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id="toc-Geologic_time_scale-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_System_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_System_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Solar System formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_System_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hadean_and_Archean_Eons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hadean_and_Archean_Eons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Hadean and Archean Eons</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hadean_and_Archean_Eons-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Hadean and Archean Eons subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Hadean_and_Archean_Eons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation_of_the_Moon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation_of_the_Moon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Formation of the Moon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation_of_the_Moon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_continents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_continents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>First continents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_continents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceans_and_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceans_and_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Oceans and atmosphere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceans_and_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origin_of_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origin_of_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Origin of life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin_of_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Replication_first:_RNA_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replication_first:_RNA_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Replication first: RNA world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replication_first:_RNA_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism_first:_iron–sulfur_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism_first:_iron–sulfur_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.2</span> <span>Metabolism first: iron–sulfur world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism_first:_iron–sulfur_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Membranes_first:_Lipid_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Membranes_first:_Lipid_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.3</span> <span>Membranes first: Lipid world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Membranes_first:_Lipid_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_clay_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_clay_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.4</span> <span>The clay theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_clay_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Last_universal_common_ancestor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_universal_common_ancestor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.5</span> <span>Last universal common ancestor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_universal_common_ancestor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proterozoic_Eon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proterozoic_Eon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Proterozoic Eon</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Proterozoic_Eon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Proterozoic Eon subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Proterozoic_Eon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Oxygen_revolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oxygen_revolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Oxygen revolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oxygen_revolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Snowball_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Snowball_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Snowball Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Snowball_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_eukaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_eukaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Emergence of eukaryotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_eukaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Supercontinents_in_the_Proterozoic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Supercontinents_in_the_Proterozoic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Supercontinents in the Proterozoic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Supercontinents_in_the_Proterozoic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Proterozoic_climate_and_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Proterozoic_climate_and_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Late Proterozoic climate and life</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Proterozoic_climate_and_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phanerozoic_Eon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phanerozoic_Eon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Phanerozoic Eon</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phanerozoic_Eon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phanerozoic Eon subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phanerozoic_Eon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tectonics,_paleogeography_and_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tectonics,_paleogeography_and_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Tectonics, paleogeography and climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tectonics,_paleogeography_and_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cambrian_explosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cambrian_explosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Cambrian explosion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cambrian_explosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization_of_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization_of_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Colonization of land</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonization_of_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_tetrapods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_tetrapods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Evolution of tetrapods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_tetrapods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Extinctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversification_of_mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversification_of_mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Diversification of mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diversification_of_mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Human evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Human_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7.1</span> <span>Human history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Earth</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 70 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-70" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">70 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskiedenis_van_die_Aarde" title="Geskiedenis van die Aarde – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Geskiedenis van die Aarde" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6" title="تاريخ الأرض – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ الأرض" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%80%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="পৃথিৱীৰ ইতিহাস – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="পৃথিৱীৰ ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_Tierra" title="Historia de la Tierra – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de la Tierra" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yerin_tarixi" title="Yerin tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Yerin tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="পৃথিবীর ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পৃথিবীর ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%97%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Гісторыя Зямлі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя Зямлі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="धरती के इतिहास – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="धरती के इतिहास" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="История на Земята – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на Земята" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_la_Terra" title="Història de la Terra – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de la Terra" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordens_historie" title="Jordens historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Jordens historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdgeschichte" title="Erdgeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Erdgeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%93%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της Γης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της Γης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_Tierra" title="Historia de la Tierra – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la Tierra" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terhistorio" title="Terhistorio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Terhistorio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lurraren_historia" title="Lurraren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lurraren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86" title="تاریخ زمین – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ زمین" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_la_Terre" title="Histoire de la Terre – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de la Terre" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_Terra" title="Historia da Terra – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da Terra" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EA%B5%AC%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="지구의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지구의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Երկրի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Երկրի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="पृथ्वी का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="पृथ्वी का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geokronologija" title="Geokronologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geokronologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terala_eri" title="Terala eri – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Terala eri" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Bumi" title="Sejarah Bumi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Bumi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_della_Terra" title="Storia della Terra – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia della Terra" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9B%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A5" title="היסטוריה של כדור הארץ – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של כדור הארץ" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="დედამიწის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დედამიწის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D1%80_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Жер тарихы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жер тарихы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istw%C3%A8_di_Lat%C3%A8" title="Istwè di Latè – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Istwè di Latè" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_terrae" title="Historia terrae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia terrae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemes_v%C4%93sture" title="Zemes vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zemes vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84erdgeschicht" title="Äerdgeschicht – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Äerdgeschicht" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%B6ldt%C3%B6rt%C3%A9net" title="Földtörténet – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Földtörténet" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AD%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="ഭൂമിയുടെ ചരിത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഭൂമിയുടെ ചരിത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="पृथ्वीचा इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="पृथ्वीचा इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Bumi" title="Sejarah Bumi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Bumi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D1%82%D2%AF%D2%AF%D1%85" title="Дэлхийн түүх – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дэлхийн түүх" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_Aarde" title="Geschiedenis van de Aarde – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van de Aarde" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%83%E5%8F%B2%E5%B9%B4%E8%A1%A8" title="地球史年表 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地球史年表" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%98%DF%8E%DF%B0%DF%9E%DF%9F%DF%8F%DF%AB_%DF%98%DF%90%DF%AC%DF%9D%DF%90%DF%AB_%DF%A5%DF%9B%DF%8E%DF%AC_%DF%A3%DF%8A%DF%AF%DF%A3%DF%8C%DF%B2%DF%AB_%DF%95%DF%90%DF%AC%DF%9D%DF%8D%DF%AC%DF%A6%DF%8A%DF%AB" title="ߘߎ߰ߞߟߏ߫ ߘߐ߬ߝߐ߫ ߥߛߎ߬ ߣߊ߯ߣߌ߲߫ ߕߐ߬ߝߍ߬ߦߊ߫ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߘߎ߰ߞߟߏ߫ ߘߐ߬ߝߐ߫ ߥߛߎ߬ ߣߊ߯ߣߌ߲߫ ߕߐ߬ߝߍ߬ߦߊ߫" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordens_historie" title="Jordens historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Jordens historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_la_T%C3%A8rra" title="Istòria de la Tèrra – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria de la Tèrra" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A7%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8" title="ਧਰਤੀ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਧਰਤੀ ਦਾ ਇਤਿਹਾਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="زمین دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="زمین دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%81%D9%85%DA%A9%DB%90_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د ځمکې تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ځمکې تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischri_a_Oert" title="Ischri a Oert – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Ischri a Oert" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eerdhistorie" title="Eerdhistorie – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Eerdhistorie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Ziemi" title="Historia Ziemi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Ziemi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_Terra" title="História da Terra – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da Terra" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_P%C4%83m%C3%A2ntului" title="Istoria Pământului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria Pământului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="История Земли – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История Земли" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%83" title="पृथिव्याः इतिहासः – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="पृथिव्याः इतिहासः" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%98%E0%B6%AE%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%99%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="පෘථිවියෙහි ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පෘථිවියෙහි ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Earth" title="History of the Earth – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of the Earth" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8E%DA%98%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%95%D9%88%DB%8C" title="مێژووی زەوی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مێژووی زەوی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_Zemlje" title="Istorija Zemlje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija Zemlje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maan_historia" title="Maan historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maan historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordens_historia" title="Jordens historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Jordens historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasaysayan_ng_Daigdig" title="Kasaysayan ng Daigdig – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kasaysayan ng Daigdig" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="புவியின் வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="புவியின் வரலாறு" 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class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For more detail of the geological history of Earth, see <a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For more detail of the biological history of Earth, see <a href="/wiki/History_of_life_on_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of life on Earth">History of life on Earth</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg/480px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png" decoding="async" width="480" height="460" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg/720px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg/960px-Geologic_Clock_with_events_and_periods.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="491" /></a><figcaption>Earth's history with time-spans of the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">eons</a> to scale. <a href="/wiki/Year#Abbreviations_yr_and_ya" title="Year">Ma</a> means "million years ago".</figcaption></figure> <p>The natural <b>history of Earth</b> concerns the development of <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planet</a> <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> from its formation to the present day.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TimeScale_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TimeScale-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly all branches of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> have contributed to understanding of the main events of Earth's past, characterized by constant <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geological</a> change and biological <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geological time scale</a> (GTS), as defined by international convention,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> depicts the large spans of time from the beginning of the Earth to the present, and its divisions chronicle some definitive events of Earth history. Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago, approximately one-third the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the universe</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">accretion</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System#Formation_of_the_planets" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">solar nebula</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USGS1997_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS1997-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Volcanic <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgassing</a> probably created the primordial <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and then the ocean, but the early atmosphere contained almost no <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism. While the Earth was in its earliest stage (<a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">Early Earth</a>), a giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named <a href="/wiki/Theia_(planet)" title="Theia (planet)">Theia</a> is thought to have formed the Moon. Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a>, and allowing liquid water on the surface. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a> eon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life; it began with the formation of the planet and ended 4.0 billion years ago. The following <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> eons produced the <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">beginnings of life</a> on Earth and its earliest <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. The succeeding eon is the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a>, divided into three eras: the <a href="/wiki/Palaeozoic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeozoic">Palaeozoic</a>, an era of arthropods, fishes, and the first life on land; the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, which spanned the rise, reign, and climactic extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs; and the <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>, which saw the rise of mammals. Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period on the geological scale. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth</a> dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-Origin1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Origin1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Origin2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Origin2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> during the <a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eoarchean</a> Era, after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean eon. There are <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">microbial mat</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Stromatolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromatolites">stromatolites</a> found in 3.48 billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> discovered in <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20131113_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20131113-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TG-20131113-JP_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TG-20131113-JP-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AST-20131108_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AST-20131108-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other early physical evidence of a <a href="/wiki/Biogenic_substance" title="Biogenic substance">biogenic substance</a> is <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> in 3.7 billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Metasediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Metasediment">metasedimentary rocks</a> discovered in southwestern <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a><sup id="cite_ref-NG-20131208_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NG-20131208-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as "remains of <a href="/wiki/Biotic_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic life">biotic life</a>" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20151019_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20151019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PNAS-20151014-pdf_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20151014-pdf-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20151019_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20151019-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">Photosynthetic</a> organisms appeared between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and began enriching the atmosphere with oxygen. <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a> remained mostly small and microscopic until about <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution#Unicellular_life" title="Timeline of human evolution">580 million years ago</a>, when complex <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular life">multicellular life</a> arose, developed over time, and culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a> about 538.8 million years ago. This sudden diversification of life forms produced most of the major phyla known today, and divided the Proterozoic Eon from the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era. It is estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion,<sup id="cite_ref-Book-Biology_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Book-Biology-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have gone <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-StearnsStearns2000_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StearnsStearns2000-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20141108-MJN_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141108-MJN-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Estimates on the number of Earth's current <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> range from 10 million to 14 million,<sup id="cite_ref-MillerSpoolman2012_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillerSpoolman2012-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which about 1.2 million are documented, but over 86 percent have not been described.<sup id="cite_ref-PLoS-20110823_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PLoS-20110823-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance. Species continue to <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolve</a>, taking on new forms, splitting into daughter species, or going extinct in the face of ever-changing physical environments. The process of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> continues to shape the Earth's continents and oceans and the life they harbor. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eons">Eons</h2></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">geochronology</a>, time is generally measured in <a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">mya</a> (million years ago), each unit representing the period of approximately 1,000,000 years in the past. The history of Earth is divided into four great <a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eons</a>, starting 4,540 mya with the formation of the planet. Each eon saw the most significant changes in Earth's composition, climate and life. Each eon is subsequently divided into <a href="/wiki/Era_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Era (geology)">eras</a>, which in turn are divided into <a href="/wiki/Period_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Period (geology)">periods</a>, which are further divided into <a href="/wiki/Epoch_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoch (geology)">epochs</a>. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Eon </th> <th>Time (mya) </th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a> </td> <td>4,540–4,000 </td> <td>The Earth is formed out of debris around the solar <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a>. There is no life. Temperatures are extremely hot, with frequent volcanic activity and hellish-looking environments (hence the eon's name, which comes from <a href="/wiki/Hades" title="Hades">Hades</a>). The atmosphere is nebular. Possible early oceans or bodies of liquid water. The Moon is formed around this time probably due to a <a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">protoplanet's collision into Earth</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> </td> <td>4,000–2,500 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a> life, the first form of life, emerges at the very beginning of this eon, in a process known as <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a>. The continents of <a href="/wiki/Ur_(continent)" title="Ur (continent)">Ur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaalbara" title="Vaalbara">Vaalbara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenorland" title="Kenorland">Kenorland</a> may have existed around this time. The atmosphere is composed of volcanic and greenhouse gases. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a> </td> <td>2,500–538.8 </td> <td>The name of this eon means "early life". <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a>, a more complex form of life, emerge, including some forms of <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> begin producing oxygen, shaping the third and current of Earth's atmospheres. Plants, later animals and possibly earlier forms of fungi form around this time. The early and late phases of this eon may have undergone "<a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a>" periods, in which all of the planet suffered below-zero temperatures. The early continents of <a href="/wiki/Columbia_(supercontinent)" title="Columbia (supercontinent)">Columbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a>, in that order, may have existed in this eon. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> </td> <td>538.8–present </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Complex_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex life">Complex life</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, begin to dominate the Earth's ocean in a process known as the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> forms and later dissolves into <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a>, which in turn dissolve into the current continents. Gradually, life expands to land and familiar forms of plants, animals and fungi begin appearing, including annelids, insects and reptiles, hence the eon's name, which means "visible life". Several <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinctions</a> occur, among which birds, the descendants of non-avian dinosaurs, and more recently mammals emerge. Modern animals—<a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">including humans</a>—evolve at the most recent phases of this eon. </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geologic_time_scale">Geologic time scale</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></div> <p>The history of the Earth can be organized chronologically according to the <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">geologic time scale</a>, which is split into intervals based on <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphy" title="Stratigraphy">stratigraphic</a> analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-TimeScale_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TimeScale-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-shortTimeScale_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shortTimeScale-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline. </p> <div style="text-align:center;"> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_p148jgs61kf4hw62fzi0jv6ku24oq0u"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Siderian" coords="506,79,586,100" title="Siderian" alt="Siderian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Rhyacian" coords="556,79,637,100" title="Rhyacian" alt="Rhyacian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Orosirian" coords="609,79,695,100" title="Orosirian" alt="Orosirian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Statherian" coords="660,80,745,99" title="Statherian" alt="Statherian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Calymmian" coords="707,80,787,99" title="Calymmian" alt="Calymmian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ectasian" coords="751,79,832,100" title="Ectasian" alt="Ectasian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Stenian" coords="799,79,874,100" title="Stenian" alt="Stenian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Tonian" coords="855,79,925,100" title="Tonian" alt="Tonian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cryogenian" coords="904,79,957,100" title="Cryogenian" alt="Cryogenian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ediacaran" coords="925,79,977,100" title="Ediacaran" alt="Ediacaran" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cambrian" coords="947,79,988,100" title="Cambrian" alt="Cambrian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ordovician" coords="957,79,999,100" title="Ordovician" alt="Ordovician" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Devonian" coords="974,79,1016,100" title="Devonian" alt="Devonian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Carboniferous" coords="985,79,1032,100" title="Carboniferous" alt="Carboniferous" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Permian" coords="1000,79,1041,100" title="Permian" alt="Permian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Triassic" coords="1011,79,1052,100" title="Triassic" alt="Triassic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jurassic" coords="1022,79,1064,100" title="Jurassic" alt="Jurassic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cretaceous" coords="1038,79,1079,100" title="Cretaceous" alt="Cretaceous" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleogene" coords="1048,79,1096,100" title="Paleogene" alt="Paleogene" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Eoarchean" coords="187,56,273,76" title="Eoarchean" alt="Eoarchean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleoarchean" coords="271,56,374,76" title="Paleoarchean" alt="Paleoarchean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mesoarchean" coords="363,56,461,76" title="Mesoarchean" alt="Mesoarchean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Neoarchean" coords="444,56,536,76" title="Neoarchean" alt="Neoarchean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" coords="562,56,687,76" title="Paleoproterozoic" alt="Paleoproterozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mesoproterozoic" coords="732,56,851,76" title="Mesoproterozoic" alt="Mesoproterozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" coords="853,56,967,76" title="Neoproterozoic" alt="Neoproterozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleozoic" coords="951,56,1037,76" title="Paleozoic" alt="Paleozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mesozoic" coords="1006,56,1087,76" title="Mesozoic" alt="Mesozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cenozoic" coords="1054,56,1095,76" title="Cenozoic" alt="Cenozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Hadean" coords="87,32,157,53" title="Hadean" alt="Hadean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Archean" coords="315,32,390,53" title="Archean" alt="Archean" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Proterozoic" coords="694,32,791,53" title="Proterozoic" alt="Proterozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" coords="973,32,1070,53" title="Phanerozoic" alt="Phanerozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Precambrian" coords="463,9,560,30" title="Precambrian" alt="Precambrian" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_p148jgs61kf4hw62fzi0jv6ku24oq0u" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/p148jgs61kf4hw62fzi0jv6ku24oq0u.png" /></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_1p7ranz6q1y5dxkzdb8huwzb327mxrf"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cambrian" coords="72,59,153,80" title="Cambrian" alt="Cambrian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ordovician" coords="157,59,248,80" title="Ordovician" alt="Ordovician" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Silurian" coords="225,59,305,80" title="Silurian" alt="Silurian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Devonian" coords="305,59,386,80" title="Devonian" alt="Devonian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Carboniferous" coords="405,59,514,80" title="Carboniferous" alt="Carboniferous" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Permian" coords="523,59,598,80" title="Permian" alt="Permian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Triassic" coords="613,59,693,80" title="Triassic" alt="Triassic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Jurassic" coords="714,59,794,80" title="Jurassic" alt="Jurassic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cretaceous" coords="836,59,928,80" title="Cretaceous" alt="Cretaceous" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleogene" coords="955,59,1041,80" title="Paleogene" alt="Paleogene" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Neogene" coords="1020,59,1095,80" title="Neogene" alt="Neogene" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Quaternary" coords="1059,59,1100,80" title="Quaternary" alt="Quaternary" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleozoic" coords="291,34,377,55" title="Paleozoic" alt="Paleozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Mesozoic" coords="741,34,821,55" title="Mesozoic" alt="Mesozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Cenozoic" coords="979,34,1060,55" title="Cenozoic" alt="Cenozoic" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" coords="523,9,621,30" title="Phanerozoic" alt="Phanerozoic" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_1p7ranz6q1y5dxkzdb8huwzb327mxrf" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/1p7ranz6q1y5dxkzdb8huwzb327mxrf.png" /></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_gulzqjw1x4uvqz9lenmf2nuz0ptfg82"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Paleocene" 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coords="532,9,612,30" title="Cenozoic" alt="Cenozoic" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_gulzqjw1x4uvqz9lenmf2nuz0ptfg82" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/gulzqjw1x4uvqz9lenmf2nuz0ptfg82.png" /></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_o148ko038imue7clp0z9q0kiq4p4xca"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Gelasian" coords="175,59,255,80" title="Gelasian" alt="Gelasian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Calabrian_(stage)" coords="527,59,613,80" title="Calabrian (stage)" alt="Calabrian (stage)" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Chibanian" coords="859,59,946,80" title="Chibanian" alt="Chibanian" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Late_Pleistocene" coords="1026,59,1084,80" title="Late Pleistocene" alt="Late Pleistocene" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Pleistocene" coords="521,34,618,55" title="Pleistocene" alt="Pleistocene" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Holocene" coords="1039,34,1120,55" title="Holocene" alt="Holocene" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Quaternary" 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</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Solar_System_formation">Solar System formation</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Formation and evolution of the Solar System</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Planetary_differentiation" title="Planetary differentiation">Planetary differentiation</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Protoplanetary-disk.jpg/350px-Protoplanetary-disk.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Protoplanetary-disk.jpg/525px-Protoplanetary-disk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Protoplanetary-disk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="576" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption>An artist's rendering of a <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The standard model for the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> (including the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>) is the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">solar nebula hypothesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this model, the Solar System formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar dust and gas called the <a href="/wiki/Solar_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar nebula">solar nebula</a>. It was composed of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a> created <a href="/wiki/Recombination_(cosmology)" title="Recombination (cosmology)">shortly after</a> the <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> 13.8 <a href="/wiki/Gigaannum#SI_prefix_multipliers" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigaannum">Ga</a> (billion years ago) and heavier <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">elements</a> ejected by <a href="/wiki/Supernovae" class="mw-redirect" title="Supernovae">supernovae</a>. About 4.5 <a href="/wiki/A_(year)" class="mw-redirect" title="A (year)">Ga</a>, the nebula began a contraction that may have been triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Shock_wave" title="Shock wave">shock wave</a> from a nearby <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Matson_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matson-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A shock wave would have also made the nebula rotate. As the cloud began to accelerate, its <a href="/wiki/Angular_momentum" title="Angular momentum">angular momentum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a> flattened it into a <a href="/wiki/Protoplanetary_disk" title="Protoplanetary disk">protoplanetary disk</a> perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Small <a href="/wiki/Perturbation_(astronomy)" title="Perturbation (astronomy)">perturbations</a> due to collisions and the angular momentum of other large debris created the means by which kilometer-sized <a href="/wiki/Protoplanet" title="Protoplanet">protoplanets</a> began to form, orbiting the nebular center.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldreich1973_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldreich1973-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the compression heating it until <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fusion" title="Nuclear fusion">nuclear fusion</a> of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction, a <a href="/wiki/T_Tauri_star" title="T Tauri star">T Tauri star</a> ignited and evolved into the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity caused <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a> to condense around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as runaway <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">accretion</a>, successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldreich1973_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldreich1973-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an <a href="/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty" title="Measurement uncertainty">uncertainty</a> of 1%)<sup id="cite_ref-age_earth1c_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-age_earth1c-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-age_of_earth_faq_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-age_of_earth_faq-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USGS1997_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USGS1997-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was largely completed within 10–20 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-Yin_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yin-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 2023, scientists reported evidence that the planet Earth may have formed in just three million years, much faster than the 10−100 million years thought earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-WP-202130616_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WP-202130616-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20230614_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20230614-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce <a href="/wiki/Accretion_disks" class="mw-redirect" title="Accretion disks">accretion disks</a> around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield <a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Extrasolar planet">planets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kokubo2002_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kokubo2002-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, <a href="/wiki/Siderophile_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Siderophile element">siderophile</a> <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a>. Having higher <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">densities</a> than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Iron_catastrophe" title="Iron catastrophe">iron catastrophe</a></i> resulted in the separation of a <a href="/wiki/Primitive_mantle" title="Primitive mantle">primitive mantle</a> and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered <a href="/wiki/Structure_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Structure of the Earth">structure of Earth</a> and setting up the formation of <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> J.A. Jacobs <sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was the first to suggest that <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core" title="Earth's inner core">Earth's inner core</a>—a solid center distinct from the liquid <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_outer_core" title="Earth's outer core">outer core</a>—is <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_inner_core#Growth" title="Earth's inner core">freezing</a> and growing out of the liquid outer core due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hadean_and_Archean_Eons">Hadean and Archean Eons</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_formation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Earth_formation.jpg/220px-Earth_formation.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Earth_formation.jpg/330px-Earth_formation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Earth_formation.jpg/440px-Earth_formation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of <a href="/wiki/Hadean_Eon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hadean Eon">Hadean Eon</a> Earth, when it was much hotter and inhospitable to all forms of life.</figcaption></figure> <p>The first <a href="/wiki/Eon_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Eon (geology)">eon</a> in Earth's history, the <i>Hadean</i>, begins with the Earth's formation and is followed by the <i>Archean</i> eon at 3.8 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-TimeScale_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TimeScale-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 145">: 145 </span></sup> The oldest rocks found on Earth date to about 4.0 Ga, and the oldest <a href="/wiki/Detrital" class="mw-redirect" title="Detrital">detrital</a> <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircon</a> crystals in rocks to about 4.4 Ga,<sup id="cite_ref-nature1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindsey_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindsey-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cavosie_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cavosie-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> soon after the formation of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> and the Earth itself. The <a href="/wiki/Giant_impact_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Giant impact hypothesis">giant impact hypothesis</a> for the Moon's formation states that shortly after formation of an initial crust, the proto-Earth was impacted by a smaller protoplanet, which ejected part of the <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> and crust into space and created the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-belbruno_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-belbruno-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Carsten_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Carsten-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-moonwalk_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moonwalk-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From <a href="/wiki/Crater_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Crater count">crater counts</a> on other celestial bodies, it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite impacts, called the <i><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a></i>, began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at the end of the Hadean.<sup id="cite_ref-space.com-bombardment_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-space.com-bombardment-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, volcanism was severe due to the large <a href="/wiki/Heat_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat flow">heat flow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_gradient" title="Geothermal gradient">geothermal gradient</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, detrital zircon crystals dated to 4.4 Ga show evidence of having undergone contact with liquid water, suggesting that the Earth already had oceans or seas at that time.<sup id="cite_ref-nature1_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly. Present life forms could not have survived at Earth's surface, because the Archean atmosphere lacked <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> hence had no <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">ozone layer</a> to block ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, it is believed that primordial life began to evolve by the early Archean, with candidate <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> dated to around 3.5 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor-2006_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-2006-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scientists even speculate that life could have begun during the early Hadean, as far back as 4.4 Ga, surviving the possible Late Heavy Bombardment period in <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vents" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrothermal vents">hydrothermal vents</a> below the Earth's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-reuters1_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reuters1-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation_of_the_Moon">Formation of the Moon</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Moon" title="Origin of the Moon">Origin of the Moon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">Giant-impact hypothesis</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg/220px-Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg/330px-Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg/440px-Artist%27s_concept_of_collision_at_HD_172555.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of the enormous collision that probably formed the Moon</figcaption></figure> <p>Earth's only <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">natural satellite</a>, the Moon, is larger relative to its planet than any other satellite in the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo program</a>, rocks from the Moon's surface were brought to Earth. <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> of these rocks shows that the Moon is 4.53 ± 0.01 billion years old,<sup id="cite_ref-Kleine_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kleine-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formed at least 30 million years after the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-Halliday_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halliday-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-halliday-2008_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-halliday-2008-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theories for the formation of the Moon must explain its late formation as well as the following facts. First, the Moon has a low density (3.3 times that of water, compared to 5.5 for the Earth<sup id="cite_ref-earth_fact_sheet_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-earth_fact_sheet-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and a small metallic core. Second, the Earth and Moon have the same oxygen <a href="/wiki/Isotopic_signature" title="Isotopic signature">isotopic signature</a> (relative abundance of the oxygen isotopes). Of the theories proposed to account for these phenomena, one is widely accepted: The <i>giant impact hypothesis</i> proposes that the Moon originated after a body the size of <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> (sometimes named <a href="/wiki/Theia_(planet)" title="Theia (planet)">Theia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Halliday_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Halliday-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) struck the proto-Earth a glancing blow.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 256">: 256 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-StarChild_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StarChild-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Canup_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canup-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub impact</a> that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. It was enough to vaporize some of the Earth's outer layers and melt both bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-StarChild_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StarChild-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 256">: 256 </span></sup> A portion of the mantle material was <a href="/wiki/Ejecta" title="Ejecta">ejected</a> into orbit around the Earth. The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material,<sup id="cite_ref-Liu_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Liu-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explaining its abnormal composition.<sup id="cite_ref-Newsom_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newsom-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ejecta in orbit around the Earth could have condensed into a single body within a couple of weeks. Under the influence of its own gravity, the ejected material became a more spherical body: the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hadean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hadean.png/220px-Hadean.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hadean.png/330px-Hadean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Hadean.png/440px-Hadean.png 2x" data-file-width="2092" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of a Hadean landscape with the relatively newly formed Moon still looming closely over Earth and both bodies sustaining strong <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_continents">First continents</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_america_terrain_2003_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map with color and texture" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/North_america_terrain_2003_map.jpg/220px-North_america_terrain_2003_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/North_america_terrain_2003_map.jpg/330px-North_america_terrain_2003_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/North_america_terrain_2003_map.jpg/440px-North_america_terrain_2003_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="2938" /></a><figcaption>Geologic map of North America, color-coded by age. From most recent to oldest, age is indicated by yellow, green, blue, and red. The reds and pinks indicate rock from the <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a>. </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Mantle_convection" title="Mantle convection">Mantle convection</a>, the process that drives plate tectonics, is a result of heat flow from the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-DaviesMantle_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DaviesMantle-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 2">: 2 </span></sup> It involves the creation of rigid <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plates</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mid-oceanic_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Mid-oceanic ridge">mid-oceanic ridges</a>. These plates are destroyed by <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> into the mantle at <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zone">subduction zones</a>. During the early Archean (about 3.0 Ga) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around 1,600 °C (2,910 °F),<sup id="cite_ref-Cattermole_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cattermole-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 82">: 82 </span></sup> so convection in the mantle was faster. Although a process similar to present-day plate tectonics did occur, this would have gone faster too. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction zones were more common, and therefore tectonic plates were smaller.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 258">: 258 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The initial crust, which formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment. However, it is thought that it was <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> in composition, like today's <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>, because little crustal differentiation had yet taken place.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 258">: 258 </span></sup> The first larger pieces of <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a>, which is a product of differentiation of lighter elements during <a href="/wiki/Partial_melting" title="Partial melting">partial melting</a> in the lower crust, appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 Ga. What is left of these first small continents are called <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratons</a>. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Oldest_dated_rocks" title="Oldest dated rocks">oldest rocks</a> on Earth are found in the <a href="/wiki/North_American_craton" class="mw-redirect" title="North American craton">North American craton</a> of <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>. They are <a href="/wiki/Tonalite" title="Tonalite">tonalites</a> from about 4.0 Ga. They show traces of <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a> by high temperature, but also sedimentary grains that have been rounded by erosion during transport by water, showing that rivers and seas existed then.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunine_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunine-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of <a href="/wiki/Terrane" title="Terrane">terranes</a>. The first are so-called <a href="/wiki/Greenstone_belt" title="Greenstone belt">greenstone belts</a>, consisting of low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. These "greenstones" are similar to the sediments today found in <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_trench" title="Oceanic trench">oceanic trenches</a>, above subduction zones. For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean. The second type is a complex of <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">felsic</a> <a href="/wiki/Magmatic_rock" class="mw-redirect" title="Magmatic rock">magmatic rocks</a>. These rocks are mostly tonalite, <a href="/wiki/Trondhjemite" title="Trondhjemite">trondhjemite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Granodiorite" title="Granodiorite">granodiorite</a>, types of rock similar in composition to <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a> (hence such terranes are called TTG-terranes). TTG-complexes are seen as the <a href="/wiki/Relict_(geology)" title="Relict (geology)">relicts</a> of the first continental crust, formed by partial melting in basalt.<sup id="cite_ref-Condie_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Condie-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: Chapter 5">: Chapter 5 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceans_and_atmosphere">Oceans and atmosphere</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Origin of water on Earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_atmosphere" title="Prebiotic atmosphere">Prebiotic atmosphere</a></div> <p>Earth is often described as having had three atmospheres. The first atmosphere, captured from the solar nebula, was composed of light (<a href="/wiki/Atmophile" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmophile">atmophile</a>) elements from the solar nebula, mostly hydrogen and helium. A combination of the solar wind and Earth's heat would have driven off this atmosphere, as a result of which the atmosphere is now depleted of these elements compared to cosmic abundances.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasting93_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasting93-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the impact which created the Moon, the molten Earth released volatile gases; and later more gases were released by <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a>, completing a second atmosphere rich in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> but poor in oxygen. <sup id="cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley2005-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 256">: 256 </span></sup> Finally, the third atmosphere, rich in oxygen, emerged when bacteria <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">began to produce oxygen</a> about 2.8 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 83–84, 116–117">: 83–84, 116–117 </span></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg/250px-NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg/375px-NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg/500px-NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption><i>The pale orange dot</i>, an artist's impression of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">early Earth</a> which might have appeared orange through its <a href="/wiki/Haze" title="Haze">hazy</a> <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a> rich <a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_atmosphere" title="Prebiotic atmosphere"><i>prebiotic second atmosphere</i></a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trail_Elsila_Müller_Lyons_p._64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trail_Elsila_Müller_Lyons_p.-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Astrobiology_2017_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astrobiology_2017-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earth's atmosphere at this stage was somewhat comparable to today's <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Titan" title="Atmosphere of Titan">atmosphere of Titan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Trainer_Pavlov_DeWitt_Jimenez_pp._18035–18042_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trainer_Pavlov_DeWitt_Jimenez_pp._18035–18042-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In early models for the formation of the atmosphere and ocean, the second atmosphere was formed by outgassing of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_(astrogeology)" title="Volatile (astrogeology)">volatiles</a> from the Earth's interior. Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as <i>impact degassing</i> in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact. The ocean and atmosphere would, therefore, have started to form even as the Earth formed.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasting03_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasting03-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new atmosphere probably contained <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a>, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and smaller amounts of other gases.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasting-2006_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasting-2006-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Planetesimals at a distance of 1 <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_unit" title="Astronomical unit">astronomical unit</a> (AU), the distance of the Earth from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasting03_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasting03-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Selsis_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selsis-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water must have been supplied by meteorites from the outer asteroid belt and some large planetary embryos from beyond 2.5 AU.<sup id="cite_ref-Kasting03_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasting03-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Morbidelli_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morbidelli-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comets may also have contributed. Though most comets are today in orbits farther away from the Sun than <a href="/wiki/Neptune" title="Neptune">Neptune</a>, computer simulations show that they were originally far more common in the inner parts of the Solar System.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunine_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunine-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 130–132">: 130–132 </span></sup> </p><p>As the Earth cooled, <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> formed. Rain created the oceans. Recent evidence suggests the oceans may have begun forming as early as 4.4 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-nature1_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nature1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the start of the Archean eon, they already covered much of the Earth. This early formation has been difficult to explain because of a problem known as the <a href="/wiki/Faint_young_Sun_paradox" title="Faint young Sun paradox">faint young Sun paradox</a>. Stars are known to get brighter as they age, and the Sun has become 30% brighter since its formation 4.5 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many models indicate that the early Earth should have been covered in ice.<sup id="cite_ref-Sagan_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sagan-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kasting03_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kasting03-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A likely solution is that there was enough carbon dioxide and methane to produce a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes. It is hypothesized that there also existed an organic haze created from the products of methane photolysis that caused an <a href="/wiki/Anti-greenhouse_effect" title="Anti-greenhouse effect">anti-greenhouse effect</a> as well.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another greenhouse gas, <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, would have been ejected by volcanos but quickly destroyed by ultraviolet radiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Gale_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 83">: 83 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origin_of_life">Origin of life</h3></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Life timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_timeline" title="Template talk:Life timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.18em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.81em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.43em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.05em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:39.92em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.55em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.17em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.79em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.42em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.66em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:26.16em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.27em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.90em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.52em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.39em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.01em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.64em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:8.26em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:6.88em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.51em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:4.13em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.75em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e5cc7f;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:50.000em;left:0.910em;width:12.090em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-25.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:4.537em;left:1.040em;width:11.960em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.269em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Water</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:44.053em;left:1.040em;width:0.130em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-22.026em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:38.546em;height:5.507em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:38.546em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-19.273em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:23.128em;height:15.419em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.709em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:23.128em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.564em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:17.621em;height:5.507em;left:1.690em;width:11.310em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.753em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:17.621em;left:1.690em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.811em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:11.663em;left:1.950em;width:11.050em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.831em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:1.950em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.982em;height:7.379em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.689em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;">P<br />l<br />a<br />n<br />t<br />s</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.203em;height:3.756em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.878em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.982em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.991em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.721em;height:2.583em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.291em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.606em;height:1.597em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.798em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.333em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.666em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.606em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.303em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.053em;height:5.947em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.974em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.80em;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:#ffffff;">H<br />a<br />d<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.533em;height:16.520em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.260em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><br /><br /><br />A<br />r<br />c<br />h<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:5.958em;height:21.575em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.787em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />P<br />r<br />o<br />t<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:5.958em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.979em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P<br />h<br />a<br />n<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:8.260em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.130em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:2.203em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.101em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.568em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:47.907em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.053em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.952em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:38.546em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:31.278em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:25.330em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:24.780em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.026em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.621em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Earliest multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:16.520em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.361em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.260em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.489em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.993em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:5.958em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.075em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:3.304em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.275em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.3em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Earliest apes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.018em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></i></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></div> <p>One of the reasons for interest in the early atmosphere and ocean is that they form the conditions under which life first arose. There are many models, but little consensus, on how life emerged from non-living chemicals; chemical systems created in the laboratory fall well short of the minimum complexity for a living organism.<sup id="cite_ref-Szathmary_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szathmary-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Luisi_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Luisi-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first step in the emergence of life may have been chemical reactions that produced many of the simpler <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic</a> compounds, including <a href="/wiki/Nucleobases" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleobases">nucleobases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>, that are the building blocks of life. An <a href="/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment" title="Miller–Urey experiment">experiment in 1952</a> by <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Miller" title="Stanley Miller">Stanley Miller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harold_Urey" title="Harold Urey">Harold Urey</a> showed that such molecules could form in an atmosphere of water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen with the aid of sparks to mimic the effect of <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lazcano_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lazcano-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-NYTimes_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYTimes-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">Computer simulations</a> show that <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis#Observed_extraterrestrial_organic_molecules" title="Abiogenesis">extraterrestrial organic molecules</a> could have formed in the protoplanetary disk before the formation of the Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Space-20120329_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Space-20120329-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Additional complexity could have been reached from at least three possible starting points: <a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">self-replication</a>, an organism's ability to produce offspring that are similar to itself; <a href="/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>, its ability to feed and repair itself; and external <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>, which allow food to enter and waste products to leave, but exclude unwanted substances.<sup id="cite_ref-Pereto_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pereto-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Replication_first:_RNA_world">Replication first: RNA world</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></div> <p>Even the simplest members of the <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three modern domains</a> of life use <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> to record their "recipes" and a complex array of <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> molecules to "read" these instructions and use them for growth, maintenance, and self-replication. </p><p>The discovery that a kind of RNA molecule called a <a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozyme</a> can <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalyze</a> both its own replication and the construction of proteins led to the hypothesis that earlier life-forms were based entirely on RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Joyce_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Joyce-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They could have formed an <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a> in which there were individuals but no <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfers</a> would have meant that the offspring in each generation were quite likely to have different <a href="/wiki/Genomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomes">genomes</a> from those that their parents started with.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoenigsberg_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoenigsberg-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have.<sup id="cite_ref-Forterre_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forterre-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ribozymes remain as the main components of <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>, the "protein factories" of modern cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Cech_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cech-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although short, self-replicating RNA molecules have been artificially produced in laboratories,<sup id="cite_ref-Johnston_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnston-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> doubts have been raised about whether natural non-biological synthesis of RNA is possible.<sup id="cite_ref-Levy_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Levy-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Larralde_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Larralde-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lindahl_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lindahl-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest ribozymes may have been formed of simpler <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Peptide_nucleic_acid" title="Peptide nucleic acid">PNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Threose_nucleic_acid" title="Threose nucleic acid">TNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/Glycerol_nucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycerol nucleic acid">GNA</a>, which would have been replaced later by RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Orgel_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orgel-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nelson_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nelson-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other <a href="/wiki/Peptide-RNA_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptide-RNA world">pre-RNA replicators</a> have been posited, including <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystals</a><sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Watchmaker_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Watchmaker-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 150">: 150 </span></sup> and even quantum systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Daviesb_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daviesb-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003 it was proposed that porous metal sulfide <a href="/wiki/Precipitate" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitate">precipitates</a> would assist RNA synthesis at about 100 °C (212 °F) and at ocean-bottom pressures near <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>. In this hypothesis, the proto-cells would be confined in the pores of the metal substrate until the later development of lipid membranes.<sup id="cite_ref-Martin_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metabolism_first:_iron–sulfur_world"><span id="Metabolism_first:_iron.E2.80.93sulfur_world"></span>Metabolism first: iron–sulfur world</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DNA_replication_split.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/170px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/255px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/DNA_replication_split.svg/340px-DNA_replication_split.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>The replicator in virtually all known life is <a href="/wiki/Deoxyribonucleic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Deoxyribonucleic acid">deoxyribonucleic acid</a>. DNA is far more complex than the original replicator and its replication systems are highly elaborate.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_world_hypothesis" title="Iron–sulfur world hypothesis">Iron–sulfur world hypothesis</a></div> <p>Another long-standing hypothesis is that the first life was composed of protein molecules. Amino acids, the building blocks of <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>, are easily synthesized in plausible prebiotic conditions, as are small <a href="/wiki/Peptides" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptides">peptides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymers">polymers</a> of amino acids) that make good catalysts.<sup id="cite_ref-Kauffman_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kauffman-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 295–297">: 295–297 </span></sup> A series of experiments starting in 1997 showed that amino acids and peptides could form in the presence of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> with <a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfide" title="Iron(II) sulfide">iron sulfide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel_sulfide" title="Nickel sulfide">nickel sulfide</a> as catalysts. Most of the steps in their assembly required temperatures of about 100 °C (212 °F) and moderate pressures, although one stage required 250 °C (482 °F) and a pressure equivalent to that found under 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) of rock. Hence, self-sustaining synthesis of proteins could have occurred near hydrothermal vents.<sup id="cite_ref-Wachtershauser_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wachtershauser-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A difficulty with the metabolism-first scenario is finding a way for organisms to evolve. Without the ability to replicate as individuals, aggregates of molecules would have "compositional genomes" (counts of molecular species in the aggregate) as the target of natural selection. However, a recent model shows that such a system is unable to evolve in response to natural selection.<sup id="cite_ref-Vasas_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vasas-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Membranes_first:_Lipid_world">Membranes first: Lipid world</h4></div> <p>It has been suggested that double-walled "bubbles" of <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a> like those that form the external membranes of cells may have been an essential first step.<sup id="cite_ref-Trevors01_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Trevors01-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experiments that simulated the conditions of the early Earth have reported the formation of lipids, and these can spontaneously form <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposomes</a>, double-walled "bubbles", and then reproduce themselves. Although they are not intrinsically information-carriers as nucleic acids are, they would be subject to <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> for longevity and reproduction. Nucleic acids such as RNA might then have formed more easily within the liposomes than they would have outside.<sup id="cite_ref-Segre_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Segre-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_clay_theory">The clay theory</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Graham_Cairns-Smith#Clay_hypothesis" title="Graham Cairns-Smith">Graham Cairns-Smith § Clay hypothesis</a></div> <p>Some <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a>, have properties that make them plausible accelerators for the emergence of an RNA world: they grow by self-replication of their crystalline pattern, are subject to an analog of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> (as the clay "species" that grows fastest in a particular environment rapidly becomes dominant), and can catalyze the formation of RNA molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-Cairns-Smith_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cairns-Smith-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this idea has not become the scientific consensus, it still has active supporters.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferris_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferris-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 150–158">: 150–158 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Watchmaker_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Watchmaker-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liposome_cross_section.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png/170px-Liposome_cross_section.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png 1.5x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="264" /></a><figcaption>Cross-section through a <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposome</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> into "bubbles", and that the bubbles could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay. Bubbles can then grow by absorbing additional lipids and dividing. The formation of the earliest <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> may have been aided by similar processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Hanczyc_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hanczyc-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar hypothesis presents self-replicating iron-rich clays as the progenitors of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>, lipids and amino acids.<sup id="cite_ref-Hartman_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hartman-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Last_universal_common_ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></div> <p>It is believed that of this multiplicity of protocells, only one <a href="/wiki/Lineage_(evolution)" title="Lineage (evolution)">line</a> survived. Current <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> evidence suggests that the <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Last universal ancestor">last universal ancestor</a> (LUA) lived during the early <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> eon, perhaps 3.5 Ga or earlier.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This LUA cell is the ancestor of all life on Earth today. It was probably a <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryote</a>, possessing a cell membrane and probably ribosomes, but lacking a <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a> or membrane-bound <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>. Like modern cells, it used DNA as its genetic code, RNA for information transfer and <a href="/wiki/Protein_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein synthesis">protein synthesis</a>, and enzymes to <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis" title="Enzyme catalysis">catalyze reactions</a>. Some scientists believe that instead of a single organism being the last universal common ancestor, there were populations of organisms exchanging genes by <a href="/wiki/Lateral_gene_transfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lateral gene transfer">lateral gene transfer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Penny-LUCA_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Penny-LUCA-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Archean.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Archean.png/290px-Archean.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Archean.png/435px-Archean.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Archean.png/580px-Archean.png 2x" data-file-width="2510" data-file-height="1124" /></a><figcaption>Artist's impression of Earth during the later Archean, the largely cooled <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">planetary crust</a> and water-rich barren <a href="/wiki/Planetary_surface" title="Planetary surface">surface</a>, marked by <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a>, features already <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">round</a> <a href="/wiki/Microbialite" title="Microbialite">microbialites</a>. The Moon, still orbiting Earth much closer than today and still dominating Earth's sky, produced strong <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunar_and_Planetary_Institute_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunar_and_Planetary_Institute-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Proterozoic_Eon">Proterozoic Eon</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Proterozoic</a></div> <p>The Proterozoic eon lasted from 2.5 Ga to 538.8 Ma (million years) ago.<sup id="cite_ref-StratChart_2022_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StratChart_2022-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this time span, <a href="/wiki/Cratons" class="mw-redirect" title="Cratons">cratons</a> grew into continents with modern sizes. The change to an oxygen-rich atmosphere was a crucial development. Life developed from prokaryotes into <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> and multicellular forms. The Proterozoic saw a couple of severe ice ages called <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earths</a>. After the last Snowball Earth about 600 Ma, the evolution of life on Earth accelerated. About 580 Ma, the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a> formed the prelude for the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oxygen_revolution">Oxygen revolution</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Great Oxidation Event</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ozone_layer" title="Ozone layer">Ozone layer</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lake_Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Lake_Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg/220px-Lake_Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Lake_Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg/330px-Lake_Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Lake_Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg/440px-Lake_Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="584" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lithification" title="Lithification">Lithified</a> <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolites</a> on the shores of <a href="/wiki/Lake_Thetis" title="Lake Thetis">Lake Thetis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>. Archean stromatolites are the first direct fossil traces of life on Earth.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banded_Iron_Formation_Barberton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Banded_Iron_Formation_Barberton.jpg/220px-Banded_Iron_Formation_Barberton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Banded_Iron_Formation_Barberton.jpg/330px-Banded_Iron_Formation_Barberton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Banded_Iron_Formation_Barberton.jpg/440px-Banded_Iron_Formation_Barberton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2732" data-file-height="1608" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">banded iron formation</a> from the 3.15 Ga <a href="/wiki/Moodies_Group" title="Moodies Group">Moodies Group</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barberton_Greenstone_Belt" title="Barberton Greenstone Belt">Barberton Greenstone Belt</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. Red layers represent the times when oxygen was available; gray layers were formed in anoxic circumstances.</figcaption></figure> <p>The earliest cells absorbed energy and food from the surrounding environment. They used <a href="/wiki/Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">fermentation</a>, the breakdown of more complex compounds into less complex compounds with less energy, and used the energy so liberated to grow and reproduce. Fermentation can only occur in an <i>anaerobic</i> (oxygen-free) environment. The evolution of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> made it possible for cells to derive energy from the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-CondieSystem_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CondieSystem-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 377">: 377 </span></sup> </p><p>Most of the life that covers the surface of the Earth depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis. The most common form, oxygenic photosynthesis, turns carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight into food. It captures the energy of sunlight in energy-rich molecules such as ATP, which then provide the energy to make sugars. To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product.<sup id="cite_ref-Leslie_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leslie-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some organisms, including <a href="/wiki/Purple_bacteria" title="Purple bacteria">purple bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Green_sulfur_bacteria" title="Green sulfur bacteria">green sulfur bacteria</a>, use an <a href="/wiki/Anoxygenic_photosynthesis" title="Anoxygenic photosynthesis">anoxygenic form of photosynthesis</a> that uses alternatives to hydrogen stripped from water as <a href="/wiki/Electron_donors" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron donors">electron donors</a>; examples are hydrogen sulfide, sulfur and iron. Such <a href="/wiki/Extremophile" title="Extremophile">extremophile</a> organisms are restricted to otherwise inhospitable environments such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents.<sup id="cite_ref-CondieSystem_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CondieSystem-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 379–382">: 379–382 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nisbet_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nisbet-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The simpler anoxygenic form arose about 3.8 Ga, not long after the appearance of life. The timing of oxygenic photosynthesis is more controversial; it had certainly appeared by about 2.4 Ga, but some researchers put it back as far as 3.2 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-Leslie_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leslie-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter "probably increased global productivity by at least two or three orders of magnitude".<sup id="cite_ref-De-Marais-photosynthesis_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De-Marais-photosynthesis-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Olson-2006_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson-2006-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the oldest remnants of oxygen-producing lifeforms are fossil <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-De-Marais-photosynthesis_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-De-Marais-photosynthesis-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Olson-2006_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson-2006-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Holland-2006_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland-2006-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, the released oxygen was bound up with <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>, and other minerals. The oxidized iron appears as red layers in geological strata called <a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formations" class="mw-redirect" title="Banded iron formations">banded iron formations</a> that formed in abundance during the <a href="/wiki/Siderian" title="Siderian">Siderian</a> period (between 2500 Ma and 2300 Ma).<sup id="cite_ref-TimeScale_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TimeScale-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 133">: 133 </span></sup> When most of the exposed readily reacting minerals were oxidized, oxygen finally began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state. This was Earth's third atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-ForteyDtL_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ForteyDtL-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 50–51">: 50–51 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Gale_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gale-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 83–84, 116–117">: 83–84, 116–117 </span></sup> </p><p>Some oxygen was stimulated by solar ultraviolet radiation to form <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">ozone</a>, which collected in a layer near the upper part of the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere. It allowed cells to colonize the surface of the ocean and eventually the land: without the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation bombarding land and sea would have caused unsustainable levels of mutation in exposed cells.<sup id="cite_ref-cosmic-evolution-bio1_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cosmic-evolution-bio1-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lunine_60-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunine-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 219–220">: 219–220 </span></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oxygenation-atm.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Oxygenation-atm.svg/300px-Oxygenation-atm.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Oxygenation-atm.svg/450px-Oxygenation-atm.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Oxygenation-atm.svg/600px-Oxygenation-atm.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="840" data-file-height="410" /></a><figcaption>Graph showing range of estimated <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> of atmospheric oxygen through geologic time <sup id="cite_ref-Holland-2006_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Holland-2006-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Photosynthesis had another major impact. Oxygen was toxic; much life on Earth probably died out as its levels rose in what is known as the <i><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_catastrophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen catastrophe">oxygen catastrophe</a></i>. Resistant forms survived and thrived, and some developed the ability to use oxygen to increase their metabolism and obtain more energy from the same food.<sup id="cite_ref-cosmic-evolution-bio1_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cosmic-evolution-bio1-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Snowball_Earth">Snowball Earth</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snowball_Huronian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Snowball_Huronian.jpg/250px-Snowball_Huronian.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Snowball_Huronian.jpg/375px-Snowball_Huronian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Snowball_Huronian.jpg/500px-Snowball_Huronian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Artist's rendition of an oxinated fully-frozen <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a> with no remaining liquid surface water.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Stellar_evolution" title="Stellar evolution">natural evolution of the Sun</a> made it progressively more <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminous</a> during the Archean and Proterozoic eons; the Sun's luminosity increases 6% every billion years.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunine_60-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunine-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 165">: 165 </span></sup> As a result, the Earth began to receive more heat from the Sun in the Proterozoic eon. However, the Earth did not get warmer. Instead, the geological record suggests it cooled dramatically during the early Proterozoic. <a href="/wiki/Glacial_deposit" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial deposit">Glacial deposits</a> found in South Africa date back to 2.2 Ga, at which time, based on <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">paleomagnetic</a> evidence, they must have been located near the equator. Thus, this glaciation, known as the <a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>, may have been global. Some scientists suggest this was so severe that the Earth was frozen over from the poles to the equator, a hypothesis called Snowball Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Snowball_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snowball-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Huronian ice age might have been caused by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">increased oxygen concentration</a> in the atmosphere, which caused the decrease of methane (CH<sub>4</sub>) in the atmosphere. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, but with oxygen it reacts to form CO<sub>2</sub>, a less effective greenhouse gas.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunine_60-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunine-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 172">: 172 </span></sup> When free oxygen became available in the atmosphere, the concentration of methane could have decreased dramatically, enough to counter the effect of the increasing heat flow from the Sun.<sup id="cite_ref-SnowballCause_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SnowballCause-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the term Snowball Earth is more commonly used to describe later extreme ice ages during the <a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian</a> period. There were four periods, each lasting about 10 million years, between 750 and 580 million years ago, when the Earth is thought to have been covered with ice apart from the highest mountains, and average temperatures were about −50 °C (−58 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The snowball may have been partly due to the location of the supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a> straddling the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a>. Carbon dioxide combines with rain to weather rocks to form carbonic acid, which is then washed out to sea, thus extracting the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. When the continents are near the poles, the advance of ice covers the rocks, slowing the reduction in carbon dioxide, but in the Cryogenian the weathering of Rodinia was able to continue unchecked until the ice advanced to the tropics. The process may have finally been reversed by the emission of carbon dioxide from volcanoes or the destabilization of methane <a href="/wiki/Gas_hydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas hydrates">gas hydrates</a>. According to the alternative <a href="/wiki/Slushball_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Slushball Earth">Slushball Earth</a> theory, even at the height of the ice ages there was still open water at the Equator.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emergence_of_eukaryotes">Emergence of eukaryotes</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote § Origin of eukaryotes</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/220px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/330px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg/440px-Plagiomnium_affine_laminazellen.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Chloroplasts in the cells of a moss</figcaption></figure> <p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">taxonomy</a> classifies life into three domains. The time of their origin is uncertain. The <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> domain probably first split off from the other forms of life (sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Neomura" title="Neomura">Neomura</a>), but this supposition is controversial. Soon after this, by 2 Ga,<sup id="cite_ref-SciAm-eukaryote_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SciAm-eukaryote-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Neomura split into the <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryota" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryota">Eukaryota</a>. Eukaryotic cells (Eukaryota) are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea), and the origin of that complexity is only now becoming known.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest fossils possessing features typical of <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a> date to the <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> era, some 2.4 Ga ago; these multicellular <a href="/wiki/Benthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic">benthic</a> organisms had filamentous structures capable of <a href="/wiki/Anastomosis" title="Anastomosis">anastomosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Around this time, the first <a href="/wiki/Proto-mitochondrion" title="Proto-mitochondrion">proto-mitochondrion</a> was formed. A bacterial cell related to today's <i><a href="/wiki/Rickettsia" title="Rickettsia">Rickettsia</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Andersson_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andersson-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which had evolved to <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">metabolize oxygen</a>, entered a larger prokaryotic cell, which lacked that capability. Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses). The smaller cell may have tried to <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasitize</a> the larger one. In any case, the smaller cell survived inside the larger cell. Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell's waste products and derived more energy. Part of this excess energy was returned to the host. The smaller cell replicated inside the larger one. Soon, a stable <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a> developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it. Over time, the host cell acquired some genes from the smaller cells, and the two kinds became dependent on each other: the larger cell could not survive without the energy produced by the smaller ones, and these, in turn, could not survive without the raw materials provided by the larger cell. The whole cell is now considered a single <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a>, and the smaller cells are classified as <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> called mitochondria.<sup id="cite_ref-BerkeleyEvolution_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BerkeleyEvolution-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar event occurred with <a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photosynthetic">photosynthetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a><sup id="cite_ref-Bergland_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergland-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> entering large <a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a> cells and becoming chloroplasts.<sup id="cite_ref-ForteyDtL_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ForteyDtL-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 60–61">: 60–61 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 536–539">: 536–539 </span></sup> Probably as a result of these changes, a line of cells capable of photosynthesis split off from the other eukaryotes more than 1 billion years ago. There were probably several such inclusion events. Besides the well-established <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic theory">endosymbiotic theory</a> of the cellular origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, there are theories that cells led to <a href="/wiki/Peroxisomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Peroxisomes">peroxisomes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spirochete" class="mw-redirect" title="Spirochete">spirochetes</a> led to <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flagella" class="mw-redirect" title="Flagella">flagella</a>, and that perhaps a <a href="/wiki/DNA_virus" title="DNA virus">DNA virus</a> led to the cell nucleus,<sup id="cite_ref-takemura_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-takemura-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bell_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bell-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though none of them are widely accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-peroxisome_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-peroxisome-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeans, bacteria, and eukaryotes continued to diversify and to become more complex and better adapted to their environments. Each domain repeatedly split into multiple lineages. Around 1.1 Ga, the <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> lines had split, though they still existed as solitary cells. Some of these lived in colonies, and gradually a <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Division of labor">division of labor</a> began to take place; for instance, cells on the periphery might have started to assume different roles from those in the interior. Although the division between a colony with specialized cells and a multicellular organism is not always clear, around 1 billion years ago<sup id="cite_ref-Cosmic-evolution-bio2_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosmic-evolution-bio2-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>, the first multicellular plants emerged, probably <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-bhattacharya_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bhattacharya-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Possibly by around 900 Ma<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 488">: 488 </span></sup> true multicellularity had also evolved in animals.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At first, it probably resembled today's <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, which have <a href="/wiki/Totipotent" class="mw-redirect" title="Totipotent">totipotent</a> cells that allow a disrupted organism to reassemble itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 483–487">: 483–487 </span></sup> As the division of labor was completed in the different lineages of multicellular organisms, cells became more specialized and more dependent on each other.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Supercontinents_in_the_Proterozoic">Supercontinents in the Proterozoic</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent_cycle" title="Supercontinent cycle">Supercontinent cycle</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Positions_of_ancient_continents,_550_million_years_ago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg/220px-Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg/330px-Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg/440px-Positions_of_ancient_continents%2C_550_million_years_ago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="820" data-file-height="820" /></a><figcaption>A reconstruction of Pannotia (550 Ma).</figcaption></figure> <p>Reconstructions of tectonic plate movement in the past 250 million years (the Cenozoic and Mesozoic eras) can be made reliably using fitting of continental margins, ocean floor magnetic anomalies and <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetic_pole" title="Paleomagnetic pole">paleomagnetic poles</a>. No ocean crust dates back further than that, so earlier reconstructions are more difficult. Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as <a href="/wiki/Orogenic_belt" title="Orogenic belt">orogenic belts</a>, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna. The further back in time, the scarcer and harder to interpret the data get and the more uncertain the reconstructions.<sup id="cite_ref-Kearey_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kearey-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 370">: 370 </span></sup> </p><p>Throughout the history of the Earth, there have been times when continents collided and formed a supercontinent, which later broke up into new continents. About 1000 to 830 Ma, most continental mass was united in the supercontinent Rodinia.<sup id="cite_ref-Kearey_134-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kearey-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 370">: 370 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Torsvik2003_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Torsvik2003-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rodinia may have been preceded by Early-Middle Proterozoic continents called Nuna and Columbia.<sup id="cite_ref-Kearey_134-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kearey-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 374">: 374 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhao1_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhao1-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zhao2_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zhao2-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the break-up of Rodinia about 800 Ma, the continents may have formed another short-lived supercontinent around 550 Ma. The hypothetical supercontinent is sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia or Vendia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McElhinny_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McElhinny-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 321–322">: 321–322 </span></sup> The evidence for it is a phase of <a href="/wiki/Continental_collision" title="Continental collision">continental collision</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Pan-African_orogeny" title="Pan-African orogeny">Pan-African orogeny</a>, which joined the continental masses of current-day Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia. The existence of Pannotia depends on the timing of the rifting between <a href="/wiki/Gondwana" title="Gondwana">Gondwana</a> (which included most of the landmass now in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Laurentia" title="Laurentia">Laurentia</a> (roughly equivalent to current-day North America).<sup id="cite_ref-Kearey_134-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kearey-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 374">: 374 </span></sup> It is at least certain that by the end of the Proterozoic eon, most of the continental mass lay united in a position around the south pole.<sup id="cite_ref-Dalziel_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalziel-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Proterozoic_climate_and_life">Late Proterozoic climate and life</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spriggina_Floundensi_4.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Spriggina_Floundensi_4.png/220px-Spriggina_Floundensi_4.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Spriggina_Floundensi_4.png/330px-Spriggina_Floundensi_4.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Spriggina_Floundensi_4.png/440px-Spriggina_Floundensi_4.png 2x" data-file-width="749" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A 580 million year old fossil of <i><a href="/wiki/Spriggina" title="Spriggina">Spriggina floundensi</a></i>, an animal from the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> period. Such life forms could have been ancestors to the many new forms that originated in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_Explosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian Explosion">Cambrian Explosion</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The end of the Proterozoic saw at least two Snowball Earths, so severe that the surface of the oceans may have been completely frozen. This happened about 716.5 and 635 Ma, in the <a href="/wiki/Cryogenian_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenian period">Cryogenian period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Science_Daily_Snowball_Earth_challenged_141-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Science_Daily_Snowball_Earth_challenged-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most paleoclimatologists think the cold episodes were linked to the formation of the supercontinent Rodinia.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoffman_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffman-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because Rodinia was centered on the equator, rates of <a href="/wiki/Chemical_weathering" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical weathering">chemical weathering</a> increased and carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) was taken from the atmosphere. Because CO<sub>2</sub> is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the same way, during the Snowball Earths most of the continental surface was covered with <a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">permafrost</a>, which decreased chemical weathering again, leading to the end of the glaciations. An alternative hypothesis is that enough carbon dioxide escaped through volcanic outgassing that the resulting greenhouse effect raised global temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoffman_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoffman-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cryogenian period was followed by the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> period, which was characterized by a rapid development of new multicellular lifeforms.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether there is a connection between the end of the severe ice ages and the increase in diversity of life is not clear, but it does not seem coincidental. The new forms of life, called Ediacara biota, were larger and more diverse than ever. Though the taxonomy of most Ediacaran life forms is unclear, some were ancestors of groups of modern life.<sup id="cite_ref-Xiao_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Xiao-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important developments were the origin of muscular and neural cells. None of the Ediacaran fossils had hard body parts like skeletons. These first appear after the boundary between the Proterozoic and <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a> eons or Ediacaran and Cambrian periods.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phanerozoic_Eon">Phanerozoic Eon</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a></div> <p>The Phanerozoic is the current eon on Earth, which started approximately 538.8 million years ago. It consists of three eras: The <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-StratChart_2022_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StratChart_2022-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Paleozoic ("old life") era was the first and longest era of the Phanerozoic eon, lasting from 538.8 to 251.9 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-StratChart_2022_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StratChart_2022-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the Paleozoic, many modern groups of life came into existence. Life colonized the land, first plants, then animals. Two significant extinctions occurred. The continents formed at the break-up of Pannotia and Rodinia at the end of the Proterozoic slowly moved together again, forming the supercontinent <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> in the late Paleozoic.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Mesozoic ("middle life") era lasted from 251.9 Ma to 66 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-StratChart_2022_106-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StratChart_2022-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is subdivided into the <a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">Triassic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> periods. The era began with the <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a>, the most severe extinction event in the fossil record; 95% of the species on Earth died out.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc-permian-triassic_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-permian-triassic-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It ended with the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> that wiped out the <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Cenozoic ("new life") era began at 66 Ma, and is subdivided into the <a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Paleogene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a>, and Quaternary periods. These three periods are further split into seven subdivisions, with the Paleogene composed of The <a href="/wiki/Paleocene" title="Paleocene">Paleocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oligocene" title="Oligocene">Oligocene</a>, the Neogene divided into the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a>, and the Quaternary composed of the <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a>, and Holocene.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mammals, birds, amphibians, crocodilians, turtles, and lepidosaurs survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed off the non-avian dinosaurs and many other forms of life, and this is the era during which they diversified into their modern forms.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tectonics,_paleogeography_and_climate"><span id="Tectonics.2C_paleogeography_and_climate"></span>Tectonics, paleogeography and climate</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pangaea_continents.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_continents.svg/220px-Pangaea_continents.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_continents.svg/330px-Pangaea_continents.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Pangaea_continents.svg/440px-Pangaea_continents.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="815" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinent</a> that existed from about 300 to 180 Ma. The outlines of the modern continents and other landmasses are indicated on this map.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the Proterozoic, the supercontinent Pannotia had broken apart into the smaller continents Laurentia, <a href="/wiki/Baltica" title="Baltica">Baltica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siberia_(continent)" title="Siberia (continent)">Siberia</a> and Gondwana.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During periods when continents move apart, more oceanic crust is formed by volcanic activity. Because the young volcanic crust is relatively hotter and less dense than the old oceanic crust, the ocean floors rise during such periods. This causes the <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> to rise. Therefore, in the first half of the Paleozoic, large areas of the continents were below sea level.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Early Paleozoic climates were warmer than today, but the end of the Ordovician saw a short <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a> during which glaciers covered the south pole, where the huge continent Gondwana was situated. Traces of glaciation from this period are only found on former Gondwana. During the Late Ordovician ice age, a few mass extinctions took place, in which many <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a>, trilobites, <a href="/wiki/Bryozoa" title="Bryozoa">Bryozoa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a> disappeared. These marine species could probably not contend with the decreasing temperature of the sea water.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc-ordovician_155-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-ordovician-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The continents Laurentia and Baltica collided between 450 and 400 Ma, during the <a href="/wiki/Caledonian_Orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Caledonian Orogeny">Caledonian Orogeny</a>, to form <a href="/wiki/Laurussia" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurussia">Laurussia</a> (also known as Euramerica).<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traces of the mountain belt this collision caused can be found in <a href="/wiki/Scandinavia" title="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, and the northern <a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Appalachians</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> period (416–359 Ma)<sup id="cite_ref-shortTimeScale_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shortTimeScale-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gondwana and Siberia began to move towards Laurussia. The collision of Siberia with Laurussia caused the <a href="/wiki/Uralian_orogeny" title="Uralian orogeny">Uralian Orogeny</a>, the collision of Gondwana with Laurussia is called the <a href="/wiki/Variscan_Orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Variscan Orogeny">Variscan or Hercynian Orogeny</a> in Europe or the <a href="/wiki/Alleghenian_Orogeny" class="mw-redirect" title="Alleghenian Orogeny">Alleghenian Orogeny</a> in North America. The latter phase took place during the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> period (359–299 Ma)<sup id="cite_ref-shortTimeScale_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shortTimeScale-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and resulted in the formation of the last supercontinent, Pangaea.<sup id="cite_ref-Condie_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Condie-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 180 Ma, Pangaea broke up into <a href="/wiki/Laurasia" title="Laurasia">Laurasia</a> and Gondwana.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cambrian_explosion">Cambrian explosion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elrathia_kingii_growth_series.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Elrathia_kingii_growth_series.jpg/220px-Elrathia_kingii_growth_series.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Elrathia_kingii_growth_series.jpg/330px-Elrathia_kingii_growth_series.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Elrathia_kingii_growth_series.jpg/440px-Elrathia_kingii_growth_series.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Trilobites" class="mw-redirect" title="Trilobites">Trilobites</a> first appeared during the Cambrian period and were among the most widespread and diverse groups of Paleozoic organisms.</figcaption></figure> <p>The rate of the evolution of life as recorded by fossils accelerated in the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a> period (542–488 Ma).<sup id="cite_ref-shortTimeScale_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shortTimeScale-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sudden emergence of many new species, <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>, and forms in this period is called the Cambrian Explosion. It was a form of <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">adaptive radiation</a>, where vacant <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</a> left by the extinct <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a> were filled up by the emergence of new phyla.<sup id="cite_ref-Wille2008_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wille2008-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The biological fomenting in the Cambrian Explosion was unprecedented before and since that time.<sup id="cite_ref-Lunine_60-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lunine-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 229">: 229 </span></sup> Whereas the Ediacaran life forms appear yet primitive and not easy to put in any modern group, at the end of the Cambrian, most modern phyla were already present. The development of hard body parts such as shells, <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeletons</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeletons</a> in animals like <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">crinoids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> (a well-known group of arthropods from the lower Paleozoic are the <a href="/wiki/Trilobite" title="Trilobite">trilobites</a>) made the preservation and <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossilization</a> of such life forms easier than those of their Proterozoic ancestors. For this reason, much more is known about life in and after the Cambrian period than about life in older periods. Some of these Cambrian groups appear complex but are seemingly quite different from modern life; examples are <i><a href="/wiki/Anomalocaris" title="Anomalocaris">Anomalocaris</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</a></i>. More recently, however, these seem to have found a place in modern classification.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the Cambrian, the first <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> animals, among them the first <a href="/wiki/Fishes" class="mw-redirect" title="Fishes">fishes</a>, had appeared.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 357">: 357 </span></sup> A creature that could have been the ancestor of the fishes, or was probably closely related to it, was <i><a href="/wiki/Pikaia" title="Pikaia">Pikaia</a></i>. It had a primitive <a href="/wiki/Notochord" title="Notochord">notochord</a>, a structure that could have developed into a <a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">vertebral column</a> later. The first fishes with <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">Gnathostomata</a>) appeared during the next geological period, the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>. The colonisation of new <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</a> resulted in massive body sizes. In this way, fishes with increasing sizes evolved during the early Paleozoic, such as the titanic <a href="/wiki/Placoderm" title="Placoderm">placoderm</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Dunkleosteus" title="Dunkleosteus">Dunkleosteus</a></i>, which could grow 7 meters (23 ft) long.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The diversity of life forms did not increase significantly because of a series of mass extinctions that define widespread biostratigraphic units called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Biomeres&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biomeres (page does not exist)">biomeres</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Runkel_160-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Runkel-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After each extinction pulse, the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a> regions were repopulated by similar life forms that may have been evolving slowly elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-Palmer_161-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Palmer-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the late Cambrian, the trilobites had reached their greatest diversity and dominated nearly all fossil assemblages.<sup id="cite_ref-Hallam_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hallam-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 34">: 34 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonization_of_land">Colonization of land</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Devonianscene-green.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Devonianscene-green.jpg/220px-Devonianscene-green.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Devonianscene-green.jpg/330px-Devonianscene-green.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Devonianscene-green.jpg/440px-Devonianscene-green.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2563" data-file-height="1792" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> flora</figcaption></figure> <p>Oxygen accumulation from photosynthesis resulted in the formation of an ozone layer that absorbed much of the Sun's <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a>, meaning unicellular organisms that reached land were less likely to die, and prokaryotes began to multiply and become better adapted to survival out of the water. Prokaryote lineages had probably colonized the land as early as 3 Ga<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even before the origin of the eukaryotes. For a long time, the land remained barren of multicellular organisms. The supercontinent Pannotia formed around 600 Ma and then broke apart a short 50 million years later.<sup id="cite_ref-liebermean_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-liebermean-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fish, the <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric fish">earliest vertebrates</a>, evolved in the oceans around 530 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 354">: 354 </span></sup> A major <a href="/wiki/Cambrian%E2%80%93Ordovician_extinction_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambrian–Ordovician extinction events">extinction event</a> occurred near the end of the Cambrian period,<sup id="cite_ref-bbc-cambrian_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-cambrian-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which ended 488 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-landing_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-landing-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Several hundred million years ago, plants (probably resembling <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>) and fungi started growing at the edges of the water and then out of it.<sup id="cite_ref-Fortey_168-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fortey-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 138–140">: 138–140 </span></sup> The oldest fossils of land fungi and plants date to 480–460 Ma, though molecular evidence suggests the fungi may have colonized the land as early as 1000 Ma and the plants 700 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-heckman_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-heckman-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially remaining close to the water's edge, mutations and variations resulted in further colonization of this new environment. The timing of the first animals to leave the oceans is not precisely known: the oldest clear evidence is of arthropods on land around 450 Ma,<sup id="cite_ref-johnson_170-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-johnson-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> perhaps thriving and becoming better adapted due to the vast food source provided by the terrestrial plants. There is also unconfirmed evidence that arthropods may have appeared on land as early as 530 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-macnaughton_171-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-macnaughton-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_tetrapods">Evolution of tetrapods</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Evolution of tetrapods</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiktaalik_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tiktaalik_BW.jpg/220px-Tiktaalik_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tiktaalik_BW.jpg/330px-Tiktaalik_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Tiktaalik_BW.jpg/440px-Tiktaalik_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="244" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Tiktaalik" title="Tiktaalik">Tiktaalik</a></i>, a fish with limb-like fins and a predecessor of tetrapods. Reconstruction from fossils about 375 million years old.</figcaption></figure> <p>At the end of the Ordovician period, 443 Ma,<sup id="cite_ref-shortTimeScale_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shortTimeScale-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> additional <a href="/wiki/Ordovician%E2%80%93Silurian_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordovician–Silurian extinction event">extinction events</a> occurred, perhaps due to a concurrent ice age.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc-ordovician_155-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-ordovician-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 380 to 375 Ma, the first <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a> evolved from fish.<sup id="cite_ref-clack-sa_172-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clack-sa-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fins evolved to become limbs that the first tetrapods used to lift their heads out of the water to breathe air. This would let them live in oxygen-poor water, or pursue small prey in shallow water.<sup id="cite_ref-clack-sa_172-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-clack-sa-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may have later ventured on land for brief periods. Eventually, some of them became so well adapted to terrestrial life that they spent their adult lives on land, although they hatched in the water and returned to lay their eggs. This was the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a>. About 365 Ma, another <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">period of extinction</a> occurred, perhaps as a result of <a href="/wiki/Global_cooling" title="Global cooling">global cooling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants evolved <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seeds</a>, which dramatically accelerated their spread on land, around this time (by approximately 360 Ma).<sup id="cite_ref-willis_174-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-willis-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-waikato_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-waikato-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>About 20 million years later (340 Ma<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 293–296">: 293–296 </span></sup>), the <a href="/wiki/Amniotic_egg" class="mw-redirect" title="Amniotic egg">amniotic egg</a> evolved, which could be laid on land, giving a survival advantage to tetrapod embryos. This resulted in the divergence of <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a> from amphibians. Another 30 million years (310 Ma<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 254–256">: 254–256 </span></sup>) saw the divergence of the <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsids</a> (including mammals) from the <a href="/wiki/Sauropsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropsid">sauropsids</a> (including birds and reptiles). Other groups of organisms continued to evolve, and lines diverged—in fish, insects, bacteria, and so on—but less is known of the details.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg/220px-Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg/330px-Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg/440px-Europasaurus_holgeri_Scene_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a> were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates throughout most of the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After yet another, the most severe extinction of the period (251~250 Ma), around 230 Ma, dinosaurs split off from their reptilian ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-bbc-new_blood_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-new_blood-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Triassic–Jurassic extinction event</a> at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs,<sup id="cite_ref-shortTimeScale_21-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shortTimeScale-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bbc-triassic_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-triassic-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates. Though some mammalian lines began to separate during this period, existing mammals were probably small animals resembling <a href="/wiki/Shrew" title="Shrew">shrews</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 169">: 169 </span></sup> </p><p>The boundary between avian and non-avian dinosaurs is unclear, but <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteryx" title="Archaeopteryx">Archaeopteryx</a></i>, traditionally considered one of the first birds, lived around 150 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-archaeopteryx_178-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archaeopteryx-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest evidence for the <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">angiosperms</a> evolving flowers is during the Cretaceous period, some 20 million years later (132 Ma).<sup id="cite_ref-tol-angiosperms_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tol-angiosperms-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinctions">Extinctions</h3></div> <p>The first of five great mass extinctions was the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician-Silurian_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordovician-Silurian extinction">Ordovician-Silurian extinction</a>. Its possible cause was the intense glaciation of Gondwana, which eventually led to a <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">Snowball Earth</a>. 60% of marine invertebrates became extinct, and 25% of all families.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The second mass extinction was the <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late Devonian extinction</a>, probably caused by the evolution of trees, which could have led to the depletion of greenhouse gases (like CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>) or the <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> of water. 70% of all species became extinct.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The third mass extinction was the Permian-Triassic, or the <a href="/wiki/Great_Dying" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Dying">Great Dying</a>, event. The event was possibly caused by some combination of the <a href="/wiki/Siberian_Traps" title="Siberian Traps">Siberian Traps</a> volcanic event, an asteroid impact, <a href="/wiki/Methane_clathrate" title="Methane clathrate">methane hydrate</a> gasification, sea level fluctuations, and a major <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">anoxic event</a>. Either the proposed <a href="/wiki/Wilkes_Land_crater" title="Wilkes Land crater">Wilkes Land crater</a><sup id="cite_ref-bbc-antarctic-crater_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-antarctic-crater-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in Antarctica or <a href="/wiki/Bedout" title="Bedout">Bedout structure</a> off the northwest coast of Australia may indicate an impact connection with the Permian-Triassic extinction. But it remains uncertain whether these or other proposed Permian-Triassic boundary craters are real impact craters or even contemporary with the Permian-Triassic extinction event. This was by far the deadliest extinction ever, with about 57% of all <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a> and 83% of all <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a> killed.<sup id="cite_ref-Benton_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BergstromDugatkin2012_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BergstromDugatkin2012-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fourth mass extinction was the <a href="/wiki/Triassic-Jurassic_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Triassic-Jurassic extinction event">Triassic-Jurassic extinction event</a> in which almost all <a href="/wiki/Synapsids" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsids">synapsids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Archosaurs">archosaurs</a> became extinct, probably due to new competition from dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The fifth and most recent mass extinction was the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous-Paleogene_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event</a>. In 66 Ma, a 10-kilometer (6.2 mi) <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroid</a> struck Earth just off the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a>—somewhere in the southwestern tip of then Laurasia—where the <a href="/wiki/Chicxulub_crater" title="Chicxulub crater">Chicxulub crater</a> is today. This ejected vast quantities of particulate matter and vapor into the air that occluded sunlight, inhibiting photosynthesis. 75% of all life, including the non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct,<sup id="cite_ref-cosmic-evolution-bio4_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cosmic-evolution-bio4-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> marking the end of the Cretaceous period and Mesozoic era.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diversification_of_mammals">Diversification of mammals</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Evolution of mammals</a></div> <p>The first true mammals evolved in the shadows of dinosaurs and other large archosaurs that filled the world by the late Triassic. The first mammals were very small, and were probably nocturnal to escape predation. Mammal diversification truly began only after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the early Paleocene the Earth recovered from the extinction, and mammalian diversity increased. Creatures like <i><a href="/wiki/Ambulocetus" title="Ambulocetus">Ambulocetus</a></i> took to the oceans to eventually evolve into whales,<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whereas some creatures, like primates, took to the trees.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This all changed during the mid to late Eocene when the circum-Antarctic current formed between Antarctica and Australia which disrupted weather patterns on a global scale. Grassless <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> began to predominate much of the landscape, and mammals such as <i><a href="/wiki/Andrewsarchus" title="Andrewsarchus">Andrewsarchus</a></i> rose up to become the largest known terrestrial predatory mammal ever,<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeoceti" title="Archaeoceti">early whales</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Basilosaurus" title="Basilosaurus">Basilosaurus</a></i> took control of the seas. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The evolution of <a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">grasses</a> brought a remarkable change to the Earth's landscape, and the new open spaces created pushed mammals to get bigger and bigger. Grass started to expand in the Miocene, and the Miocene is where many modern- day mammals first appeared. Giant <a href="/wiki/Ungulates" class="mw-redirect" title="Ungulates">ungulates</a> like <i><a href="/wiki/Paraceratherium" title="Paraceratherium">Paraceratherium</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Deinotherium" title="Deinotherium">Deinotherium</a></i> evolved to rule the grasslands. The evolution of grass also brought <a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">primates</a> down from the trees, and started <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>. The first big cats evolved during this time as well.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Tethys Sea">Tethys Sea</a> was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The formation of Panama was perhaps the most important geological event to occur in the last 60 million years. Atlantic and Pacific currents were closed off from each other, which caused the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a>, which made Europe warmer. The land bridge allowed the isolated creatures of South America to migrate over to North America and vice versa.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various species migrated south, leading to the presence in South America of <a href="/wiki/Llama" title="Llama">llamas</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spectacled_bear" title="Spectacled bear">spectacled bear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kinkajou" title="Kinkajou">kinkajous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jaguar" title="Jaguar">jaguars</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Three million years ago saw the start of the Pleistocene epoch, which featured dramatic climatic changes due to the ice ages. The ice ages led to the evolution and expansion of modern man in Saharan Africa. The mega-fauna that dominated fed on grasslands that, by now, had taken over much of the subtropical world. The large amounts of water held in the ice allowed various water bodies to shrink and sometimes disappear, such as the North Sea and the Bering Strait. It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along <a href="/wiki/Beringia" title="Beringia">Beringia</a>, which is why, today, there are <a href="/wiki/Camels" class="mw-redirect" title="Camels">camels</a> (which evolved and became extinct in North America), <a href="/wiki/Horses" class="mw-redirect" title="Horses">horses</a> (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans. The end of the last ice age coincided with the expansion of man and a massive die out of ice age mega-fauna. This extinction is nicknamed "<a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">the Sixth Extinction</a>". </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IceAgeEarth.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/IceAgeEarth.jpg/300px-IceAgeEarth.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/IceAgeEarth.jpg/450px-IceAgeEarth.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/IceAgeEarth.jpg/600px-IceAgeEarth.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8432" data-file-height="8432" /></a><figcaption>An artist's impression of ice age Earth at glacial maximum.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_evolution">Human evolution</h3></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.95em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Hominin timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_timeline" title="Template:Human timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_timeline" title="Template talk:Human timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:50.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−10 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−9 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−8 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−7 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−6 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:-0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#FFE4F1"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:26.665em;height:23.335em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">@supports(writing-mode:vertical-lr){.mw-parser-output .ts-vertical-text{letter-spacing:-0.12em;line-height:1em;text-orientation:upright;writing-mode:vertical-lr;width:1em}}</style><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Miocene</span></a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.900em;height:13.765em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.883em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.058em;height:12.841em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:-0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.421em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:14.000em;height:36.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-6.7em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-18.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a></b></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:48.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:46.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Samburupithecus" title="Samburupithecus">Samburupithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:44.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus" title="Ouranopithecus">Ouranopithecus</a></span></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_turkae" title="Ouranopithecus turkae">Ou. turkae</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ouranopithecus_macedoniensis" title="Ouranopithecus macedoniensis">Ou. macedoniensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Chororapithecus" title="Chororapithecus">Chororapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:35.000em;height:10.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.75em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Oreopithecus" title="Oreopithecus">Oreopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.75em;left:-0.4em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sivapithecus" title="Sivapithecus">Sivapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Graecopithecus" title="Graecopithecus">Graecopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-1.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2.5em;left:0.15em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. praegens</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. tugenensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.000em;height:6.850em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-3.75em;left:-0.3em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.425em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:27.700em;height:1.150em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.575em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ar. kadabba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:21.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ar. ramidus</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:16.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Au. africanus</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Au. afarensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Au. anamensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#DCEEFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:8.250em;height:5.750em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.9em;left:-0.5em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.875em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Au. garhi</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.570em;height:9.430em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.5em;left:-1em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></span></b></i><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a>)</i><br /><i>(<a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Au. sediba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:-0.2em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.500em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.7em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.750em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">Homo sapiens</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.200em;left:1.300em;width:3.900em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.100em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:1.050em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.8em;left:2.6em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.525em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.4em;left:2.8em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:6.000em;height:8.500em;left:11.700em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:11.05em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_human_evolution#Hominidae" title="Timeline of human evolution">Earlier apes</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Earliest bipedal</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Earliest sign of <i>Ardipithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Earliest sign of <i>Australopithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age#Beginning_of_the_Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Earliest stone tools</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">Earliest sign of<br /> <i>Homo</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.600em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa" title="Early expansions of hominins out of Africa">Dispersal beyond Africa</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:9.550em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Earliest language</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Earliest fire</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cooking#History" title="Cooking">cooking</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.6em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Rock_art#East_Asia" title="Rock art">Earliest rock art</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.625em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Clothing#Origin_and_history" title="Clothing">Earliest clothes</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.250em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Modern humans</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:21.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:0.25em;left:-5em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:110%"><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">H o m i n i d s</a></span></b></span></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin-top:3.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;top:3.25em;left:-5em;width:8.8em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"><b><span style="font-size:85%;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1231500821"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">P a r a n t h r o p u s</a></span></span></b></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.8em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div> <p>A small African ape living around 6 Ma was the last animal whose descendants would include both modern humans and their closest relatives, the <a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">chimpanzees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 100–101">: 100–101 </span></sup> Only two branches of its family tree have surviving descendants. Very soon after the split, for reasons that are still unclear, apes in one branch developed the ability to <a href="/wiki/Bipedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipedal">walk upright</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 95–99">: 95–99 </span></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a> size increased rapidly, and by 2 Ma, the first animals classified in the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i> had appeared.<sup id="cite_ref-Fortey_168-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fortey-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 300">: 300 </span></sup> Around the same time, the other branch split into the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">common chimpanzee</a> and the ancestors of the <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobo</a> as evolution continued simultaneously in all life forms.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 100–101">: 100–101 </span></sup> </p><p>The ability to control <a href="/wiki/Fire" title="Fire">fire</a> probably began in <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (or <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i>), probably at least 790,000 years ago<sup id="cite_ref-goren-inbar_193-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-goren-inbar-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but perhaps as early as 1.5 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 67">: 67 </span></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">use and discovery of controlled fire</a> may even predate <i>Homo erectus</i>. Fire was possibly used by the early <a href="/wiki/Lower_Paleolithic" title="Lower Paleolithic">Lower Paleolithic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oldowan" title="Oldowan">Oldowan</a>) hominid <i><a href="/wiki/Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> or strong <a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">australopithecines</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a>.</i><sup id="cite_ref-McClellan_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClellan-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_evolution_chart-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human_evolution_chart-en.svg/220px-Human_evolution_chart-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human_evolution_chart-en.svg/330px-Human_evolution_chart-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human_evolution_chart-en.svg/440px-Human_evolution_chart-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="544" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>A reconstruction of human history based on fossil data.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>It is more difficult to establish the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">origin of language</a>; it is unclear whether <i>Homo erectus</i> could speak or if that capability had not begun until <i>Homo sapiens</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawkins-Ancestors_126-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawkins-Ancestors-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 67">: 67 </span></sup> As brain size increased, babies were born earlier, before their heads grew too large to pass through the <a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">pelvis</a>. As a result, they exhibited more <a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">plasticity</a>, thus possessing an increased capacity to learn and requiring a longer period of dependence. Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate. This contributed to further cooperation and intellectual development.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> Modern humans (<i><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i>) are believed to have originated around 200,000 years ago or earlier <a href="/wiki/Single-origin_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-origin hypothesis">in Africa</a>; the oldest fossils date back to around 160,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-gibbons_197-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gibbons-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first humans to show signs of <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spirituality</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a> (usually classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often with no sign of food or tools.<sup id="cite_ref-hopfe_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hopfe-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 17">: 17 </span></sup> However, evidence of more sophisticated beliefs, such as the early <a href="/wiki/Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a> <a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">cave paintings</a> (probably with magical or religious significance)<sup id="cite_ref-hopfe_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hopfe-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 17–19">: 17–19 </span></sup> did not appear until 32,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Chauvet_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chauvet-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cro-Magnons also left behind stone figurines such as <a href="/wiki/Venus_of_Willendorf" title="Venus of Willendorf">Venus of Willendorf</a>, probably also signifying religious belief.<sup id="cite_ref-hopfe_198-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hopfe-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 17–19">: 17–19 </span></sup> By 11,000 years ago, <i>Homo sapiens</i> had reached the southern tip of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, the last of the uninhabited continents (except for Antarctica, which remained undiscovered until 1820 AD).<sup id="cite_ref-oxford-atlas_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford-atlas-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tool use and communication continued to improve, and interpersonal relationships became more intricate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Human_history">Human history</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">Human history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">Cradle of civilization</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History of Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Americas" title="History of the Americas">History of the Americas</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Antarctica" title="History of Antarctica">History of Antarctica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Eurasia" title="History of Eurasia">History of Eurasia</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>deal primarily with Africa, Europe, and Asia and do not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Earth&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Earth" title="Talk:History of Earth">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Da_Vinci_Vitruve_Luc_Viatour_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2155" data-file-height="2966" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Vitruvian_Man" title="Vitruvian Man">Vitruvian Man</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> epitomizes the advances in art and science seen during the Renaissance.</figcaption></figure> <p>Throughout more than 90% of its history, <i>Homo sapiens</i> lived in small bands as <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_196-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 8">: 8 </span></sup> As language became more complex, the ability to remember and communicate information resulted in a new replicator: the <a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">meme</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-dawkins-sg_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dawkins-sg-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ideas could be exchanged quickly and passed down the generations. <a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a> quickly outpaced <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">biological evolution</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> proper began. Between 8500 and 7000 <a href="/wiki/Before_Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Before Christ">BC</a>, humans in the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals: <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tudge_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tudge-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This spread to neighboring regions and developed independently elsewhere until most <i>Homo sapiens</i> lived sedentary lives in permanent settlements as farmers. Not all societies abandoned nomadism, especially those in isolated areas of the globe poor in <a href="/wiki/Domestication" title="Domestication">domesticable</a> plant species, such as <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-diamond_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diamond-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, among those civilizations that did adopt agriculture, the relative stability and increased productivity provided by farming allowed the population to expand.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Agriculture had a major impact; humans began to affect the environment as never before. Surplus food allowed a priestly or governing class to arise, followed by increasing <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labor</a>. This led to Earth's <a href="/wiki/First_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="First civilization">first civilization</a> at <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a> in the Middle East, between 4000 and 3000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_196-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 15">: 15 </span></sup> Additional civilizations quickly arose in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus River valley</a> and in China. The invention of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a> enabled complex societies to arise: record-keeping and <a href="/wiki/Library" title="Library">libraries</a> served as a storehouse of knowledge and increased the cultural transmission of information. Humans no longer had to spend all their time working for survival, enabling the first specialized occupations (e.g. craftsmen, merchants, priests, etc.). Curiosity and education drove the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, and various disciplines, including <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> (in a primitive form), arose. This in turn led to the emergence of increasingly larger and more complex civilizations, such as the first empires, which at times traded with one another, or fought for territory and resources. </p><p>By around 500 BC, there were advanced civilizations in the Middle East, Iran, India, China, and Greece, at times expanding, at times entering into decline.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_196-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 3">: 3 </span></sup> In 221 BC, China became a single polity that would grow to spread its culture throughout <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>, and it has remained the most populous nation in the world. During this period, famous <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> texts known as <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">vedas</a> came in existence in <a href="/wiki/Indus_valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus valley civilization">Indus valley civilization</a>. This civilization developed in <a href="/wiki/Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Warfare">warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Arts">arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, mathematics and <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The fundamentals of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a> were largely shaped in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a>, with the world's first <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic government</a> and major advances in philosophy and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> with advances in law, government, and engineering.<sup id="cite_ref-Daly2013_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Daly2013-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome#History_of_Roman_religion" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Christianized by Emperor Constantine</a> in the early 4th century and <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">declined</a> by the end of the 5th. Beginning with the 7th century, <a href="/wiki/Christianization#Christianization_of_Europe_(6th–9th_centuries)" title="Christianization">Christianization of Europe</a> began, and since at least the 4th century <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> has played a <a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">prominent role</a> in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">shaping of Western civilization</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Caltron_J.H_Hayas_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caltron_J.H_Hayas-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Orlandis_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orlandis-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-How_The_Catholic_Church_Built_Western_Civilization_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-How_The_Catholic_Church_Built_Western_Civilization-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perry2012_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry2012-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 610, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> was founded and quickly became the dominant religion in <a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">Western Asia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/House_of_Wisdom" title="House of Wisdom">House of Wisdom</a> was established in <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is considered to have been a major intellectual center during the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, where Muslim scholars in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> flourished from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries until the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_sack_of_Baghdad" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongol sack of Baghdad">Mongol sack of Baghdad</a> in 1258 AD. In 1054 AD the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> led to the prominent cultural differences between <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-BideleuxJeffries48_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BideleuxJeffries48-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 14th century, the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> began in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> with advances in religion, art, and science.<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_196-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 317–319">: 317–319 </span></sup> At that time the Christian Church as a political entity lost much of its power. In 1492, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Columbus" title="Christopher Columbus">Christopher Columbus</a> reached the Americas, initiating great changes to the <a href="/wiki/New_world" class="mw-redirect" title="New world">new world</a>. European civilization began to change beginning in 1500, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific</a> and <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrial</a> revolutions. That continent began to exert political and cultural <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">dominance</a> over human societies around the world, a time known as the <a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">Colonial era</a> (also see <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-McNeill_196-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McNeill-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 295–299">: 295–299 </span></sup> In the 18th century a cultural movement known as the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a> further shaped the mentality of Europe and contributed to its <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularization</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_the_universe" title="Chronology of the universe">Chronology of the universe</a> – History and future of the universe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detailed_logarithmic_timeline" title="Detailed logarithmic timeline">Detailed logarithmic timeline</a> – Timeline of the universe, Earth, and mankind</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_phase" title="Earth phase">Earth phase</a> – Phases of the Earth as seen from the Moon</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary history of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future of Earth</a> – Long-term extrapolated geological and biological changes of planet Earth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history of Earth</a> – The sequence of major geological events in Earth's past</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_catastrophic_risk" title="Global catastrophic risk">Global catastrophic risk</a> – Hypothetical global-scale disaster risk</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of the evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_natural_history" title="Timeline of natural history">Timeline of natural history</a></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/29px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/38px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/29px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/38px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Pluto" title="Pluto">Pluto</a>'s satellite <a href="/wiki/Charon_(moon)" title="Charon (moon)">Charon</a> is relatively larger,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Pluto is defined as a <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarf planet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Stanley2005-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stanley2005_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStanley2005">Stanley 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TimeScale-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TimeScale_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TimeScale_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TimeScale_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TimeScale_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGradsteinOggSmith2004">Gradstein, Ogg & Smith 2004</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"International Stratigraphic Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USGS1997-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USGS1997_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USGS1997_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html">"Age of the Earth"</a>. 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T41C-01.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=What+is+a+craton%3F&rft.pub=American+Geophysical+Union&rft.date=2004-05&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004AGUSM.T41C..01B&rft.aulast=Bleeker&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Davis%2C+B.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lunine-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lunine_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lunine_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lunine_60-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lunine_60-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lunine_60-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lunine_60-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLunine1999">Lunine 1999</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Condie-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Condie_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Condie_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCondie1997" class="citation book cs1">Condie, Kent C. (1997). <i>Plate tectonics and crustal evolution</i> (4th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-3386-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7506-3386-4"><bdi>978-0-7506-3386-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plate+tectonics+and+crustal+evolution&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Butterworth+Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-7506-3386-4&rft.aulast=Condie&rft.aufirst=Kent+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasting93-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kasting93_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasting1993" class="citation journal cs1">Kasting, James F. (1993). "Earth's early atmosphere". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>259</b> (5097): 920–926. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1993Sci...259..920K">1993Sci...259..920K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.11536547">10.1126/science.11536547</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11536547">11536547</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21134564">21134564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Earth%27s+early+atmosphere&rft.volume=259&rft.issue=5097&rft.pages=920-926&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.11536547&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21134564%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11536547&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1993Sci...259..920K&rft.aulast=Kasting&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gale-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gale_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gale_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gale_63-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGale2009" class="citation book cs1">Gale, Joseph (2009). <i>Astrobiology of Earth : the emergence, evolution, and future of life on a planet in turmoil</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920580-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920580-6"><bdi>978-0-19-920580-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astrobiology+of+Earth+%3A+the+emergence%2C+evolution%2C+and+future+of+life+on+a+planet+in+turmoil&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-920580-6&rft.aulast=Gale&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trail_Elsila_Müller_Lyons_p.-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trail_Elsila_Müller_Lyons_p._64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrailElsilaMllerLyons2022" class="citation journal cs1">Trail, Dustin; Elsila, Jamie; Mller, Ulrich; Lyons, Timothy; Rogers, Karyn (2022-02-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2022eo220065">"Rethinking the Search for the Origins of Life"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Eos" title="Eos">Eos</a></i>. <b>103</b>. <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a> (AGU). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2022eo220065">10.1029/2022eo220065</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2324-9250">2324-9250</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:246620824">246620824</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Eos&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Search+for+the+Origins+of+Life&rft.volume=103&rft.date=2022-02-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A246620824%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2324-9250&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F2022eo220065&rft.aulast=Trail&rft.aufirst=Dustin&rft.au=Elsila%2C+Jamie&rft.au=Mller%2C+Ulrich&rft.au=Lyons%2C+Timothy&rft.au=Rogers%2C+Karyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1029%252F2022eo220065&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Astrobiology_2017-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Astrobiology_2017_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/news/how-hot-were-the-oceans-when-life-first-evolved/">"NASA Astrobiology"</a>. <i>Astrobiology</i>. 2017-06-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Astrobiology&rft.atitle=NASA+Astrobiology&rft.date=2017-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fastrobiology.nasa.gov%2Fnews%2Fhow-hot-were-the-oceans-when-life-first-evolved%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Trainer_Pavlov_DeWitt_Jimenez_pp._18035–18042-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Trainer_Pavlov_DeWitt_Jimenez_pp._18035–18042_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrainerPavlovDeWittJimenez2006" class="citation journal cs1">Trainer, Melissa G.; Pavlov, Alexander A.; DeWitt, H. Langley; Jimenez, Jose L.; McKay, Christopher P.; Toon, Owen B.; Tolbert, Margaret A. (2006-11-28). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838702">"Organic haze on Titan and the early Earth"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a></i>. <b>103</b> (48): 18035–18042. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0608561103">10.1073/pnas.0608561103</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1838702">1838702</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17101962">17101962</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Organic+haze+on+Titan+and+the+early+Earth&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=48&rft.pages=18035-18042&rft.date=2006-11-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1838702%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17101962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0608561103&rft.aulast=Trainer&rft.aufirst=Melissa+G.&rft.au=Pavlov%2C+Alexander+A.&rft.au=DeWitt%2C+H.+Langley&rft.au=Jimenez%2C+Jose+L.&rft.au=McKay%2C+Christopher+P.&rft.au=Toon%2C+Owen+B.&rft.au=Tolbert%2C+Margaret+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1838702&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasting03-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kasting03_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasting03_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasting03_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kasting03_67-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKastingCatling,_David2003" class="citation journal cs1">Kasting, James F.; Catling, David (2003). "Evolution of a habitable planet". <i>Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics</i>. <b>41</b> (1): 429–463. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003ARA&A..41..429K">2003ARA&A..41..429K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.41.071601.170049">10.1146/annurev.astro.41.071601.170049</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Astronomy+and+Astrophysics&rft.atitle=Evolution+of+a+habitable+planet&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=429-463&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.astro.41.071601.170049&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003ARA%26A..41..429K&rft.aulast=Kasting&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rft.au=Catling%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kasting-2006-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kasting-2006_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKastingHoward2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kasting, James F.; Howard, M. Tazewell (September 7, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120419011108/http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~jfk4/PersonalPage/Pdf/Phl_Trans_B%20%28Kasting%26Howard%29_06.pdf">"Atmospheric composition and climate on the early Earth"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B" title="Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B">Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B</a></i>. <b>361</b> (1474): 1733–1742. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.2006.1902">10.1098/rstb.2006.1902</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1664689">1664689</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17008214">17008214</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~jfk4/PersonalPage/Pdf/Phl_Trans_B%20(Kasting&Howard)_06.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on April 19, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+B&rft.atitle=Atmospheric+composition+and+climate+on+the+early+Earth&rft.volume=361&rft.issue=1474&rft.pages=1733-1742&rft.date=2006-09-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1664689%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17008214&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstb.2006.1902&rft.aulast=Kasting&rft.aufirst=James+F.&rft.au=Howard%2C+M.+Tazewell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww3.geosc.psu.edu%2F~jfk4%2FPersonalPage%2FPdf%2FPhl_Trans_B%2520%28Kasting%26Howard%29_06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Selsis-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Selsis_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSelsis2005" class="citation book cs1">Selsis, Franck (2005). 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(May 2016)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReedSmith,_Vincent_S.Hammond,_Shaless_L.Rogers,_Alan_R.2004" class="citation journal cs1">Reed, David L.; Smith, Vincent S.; Hammond, Shaless L.; Rogers, Alan R.; et al. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC521174">"Genetic Analysis of Lice Supports Direct Contact between Modern and Archaic Humans"</a>. <i>PLOS Biology</i>. <b>2</b> (11): e340. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020340">10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC521174">521174</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15502871">15502871</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Biology&rft.atitle=Genetic+Analysis+of+Lice+Supports+Direct+Contact+between+Modern+and+Archaic+Humans&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=e340&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC521174%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15502871&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0020340&rft.aulast=Reed&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Vincent+S.&rft.au=Hammond%2C+Shaless+L.&rft.au=Rogers%2C+Alan+R.&rft.au=Clayton%2C+Dale+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC521174&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McNeill-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_196-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_196-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_196-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_196-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_196-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McNeill_196-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcNeill1999">McNeill 1999</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gibbons-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gibbons_197-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibbons2003" class="citation journal cs1">Gibbons, Ann (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.300.5626.1641">"Oldest Members of <i>Homo sapiens</i> Discovered in Africa"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>300</b> (5626): 1641. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.300.5626.1641">10.1126/science.300.5626.1641</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12805512">12805512</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:26472642">26472642</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Oldest+Members+of+Homo+sapiens+Discovered+in+Africa&rft.volume=300&rft.issue=5626&rft.pages=1641&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A26472642%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12805512&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.300.5626.1641&rft.aulast=Gibbons&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.300.5626.1641&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span> (abstract)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hopfe-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hopfe_198-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hopfe_198-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-hopfe_198-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopfe1987" class="citation book cs1">Hopfe, Lewis M. (1987) [1976]. "Characteristics of Basic Religions". <i>Religions of the World</i> (4th ed.). New York: MacMillan Publishing Company. pp. 17, 17–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-356930-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-356930-2"><bdi>978-0-02-356930-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Characteristics+of+Basic+Religions&rft.btitle=Religions+of+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=17%2C+17-19&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=MacMillan+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-02-356930-2&rft.aulast=Hopfe&rft.aufirst=Lewis+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chauvet-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chauvet_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/chav/hd_chav.htm">"Chauvet Cave"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-04-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chauvet+Cave&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fchav%2Fhd_chav.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford-atlas-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-oxford-atlas_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatrick_K._O’Brien2003" class="citation book cs1">Patrick K. O’Brien, ed. (2003) [2002]. "The Human Revolution". <i>Atlas of World History</i> (concise ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521921-0"><bdi>978-0-19-521921-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Human+Revolution&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=16&rft.edition=concise&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521921-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dawkins-sg-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dawkins-sg_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (1989) [1976]. "Memes: the new replicators". <i>The Selfish Gene</i> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 189–201. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286092-7"><bdi>978-0-19-286092-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Memes%3A+the+new+replicators&rft.btitle=The+Selfish+Gene&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=189-201&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286092-7&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tudge-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Tudge_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTudge1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Tudge" title="Colin Tudge">Tudge, Colin</a> (1998). <a href="/wiki/Neanderthals,_Bandits_and_Farmers" title="Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers"><i>Neanderthals, Bandits and Farmers: How Agriculture Really Began</i></a>. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84258-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-84258-3"><bdi>978-0-297-84258-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neanderthals%2C+Bandits+and+Farmers%3A+How+Agriculture+Really+Began&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-297-84258-3&rft.aulast=Tudge&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-diamond-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-diamond_203-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiamond1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Diamond, Jared</a> (1999). <a href="/wiki/Guns,_Germs,_and_Steel" title="Guns, Germs, and Steel"><i>Guns, Germs, and Steel</i></a>. W.W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31755-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31755-8"><bdi>978-0-393-31755-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guns%2C+Germs%2C+and+Steel&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31755-8&rft.aulast=Diamond&rft.aufirst=Jared&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Daly2013-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Daly2013_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonathan_Daly2013" class="citation book cs1">Jonathan Daly (19 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ"><i>The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization</i></a>. A&C Black. pp. 7–9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1851-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-1851-6"><bdi>978-1-4411-1851-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Western+Power%3A+A+Comparative+History+of+Western+Civilization&rft.pages=7-9&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2013-12-19&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6&rft.au=Jonathan+Daly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9aZPAQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507284/Roman-Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a>, "Roman Catholicism, Christian church that has been the decisive spiritual force in the history of Western civilization". <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caltron_J.H_Hayas-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caltron_J.H_Hayas_206-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Caltron J.H Hayas, <i>Christianity and Western Civilization</i> (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo–Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Orlandis-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Orlandis_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jose Orlandis, 1993, "A Short History of the Catholic Church," 2nd edn. (Michael Adams, Trans.), Dublin:Four Courts Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1851821252" title="Special:BookSources/1851821252">1851821252</a>, preface, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KYdbpwAACAAJ">[1]</a>, accessed 8 December 2014. p. (preface)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-How_The_Catholic_Church_Built_Western_Civilization-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-How_The_Catholic_Church_Built_Western_Civilization_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Woods" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas E. Woods">Thomas E. Woods</a> and Antonio Canizares, 2012, "How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization," Reprint edn., Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1596983280" title="Special:BookSources/1596983280">1596983280</a>, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jYvmAgAAQBAJ,">accessed 8 December 2014. p. 1: "Western civilization owes far more to Catholic Church than most people—Catholic included—often realize. The Church in fact built Western civilization."</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perry2012-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Perry2012_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarvin_Perry2012" class="citation book cs1">Marvin Perry (1 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&pg=PA33"><i>Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789</i></a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 33–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83720-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-83720-4"><bdi>978-1-111-83720-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+A+Brief+History%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1789&rft.pages=33-&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-111-83720-4&rft.au=Marvin+Perry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU2pnv0Aoh2EC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSpielvogel2016" class="citation book cs1">Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2016). <i>Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715</i> (Cengage Learning ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 156. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-305-63347-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-305-63347-6"><bdi>978-1-305-63347-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Western+Civilization%3A+A+Brief+History%2C+Volume+I%3A+To+1715&rft.pages=156&rft.edition=Cengage+Learning&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-305-63347-6&rft.aulast=Spielvogel&rft.aufirst=Jackson+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeill1957" class="citation book cs1">Neill, Thomas Patrick (1957). <i>Readings in the History of Western Civilization, Volume 2</i> (Newman Press ed.). p. 224.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+in+the+History+of+Western+Civilization%2C+Volume+2&rft.pages=224&rft.edition=Newman+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Neill&rft.aufirst=Thomas+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'CollinsFarrugia2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gerald_O%27Collins" title="Gerald O'Collins">O'Collins, Gerald</a>; Farrugia, Maria (2003). <i>Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity</i>. Oxford University Press. p. v (preface). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925995-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925995-3"><bdi>978-0-19-925995-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholicism%3A+The+Story+of+Catholic+Christianity&rft.pages=v+%28preface%29&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925995-3&rft.aulast=O%27Collins&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft.au=Farrugia%2C+Maria&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah">"Bayt al-Hikmah"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 3,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bayt+al-Hikmah&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FBayt-al-Hikmah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BideleuxJeffries48-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BideleuxJeffries48_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBideleuxJeffries1998" class="citation book cs1">Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C"><i>A history of eastern Europe: crisis and change</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16112-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16112-1"><bdi>978-0-415-16112-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+eastern+Europe%3A+crisis+and+change&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16112-1&rft.aulast=Bideleux&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Jeffries%2C+Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU39AYJm1L94C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalrymple1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brent_Dalrymple" title="Brent Dalrymple">Dalrymple, G.B.</a> (1991). <i>The Age of the Earth</i>. California: <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University_Press" title="Stanford University Press">Stanford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1569-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1569-0"><bdi>978-0-8047-1569-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Age+of+the+Earth&rft.place=California&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0&rft.aulast=Dalrymple&rft.aufirst=G.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalrymple2001" class="citation journal cs1">Dalrymple, G. Brent (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/190/1/205.abstract">"The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved"</a>. <i>Geological Society of London, Special Publications</i>. <b>190</b> (1): 205–221. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001GSLSP.190..205D">2001GSLSP.190..205D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1144%2FGSL.SP.2001.190.01.14">10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130092094">130092094</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-04-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geological+Society+of+London%2C+Special+Publications&rft.atitle=The+age+of+the+Earth+in+the+twentieth+century%3A+a+problem+%28mostly%29+solved&rft.volume=190&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=205-221&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130092094%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1144%2FGSL.SP.2001.190.01.14&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001GSLSP.190..205D&rft.aulast=Dalrymple&rft.aufirst=G.+Brent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsp.lyellcollection.org%2Fcontent%2F190%2F1%2F205.abstract&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawkins2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (2004). <a href="/wiki/The_Ancestor%27s_Tale" title="The Ancestor's Tale"><i>The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin">Houghton Mifflin</a> Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-00583-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-00583-3"><bdi>978-0-618-00583-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancestor%27s+Tale%3A+A+Pilgrimage+to+the+Dawn+of+Life&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-618-00583-3&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGradsteinOggSmith2004" class="citation book cs1">Gradstein, F.M.; Ogg, James George; Smith, Alan Gilbert, eds. (2004). <i>A Geological Time Scale 2004</i>. Reprinted with corrections 2006. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78673-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78673-7"><bdi>978-0-521-78673-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Geological+Time+Scale+2004&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78673-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGradsteinOggvan_Kranendonk2008" class="citation report cs1">Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; van Kranendonk, Martin (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121028022719/http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/nysgs/resources/images/geologicaltimescale.pdf">On the Geological Time Scale 2008</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Report). International Commission on Stratigraphy. Fig. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/nysgs/resources/images/geologicaltimescale.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 October 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=On+the+Geological+Time+Scale+2008&rft.pub=International+Commission+on+Stratigraphy&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Gradstein&rft.aufirst=Felix+M.&rft.au=Ogg%2C+James+G.&rft.au=van+Kranendonk%2C+Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nysm.nysed.gov%2Fnysgs%2Fresources%2Fimages%2Fgeologicaltimescale.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevin2009" class="citation book cs1">Levin, H.L. (2009). <i>The Earth through time</i> (9th ed.). Saunders College Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-38774-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-470-38774-0"><bdi>978-0-470-38774-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earth+through+time&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Saunders+College+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-470-38774-0&rft.aulast=Levin&rft.aufirst=H.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLunine1999" class="citation book cs1">Lunine, Jonathan I. (1999). <i>Earth: evolution of a habitable world</i>. United Kingdom: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64423-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-64423-5"><bdi>978-0-521-64423-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth%3A+evolution+of+a+habitable+world&rft.place=United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-64423-5&rft.aulast=Lunine&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcNeill1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Hardy_McNeill" class="mw-redirect" title="William Hardy McNeill">McNeill, Willam H.</a> (1999) [1967]. <i>A World History</i> (4th ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511615-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511615-1"><bdi>978-0-19-511615-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+World+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511615-1&rft.aulast=McNeill&rft.aufirst=Willam+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Melosh, H. J.; Vickery, A. M. & Tonks, W. B. (1993). <i>Impacts and the early environment and evolution of the terrestrial planets</i>, in Levy, H. J. & Lunine, Jonathan I. (eds.): <i>Protostars and Planets III</i>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona" title="University of Arizona">University of Arizona</a> Press, <a href="/wiki/Tucson,_Arizona" title="Tucson, Arizona">Tucson</a>, pp. 1339–1370.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanley2005" class="citation book cs1">Stanley, Steven M. (2005). <i>Earth system history</i> (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3907-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-3907-4"><bdi>978-0-7167-3907-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth+system+history&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Freeman&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-7167-3907-4&rft.aulast=Stanley&rft.aufirst=Steven+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSternBleeker1998" class="citation journal cs1">Stern, T.W.; Bleeker, W. (1998). "Age of the world's oldest rocks refined using Canada's SHRIMP: The Acasta Gneiss Complex, Northwest Territories, Canada". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geoscience_Canada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Geoscience Canada (page does not exist)">Geoscience Canada</a></i>. <b>25</b>: 27–31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geoscience+Canada&rft.atitle=Age+of+the+world%27s+oldest+rocks+refined+using+Canada%27s+SHRIMP%3A+The+Acasta+Gneiss+Complex%2C+Northwest+Territories%2C+Canada&rft.volume=25&rft.pages=27-31&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Stern&rft.aufirst=T.W.&rft.au=Bleeker%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWetherill1991" class="citation journal cs1">Wetherill, G.W. (1991). "Occurrence of Earth-Like Bodies in Planetary Systems". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>253</b> (5019): 535–538. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991Sci...253..535W">1991Sci...253..535W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.253.5019.535">10.1126/science.253.5019.535</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17745185">17745185</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:10023022">10023022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Occurrence+of+Earth-Like+Bodies+in+Planetary+Systems&rft.volume=253&rft.issue=5019&rft.pages=535-538&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.253.5019.535&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A10023022%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17745185&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991Sci...253..535W&rft.aulast=Wetherill&rft.aufirst=G.W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Earth" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Davies" title="Paul Davies">Davies, Paul</a>. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2005/dec/20/comment.science">Quantum leap of life</a>". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i>. 2005 December 20. – discusses speculation on the role of quantum systems in the origin of life</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.johnkyrk.com/evolution.html">Evolution timeline</a> (uses <a href="/wiki/Flash_Player" class="mw-redirect" title="Flash Player">Flash Player</a>). Animated story of life shows everything from the big bang to the formation of the Earth and the development of bacteria and other organisms to the ascent of man.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/earth/bespoke/story/20150123-earths-25-biggest-turning-points/">25 biggest turning points in Earth History</a> <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historystack.com/30_Major_Events_in_History_of_the_Earth">Evolution of the Earth</a>. Timeline of the most important events in the evolution of the Earth.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547hl">The Earth's Origins</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005493g">Ageing the Earth</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Corfield, Hazel Rymer & Henry Gee (<i>In Our Time</i>, Nov. 20, 2003)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Earth" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Earth" title="Template:Earth"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Earth" title="Template talk:Earth"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Earth" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Earth"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Earth" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth" title="Outline of Earth">Outline</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_atmosphere" title="Prebiotic atmosphere">Prebiotic atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">Troposphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">Stratosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesosphere" title="Mesosphere">Mesosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosphere" title="Thermosphere">Thermosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exosphere" title="Exosphere">Exosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Energy balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">Culture and society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">List of sovereign states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">dependent territories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">In culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Day" title="Earth Day">Earth Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Earth" title="Flag of Earth">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_symbol" title="Earth symbol">Symbol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">World economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth#Etymology" title="Earth">Etymology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">World history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_zone" title="Time zone">Time zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World" title="World">World</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_orbit" title="Earth's orbit">Earth's orbit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodetic_astronomy" title="Geodetic astronomy">Geodetic astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth" title="Gravity of Earth">Gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">Navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopositioning" title="Geopositioning">Geopositioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_globe" title="Virtual globe">Virtual globe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Earth structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_fluid_dynamics" title="Geophysical fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Geomagnetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">Mineral physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">Seismology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">Signal processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_imaging" title="Geophysical imaging">Tomography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Age of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremes_on_Earth" title="Extremes on Earth">Extremes on Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">Geological history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">Geologic time scale</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_record" title="Geologic record">Geologic record</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_Ocean" title="Arctic Ocean">Arctic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">The Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">Evolution of the Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_solar_terrestrial_planets" title="Geology of solar terrestrial planets">Geology of solar terrestrial planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Location_of_Earth" title="Location of Earth">Location in the Universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature" title="Template:Nature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">geological</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere <span style="font-size:85%;">(Earth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin <span style="font-size:85%;">(abiogenesis)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_life" title="History of life">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Nature" title="Category:Nature">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Earth&oldid=1255124684">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Earth&oldid=1255124684</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Earth" title="Category:Earth">Earth</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geochronology" title="Category:Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Geology_theories" title="Category:Geology theories">Geology theories</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Historical_geology" title="Category:Historical geology">Historical geology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:World_history" title="Category:World history">World history</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_the_EasyTimeline_extension" title="Category:Pages using the EasyTimeline extension">Pages using the EasyTimeline extension</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a 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Template:R/superscript"," 7.68% 252.778 52 Template:Cite_web"," 7.14% 234.901 50 Template:Cite_book"," 6.54% 215.010 1 Template:Timeline_Geological_Timescale"," 6.04% 198.833 294 Template:R/where"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.742","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":23763909,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFA._LazcanoJ.L._Bada2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllaby2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderssonZomorodipourAnderssonSicheritz-Pontén1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBattistuzziFeijaoHedges2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBattistuzziHedges2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelbrunoGott2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBellBoehnikeHarrisonMao2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBengtsonRasmussenIvarssonMuhling2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenton_M_J2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerglsandHaselkorn1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhattacharyaMedlin1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBideleuxJeffries1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBjornerud2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBleekerDavis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorenstein2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorenstein2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBritt2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCairns-Smith,_A.G.1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCanupAsphaug2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarl_T._BergstromLee_Alan_Dugatkin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCattermoleMoore,_Patrick1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavosieValleyWildeEdinburgh_Ion_Microprobe_Facility_(E.I.M.F.)2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCech,_T.R.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaisson2005\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFClack2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondie1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCondie2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalrymple1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalrymple2001\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDalziel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavies2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFDawkins1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawkins1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDawkins2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_MaraisD2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamond1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDreifus2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEncrenaz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerris,_J.P.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForterre2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFortey1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFFrankel1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabaldónBerend_SnelFrank_van_ZimmerenWieger_Hemrika2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGale2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeorge_Dvorsky2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibbons2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoren-InbarNira_AlpersonMordechai_E._KislevOrit_Simchoni2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGradsteinOggSmith2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGradsteinOggvan_Kranendonk2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallamWignall,_P.B.1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalliday2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalliday2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamonSepulchreLefebvreRamstein2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanczyc,_M.M.Fujikawa,_S.M.Szostak,_Jack_W.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartman,_H.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeckmanD.M._GeiserB.R._EidellR.L._Stauffer2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHedges2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHigh_Energy_Astrophysics_Science_Archive_Research_Center_(HEASARC)\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoenigsberg,_H.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoffmanKaufmanHalversonSchrag1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolland2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopfe1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobs1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonD.E.G._BriggsR.J._SuthrenJ.L._Wright1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstonUnrauLawrenceGlasner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonathan_Daly2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce,_G.F.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKasting1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKastingCatling,_David2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKastingHoward2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKauffman1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeareyKeith_A._KlepeisFrederick_J._Vine2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKleinePalmeMezgerHalliday2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKokuboIda2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKump2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuninGaston1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandingBowringDavidekFortey2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarralde,_R.Robertson,_M.P.Miller,_S.L.1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeslie2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevy,_M.Miller,_S.L.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieberman2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindahl,_T.1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindseyMorrisonSimmon2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuisi,_P.L.Ferri,_F.Stano,_P.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLunine1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacNaughtonJennifer_M._ColeRobert_W._DalrympleSimon_J._Braddy2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManhesaAllègreDupréaHamelin1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin,_W.Russell,_M.J.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarvin_Perry2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcArthurHowarthShieldsZhou2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcClellan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcElhinnyPhillip_L._McFadden2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGhee1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNeill1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerSpoolman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoraTittensorAdlSimpson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorbidelliChambers,_J.Lunine,_Jonathan_I.Petit,_J.M.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoskowitz2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMünkerJörg_A._PfänderStefan_WeyerAnette_Büchl2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN.A.S.A.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeill1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson,_K.E.Levy,_M.Miller,_S.L.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewsomTaylor1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNield2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNisbetSleep2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoffkeChristianWaceyHazen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovacek2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;CollinsFarrugia2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Neil2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhtomoKakegawaIshidaNagase2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnyett,_Isaac_J.2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrgel,_L.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP._GoldreichW.R._Ward1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatel2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatrick_K._O’Brien2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatwardhan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearlman2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennyPoole1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeretó,_J.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRavenJohnson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReedSmith,_Vincent_S.Hammond,_Shaless_L.Rogers,_Alan_R.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRunkelMackeyCowanFox2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSagan,_CarlMullen,_George1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopfKudryavtsevCzajaTripathi2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegré,_D.Ben-Eli,_D.Deamer,_D.Lancet,_D.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelsis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSoltisDoug_SoltisChristine_Edwards2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSperlingStockey2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpielvogel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStassen2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearnsStearnsStearns2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteenhuysen2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSternBleeker1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrauss\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzathmáry2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakemura2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorTaylorKrings2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimeTree2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTorsvik2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrailElsilaMllerLyons2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrainerPavlovDeWittJimenez2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTraxlerRozen2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevors,_J.T.Psenner,_R.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTudge1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVasasSzathmárySantos2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWetherill1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilde,_S.A.Valley,_J.W.Peck,_W.H.Graham,_C.M.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWille,_MNägler,_T.F.Lehmann,_BSchröder,_S2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWillisJ.C._McElwain2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoeseGogarten1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWächtershäuser,_G.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXiaoLaflamme2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYinJacobsen,_S.B.Yamashita,_K.Blichert-Toft,_J.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoCawoodWildeSun2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhaoSunWildeLi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Hunenvan_den_Berg2007\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 12,\n [\"Annotated link\"] = 9,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bots\"] = 1,\n [\"CO2\"] = 1,\n [\"CS1 config\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 12,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 50,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite episode\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 97,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 52,\n [\"Clear\"] = 2,\n [\"Convert\"] = 8,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Earth\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Earth\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Globalize\"] = 1,\n [\"Google books\"] = 4,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 6,\n [\"Hatnote\"] = 1,\n [\"Human timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 2,\n [\"In Our Time\"] = 1,\n [\"Life timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 16,\n [\"Nature\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Period start\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-semi-indef\"] = 1,\n [\"R\"] = 156,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"TOC limit\"] = 1,\n [\"Timeline Geological Timescale\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 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