitism">Temporal finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporal_parts" title="Temporal parts">Temporal parts</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time" title="The Unreality of Time">The Unreality of Time</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Time_in_religion" title="Category:Time in religion">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_in_religion_and_mythology" title="Template:Time in religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ages_of_Man" title="Ages of Man">Ages of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">Immortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dreaming" title="The Dreaming">Dreamtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81la" title="Kāla">Kāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_and_fate_deities" title="Time and fate deities">Time and fate deities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Father_Time" title="Father Time">Father Time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheel_of_time" title="Wheel of time">Wheel of time</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalachakra" title="Kalachakra">Kalachakra</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Time_perception" title="Time perception">Human experience</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Time-use_research" title="Time-use research">use of time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronemics" title="Chronemics">Chronemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generation_time" title="Generation time">Generation time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_chronometry" title="Mental chronometry">Mental chronometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duration_(music)" title="Duration (music)">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tempo" title="Tempo">tempo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_signature" title="Time signature">time signature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosy_retrospection" title="Rosy retrospection">Rosy retrospection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tense%E2%80%93aspect%E2%80%93mood" title="Tense–aspect–mood">Tense–aspect–mood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_management" title="Time management">Time management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yesterday_(time)" title="Yesterday (time)">Yesterday</a> – <a href="/wiki/Present" title="Present">Today</a> – <a href="/wiki/Tomorrow_(time)" title="Tomorrow (time)">Tomorrow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Time in <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geological time</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Age (geology)">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronozone" title="Chronozone">chron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epoch_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (geology)">epoch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geological history of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Time_in_physics" title="Time in physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_space_and_time" title="Absolute space and time">Absolute space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrow_of_time" title="Arrow of time">Arrow of time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronon" title="Chronon">Chronon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinate_time" title="Coordinate time">Coordinate time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant" title="Instant">Instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_time" title="Proper time">Proper time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">Spacetime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">Theory of relativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_domain" title="Time domain">Time domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_translation_symmetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Time translation symmetry">Time translation symmetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-symmetry" title="T-symmetry">Time reversal symmetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.5em;font-weight:normal; text-align:center;">Other fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">Circadian rhythms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_clock" title="Chemical clock">Clock reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leap_year" title="Leap year">Leap year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moment_(unit)" title="Moment (unit)">Moment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_time" title="System time">System time</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tempus_fugit" title="Tempus fugit">Tempus fugit</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_capsule" title="Time capsule">Time capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_immemorial" title="Time immemorial">Time immemorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_travel" title="Time travel">Time travel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Time" title="Category:Time">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Time" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Time">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chronology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chronology" title="Template:Chronology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chronology" title="Template talk:Chronology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chronology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chronology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chronology" title="Chronology">Chronology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Key topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_History" title="Big History">Big History</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periodization" title="Periodization">Periods</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Era" title="Era">Eras</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Epoch_(reference_date)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (reference date)">Epochs</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar_era" title="Calendar era">Calendar eras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_calendar" title="Holocene calendar">Human Era</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ab_urbe_condita" title="Ab urbe condita">Ab urbe condita</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Domini" title="Anno Domini">Anno Domini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">Common Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anno_Mundi" title="Anno Mundi">Anno Mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosporan_era" title="Bosporan era">Bosporan era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bostran_era" title="Bostran era">Bostran era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_calendar" title="Byzantine calendar">Byzantine era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_era" title="Seleucid era">Seleucid era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Era_of_Caesar_(Iberian_Peninsula)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era of Caesar (Iberian Peninsula)">Era of Caesar (Iberia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Before_present" class="mw-redirect" title="Before present">Before present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Hijri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_chronology" title="Egyptian chronology">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sothic_cycle" title="Sothic cycle">Sothic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_units_of_time" title="Hindu units of time">Hindu units of time</a> (<a href="/wiki/Yuga" title="Yuga">Yuga</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Long_Count_calendar" title="Mesoamerican Long Count calendar">Long Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar#Short_Count" title="Maya calendar">Short Count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tzolk%27in" class="mw-redirect" title="Tzolk'in">Tzolk'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Haab'">Haab'</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Regnal year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anka_year" title="Anka year">Anka year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_of_Kings" title="Canon of Kings">Canon of Kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regnal_years_of_English_and_British_monarchs" title="Regnal years of English and British monarchs">English and British regnal year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regnal_lists" title="Category:Regnal lists">Lists of kings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limmu" title="Limmu">Limmu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Regnal_year" title="Regnal year">Era names</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_era_name" title="Chinese era name">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_era_name" title="Japanese era name">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_era_name" title="Vietnamese era name">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Pre-Julian / Julian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Pre-Julian Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Original Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Julian_calendar" title="Proleptic Julian calendar">Proleptic Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revised_Julian_calendar" title="Revised Julian calendar">Revised Julian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Gregorian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proleptic_Gregorian_calendar" title="Proleptic Gregorian calendar">Proleptic Gregorian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">Old Style and New Style dates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_of_the_Gregorian_calendar" title="Adoption of the Gregorian calendar">Adoption of the Gregorian calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_dating" title="Dual dating">Dual dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">Lunisolar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hebrew_calendar" title="Hebrew calendar">Hebrew</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hindu_calendar" title="Hindu calendar">Hindu</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">Lunar</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_year_numbering" title="Astronomical year numbering">Astronomical year numbering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexagenary_cycle" title="Sexagenary cycle">Chinese sexagenary cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_Calendar" title="Geologic Calendar">Geologic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_week_date" title="ISO week date">ISO week date</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_calendars" title="Mesoamerican calendars">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_count" title="Winter count">Winter count</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Earth_Time" title="New Earth Time">New Earth Time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_chronology" title="Astronomical chronology">Astronomic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:#fff;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar" title="Cosmic Calendar">Cosmic Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephemeris" title="Ephemeris">Ephemeris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galactic_year" title="Galactic year">Galactic year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles" title="Milankovitch cycles">Milankovitch cycles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_time" title="Deep time">Deep time</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geological history of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale#Terminology" title="Geologic time scale">Geological time units</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_Standard_Stratigraphic_Age" title="Global Standard Stratigraphic Age">Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Boundary_Stratotype_Section_and_Point" title="Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point">Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronostratigraphy" title="Chronostratigraphy">Chronostratigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_geochemistry" title="Isotope geochemistry">Isotope geochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">Law of superposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samarium%E2%80%93neodymium_dating" title="Samarium–neodymium dating">Samarium–neodymium dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Chronological_dating" title="Chronological dating">Chronological<br />dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Absolute_dating" title="Absolute dating">Absolute dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid_dating" title="Amino acid dating">Amino acid racemisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeomagnetic_dating" title="Archaeomagnetic dating">Archaeomagnetic dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">Dendrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_core" title="Ice core">Ice core</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incremental_dating" title="Incremental dating">Incremental dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichenometry" title="Lichenometry">Lichenometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">Paleomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Lead–lead dating">Lead–lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E2%80%93Ar_dating" title="K–Ar dating">Potassium–argon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93lead_dating" title="Uranium–lead dating">Uranium–lead</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrochronology" title="Tephrochronology">Tephrochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminescence_dating" title="Luminescence dating">Luminescence dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoluminescence_dating" title="Thermoluminescence dating">Thermoluminescence dating</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8.0em;font-weight:normal;background:#cc9;"><a href="/wiki/Relative_dating" title="Relative dating">Relative dating</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fluorine_absorption_dating" title="Fluorine absorption dating">Fluorine absorption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_dating" title="Nitrogen dating">Nitrogen dating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian_hydration_dating" title="Obsidian hydration dating">Obsidian hydration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seriation_(archaeology)" title="Seriation (archaeology)">Seriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy_(archaeology)" title="Stratigraphy (archaeology)">Stratigraphy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Genetic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">Molecular clock</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Linguistic methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glottochronology" title="Glottochronology">Glottochronology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;background:#cc9;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronicle" title="Chronicle">Chronicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Chronology_(Fomenko)" class="mw-redirect" title="New Chronology (Fomenko)">New Chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synchronoptic_view" title="Synchronoptic view">Synchronoptic view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline" title="Timeline">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Year_zero" title="Year zero">Year zero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floruit" title="Floruit">Floruit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terminus_post_quem" title="Terminus post quem">Terminus post quem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASPRO_chronology" title="ASPRO chronology">ASPRO chronology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span 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