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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Earliest_history_of_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_history_of_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Earliest history of Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_history_of_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Earliest_evidence_for_life_on_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Earliest_evidence_for_life_on_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Earliest evidence for life on Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Earliest_evidence_for_life_on_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_life_on_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_life_on_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Origins of life on Earth</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins_of_life_on_Earth-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins of life on Earth subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_life_on_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Independent_emergence_on_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independent_emergence_on_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Independent emergence on Earth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independent_emergence_on_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Replication_first:_RNA_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replication_first:_RNA_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Replication first: RNA world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replication_first:_RNA_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Membranes_first:_Lipid_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Membranes_first:_Lipid_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Membranes first: Lipid world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Membranes_first:_Lipid_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_clay_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_clay_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>The clay hypothesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_clay_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism_first:_Iron–sulfur_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism_first:_Iron–sulfur_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Metabolism first: Iron–sulfur world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism_first:_Iron–sulfur_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metabolism_first:_Pre–cells_(successive_cellularisation)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metabolism_first:_Pre–cells_(successive_cellularisation)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Metabolism first: Pre–cells (successive cellularisation)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metabolism_first:_Pre–cells_(successive_cellularisation)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prebiotic_environments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prebiotic_environments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Prebiotic environments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prebiotic_environments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Geothermal_springs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geothermal_springs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Geothermal springs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geothermal_springs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deep_sea_hydrothermal_vents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deep_sea_hydrothermal_vents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Deep sea hydrothermal vents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deep_sea_hydrothermal_vents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Life_"seeded"_from_elsewhere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_"seeded"_from_elsewhere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2.1</span> <span>Life "seeded" from elsewhere</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_"seeded"_from_elsewhere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbonate-rich_lakes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbonate-rich_lakes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2.2</span> <span>Carbonate-rich lakes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbonate-rich_lakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_and_evolutionary_impact_of_microbial_mats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_and_evolutionary_impact_of_microbial_mats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Environmental and evolutionary impact of microbial mats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_and_evolutionary_impact_of_microbial_mats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversification_of_eukaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversification_of_eukaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Diversification of eukaryotes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diversification_of_eukaryotes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diversification of eukaryotes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diversification_of_eukaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Chromatin,_nucleus,_endomembrane_system,_and_mitochondria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chromatin,_nucleus,_endomembrane_system,_and_mitochondria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Chromatin, nucleus, endomembrane system, and mitochondria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chromatin,_nucleus,_endomembrane_system,_and_mitochondria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plastids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plastids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Plastids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plastids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_reproduction_and_multicellular_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_reproduction_and_multicellular_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sexual_reproduction_and_multicellular_organisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sexual_reproduction_and_multicellular_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Evolution of sexual reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Multicellularity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multicellularity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Multicellularity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multicellularity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fossil_evidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_evidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Fossil evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Emergence of animals</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Emergence_of_animals-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Emergence of animals subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Deuterostomes_and_the_first_vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deuterostomes_and_the_first_vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Deuterostomes and the first vertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deuterostomes_and_the_first_vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonization_of_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonization_of_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Colonization of land</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Colonization_of_land-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Colonization of land subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Colonization_of_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_terrestrial_antioxidants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_terrestrial_antioxidants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Evolution of terrestrial antioxidants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_terrestrial_antioxidants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Evolution of soil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plants_and_the_Late_Devonian_wood_crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants_and_the_Late_Devonian_wood_crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Plants and the Late Devonian wood crisis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants_and_the_Late_Devonian_wood_crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.4</span> <span>Land invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amphibians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amphibians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.5</span> <span>Amphibians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amphibians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reptiles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reptiles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.6</span> <span>Reptiles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reptiles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.7</span> <span>Birds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mammals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mammals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.8</span> <span>Mammals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mammals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flowering_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flowering_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.9</span> <span>Flowering plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flowering_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.10</span> <span>Social insects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.11</span> <span>Humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mass_extinctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mass_extinctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Mass extinctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mass_extinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Footnotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of life</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A9" title="التاريخ التطوري للحياة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التاريخ التطوري للحياة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_evolutiva_de_la_vida" title="Història evolutiva de la vida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història evolutiva de la vida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionsgeschichte" title="Evolutionsgeschichte – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Evolutionsgeschichte" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_vida" title="Historia de la vida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la vida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biziaren_historia_ebolutiboa" title="Biziaren historia ebolutiboa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Biziaren historia ebolutiboa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تاریخ حیات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ حیات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_%C3%A9volutive_du_vivant" title="Histoire évolutive du vivant – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire évolutive du vivant" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_evolutiva_da_vida" title="Historia evolutiva da vida – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia evolutiva da vida" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%9D%EB%AA%85%EC%A7%84%ED%99%94%EC%82%AC" title="생명진화사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="생명진화사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%84%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A8_%D4%B5%D6%80%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%BE%D6%80%D5%A1" title="Կյանքի պատմությունը Երկրի վրա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կյանքի պատմությունը Երկրի վրա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolucijska_povijest_%C5%BEivota" title="Evolucijska povijest života – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Evolucijska povijest života" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_kehidupan" title="Sejarah kehidupan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah kehidupan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evoluzione_della_vita" title="Evoluzione della vita – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Evoluzione della vita" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%90%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9D" title="היסטוריה אבולוציונית של החיים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה אבולוציונית של החיים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A6" title="ಜೀವ ವಿಕಾಸವಾದ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೀವ ವಿಕಾಸವಾದ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B5_%D1%82%D1%96%D1%80%D1%88%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%96%D2%A3_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%8B" title="Жерде тіршіліктің дамуы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жерде тіршіліктің дамуы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%98%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د ژوند تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ژوند تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_%C5%BCycia_na_Ziemi" title="Historia życia na Ziemi – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia życia na Ziemi" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_evolutiva_da_vida" title="História evolutiva da vida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História evolutiva da vida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_vie%C8%9Bii" title="Istoria vieții – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria vieții" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D0%B5" title="История жизни на Земле – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История жизни на Земле" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="ජීවයේ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජීවයේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%AE_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="உயிரினங்களின் பரிணாம வரலாறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரினங்களின் பரிணாம வரலாறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ya%C5%9Fam%C4%B1n_evrimsel_tarihi" title="Yaşamın evrimsel tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yaşamın evrimsel tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%97%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Історія життя на Землі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія життя на Землі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_s%E1%BB%B1_s%E1%BB%91ng" title="Lịch sử sự sống – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử sự sống" 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Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Prehistoric life" redirects here. 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:2px solid #90ee90"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#90ee90;padding:0.2em;font-size:175%;font-weight:bold"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/180px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/270px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg/360px-Darwin%27s_finches_by_Gould.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1319" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Gould" title="John Gould">John Gould</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.55em; background-color: transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of evolutionary biology">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Processes and outcomes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Co-operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">Coextinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Contingency (evolutionary biology)">Contingency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Natural history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Phylogeny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">History of evolutionary theory</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Overview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Before Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">Origin of Species</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">Before synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evo-devo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_research_in_evolutionary_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Current research in evolutionary biology">Current research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_speciation" title="History of speciation">History of speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_paleontology" title="Timeline of paleontology">timeline</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Fields and applications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applications_of_evolution" title="Applications of evolution">Applications of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Biosocial criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Evolutionary aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_computation" title="Evolutionary computation">Evolutionary computation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">Evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_game_theory" title="Evolutionary game theory">Evolutionary game theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Evolutionary linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">Evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_physiology" title="Evolutionary physiology">Evolutionary physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_evolution" title="Experimental evolution">Experimental evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasion_genetics" title="Invasion genetics">Invasion genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">Island biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_experiments_of_speciation" title="Laboratory experiments of speciation">Speciation experiments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Darwinism" title="Universal Darwinism">Universal Darwinism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="background:transparent;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;padding-bottom:0;background:#90ee90;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Social implications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_as_fact_and_theory" title="Evolution as fact and theory">Evolution as fact and theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_effects_of_evolutionary_theory" title="Social effects of evolutionary theory">Social effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Creation–evolution controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objections_to_evolution" title="Objections to evolution">Objections to evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_support_for_evolution" title="Level of support for evolution">Level of support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature-nurture controversy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_of_life.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/16px-Tree_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg/24px-Tree_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, 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4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_biology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>history of life</b> on <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> traces the processes by which living and extinct <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> evolved, from the earliest <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">emergence of life</a> to the present day. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago (abbreviated as <i>Ga</i>, for <i><a href="/wiki/Gigaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigaannum">gigaannum</a></i>) and evidence suggests that life emerged prior to 3.7 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce_343–364_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce_343–364-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rosing_674–676_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosing_674–676-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ohtomo_25–28_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohtomo_25–28-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The similarities among all known present-day <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> indicate that they have diverged through the process of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest clear evidence of life comes from <a href="/wiki/Biogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Biogenic">biogenic</a> <a href="/wiki/%CE%9413C" title="Δ13C">carbon signatures</a><sup id="cite_ref-Rosing_674–676_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rosing_674–676-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ohtomo_25–28_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohtomo_25–28-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolite</a> fossils<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discovered in 3.7 billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Metasediment" class="mw-redirect" title="Metasediment">metasedimentary</a> rocks from western <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>. In 2015, possible "remains of <a href="/wiki/Biotic_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic life">biotic life</a>" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-AP-20151019_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-20151019-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PNAS-20151124-pdf_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20151124-pdf-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is further evidence of possibly the oldest forms of life in the form of fossilized <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a> precipitates from the <a href="/wiki/Nuvvuagittuq_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuvvuagittuq Belt">Nuvvuagittuq Belt</a>, that may have lived as early as 4.28 billion years ago, not long after the <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth#History_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">oceans formed</a> 4.4 billion years ago, and after the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a> 4.54 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20170301_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20170301-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20170301_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20170301-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These earliest fossils, however, may have originated from non-biological processes.<sup id="cite_ref-Pearce_343–364_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pearce_343–364-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PNAS-20151124-pdf_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PNAS-20151124-pdf-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mats</a> of coexisting <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> were the dominant form of life in the early <a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a> eon, and many of the major steps in early evolution are thought to have taken place in this environment.<sup id="cite_ref-NisbetFowler1999_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NisbetFowler1999-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The evolution of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a>, around 3.5 Ga, eventually led to a buildup of its waste product, <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a>, in the oceans. After free oxygen saturated all available <a href="/wiki/Reductant" class="mw-redirect" title="Reductant">reductant</a> substances on the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's surface">Earth's surface</a>, it built up in the atmosphere, leading to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxygenation_Event" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Oxygenation Event">Great Oxygenation Event</a> around 2.4 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-Anbar2007_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anbar2007-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest evidence of <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (complex <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a> with <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a>) dates from 1.85 Ga,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fedonkin2003_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fedonkin2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> likely due to <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a> between <a href="/wiki/Anaerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaerobe">anaerobic</a> archaea and <a href="/wiki/Aerobe" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerobe">aerobic</a> <a href="/wiki/Proteobacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteobacteria">proteobacteria</a> in co-adaptation against the new <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a>. While eukaryotes may have been present earlier, their diversification accelerated when aerobic <a href="/wiki/Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">cellular respiration</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbiont</a> <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> provided a more abundant source of <a href="/wiki/Biological_energy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological energy">biological energy</a>. Around 1.6 Ga, some eukaryotes gained the ability to photosynthesize via endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria, and gave rise to various <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> that eventually overtook cyanobacteria as the dominant <a href="/wiki/Primary_producer" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producer">primary producers</a>. </p><p>At around 1.7 Ga, <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organisms</a> began to appear, with <a href="/wiki/Differentiated_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Differentiated cell">differentiated cells</a> performing specialised functions.<sup id="cite_ref-Bonner1999_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonner1999-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While early organisms reproduced <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexually</a>, the primary method of reproduction for the vast majority of <a href="/wiki/Macroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroscopic">macroscopic</a> organisms, including almost all <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotes">eukaryotes</a> (which includes <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>), is <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, the fusion of male and female reproductive cells (<a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>) to create a <a href="/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The origin and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">evolution of sexual reproduction</a> remain a puzzle for biologists, though it is thought to have evolved from a single-celled eukaryotic ancestor.<sup id="cite_ref-Letunic_I_and_Bork_P_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Letunic_I_and_Bork_P-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> formed the earliest <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystems</a> at least 2.7 Ga, the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of plants">evolution of plants</a> from freshwater <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> dates back to about 1 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microorganisms are thought to have paved the way for the inception of land plants in the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> period. Land plants were so successful that they are thought to have contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Devonian extinction event">Late Devonian extinction event</a><sup id="cite_ref-AlgeoScheckler1998_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AlgeoScheckler1998-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as early tree <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteris" title="Archaeopteris">Archaeopteris</a></i> drew down CO<sub>2</sub> levels, leading to <a href="/wiki/Global_cooling" title="Global cooling">global cooling</a> and lowered sea levels, while their roots increased rock weathering and nutrient run-offs which may have triggered <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal bloom</a> <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">anoxic events</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilateria</a>, animals having a left and a right side that are mirror images of each other, appeared by 555 Ma (million years ago).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ediacara_biota" class="mw-redirect" title="Ediacara biota">Ediacara biota</a> appeared during the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> period,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, along with most other modern <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> originated about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=525">525</a> Ma</span> during the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-D-G.Shu_et_al._1999_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D-G.Shu_et_al._1999-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">Permian</a> period, <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsids</a>, including the ancestors of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, dominated the land.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> killed most complex species of its time, <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=252">252</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the recovery from this catastrophe, <a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">archosaurs</a> became the most abundant land vertebrates;<sup id="cite_ref-TannerLucas2004_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TannerLucas2004-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one archosaur group, the <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, dominated the <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a> periods.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a> <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=66">66</a> Ma</span> killed off the non-avian dinosaurs,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mammals <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">increased rapidly in size and diversity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinctions</a> may have accelerated evolution by providing opportunities for new groups of organisms to diversify.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Valkenburgh_1999_463–493_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Valkenburgh_1999_463–493-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Only a very small percentage of species have been identified: one estimate claims that Earth may have 1 trillion species, because "identifying every <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microbial species</a> on Earth presents a huge challenge."<sup id="cite_ref-NSF-2016002_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSF-2016002-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only 1.75–1.8 million species have been named<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChapman2009_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChapman2009-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20141108-MJN_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20141108-MJN-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1.8 million documented in a central database.<sup id="cite_ref-col2016_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-col2016-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The currently living species represent less than one percent of all species that have ever lived on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKinney1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4LHnCAAAQBAJpgPA110_110]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKinney1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid4LHnCAAAQBAJpgPA110_110]-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStearnsStearns1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0BHeC-tXIB4Cq9920percent_x]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStearnsStearns1999[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0BHeC-tXIB4Cq9920percent_x]-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.760em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Life timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><span>This box: </span><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Life_timeline" title="Template:Life timeline"><span title="View this template">view</span></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Life_timeline" title="Template talk:Life timeline"><span title="Discuss this template">talk</span></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Life_timeline" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Life timeline"><span title="Edit this template">edit</span></a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:49.67em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:48.63em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.58em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:46.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.47em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:44.40em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:43.32em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.23em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:41.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.03em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:38.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.78em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:36.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.49em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:34.33em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.15em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.96em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.76em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:28.29em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.04em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.76em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:24.46em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.14em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.79em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.41em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:16.08em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:14.54em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.96em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.30em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.70em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">—</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.38em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e5cc7f;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:50.000em;left:0.910em;width:12.090em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-25.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:45.470em;height:3.469em;left:1.040em;width:11.960em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.735em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Water</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#aebfd1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:45.470em;left:1.040em;width:0.130em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-22.735em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:41.137em;height:4.333em;left:1.170em;width:11.830em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.167em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">Single-celled life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3d9ff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:41.137em;left:1.170em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-20.568em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.044em;height:13.093em;left:1.430em;width:11.570em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.546em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_photosynthesis" title="Evolution of photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#99ffff;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:28.044em;left:1.430em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-14.022em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.870em;height:5.174em;left:1.690em;width:11.310em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.587em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#b3ffea;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:22.870em;left:1.690em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.435em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:10.141em;height:12.729em;left:1.950em;width:11.050em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.365em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular life</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccffe7;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:10.141em;left:1.950em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.070em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.443em;height:9.789em;left:2.210em;width:1.170em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.894em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;">P<br />l<br />a<br />n<br />t<br />s</span></a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#77dd00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.443em;left:2.210em;width:0.260em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.221em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.808em;height:5.333em;left:3.380em;width:9.620em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">Arthropods</a> <a href="/wiki/Mollusca" title="Mollusca">Molluscs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffff00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.443em;left:2.470em;width:3.510em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.53em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.221em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant#Evolutionary_history" title="Flowering plant">Flowers</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:2.081em;height:4.435em;left:3.380em;width:5.070em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.218em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.808em;left:8.580em;width:4.420em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.404em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffcc00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.826em;height:2.982em;left:8.450em;width:4.290em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.15em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:87%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.491em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#e6b880;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:3.298em;left:5.980em;width:2.600em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-0.225em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.649em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ffbbbb;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:1.826em;left:8.710em;width:4.030em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.913em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Primate" title="Primate">Primates</a></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#993c00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:45.470em;height:4.530em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.265em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.80em;"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean"><span style="color:#ffffff;">H<br />a<br />d<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.962em;height:13.508em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.2em;left:-0.05em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.754em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean"><span style="color:#ffffff;"><br /><br /><br />A<br />r<br />c<br />h<br />e<br />a<br />n</span></a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:10.141em;height:21.821em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-10.911em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic"><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />P<br />r<br />o<br />t<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:10.141em;left:0.000em;width:0.910em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.25em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:100%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.070em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; line-height: 0.85em;"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">P<br />h<br />a<br />n<br />e<br />r<br />o<br />z<br />o<br />i<br />c</a></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:12.956em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.478em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ccbbaa;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.808em;left:12.714em;width:0.286em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.404em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.860em;height:50em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Earth" title="Age of Earth">Earth formed</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.922em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Earliest water</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:48.422em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">LUCA</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.470em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest fossils</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:44.615em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">LHB meteorites</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:41.137em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_oxygen" title="Geological history of oxygen">Earliest oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.170em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Pongola_glaciation" title="Pongola glaciation">Pongola glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:30.024em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Atmospheric oxygen</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.534em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Huronian_glaciation" title="Huronian glaciation">Huronian glaciation</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:27.037em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:28.044em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Multicellular life</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:21.789em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Earliest fungi</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.231em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Earliest plants</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:12.956em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Earliest animals</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:12.038em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cryogenian" title="Cryogenian">Cryogenian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:11.436em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.141em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.15em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.833em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hirnantian_glaciation" title="Hirnantian glaciation">Hirnantian ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:7.627em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Earliest tetrapods</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:6.517em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse" title="Late Paleozoic icehouse">Karoo ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.887em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Hominoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoid">Earliest hominoid</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.129em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.2em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_glaciation" title="Quaternary glaciation">Quaternary ice age</a>*</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.000em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div><div style="float:right;font-size:95%;">*<i><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_glaciation" title="Timeline of glaciation">Ice Ages</a></i></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earliest_history_of_Earth">Earliest history of Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Earliest history of Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table id="Container" role="presentation" class="toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:38.980em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 1em 1em"><div style="padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center">History of Earth and its life</div></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:36em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.47em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:33.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:31.53em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:29.56em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.59em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.62em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:23.65em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:21.68em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:19.71em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.74em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.77em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:13.79em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:11.82em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:9.85em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.88em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1000 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.91em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:3.94em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−500 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:1.97em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:14em;height:36em;float:left;border:none"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(174,2,126);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:31.775em;height:4.225em;left:0.000em;width:4.200em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.113em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(240,4,127);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:19.707em;height:12.068em;left:0.000em;width:4.200em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.034em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Archean" title="Archean">Archean</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(247,53,99);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.247em;height:15.459em;left:0.000em;width:4.200em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-7.730em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Proterozoic" title="Proterozoic">Protero<br />-zoic</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(154,217,221);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:4.247em;left:0.000em;width:4.200em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.124em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanero<br />-zoic</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(218,3,127);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:28.377em;height:3.397em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.699em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Eoarchean" title="Eoarchean">Eo</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(244,68,159);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:25.224em;height:3.153em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.577em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Paleoarchean" title="Paleoarchean">Paleo</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(247,104,169);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:22.071em;height:3.153em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.577em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mesoarchean" title="Mesoarchean">Meso</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(249,155,193);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:19.707em;height:2.365em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.182em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Neoarchean" title="Neoarchean">Neo</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(247,67,112);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:12.612em;height:7.094em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.547em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleo</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(253,180,98);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:7.883em;height:4.730em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.365em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mesoproterozoic" title="Mesoproterozoic">Meso</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(254,179,66);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:4.247em;height:3.635em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.818em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neo</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(153,192,141);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:1.986em;height:2.262em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.131em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleo</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(103,197,202);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.520em;height:1.465em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.733em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Meso</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:rgb(242,249,29);border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:0.520em;left:4.270em;width:3.430em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.260em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"><a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Ceno</a></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:black;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:36.000em;left:4.200em;width:0.070em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-18.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:black;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:0.000em;height:31.775em;left:7.714em;width:0.042em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-15.887em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:gray;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;top:29.954em;height:1.577em;left:7.770em;width:0.630em"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.788em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5"> </div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:19.080em;height:36em"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.866em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> formed</div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.078em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">Cool surface, oceans, atmosphere</div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:30.742em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:32.319em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Earliest evidence of life (-4100)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:18.918em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_catastrophe" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen catastrophe">Oxygenation</a> of atmosphere</div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.253em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">Earliest indisputable <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organism</a><sup id="cite_ref-PTRS-2015_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PTRS-2015-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-El_Albani2010_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El_Albani2010-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:4.178em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:3.705em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">Earliest land <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:2.720em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">Earliest land <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.774em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">Earliest known <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaur</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.512em;left:-5.5em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0">Extinction of non-avian dinosaurs</div></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:35.000em">Scale: <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a> (Millions of years)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></div> <p>The oldest <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorite</a> fragments found on Earth are about 4.54 billion years old; this, coupled primarily with the dating of ancient <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a> deposits, has put the estimated age of Earth at around that time.<sup id="cite_ref-ageOfEarth_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ageOfEarth-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> has the same composition as Earth's <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> but does not contain an <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>-rich <a href="/wiki/Planetary_core" title="Planetary core">core</a> like the Earth's. Many scientists think that about 40 million years after the formation of Earth, it collided with <a href="/wiki/Giant-impact_hypothesis" title="Giant-impact hypothesis">a body the size of Mars</a>, throwing crust material into the orbit that formed the Moon. Another <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a> is that the Earth and Moon started to coalesce at the same time but the Earth, having a much stronger <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a> than the early Moon, attracted almost all the iron particles in the area.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Until 2001, the oldest rocks found on Earth were about 3.8 billion years old,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ageOfEarth_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ageOfEarth-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leading scientists to estimate that the Earth's surface had been molten until then. Accordingly, they named this part of Earth's history the <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen2000_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen2000-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, analysis of <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircons</a> formed 4.4 Ga indicates that Earth's crust solidified about 100 million years after the planet's formation and that the planet quickly acquired oceans and an <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, which may have been capable of supporting life.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garwood2012_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garwood2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence from the Moon indicates that, from 4 to 3.8 Ga, it suffered a <a href="/wiki/Late_Heavy_Bombardment" title="Late Heavy Bombardment">Late Heavy Bombardment</a> by debris that was left over from the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, and the Earth should have experienced an even heavier bombardment due to its stronger gravity.<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen2000_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen2000-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-space.com-bombardment_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-space.com-bombardment-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there is no direct evidence of conditions on Earth 4 to 3.8 Ga, there is no reason to think that the Earth was not also affected by this late heavy bombardment.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This event may well have stripped away any previous atmosphere and oceans; in this case <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a> and water from <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comet</a> impacts may have contributed to their replacement, although <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgassing</a> from <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> on Earth would have supplied at least half.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, if subsurface microbial life had evolved by this point, it would have survived the bombardment.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Earliest_evidence_for_life_on_Earth">Earliest evidence for life on Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Earliest evidence for life on Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></div> <p>The earliest identified organisms were minute and relatively featureless, and their fossils looked like small rods that are very difficult to tell apart from structures that arise through abiotic physical processes. The oldest undisputed evidence of life on Earth, interpreted as fossilized bacteria, dates to 3 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other finds in rocks dated to about 3.5 Ga have been interpreted as bacteria,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Geochemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Geochemical">geochemical</a> evidence also seeming to show the presence of life 3.8 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, these analyses were closely scrutinized, and non-biological processes were found which could produce all of the "signatures of life" that had been reported.<sup id="cite_ref-GrotzingerRothman1996_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrotzingerRothman1996-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While this does not prove that the structures found had a non-biological origin, they cannot be taken as clear evidence for the presence of life. Geochemical signatures from rocks deposited 3.4 Ga have been interpreted as evidence for life.<sup id="cite_ref-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrasierMcLoughlinEtAl2006-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence for fossilized microorganisms considered to be 3.77 billion to 4.28 billion years old was found in the <a href="/wiki/Nuvvuagittuq_Greenstone_Belt" title="Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt">Nuvvuagittuq Greenstone Belt</a> in Quebec, Canada,<sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20170301_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20170301-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the evidence is disputed as inconclusive.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_life_on_Earth">Origins of life on Earth</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins of life on Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right noresize" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/300px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/450px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png/600px-Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="741" usemap="#ImageMap_4eb2e6740e568e4e" resource="/wiki/File:Collapsed_tree_labels_simplified.png" /></span><map name="ImageMap_4eb2e6740e568e4e"><area href="/wiki/Euryarchaeota" shape="rect" coords="24,142,84,150" alt="Euryarchaeota" title="Euryarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Nanoarchaeota" shape="rect" coords="14,124,78,131" alt="Nanoarchaeota" title="Nanoarchaeota" /><area href="/wiki/Thermoproteota" shape="rect" coords="12,109,74,116" alt="Thermoproteota" title="Thermoproteota" /><area href="/wiki/Protozoa" shape="rect" coords="31,82,68,89" alt="Protozoa" title="Protozoa" /><area href="/wiki/Algae" shape="rect" coords="52,54,76,62" alt="Algae" title="Algae" /><area href="/wiki/Plant" shape="rect" coords="60,41,86,47" alt="Plant" title="Plant" /><area href="/wiki/Slime_molds" shape="rect" coords="44,29,101,36" alt="Slime molds" title="Slime molds" /><area href="/wiki/Animal" shape="rect" coords="85,18,120,25" alt="Animal" title="Animal" /><area href="/wiki/Fungus" shape="rect" coords="125,16,149,24" alt="Fungus" title="Fungus" /><area href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" shape="rect" coords="153,13,217,21" alt="Gram-positive bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Chlamydiota" shape="rect" coords="164,24,214,32" alt="Chlamydiota" title="Chlamydiota" /><area href="/wiki/Chloroflexota" shape="rect" coords="181,36,286,43" alt="Chloroflexota" title="Chloroflexota" /><area href="/wiki/Actinomycetota" shape="rect" coords="201,49,263,56" alt="Actinomycetota" title="Actinomycetota" /><area href="/wiki/Planctomycetota" shape="rect" coords="214,64,281,72" alt="Planctomycetota" title="Planctomycetota" /><area href="/wiki/Spirochaetota" shape="rect" coords="218,80,274,88" alt="Spirochaetota" title="Spirochaetota" /><area href="/wiki/Fusobacteriota" shape="rect" coords="218,101,273,107" alt="Fusobacteriota" title="Fusobacteriota" /><area href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" shape="rect" coords="218,118,294,137" alt="Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria" /><area href="/wiki/Thermophiles" shape="rect" coords="206,141,275,157" alt="Thermophiles" title="Thermophiles" /><area href="/wiki/Acidobacteriota" shape="rect" coords="182,166,241,173" alt="Acidobacteriota" title="Acidobacteriota" /><area href="/wiki/Pseudomonadota" shape="rect" coords="110,176,172,183" alt="Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota" /></map><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary tree">Evolutionary tree</a> showing the divergence of modern species from their common ancestor in the center.<sup id="cite_ref-Ciccarelli_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ciccarelli-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three <a href="/wiki/Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a> are colored, with <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> blue, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> green, and <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> red.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of common descent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology (biology)</a></div> <p>Most <a href="/wiki/Biologist" title="Biologist">biologists</a> reason that all living organisms on Earth must share a single <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Last universal ancestor">last universal ancestor</a>, because it would be virtually impossible that two or more separate lineages could have independently developed the many complex biochemical mechanisms common to all living organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a different scenario<sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1994_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1994-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1995_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1995-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1998_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1998-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a single last universal ancestor, e.g. a "first cell" or a first individual precursor cell has never existed. Instead, the early biochemical evolution of life<sup id="cite_ref-Wächtershäuser-2000_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wächtershäuser-2000-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led to diversification through the development of a multiphenotypical population of <a href="/wiki/Pre-cell" title="Pre-cell">pre-cells</a> from which the precursor cells (<a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">protocells</a>) of the three <a href="/wiki/Domains_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Domains of life">domains of life</a><sup id="cite_ref-Woese-1990_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese-1990-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> emerged. Thus, the formation of cells was a successive process. See <a href="#Metabolism_first:_Pre-cells,_successive_cellularisation">§ Metabolism first: Pre-cells, successive cellularisation</a>, below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independent_emergence_on_Earth">Independent emergence on Earth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Independent emergence on Earth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></div> <p>Life on Earth is based on <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. Carbon provides stable frameworks for complex chemicals and can be easily extracted from the environment, especially from <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garwood2012_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garwood2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no other chemical element whose properties are similar enough to carbon's to be called an analogue; <a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">silicon</a>, the element directly below carbon on the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, does not form very many complex stable molecules, and because most of its compounds are water-insoluble and because <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a> is a hard and abrasive solid in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> at temperatures associated with living things, it would be more difficult for organisms to extract. The elements <a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">boron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> have more complex chemistries but suffer from other limitations relative to carbon. Water is an excellent <a href="/wiki/Solvent" title="Solvent">solvent</a> and has two other useful properties: the fact that ice floats enables aquatic organisms to survive beneath it in winter; and its molecules have <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electrically negative</a> and positive ends, which enables it to form a wider range of compounds than other solvents can. Other good solvents, such as <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, are liquid only at such low temperatures that chemical reactions may be too slow to sustain life, and lack water's other advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organisms based on <a href="/wiki/Alternative_biochemistry" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative biochemistry">alternative biochemistry</a> may, however, be possible on other planets.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research on how life might have emerged from non-living chemicals focuses on three possible starting points: <a href="/wiki/Self-replication" title="Self-replication">self-replication</a>, an organism's ability to produce offspring that are very similar to itself; metabolism, its ability to feed and repair itself; and external <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">cell membranes</a>, which allow food to enter and waste products to leave, but exclude unwanted substances.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Research on abiogenesis still has a long way to go, since theoretical and <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> approaches are only beginning to make contact with each other.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Replication_first:_RNA_world">Replication first: RNA world</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Replication first: RNA world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a> and <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></div> <p>Even the simplest members of the <a href="/wiki/Three-domain_system" title="Three-domain system">three modern domains</a> of life use <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> to record their "recipes" and a complex array of <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> molecules to "read" these instructions and use them for growth, maintenance and self-replication. The discovery that some RNA molecules can <a href="/wiki/Catalyze" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyze">catalyze</a> both their own replication and the construction of proteins led to the hypothesis of earlier life-forms based entirely on RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These <a href="/wiki/Ribozyme" title="Ribozyme">ribozymes</a> could have formed an <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a> in which there were individuals but no species, as <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfers</a> would have meant that offspring were likely to have different <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> from their parents, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> occurred at the level of genes rather than organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoenigsberg2003_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoenigsberg2003-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which can build longer, more stable genomes, strengthening heritability and expanding the capabilities of individual organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoenigsberg2003_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoenigsberg2003-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ribozymes remain as the main components of <a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">ribosomes</a>, the "protein factories" in modern cells.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence suggests the first RNA molecules formed on Earth prior to 4.17 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although short self-replicating RNA molecules have been artificially produced in laboratories,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> doubts have been raised about whether natural non-biological synthesis of RNA is possible.<sup id="cite_ref-LevyMiller1998_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LevyMiller1998-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest "ribozymes" may have been formed of simpler <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Peptide_nucleic_acid" title="Peptide nucleic acid">PNA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Threose_nucleic_acid" title="Threose nucleic acid">TNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/Glycol_nucleic_acid" title="Glycol nucleic acid">GNA</a>, which would have been replaced later by RNA.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2003, it was proposed that porous metal sulfide <a href="/wiki/Precipitates" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitates">precipitates</a> would assist RNA synthesis at about 100 °C (212 °F) and ocean-bottom pressures near <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a>. Under this hypothesis, <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> membranes would be the last major cell components to appear and, until then, the <a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">protocells</a> would be confined to the pores.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Membranes_first:_Lipid_world">Membranes first: Lipid world</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Membranes first: Lipid world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:252px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:162px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:125px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Liposome_cross_section.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Cross-section through a liposome"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png/125px-Liposome_cross_section.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png/188px-Liposome_cross_section.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png 2x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="264" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_150x10" style="position:absolute; left:150px; top:10px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:white; color:black;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> = water-attracting heads of <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> molecules</span></div> <div id="annotation_150x90" style="position:absolute; left:150px; top:90px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cd9922; color:black;border:1px solid darkgray;"> </span> = water-repellent tails</span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Liposome_cross_section.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png/125px-Liposome_cross_section.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png/188px-Liposome_cross_section.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Liposome_cross_section.png 2x" data-file-width="209" data-file-height="264" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Liposome_cross_section.png" title="File:Liposome cross section.png"> </a></div>Cross-section through a <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposome</a></div> </div></div> <p>It has been suggested that double-walled "bubbles" of lipids like those that form the external membranes of cells may have been an essential first step.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experiments that simulated the conditions of the early Earth have reported the formation of lipids, and these can spontaneously form <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposomes</a>, double-walled "bubbles", and then reproduce themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-Garwood2012_49-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garwood2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although they are not intrinsically information-carriers as nucleic acids are, they would be subject to <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> for longevity and reproduction. Nucleic acids such as RNA might then have formed more easily within the liposomes than outside.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_clay_hypothesis">The clay hypothesis</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The clay hypothesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Graham_Cairns-Smith#Clay_hypothesis" title="Graham Cairns-Smith">Graham Cairns-Smith § Clay hypothesis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/RNA_world" title="RNA world">RNA world</a></div> <p>RNA is complex and there are doubts about whether it can be produced non-biologically in the wild.<sup id="cite_ref-LevyMiller1998_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LevyMiller1998-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clays</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a>, have properties that make them plausible accelerators for the emergence of an RNA world: they grow by self-replication of their <a href="/wiki/Crystal" title="Crystal">crystalline</a> pattern; they are subject to an analogue of natural selection, as the clay "species" that grows fastest in a particular environment rapidly becomes dominant; and they can catalyze the formation of RNA molecules.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although this idea has not become the scientific consensus, it still has active supporters.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research in 2003 reported that <a href="/wiki/Montmorillonite" title="Montmorillonite">montmorillonite</a> could also accelerate the conversion of <a href="/wiki/Fatty_acid" title="Fatty acid">fatty acids</a> into "bubbles" and that the "bubbles" could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay. These "bubbles" can then grow by absorbing additional lipids and then divide. The formation of the earliest cells may have been aided by similar processes.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A similar hypothesis presents self-replicating iron-rich clays as the progenitors of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>, lipids and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metabolism_first:_Iron–sulfur_world"><span id="Metabolism_first:_Iron.E2.80.93sulfur_world"></span>Metabolism first: Iron–sulfur world</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Metabolism first: Iron–sulfur world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Iron%E2%80%93sulfur_world_hypothesis" title="Iron–sulfur world hypothesis">Iron–sulfur world hypothesis</a></div><p> A series of experiments starting in 1997 showed that early stages in the formation of proteins from inorganic materials including <a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide" title="Carbon monoxide">carbon monoxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> could be achieved by using <a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfide" title="Iron(II) sulfide">iron sulfide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nickel_sulfide" title="Nickel sulfide">nickel sulfide</a> as <a href="/wiki/Catalyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalyst">catalysts</a>. Most of the steps required temperatures of about 100 °C (212 °F) and moderate pressures, although one stage required 250 °C (482 °F) and a pressure equivalent to that found under 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) of rock. Hence it was suggested that self-sustaining synthesis of proteins could have occurred near hydrothermal vents.<sup id="cite_ref-Wächtershäuser-2000_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wächtershäuser-2000-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Metabolism_first:_Pre–cells_(successive_cellularisation)"><span id="Metabolism_first:_Pre.E2.80.93cells_.28successive_cellularisation.29"></span>Metabolism first: Pre–cells (successive cellularisation)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Metabolism first: Pre–cells (successive cellularisation)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In this scenario, the biochemical evolution of life<sup id="cite_ref-Wächtershäuser-2000_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wächtershäuser-2000-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> led to diversification through the development of a multiphenotypical population of <a href="/wiki/Pre-cell" title="Pre-cell">pre-cells</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1994_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1994-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1995_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1995-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1998_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1998-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> i.e. evolving entities of primordial life with different characteristics and widespread <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kandler_1998_Early_diversification_of_life_and_pre-cell_theory.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Kandler_1998_Early_diversification_of_life_and_pre-cell_theory.svg/220px-Kandler_1998_Early_diversification_of_life_and_pre-cell_theory.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Kandler_1998_Early_diversification_of_life_and_pre-cell_theory.svg/330px-Kandler_1998_Early_diversification_of_life_and_pre-cell_theory.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Kandler_1998_Early_diversification_of_life_and_pre-cell_theory.svg/440px-Kandler_1998_Early_diversification_of_life_and_pre-cell_theory.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="745" data-file-height="736" /></a><figcaption>Early diversification of life with <a href="/wiki/Otto_Kandler" title="Otto Kandler">Kandler</a>'s pre-cell theory (Kandler 1998, p. 22)<sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1998_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1998-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>From this pre-cell population the founder groups A, B, C and then, from them, the precursor cells (here named proto-cells) of the three <a href="/wiki/Domains_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Domains of life">domains of life</a><sup id="cite_ref-Woese-1990_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Woese-1990-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arose successively, leading first to the <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">domain Bacteria</a>, then to the <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">domain Archea</a> and finally to the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">domain Eucarya</a>. </p><p>For the development of cells (<a href="/wiki/Cellularization" title="Cellularization">cellularisation</a>), the pre-cells had to be protected from their surroundings by envelopes (i.e. membranes, walls). For instance, the development of rigid <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a> by the invention of <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> in bacteria (domain Bacteria) may have been a prerequisite for their successful survival, radiation and colonisation of virtually all habitats of the geosphere and hydrosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1998_66-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1998-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This scenario may explain the quasi-random distribution of evolutionarily important features among the three domains and, at the same time, the existence of the most basic biochemical features (genetic code, set of protein amino acids etc.) in all three domains (unity of life), as well as the close relationship between the Archaea and the Eucarya. A scheme of the pre-cell scenario is shown in the adjacent figure,<sup id="cite_ref-Kandler-1998_66-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kandler-1998-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where important evolutionary improvements are indicated by numbers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prebiotic_environments">Prebiotic environments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Prebiotic environments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geothermal_springs">Geothermal springs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Geothermal springs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wet-dry cycles at geothermal springs are shown to solve the problem of hydrolysis and promote the polymerization and vesicle encapsulation of biopolymers.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Damer-2020_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Damer-2020-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The temperatures of geothermal springs are suitable for biomolecules.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Silica minerals and metal sulfides in these environments have photocatalytic properties to catalyze biomolecules. Solar UV exposure also promotes the synthesis of biomolecules like RNA nucleotides.<sup id="cite_ref-Mulkidjanian-2012_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mulkidjanian-2012-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An analysis of hydrothermal veins at a 3.5 <a href="/wiki/Bya" title="Bya">Gya</a> (giga years ago or 1 billion years) geothermal spring setting were found to have elements required for the origin of life, which are potassium, boron, hydrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, zinc, nitrogen, and oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mulkidjanian and colleagues find that such environments have identical ionic concentrations to the cytoplasm of modern cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Mulkidjanian-2012_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mulkidjanian-2012-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fatty acids in acidic or slightly alkaline geothermal springs assemble into vesicles after wet-dry cycles as there is a lower concentration of ionic solutes at geothermal springs since they are freshwater environments, in contrast to seawater which has a higher concentration of ionic solutes.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For organic compounds to be present at geothermal springs, they would have likely been transported by carbonaceous meteors. The molecules that fell from the meteors were then accumulated in geothermal springs. Geothermal springs can accumulate aqueous phosphate in the form of <a href="/wiki/Phosphoric_acid" title="Phosphoric acid">phopshoric acid</a>. Based on lab-run models, these concentrations of phoshate are insufficient to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">biosynthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As for the evolutionary implications, freshwater heterotrophic cells that depended upon synthesized organic compounds later evolved photosynthesis because of the continuous exposure to sunlight as well as their cell walls with ion pumps to maintain their intracellular metabolism after they entered the oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-Damer-2020_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Damer-2020-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Deep_sea_hydrothermal_vents">Deep sea hydrothermal vents</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Deep sea hydrothermal vents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Catalytic mineral particles and transition metal sulfides at these environments are capable of catalyzing organic compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists simulated laboratory conditions that were identical to white smokers and successfully oligomerized RNA, measured to be 4 units long.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long chain fatty acids can be synthesized via <a href="/wiki/Fischer-Tropsch_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Fischer-Tropsch synthesis">Fischer-Tropsch synthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison-2022_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-2022-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another experiment that replicated conditions also similar white smokers, with long chain fatty acids present resulted in the assembly of vesicles.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exergonic reactions at hydrothermal vents are suggested to have been a source of free energy that promoted chemical reactions, synthesis of organic molecules, and are inducive to chemical gradients.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In small rock pore systems, membranous structures between alkaline seawater and the acidic ocean would be conducive to natural proton gradients.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nucleobase synthesis could occur by following universally conserved biochemical pathways by using metal ions as catalysts.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison-2022_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-2022-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNA molecules of 22 bases can be polymerized in alkaline hydrothermal vent pores. Thin pores are shown to only accumulate long polynucleotides whereas thick pores accumulate both short and long polynucleotides. Small mineral cavities or mineral gels could have been a compartment for abiogenic processes.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A genomic analysis supports this hypothesis as they found 355 genes that likely traced to <a href="/wiki/LUCA" class="mw-redirect" title="LUCA">LUCA</a> upon 6.1 million sequenced prokaryotic genes. They reconstruct LUCA as a thermophilic anaerobe with a Wood-Ljungdahl pathway, implying an origin of life at white smokers. LUCA would also have exhibited other biochemical pathways such as <a href="/wiki/Gluconeogenesis" title="Gluconeogenesis">gluconeogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reverse_Krebs_cycle" title="Reverse Krebs cycle">reverse incomplete Krebs cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycolysis" title="Glycolysis">glycolysis</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Pentose_phosphate_pathway" title="Pentose phosphate pathway">pentose phosphate pathway</a>, including biochemical reactions such as <a href="/wiki/Reductive_amination" title="Reductive amination">reductive amination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transamination" title="Transamination">transamination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Harrison-2022_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison-2022-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Life_"seeded"_from_elsewhere"><span id="Life_.22seeded.22_from_elsewhere"></span>Life "seeded" from elsewhere</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Life "seeded" from elsewhere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></div> <p>The Panspermia hypothesis does not explain how life arose originally, but simply examines the possibility of its coming from somewhere other than Earth. The idea that life on Earth was "seeded" from elsewhere in the Universe dates back at least to the Greek philosopher <a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a> in the sixth century <a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BCE</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the twentieth century it was proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Physical_chemist" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical chemist">physical chemist</a> <a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Arrhenius1903_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arrhenius1903-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomers</a> <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chandra_Wickramasinghe" title="Chandra Wickramasinghe">Chandra Wickramasinghe</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-HoyleWickramasinghe1979_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoyleWickramasinghe1979-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by <a href="/wiki/Molecular_biologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular biologist">molecular biologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> and chemist <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Orgel" title="Leslie Orgel">Leslie Orgel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CrickOrgel1973_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CrickOrgel1973-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ALH84001_structures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/ALH84001_structures.jpg/220px-ALH84001_structures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/ALH84001_structures.jpg/330px-ALH84001_structures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/ALH84001_structures.jpg/440px-ALH84001_structures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1983" data-file-height="1351" /></a><figcaption>Potential bacterial fossils found on the <a href="/wiki/Allan_Hills_84001" title="Allan Hills 84001">Allan Hills Meteorite</a></figcaption></figure> <p>There are three main versions of the "seeded from elsewhere" hypothesis: from elsewhere in our Solar System via fragments knocked into space by a large <a href="/wiki/Meteoroid#Meteor" title="Meteoroid">meteor</a> impact, in which case the most credible sources are <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a><sup id="cite_ref-Scientific-American-panspermia_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scientific-American-panspermia-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by <a href="/wiki/Directed_panspermia" title="Directed panspermia">alien visitors</a>, possibly as a result of accidental <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_contamination" title="Interplanetary contamination">contamination</a> by microorganisms that they brought with them;<sup id="cite_ref-CrickOrgel1973_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CrickOrgel1973-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and from outside the Solar System but by natural means.<sup id="cite_ref-Arrhenius1903_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Arrhenius1903-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Scientific-American-panspermia_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scientific-American-panspermia-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Experiments in low Earth orbit, such as <a href="/wiki/EXOSTACK" class="mw-redirect" title="EXOSTACK">EXOSTACK</a>, have demonstrated that some microorganism <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> can survive the shock of being catapulted into space and some can survive exposure to outer space radiation for at least 5.7 years.<sup id="cite_ref-Clancy_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clancy-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Horneck_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horneck-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meteorite <a href="/wiki/ALH84001" class="mw-redirect" title="ALH84001">ALH84001</a>, which was once part of the <a href="/wiki/Martian_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Martian soil">Martian</a> crust, shows evidence of carbonate-globules with texture and size indicative of terrestrial bacterial activity.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists are divided over the likelihood of life arising independently on Mars,<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or on other planets in our <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Scientific-American-panspermia_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scientific-American-panspermia-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Carbonate-rich_lakes">Carbonate-rich lakes</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Carbonate-rich lakes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One theory traces the <a href="/wiki/Origins_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of life">origins of life</a> to the abundant carbonate-rich lakes which would have dotted the <a href="/wiki/Early_Earth" title="Early Earth">early Earth</a>. <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">Phosphate</a> would have been an essential cornerstone to the origin of life since it is a critical component of <a href="/wiki/Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">nucleotides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">adenosine triphosphate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz-2006_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2006-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Phosphate is often depleted in natural environments due to its uptake by microbes and its affinity for <a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">calcium</a> ions. In a process called '<a href="/wiki/Apatite" title="Apatite">apatite</a> precipitation', free phosphate ions react with the calcium ions abundant in water to precipitate out of solution as apatite minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz-2006_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2006-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When attempting to simulate prebiotic <a href="/wiki/Phosphorylation" title="Phosphorylation">phosphorylation</a>, scientists have only found success when using phosphorus levels far above modern day natural concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This problem of low phosphate is solved in <a href="/wiki/Carbonate" title="Carbonate">carbonate</a>-rich environments. When in the presence of carbonate, calcium readily reacts to form <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> instead of apatite minerals.<sup id="cite_ref-Nathan-1981_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nathan-1981-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the free calcium ions removed from <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>, phosphate ions are no longer precipitated from solution.<sup id="cite_ref-Nathan-1981_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nathan-1981-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is specifically seen in lakes with no inflow, since no new calcium is introduced into the water body.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After all of the calcium is sequestered into calcium carbonate (<a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a>), phosphate concentrations are able to increase to levels necessary for facilitating <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biomolecule</a> creation.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though carbonate-rich lakes have <a href="/wiki/Base_(chemistry)" title="Base (chemistry)">alkaline</a> chemistry in modern times, models suggest that carbonate lakes had a pH low enough for prebiotic synthesis when placed in the acidifying context of Earth's early <a href="/wiki/Early_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Early atmosphere">carbon dioxide rich atmosphere</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rainwater rich in <a href="/wiki/Carbonic_acid" title="Carbonic acid">carbonic acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathered</a> the rock on the surface of the Earth at rates far greater than today.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With high phosphate influx, no phosphate precipitation, and no <a href="/wiki/Microbial" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbial">microbial</a> usage of phosphate at this time, models show phosphate reached concentrations approximately 100 times greater than they are today.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modeled <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> and phosphate levels of early Earth carbonate-rich lakes nearly match the conditions used in current laboratory experiments on the origin of life.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similar to the process predicted by <a href="/wiki/Geothermal_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Geothermal springs">geothermal</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2045">hot spring hypotheses</a>, changing lake levels and wave action deposited phosphorus-rich brine onto dry shore and marginal pools.<sup id="cite_ref-Damer-2020_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Damer-2020-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This drying of the solution promotes <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a> reactions and removes enough water to promote phosphorylation, a process integral to biological energy storage and transfer.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Damer-2020_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Damer-2020-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When washed away by further precipitation and wave action, researchers concluded these newly formed biomolecules may have washed back into the lake - allowing the first prebiotic syntheses on Earth to occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Toner-2020_98-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toner-2020-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_and_evolutionary_impact_of_microbial_mats">Environmental and evolutionary impact of microbial mats</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Environmental and evolutionary impact of microbial mats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Great_Oxidation_Event" title="Great Oxidation Event">Great Oxidation Event</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg/220px-Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg/330px-Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg/440px-Stromatolites_in_Sharkbay.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2440" data-file-height="1816" /></a><figcaption>Modern <a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">stromatolites</a> in <a href="/wiki/Shark_Bay" title="Shark Bay">Shark Bay</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Microbial mats are multi-layered, multi-species colonies of bacteria and other organisms that are generally only a few millimeters thick, but still contain a wide range of chemical environments, each of which favors a different set of microorganisms.<sup id="cite_ref-KrumbeinBrehmEtAl2003_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KrumbeinBrehmEtAl2003-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To some extent each mat forms its own <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>, as the by-products of each group of microorganisms generally serve as "food" for adjacent groups.<sup id="cite_ref-RisattiEtAl1994_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RisattiEtAl1994-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yorgia_trace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Yorgia_trace.jpg/220px-Yorgia_trace.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Yorgia_trace.jpg/330px-Yorgia_trace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Yorgia_trace.jpg/440px-Yorgia_trace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption> Traces like <a href="/wiki/Epibaion" title="Epibaion">Epibaion</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran" title="Ediacaran">Ediacaran</a> represent trace fossils of feeding and movement by members of the phylum <a href="/wiki/Proarticulata" title="Proarticulata">proarticulata</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Stromatolite" title="Stromatolite">Stromatolites</a> are stubby pillars built as microorganisms in mats slowly migrate upwards to avoid being smothered by sediment deposited on them by water.<sup id="cite_ref-KrumbeinBrehmEtAl2003_126-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KrumbeinBrehmEtAl2003-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been vigorous debate about the validity of alleged stromatolite fossils from before 3 Ga,<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with critics arguing that they could have been formed by non-biological processes.<sup id="cite_ref-GrotzingerRothman1996_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrotzingerRothman1996-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2006, another find of stromatolites was reported from the same part of Australia, in rocks dated to 3.5 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern underwater mats the top layer often consists of photosynthesizing <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> which create an oxygen-rich environment, while the bottom layer is oxygen-free and often dominated by hydrogen sulfide emitted by the organisms living there.<sup id="cite_ref-RisattiEtAl1994_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RisattiEtAl1994-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Oxygen is toxic to organisms that are not adapted to it, but greatly increases the <a href="/wiki/Metabolic" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabolic">metabolic</a> efficiency of oxygen-adapted organisms;<sup id="cite_ref-Abele2002_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Abele2002-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Oxygen#Photosynthesis_and_respiration" title="Oxygen">oxygenic photosynthesis</a> by bacteria in mats increased biological productivity by a factor of between 100 and 1,000. The source of hydrogen atoms used by oxygenic photosynthesis is water, which is much more plentiful than the geologically produced <a href="/wiki/Reducing_agents" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing agents">reducing agents</a> required by the earlier non-oxygenic photosynthesis.<sup id="cite_ref-Blankenship2001_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blankenship2001-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this point onwards life itself produced significantly more of the resources it needed than did geochemical processes.<sup id="cite_ref-HoehlerBeboutMarais2001_133-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HoehlerBeboutMarais2001-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Oxygen became a significant component of Earth's atmosphere about 2.4 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although eukaryotes may have been present much earlier,<sup id="cite_ref-GlansdorffXuLabedan2008_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlansdorffXuLabedan2008-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BrocksLoganEtAl1999_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrocksLoganEtAl1999-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the oxygenation of the atmosphere was a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built.<sup id="cite_ref-HedgesBlairEtAl2004_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HedgesBlairEtAl2004-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The boundary between oxygen-rich and oxygen-free layers in microbial mats would have moved upwards when photosynthesis shut down overnight, and then downwards as it resumed on the next day. This would have created <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selection pressure</a> for organisms in this intermediate zone to acquire the ability to tolerate and then to use oxygen, possibly via <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiosis">endosymbiosis</a>, where one organism lives inside another and both of them benefit from their association.<sup id="cite_ref-NisbetFowler1999_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NisbetFowler1999-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyanobacteria have the most complete biochemical "toolkits" of all the mat-forming organisms. Hence they are the most self-sufficient, well-adapted to strike out on their own both as floating mats and as the first of the <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a>, provide the basis of most marine food chains.<sup id="cite_ref-NisbetFowler1999_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NisbetFowler1999-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diversification_of_eukaryotes">Diversification of eukaryotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Diversification of eukaryotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chromatin,_nucleus,_endomembrane_system,_and_mitochondria"><span id="Chromatin.2C_nucleus.2C_endomembrane_system.2C_and_mitochondria"></span>Chromatin, nucleus, endomembrane system, and mitochondria</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Chromatin, nucleus, endomembrane system, and mitochondria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eukaryotes may have been present long before the oxygenation of the atmosphere,<sup id="cite_ref-GlansdorffXuLabedan2008_135-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GlansdorffXuLabedan2008-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but most modern eukaryotes require oxygen, which is used by their <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> to fuel the production of <a href="/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate" title="Adenosine triphosphate">ATP</a>, the internal energy supply of all known cells.<sup id="cite_ref-HedgesBlairEtAl2004_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HedgesBlairEtAl2004-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1970s, a vigorous debate concluded that eukaryotes emerged as a result of a sequence of endosymbiosis between <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotes</a>. For example: a <a href="/wiki/Predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator">predatory</a> microorganism invaded a large prokaryote, probably an <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaean</a>, but instead of killing its prey, the attacker took up residence and evolved into mitochondria; one of these <a href="/wiki/Chimera_(genetics)" title="Chimera (genetics)">chimeras</a> later tried to swallow a photosynthesizing cyanobacterium, but the victim survived inside the attacker and the new combination became the ancestor of <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>; and so on. After each endosymbiosis, the partners eventually eliminated unproductive duplication of genetic functions by re-arranging their genomes, a process which sometimes involved transfer of genes between them.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another hypothesis proposes that mitochondria were originally <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>- or <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a>-metabolising endosymbionts, and became oxygen-consumers later.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, mitochondria might have been part of eukaryotes' original equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a debate about when eukaryotes first appeared: the presence of <a href="/wiki/Sterane" title="Sterane">steranes</a> in Australian <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shales</a> may indicate eukaryotes at 2.7 Ga;<sup id="cite_ref-BrocksLoganEtAl1999_136-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BrocksLoganEtAl1999-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, an analysis in 2008 concluded that these chemicals infiltrated the rocks less than 2.2 Ga and prove nothing about the origins of eukaryotes.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossils of the <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Grypania" title="Grypania">Grypania</a></i> have been reported in 1.85 billion-year-old rocks (originally dated to 2.1 Ga but later revised<sup id="cite_ref-Fedonkin2003_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fedonkin2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), indicating that eukaryotes with organelles had already evolved.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A diverse collection of fossil algae were found in rocks dated between 1.5 and 1.4 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known fossils of <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> date from 1.43 Ga.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2005_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2005-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plastids">Plastids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Plastids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastids</a>, the superclass of <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> of which <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a> are the best-known exemplar, are thought to have originated from <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endosymbiotic">endosymbiotic</a> cyanobacteria. The symbiosis evolved around 1.5 Ga and enabled eukaryotes to carry out <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation#Oxygenic_photosynthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">oxygenic photosynthesis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HedgesBlairEtAl2004_137-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HedgesBlairEtAl2004-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three evolutionary lineages of photosynthetic plastids have since emerged: chloroplasts in <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a> and plants, <a href="/wiki/Rhodoplast" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhodoplast">rhodoplasts</a> in <a href="/wiki/Red_algae" title="Red algae">red algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyanelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanelle">cyanelles</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">glaucophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not long after this primary endosymbiosis of plastids, rhodoplasts and chloroplasts were passed down to other <a href="/wiki/Bikont" title="Bikont">bikonts</a>, establishing a eukaryotic assemblage of phytoplankton by the end of the <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> Eon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual_reproduction_and_multicellular_organisms">Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Evolution of sexual reproduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a></div> <p>The defining characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> in eukaryotes are <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a>, giving offspring 50% of their genes from each parent.<sup id="cite_ref-Jokela2001_148-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jokela2001-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By contrast, in <a href="/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a> there is no recombination, but occasional <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. Bacteria also exchange DNA by <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">bacterial conjugation</a>, enabling the spread of resistance to <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotics</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a>, and the ability to utilize new <a href="/wiki/Metabolite" title="Metabolite">metabolites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, conjugation is not a means of reproduction, and is not limited to members of the same species – there are cases where bacteria transfer DNA to plants and animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Christie,_P._J._2001_294–305_150-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christie,_P._J._2001_294–305-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the other hand, bacterial <a href="/wiki/Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">transformation</a> is clearly an adaptation for transfer of DNA between bacteria of the same species. This is a complex process involving the products of numerous bacterial genes and can be regarded as a bacterial form of sex.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process occurs naturally in at least 67 prokaryotic species (in seven different phyla).<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes may have evolved from bacterial transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-novapublishers.com_154-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novapublishers.com-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The disadvantages of sexual reproduction are well-known: the genetic reshuffle of recombination may break up favorable combinations of genes; and since males do not directly increase the number of offspring in the next generation, an asexual population can out-breed and displace in as little as 50 generations a sexual population that is equal in every other respect.<sup id="cite_ref-Jokela2001_148-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jokela2001-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, the great majority of animals, plants, fungi and <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protists</a> reproduce sexually. There is strong evidence that sexual reproduction arose early in the history of eukaryotes and that the genes controlling it have changed very little since then.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> How sexual reproduction evolved and survived is an unsolved puzzle.<sup id="cite_ref-OttoGerstein2006_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OttoGerstein2006-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Horodyskia_per_Fedonkin_2003.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Horodyskia_per_Fedonkin_2003.png" decoding="async" width="167" height="154" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="167" data-file-height="154" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Horodyskia" title="Horodyskia">Horodyskia</a></i> may have been an early <a href="/wiki/Metazoan" class="mw-redirect" title="Metazoan">metazoan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Fedonkin2003_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fedonkin2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial</a> <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminiferan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DongEtAl2008_157-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DongEtAl2008-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It apparently re-arranged itself into fewer but larger main masses as the sediment grew deeper round its base.<sup id="cite_ref-Fedonkin2003_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fedonkin2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Red_Queen_hypothesis" title="Red Queen hypothesis">Red Queen hypothesis</a> suggests that sexual reproduction provides protection against <a href="/wiki/Parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite">parasites</a>, because it is easier for parasites to evolve means of overcoming the defenses of genetically identical <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a> than those of sexual species that present moving targets, and there is some experimental evidence for this. However, there is still doubt about whether it would explain the survival of sexual species if multiple similar clone species were present, as one of the clones may survive the attacks of parasites for long enough to out-breed the sexual species.<sup id="cite_ref-Jokela2001_148-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jokela2001-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis, Kathryn A. Hanley et al. found that the prevalence, abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, biologist Matthew Parker, after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance, failed to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in the host.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Kondrashov" title="Alexey Kondrashov">Alexey Kondrashov</a>'s <i>deterministic mutation hypothesis</i> (DMH) assumes that each organism has more than one harmful mutation and that the combined effects of these mutations are more harmful than the sum of the harm done by each individual mutation. If so, sexual recombination of genes will reduce the harm that bad mutations do to offspring and at the same time eliminate some bad mutations from the <a href="/wiki/Gene_pool" title="Gene pool">gene pool</a> by isolating them in individuals that perish quickly because they have an above-average number of bad mutations. However, the evidence suggests that the DMH's assumptions are shaky because many species have on average less than one harmful mutation per individual and no species that has been investigated shows evidence of <a href="/wiki/Synergy" title="Synergy">synergy</a> between harmful mutations.<sup id="cite_ref-Jokela2001_148-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jokela2001-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The random nature of recombination causes the relative abundance of alternative traits to vary from one generation to another. This <a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">genetic drift</a> is insufficient on its own to make sexual reproduction advantageous, but a combination of genetic drift and natural selection may be sufficient. When chance produces combinations of good traits, natural selection gives a large advantage to lineages in which these traits become genetically linked. On the other hand, the benefits of good traits are neutralized if they appear along with bad traits. Sexual recombination gives good traits the opportunities to become linked with other good traits, and mathematical models suggest this may be more than enough to offset the disadvantages of sexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-OttoGerstein2006_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OttoGerstein2006-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other combinations of hypotheses that are inadequate on their own are also being examined.<sup id="cite_ref-Jokela2001_148-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jokela2001-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The adaptive function of sex remains a major unresolved issue in biology. The competing models to explain it were reviewed by John A. Birdsell and <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wills" title="Christopher Wills">Christopher Wills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hypotheses discussed above all depend on the possible beneficial effects of random genetic variation produced by genetic recombination. An alternative view is that sex arose and is maintained as a process for repairing DNA damage, and that the genetic variation produced is an occasionally beneficial byproduct.<sup id="cite_ref-novapublishers.com_154-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novapublishers.com-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multicellularity">Multicellularity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Multicellularity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellular organism</a></div> <p>The simplest definitions of "multicellular", for example "having multiple cells", could include <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonial</a> cyanobacteria like <i><a href="/wiki/Nostoc" title="Nostoc">Nostoc</a></i>. Even a technical definition such as "having the same genome but different types of cell" would still include some <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a> of the green algae <a href="/wiki/Volvox" title="Volvox">Volvox</a>, which have cells that specialize in reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multicellularity evolved independently in organisms as diverse as <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a> and other animals, fungi, plants, <a href="/wiki/Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">brown algae</a>, cyanobacteria, <a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime molds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myxobacteria" title="Myxobacteria">myxobacteria</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fedonkin2003_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fedonkin2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the sake of brevity, this article focuses on the organisms that show the greatest specialization of cells and variety of cell types, although this approach to the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">evolution of biological complexity</a> could be regarded as "rather <a href="/wiki/Anthropocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropocentric">anthropocentric</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Bonner1999_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonner1999-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slime_mold_solves_maze.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Slime_mold_solves_maze.png/220px-Slime_mold_solves_maze.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Slime_mold_solves_maze.png/330px-Slime_mold_solves_maze.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Slime_mold_solves_maze.png/440px-Slime_mold_solves_maze.png 2x" data-file-width="540" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime mold</a> solves a maze. The mold (yellow) explored and filled the maze (left). When the researchers placed sugar (red) at two separate points, the mold concentrated most of its mass there and left only the most efficient connection between the two points (right).<sup id="cite_ref-NakagakiYamadaTóth2000_164-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NakagakiYamadaTóth2000-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The initial advantages of multicellularity may have included: more efficient sharing of nutrients that are digested outside the cell,<sup id="cite_ref-Koschwanezetal2011_165-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Koschwanezetal2011-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> increased resistance to predators, many of which attacked by engulfing; the ability to resist currents by attaching to a firm surface; the ability to reach upwards to filter-feed or to obtain sunlight for photosynthesis;<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2000_166-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2000-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the ability to create an internal environment that gives protection against the external one;<sup id="cite_ref-Bonner1999_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bonner1999-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and even the opportunity for a group of cells to behave "intelligently" by sharing information.<sup id="cite_ref-NakagakiYamadaTóth2000_164-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NakagakiYamadaTóth2000-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These features would also have provided opportunities for other organisms to diversify, by creating more varied environments than flat microbial mats could.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2000_166-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2000-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Multicellularity with differentiated cells is beneficial to the organism as a whole but disadvantageous from the point of view of individual cells, most of which lose the opportunity to reproduce themselves. In an asexual multicellular organism, rogue cells which retain the ability to reproduce may take over and reduce the organism to a mass of undifferentiated cells. Sexual reproduction eliminates such rogue cells from the next generation and therefore appears to be a prerequisite for complex multicellularity.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2000_166-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2000-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The available evidence indicates that eukaryotes evolved much earlier but remained inconspicuous until a rapid diversification around 1 Ga. The only respect in which eukaryotes clearly surpass bacteria and archaea is their capacity for variety of forms, and sexual reproduction enabled eukaryotes to exploit that advantage by producing organisms with multiple cells that differed in form and function.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2000_166-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2000-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By comparing the composition of transcription factor families and regulatory network motifs between unicellular organisms and multicellular organisms, scientists found there are many novel transcription factor families and three novel types of regulatory network motifs in multicellular organisms, and novel family transcription factors are preferentially wired into these novel network motifs which are essential for multicullular development. These results propose a plausible mechanism for the contribution of novel-family transcription factors and novel network motifs to the origin of multicellular organisms at transcriptional regulatory level.<sup id="cite_ref-MBE_1767_167-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MBE_1767-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_evidence">Fossil evidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Fossil evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fungi-like fossils were found in vesicular basalt dating back to the <a href="/wiki/Paleoproterozoic" title="Paleoproterozoic">Paleoproterozoic</a> Era around 2.4 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The controversial <a href="/wiki/Francevillian_biota" title="Francevillian biota">Francevillian biota</a> fossils, dated to 2.1 Ga, are the earliest known fossil organisms that are clearly multicellular, if they are indeed fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-El_Albani2010_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-El_Albani2010-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may have had differentiated cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Dickey2010_169-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dickey2010-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another early multicellular fossil, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Qingshania&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qingshania (page does not exist)">Qingshania</a></i>, dated to 1.7 Ga, appears to consist of virtually identical cells. The red algae called <i><a href="/wiki/Bangiomorpha" title="Bangiomorpha">Bangiomorpha</a></i>, dated at 1.2 Ga, is the earliest known organism that certainly has differentiated, specialized cells, and is also the oldest known sexually reproducing organism.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2000_166-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2000-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 1.43 billion-year-old fossils interpreted as fungi appear to have been multicellular with differentiated cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2005_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2005-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "string of beads" organism <i><a href="/wiki/Horodyskia" title="Horodyskia">Horodyskia</a></i>, found in rocks dated from 1.5 Ga to 900 Ma, may have been an early metazoan;<sup id="cite_ref-Fedonkin2003_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fedonkin2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, it has also been interpreted as a colonial <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminiferan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DongEtAl2008_157-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DongEtAl2008-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emergence_of_animals">Emergence of animals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Emergence of animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ediacaran_biota" title="Ediacaran biota">Ediacaran biota</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgess_Shale-type_fauna" title="Burgess Shale-type fauna">Burgess Shale-type fauna</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crown_group#Stem_groups" title="Crown group">Crown group § Stem groups</a></div> <div style="width:40%; border:solid 1px silver; padding:2px; margin:2px; float:right;"> <div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:5px"> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1261294616">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto;display:table}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf p{padding-right:5px;padding-left:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse p{padding-left:5px;padding-right:2px}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/ParaHoxozoa" title="ParaHoxozoa">ParaHoxozoa</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">Bilaterians</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">Deuterostomes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">Protostomes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ecdysozoa" title="Ecdysozoa">Ecdysozoa</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Spiralia" title="Spiralia">Spiralia</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Xenacoelomorpha" title="Xenacoelomorpha">Xenacoelomorpha</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Placozoa" title="Placozoa">Placozoa</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ctenophora" title="Ctenophora">Ctenophora</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Porifera" class="mw-redirect" title="Porifera">Porifera</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div>The animal family tree<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> <p>Animals are multicellular eukaryotes,<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are distinguished from plants, algae, and fungi by lacking <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All animals are <a href="/wiki/Motile" class="mw-redirect" title="Motile">motile</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if only at certain life stages. All animals except sponges have bodies differentiated into separate <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">muscles</a>, which move parts of the animal by contracting, and <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nerve tissue</a>, which transmits and processes signals.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2019, researchers reported the discovery of <i><a href="/wiki/Caveasphaera" title="Caveasphaera">Caveasphaera</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism" title="Multicellular organism">multicellular organism</a> found in 609-million-year-old rocks, that is not easily defined as an animal or non-animal, which may be related to one of the earliest instances of <a href="/wiki/Animal_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal evolution">animal evolution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EA-20191127_175-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EA-20191127-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20191127_176-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20191127-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fossil studies of <i>Caveasphaera</i> have suggested that animal-like embryonic development arose much earlier than the oldest clearly defined animal fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-EA-20191127_175-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EA-20191127-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may be consistent with studies suggesting that animal evolution may have begun about 750 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20191127_176-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20191127-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BE-20161205_177-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BE-20161205-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nonetheless, the earliest widely accepted animal fossils are the rather modern-looking <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarians</a> (the group that includes <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydra</a></i>), possibly from around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=580">580</a> Ma</span>, although fossils from the <a href="/wiki/Doushantuo_Formation" title="Doushantuo Formation">Doushantuo Formation</a> can only be dated approximately. Their presence implies that the cnidarian and <a href="/wiki/Bilateria" title="Bilateria">bilaterian</a> lineages had already diverged.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ediacara biota, which flourished for the last 40 million years before the start of the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Grazhdankin2004_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grazhdankin2004-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were the first animals more than a very few centimetres long. Many were flat and had a "quilted" appearance, and seemed so strange that there was a proposal to classify them as a separate <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_(biology)" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vendozoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vendozoa">Vendozoa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Seilacher1992_180-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seilacher1992-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others, however, have been interpreted as early <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Kimberella" title="Kimberella">Kimberella</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-Martin2000_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Martin2000-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FedonkinWaggoner1997_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FedonkinWaggoner1997-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Arkarua" title="Arkarua">Arkarua</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), and <a href="/wiki/Arthropod" title="Arthropod">arthropods</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Spriggina" title="Spriggina">Spriggina</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Parvancorina" title="Parvancorina">Parvancorina</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). There is still debate about the classification of these specimens, mainly because the diagnostic features which allow taxonomists to classify more recent organisms, such as similarities to living organisms, are generally absent in the Ediacarans. However, there seems little doubt that <i>Kimberella</i> was at least a <a href="/wiki/Triploblastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Triploblastic">triploblastic</a> bilaterian animal, in other words, an animal significantly more complex than the cnidarians.<sup id="cite_ref-Butterfield2006_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Butterfield2006-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Small_shelly_fauna" title="Small shelly fauna">small shelly fauna</a> are a very mixed collection of fossils found between the Late Ediacaran and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Cambrian">Middle Cambrian</a> periods. The earliest, <i><a href="/wiki/Cloudina" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloudina">Cloudina</a></i>, shows signs of successful defense against predation and may indicate the start of an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">evolutionary arms race</a>. Some tiny Early Cambrian shells almost certainly belonged to molluscs, while the owners of some "armor plates", <i><a href="/wiki/Halkieria" class="mw-redirect" title="Halkieria">Halkieria</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Microdictyon" title="Microdictyon">Microdictyon</a></i>, were eventually identified when more complete specimens were found in Cambrian <a href="/wiki/Lagerst%C3%A4tte" title="Lagerstätte">lagerstätten</a> that preserved soft-bodied animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Bengtson2004_187-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2004-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/220px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/330px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png/440px-20191108_Opabinia_regalis.png 2x" data-file-width="1900" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Opabinia" title="Opabinia">Opabinia</a></i> made the largest single contribution to modern interest in the Cambrian explosion.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1970s there was already a debate about whether the emergence of the modern phyla was "explosive" or gradual but hidden by the shortage of <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> animal fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-Bengtson2004_187-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2004-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A re-analysis of fossils from the <a href="/wiki/Burgess_Shale" title="Burgess Shale">Burgess Shale</a> lagerstätte increased interest in the issue when it revealed animals, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Opabinia" title="Opabinia">Opabinia</a></i>, which did not fit into any known <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a>. At the time these were interpreted as evidence that the modern phyla had evolved very rapidly in the Cambrian explosion and that the Burgess Shale's "weird wonders" showed that the Early Cambrian was a uniquely experimental period of animal evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later discoveries of similar animals and the development of new theoretical approaches led to the conclusion that many of the "weird wonders" were evolutionary "aunts" or "cousins" of modern groups<sup id="cite_ref-Budd2003_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd2003-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—for example that <i>Opabinia</i> was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Lobopod" class="mw-redirect" title="Lobopod">lobopods</a>, a group which includes the ancestors of the arthropods, and that it may have been closely related to the modern <a href="/wiki/Tardigrade" title="Tardigrade">tardigrades</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Budd1996_191-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budd1996-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, there is still much debate about whether the Cambrian explosion was really explosive and, if so, how and why it happened and why it appears unique in the history of animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Marshall2006_192-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marshall2006-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deuterostomes_and_the_first_vertebrates">Deuterostomes and the first vertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Deuterostomes and the first vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acanthodes_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/220px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/330px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Acanthodes_BW.jpg/440px-Acanthodes_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="303" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Acanthodii" title="Acanthodii">Acanthodians</a> were among the earliest vertebrates with <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Evolution of fish</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Chordate_genomics" title="Chordate genomics">Chordate genomics</a></div> <p>Most of the animals at the heart of the Cambrian explosion debate were <a href="/wiki/Protostome" title="Protostome">protostomes</a>, one of the two main groups of complex animals. The other major group, the <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a>, contains <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a> (echinoderms), as well as <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">chordates</a> (see below). Many echinoderms have hard <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> "shells", which are fairly common from the Early Cambrian small shelly fauna onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-Bengtson2004_187-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bengtson2004-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other deuterostome groups are soft-bodied, and most of the significant Cambrian deuterostome fossils come from the <a href="/wiki/Chengjiang_fauna" class="mw-redirect" title="Chengjiang fauna">Chengjiang fauna</a>, a lagerstätte in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The chordates are another major deuterostome group: animals with a distinct dorsal nerve cord. Chordates include soft-bodied invertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicates</a> as well as vertebrates—animals with a backbone. While tunicate fossils predate the Cambrian explosion,<sup id="cite_ref-Jun-Yuan2003_195-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jun-Yuan2003-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Chengjiang fossils <i><a href="/wiki/Haikouichthys" title="Haikouichthys">Haikouichthys</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Myllokunmingia" title="Myllokunmingia">Myllokunmingia</a></i> appear to be true vertebrates,<sup id="cite_ref-D-G.Shu_et_al._1999_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-D-G.Shu_et_al._1999-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i>Haikouichthys</i> had distinct <a href="/wiki/Vertebrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrae">vertebrae</a>, which may have been slightly <a href="/wiki/Biomineralization" title="Biomineralization">mineralized</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vertebrates with <a href="/wiki/Jaw" title="Jaw">jaws</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Acanthodian" class="mw-redirect" title="Acanthodian">acanthodians</a>, first appeared in the Late <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Colonization_of_land">Colonization of land</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Colonization of land"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></div> <p>Adaptation to life on land is a major challenge: all land organisms need to avoid drying-out and all those above microscopic size must create special structures to withstand gravity; <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gas_exchange" title="Gas exchange">gas exchange</a> systems have to change; reproductive systems cannot depend on water to carry <a href="/wiki/Egg" title="Egg">eggs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> towards each other.<sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3P120To122_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3P120To122-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Selden2001_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selden2001-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Garwood_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garwood-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the earliest good evidence of land plants and animals dates back to the Ordovician period (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=488–444">488 to 444</a> Ma</span>), and a number of microorganism lineages made it onto land much earlier,<sup id="cite_ref-Battistuzzi2004_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Battistuzzi2004-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> modern land <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> only appeared in the Late <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=385–359">385 to 359</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2000_203-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2000-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2017, evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms#Earliest_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">earliest known life on land</a> may have been found in 3.48-billion-year-old <a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">geyserite</a> and other related mineral deposits (often found around <a href="/wiki/Hot_spring" title="Hot spring">hot springs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geyser" title="Geyser">geysers</a>) uncovered in the <a href="/wiki/Pilbara_Craton" title="Pilbara Craton">Pilbara Craton</a> of <a href="/wiki/Western_Australia" title="Western Australia">Western Australia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-UNSW-20170510_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNSW-20170510-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NC-20170509_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NC-20170509-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2018, scientists reported that the earliest life on land may have been <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> living on land 3.22 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-NG-20180723_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NG-20180723-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In May 2019, scientists reported the discovery of a <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossilized</a> <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungus</a>, named <i><a href="/wiki/Ourasphaira_giraldae" title="Ourasphaira giraldae">Ourasphaira giraldae</a></i>, in the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Arctic" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Arctic">Canadian Arctic</a>, that may have grown on land a billion years ago, well before <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> were living on land.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20190522_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20190522-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20190522_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20190522-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ars_Technica_2019_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ars_Technica_2019-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_terrestrial_antioxidants">Evolution of terrestrial antioxidants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Evolution of terrestrial antioxidants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Oxygen began to accumulate in Earth's atmosphere over 3 Ga, as a by-product of <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). However, oxygen produces destructive chemical <a href="/wiki/Oxidation" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxidation">oxidation</a> which was toxic to most previous organisms. Protective endogenous antioxidant enzymes and exogenous dietary antioxidants helped to prevent oxidative damage. For example, brown algae accumulate inorganic mineral <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidants</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">rubidium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">vanadium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a>, iron, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">molybdenum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a>, concentrated more than 30,000 times more than in seawater. Most marine mineral antioxidants act in the cells as essential <a href="/wiki/Trace_element" title="Trace element">trace elements</a> in <a href="/wiki/Redox" title="Redox">redox</a> and antioxidant <a href="/wiki/Metalloprotein" title="Metalloprotein">metalloenzymes</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>When plants and animals began to enter rivers and land about 500 Ma, environmental deficiency of these marine mineral antioxidants was a challenge to the evolution of terrestrial life.<sup id="cite_ref-Venturi_2011_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venturi_2011-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Terrestrial plants slowly optimized the production of new endogenous antioxidants such as <a href="/wiki/Ascorbic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascorbic acid">ascorbic acid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyphenol" title="Polyphenol">polyphenols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavonoid" title="Flavonoid">flavonoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tocopherol" title="Tocopherol">tocopherols</a>, etc. </p><p>A few of these appeared more recently, in the last 200–50 Ma, in <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a> of <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperm</a> plants.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In fact, angiosperms (the dominant type of plant today) and most of their antioxidant pigments evolved during the <a href="/wiki/Late_Jurassic" title="Late Jurassic">Late Jurassic</a> period. Plants employ antioxidants to defend their structures against <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> produced during photosynthesis. Animals are exposed to the same oxidants, and they have evolved endogenous enzymatic antioxidant systems.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a> in the form of the iodide ion I<sup>−</sup> is the most primitive and abundant electron-rich essential element in the diet of marine and terrestrial organisms; it acts as an <a href="/wiki/Electron_donor" title="Electron donor">electron donor</a> and has this ancestral antioxidant function in all iodide-concentrating cells, from primitive marine algae to terrestrial vertebrates.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_soil">Evolution of soil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Evolution of soil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before the colonization of land there was no <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, a combination of mineral particles and decomposed <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>. Land surfaces were either bare rock or shifting sand produced by <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>. Water and dissolved nutrients would have drained away very quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2000_203-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2000-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Sub-Cambrian_peneplain" title="Sub-Cambrian peneplain">Sub-Cambrian peneplain</a> in Sweden, for example, maximum depth of <a href="/wiki/Kaolin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaolin">kaolinitization</a> by <a href="/wiki/Neoproterozoic" title="Neoproterozoic">Neoproterozoic</a> <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> is about 5 m, while nearby kaolin deposits developed in the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> are <a href="/wiki/Sub-Mesozoic_hilly_peneplains" title="Sub-Mesozoic hilly peneplains">much thicker</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lidmar-Bergstrometal2013_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lidmar-Bergstrometal2013-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been argued that in the late Neoproterozoic <a href="/wiki/Sheet_wash" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheet wash">sheet wash</a> was a dominant process of erosion of surface material due to the <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">lack of plants</a> on land.<sup id="cite_ref-Karna1993_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Karna1993-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lichen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Lichen.jpg/220px-Lichen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Lichen.jpg/330px-Lichen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Lichen.jpg/440px-Lichen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="802" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichens</a> growing on <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Films of cyanobacteria, which are not plants but use the same photosynthesis mechanisms, have been found in modern deserts in areas unsuitable for <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>. This suggests that microbial mats may have been the first organisms to colonize dry land, possibly in the Precambrian. Mat-forming cyanobacteria could have gradually evolved resistance to desiccation as they spread from the seas to <a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">intertidal zones</a> and then to land.<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2000_203-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2000-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lichen" title="Lichen">Lichens</a>, which are <a href="/wiki/Symbiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> combinations of a fungus (almost always an <a href="/wiki/Ascomycete" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascomycete">ascomycete</a>) and one or more photosynthesizers (green algae or cyanobacteria),<sup id="cite_ref-Hawksworth2001_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawksworth2001-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are also important colonizers of lifeless environments,<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2000_203-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2000-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and their ability to break down rocks contributes to <a href="/wiki/Soil_formation" title="Soil formation">soil formation</a> where plants cannot survive.<sup id="cite_ref-Hawksworth2001_216-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawksworth2001-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest known ascomycete fossils date from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=423–419">423 to 419</a> Ma</span> in the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2000_203-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2000-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Soil formation would have been very slow until the appearance of burrowing animals, which mix the mineral and organic components of soil and whose <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">feces</a> are a major source of organic components.<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2000_203-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2000-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Burrows have been found in Ordovician sediments, and are attributed to <a href="/wiki/Annelid" title="Annelid">annelids</a> (worms) or arthropods.<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2000_203-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2000-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants_and_the_Late_Devonian_wood_crisis">Plants and the Late Devonian wood crisis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Plants and the Late Devonian wood crisis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Evolutionary history of plants</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooksonia_pertoni.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Cooksonia_pertoni.png/150px-Cooksonia_pertoni.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Cooksonia_pertoni.png/225px-Cooksonia_pertoni.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Cooksonia_pertoni.png/300px-Cooksonia_pertoni.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Reconstruction of <i><a href="/wiki/Cooksonia" title="Cooksonia">Cooksonia</a></i>, a <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plant</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Gilboa_Fossils_from_the_Wattieza_tree_located_in_Gilboa,_New_York.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Gilboa_Fossils_from_the_Wattieza_tree_located_in_Gilboa%2C_New_York.jpg/150px-The_Gilboa_Fossils_from_the_Wattieza_tree_located_in_Gilboa%2C_New_York.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/The_Gilboa_Fossils_from_the_Wattieza_tree_located_in_Gilboa%2C_New_York.jpg/225px-The_Gilboa_Fossils_from_the_Wattieza_tree_located_in_Gilboa%2C_New_York.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/The_Gilboa_Fossils_from_the_Wattieza_tree_located_in_Gilboa%2C_New_York.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="170" /></a><figcaption>Fossilized <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a> from the Middle <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> <a href="/wiki/Gilboa_Fossil_Forest" title="Gilboa Fossil Forest">Gilboa Fossil Forest</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In aquatic algae, almost all cells are capable of photosynthesis and are nearly independent. Life on land requires plants to become internally more complex and specialized: photosynthesis is most efficient at the top; roots extract water and nutrients from the ground; and the intermediate parts support and transport.<sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3P120To122_198-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3P120To122-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-KenrickCrane1997_218-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KenrickCrane1997-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spores of land plants resembling <a href="/wiki/Liverworts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liverworts">liverworts</a> have been found in Middle Ordovician rocks from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=476">476</a> Ma</span>. <a href="/wiki/Wenlock_(Silurian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wenlock (Silurian)">Middle Silurian</a> rocks from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=430">430</a> Ma</span> contain fossils of true plants, including <a href="/wiki/Clubmoss" class="mw-redirect" title="Clubmoss">clubmosses</a> such as <i><a href="/wiki/Baragwanathia" title="Baragwanathia">Baragwanathia</a></i>; most were under 10 centimetres (3.9 in) high, and some appear closely related to <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>, the group that includes <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-KenrickCrane1997_218-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KenrickCrane1997-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the Late Devonian <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=370">370</a> Ma</span>, abundant trees such as <i><a href="/wiki/Archaeopteris" title="Archaeopteris">Archaeopteris</a></i> bound the soil so firmly that they changed river systems from mostly <a href="/wiki/Braided_river" title="Braided river">braided</a> to mostly <a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">meandering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This caused the "Late Devonian wood crisis" because:<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>They removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, reducing the <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a> and thus causing an <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> period.<sup id="cite_ref-AlgeoScheckler1998_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AlgeoScheckler1998-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This did not repeat in later ecosystems, since the carbon dioxide "locked up" in wood was returned to the atmosphere by decomposition of dead wood, but the earliest fossil evidence of fungi that can decompose wood also comes from the Late Devonian.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The increasing depth of plants' roots led to more washing of nutrients into rivers and seas by rain. This caused <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a> whose high consumption of oxygen caused <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">anoxic events</a> in deeper waters, increasing the extinction rate among deep-water animals.<sup id="cite_ref-AlgeoScheckler1998_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AlgeoScheckler1998-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_invertebrates">Land invertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Land invertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animals had to change their feeding and <a href="/wiki/Excretory" class="mw-redirect" title="Excretory">excretory</a> systems, and most land animals developed <a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">internal fertilization</a> of their eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-Garwood_200-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garwood-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference in <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> between water and air required changes in their eyes. On the other hand, in some ways movement and breathing became easier, and the better transmission of high-frequency sounds in the air encouraged the development of <a href="/wiki/Hearing" title="Hearing">hearing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Selden2001_199-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selden2001-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest animal with evidence of air-breathing, although not being the oldest myriapod fossil record, is <i><a href="/wiki/Pneumodesmus" title="Pneumodesmus">Pneumodesmus</a></i>, an <a href="/wiki/Archipolypoda" title="Archipolypoda">archipolypodan</a> <a href="/wiki/Millipede" title="Millipede">millipede</a> from the Early <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a>, about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=414">414</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its air-breathing, terrestrial nature is evidenced by the presence of <a href="/wiki/Spiracle_(arthropods)" title="Spiracle (arthropods)">spiracles</a>, the openings to <a href="/wiki/Trachea#Invertebrates" title="Trachea">tracheal systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Shear2010_223-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shear2010-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some earlier <a href="/wiki/Trace_fossil" title="Trace fossil">trace fossils</a> from the Cambrian-Ordovician boundary about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=490">490</a> Ma</span> are interpreted as the tracks of large <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibious</a> arthropods on coastal <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune" class="mw-redirect" title="Sand dune">sand dunes</a>, and may have been made by <a href="/wiki/Euthycarcinoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Euthycarcinoid">euthycarcinoids</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are thought to be evolutionary "aunts" of <a href="/wiki/Myriapod" class="mw-redirect" title="Myriapod">myriapods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other trace fossils from the Late Ordovician a little over <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=445">445</a> Ma</span> probably represent land invertebrates, and there is clear evidence of numerous arthropods on coasts and <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plains</a> shortly before the Silurian-Devonian boundary, about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=415">415</a> Ma</span>, including signs that some arthropods ate plants.<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arthropods were well <a href="/wiki/Pre-adapted" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-adapted">pre-adapted</a> to colonise land, because their existing jointed exoskeletons provided protection against desiccation, support against gravity and a means of locomotion that was not dependent on water.<sup id="cite_ref-Garwood_200-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garwood-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CowenHistLifeEd3P126_227-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CowenHistLifeEd3P126-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Fossil#Dating" title="Fossil">fossil record</a> of other major invertebrate groups on land is poor: none at all for non-<a href="/wiki/Parasitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic">parasitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Flatworm" title="Flatworm">flatworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematodes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nemertea" title="Nemertea">nemerteans</a>; some parasitic nematodes have been fossilized in <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a>; annelid worm fossils are known from the Carboniferous, but they may still have been aquatic animals; the earliest fossils of <a href="/wiki/Gastropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropod">gastropods</a> on land date from the Late Carboniferous, and this group may have had to wait until <a href="/wiki/Leaf_litter" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaf litter">leaf litter</a> became abundant enough to provide the moist conditions they need.<sup id="cite_ref-Selden2001_199-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Selden2001-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest confirmed fossils of flying <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a> date from the Late Carboniferous, but it is thought that insects developed the ability to fly in the Early Carboniferous or even Late Devonian. This gave them a wider range of <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niches</a> for feeding and breeding, and a means of escape from predators and from unfavorable changes in the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 99% of modern insect species fly or are descendants of flying species.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amphibians">Amphibians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Amphibians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Evolution of tetrapods</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acanthostega_BW.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Acanthostega_BW.jpg/220px-Acanthostega_BW.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Acanthostega_BW.jpg/330px-Acanthostega_BW.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Acanthostega_BW.jpg/440px-Acanthostega_BW.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="302" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</a></i> changed views about the early evolution of <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Clack2005_230-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clack2005-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div style="border:solid 1px silver; padding:2px; margin:2px; float:right;"> <div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:5px"> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first">"Fish" </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Osteolepiformes" title="Osteolepiformes">Osteolepiformes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Panderichthyida" class="mw-redirect" title="Panderichthyida">Panderichthyidae</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Obruchevichthys" title="Obruchevichthys">Obruchevichthidae</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ichthyostega" title="Ichthyostega">Ichthyostega</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Tulerpeton" title="Tulerpeton">Tulerpeton</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Early <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthodont" class="mw-redirect" title="Labyrinthodont">labyrinthodonts</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Anthracosauria" title="Anthracosauria">Anthracosauria</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">Amniotes</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div>Family tree of <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">tetrapods</a><sup id="cite_ref-AhlbergMilner1994_231-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AhlbergMilner1994-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Tetrapod" title="Tetrapod">Tetrapods</a>, vertebrates with four limbs, evolved from other <a href="/wiki/Rhipidistia" title="Rhipidistia">rhipidistian</a> fish over a relatively short timespan during the Late Devonian (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=370–360">370 to 360</a> Ma</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early groups are grouped together as <a href="/wiki/Labyrinthodontia" title="Labyrinthodontia">Labyrinthodontia</a>. They retained aquatic, fry-like <a href="/wiki/Tadpole" title="Tadpole">tadpoles</a>, a system still seen in <a href="/wiki/Lissamphibia" title="Lissamphibia">modern amphibians</a>. </p><p>Iodine and <a href="/wiki/Triiodothyronine" title="Triiodothyronine">T4/T3</a> stimulate the amphibian metamorphosis and the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">evolution of nervous systems</a> transforming the aquatic, vegetarian tadpole into a "more evolved" terrestrial, carnivorous frog with better neurological, visuospatial, olfactory and cognitive abilities for hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-Venturi_2011_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Venturi_2011-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new hormonal action of T3 was made possible by the formation of T3-receptors in the cells of vertebrates. First, about 600–500 million years ago, the alpha T3-receptors with a metamorphosing action appeared in primitive chordates and then, about 250–150 million years ago, the beta T3-receptors with metabolic and thermogenetic actions appeared in birds and mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the 1950s to the early 1980s it was thought that tetrapods evolved from fish that had already acquired the ability to crawl on land, possibly in order to go from a pool that was drying out to one that was deeper. However, in 1987, nearly complete fossils of <i><a href="/wiki/Acanthostega" title="Acanthostega">Acanthostega</a></i> from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=363">363</a> Ma</span> showed that this Late Devonian <a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">transitional</a> animal had <a href="/wiki/Leg" title="Leg">legs</a> and both <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gill" title="Gill">gills</a>, but could never have survived on land: its limbs and its wrist and ankle joints were too weak to bear its weight; its ribs were too short to prevent its lungs from being squeezed flat by its weight; its fish-like tail fin would have been damaged by dragging on the ground. The current hypothesis is that <i>Acanthostega</i>, which was about 1 metre (3.3 ft) long, was a wholly aquatic predator that hunted in shallow water. Its skeleton differed from that of most fish, in ways that enabled it to raise its head to breathe air while its body remained submerged, including: its jaws show modifications that would have enabled it to gulp air; the bones at the back of its skull are locked together, providing strong attachment points for muscles that raised its head; the head is not joined to the <a href="/wiki/Shoulder_girdle" title="Shoulder girdle">shoulder girdle</a> and it has a distinct neck.<sup id="cite_ref-Clack2005_230-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clack2005-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Devonian proliferation of land plants may help to explain why air breathing would have been an advantage: leaves falling into streams and rivers would have encouraged the growth of aquatic vegetation; this would have attracted grazing invertebrates and small fish that preyed on them; they would have been attractive prey but the environment was unsuitable for the big marine predatory fish; air-breathing would have been necessary because these waters would have been short of oxygen, since warm water holds less <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_oxygen" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissolved oxygen">dissolved oxygen</a> than cooler marine water and since the decomposition of vegetation would have used some of the oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Clack2005_230-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clack2005-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later discoveries revealed earlier transitional forms between <i>Acanthostega</i> and completely fish-like animals.<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unfortunately, there is then a gap (<a href="/wiki/Romer%27s_gap" title="Romer's gap">Romer's gap</a>) of about 30 Ma between the fossils of ancestral tetrapods and Middle Carboniferous fossils of vertebrates that look well-adapted for life on land, during which only some fossils are found, which had five digits in the terminating point of the four limbs, showing true or crown <a href="/wiki/Tetrapods" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetrapods">tetrapods</a> appeared in the gap around 350 Ma. Some of the fossils after this gap look as if the animals which they belonged to were early relatives of modern amphibians, all of which need to keep their skins moist and to lay their eggs in water, while others are accepted as early relatives of the <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">amniotes</a>, whose waterproof skin and egg membranes enable them to live and breed far from water.<sup id="cite_ref-AhlbergMilner1994_231-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AhlbergMilner1994-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous_Rainforest_Collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse">Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse</a> may have paved the way for amniotes to become dominant over amphibians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reptiles">Reptiles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Reptiles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of dinosaurs">Evolution of dinosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">Origin of birds</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Evolution of mammals</a></div> <div style="border:solid 1px silver; padding:2px; margin:2px; float:right;"> <div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:5px"> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">Amniotes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">Synapsids</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Early synapsids (extinct) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Pelycosaur" title="Pelycosaur">Pelycosaurs</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct pelycosaurs </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Therapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapsid">Therapsids</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct therapsids </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Mammaliaformes" title="Mammaliaformes">Mammaliaformes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct mammaliaforms </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammals</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Sauropsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropsid">Sauropsids</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Anapsid" title="Anapsid">Anapsids</a>; whether <a href="/wiki/Turtle" title="Turtle">turtles</a> belong here is debated<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Captorhinidae" title="Captorhinidae">Captorhinidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protorothyrididae" title="Protorothyrididae">Protorothyrididae</a> (extinct) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Diapsid" title="Diapsid">Diapsids</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Araeoscelidia" title="Araeoscelidia">Araeoscelidia</a> (extinct) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Squamata" title="Squamata">Squamata</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a> and <a href="/wiki/Snake" title="Snake">snakes</a>) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Archosaur" title="Archosaur">Archosaurs</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct archosaurs </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Crocodilia" title="Crocodilia">Crocodilians</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Pterosaur" title="Pterosaur">Pterosaurs</a> (extinct) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">Theropods</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p>Extinct<br />theropods </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Sauropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropod">Sauropods</a><br />(extinct) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Ornithischia" title="Ornithischia">Ornithischians</a> (extinct) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div>Possible family tree of <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur" title="Dinosaur">dinosaurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">birds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a><sup id="cite_ref-BentonDonoghue2007_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BentonDonoghue2007-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benton1999_237-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton1999-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> <p>Amniotes, whose eggs can survive in dry environments, probably evolved in the Late Carboniferous period (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=330–298.9">330 to 298.9</a> Ma</span>). The earliest fossils of the two surviving amniote groups, <a href="/wiki/Synapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Synapsid">synapsids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sauropsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Sauropsid">sauropsids</a>, date from around <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=313">313</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-BentonDonoghue2007_236-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BentonDonoghue2007-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Benton1999_237-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Benton1999-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The synapsid <a href="/wiki/Pelycosaur" title="Pelycosaur">pelycosaurs</a> and their descendants the <a href="/wiki/Therapsid" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapsid">therapsids</a> are the most common land vertebrates in the best-known Permian (298.9 to 251.9 Ma) fossil beds. However, at the time these were all in <a href="/wiki/Temperate" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate">temperate</a> zones at middle <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a>, and there is evidence that hotter, drier environments nearer the Equator were dominated by sauropsids and amphibians.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">Permian–Triassic extinction event</a> wiped out almost all land vertebrates,<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the great majority of other life.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the slow recovery from this catastrophe, estimated to have taken 30 million years,<sup id="cite_ref-SahneyBenton2008_241-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SahneyBenton2008-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a previously obscure sauropsid group became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates: a few fossils of <a href="/wiki/Archosauriformes" title="Archosauriformes">archosauriformes</a> ("ruling lizard forms") have been found in Late Permian rocks,<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but, by the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Triassic" title="Middle Triassic">Middle Triassic</a>, archosaurs were the dominant land vertebrates. Dinosaurs distinguished themselves from other archosaurs in the Late Triassic, and became the dominant land vertebrates of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=201.4–66">201.4 to 66</a> Ma</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birds">Birds</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Birds"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the Late Jurassic, birds evolved from small, predatory <a href="/wiki/Theropod" class="mw-redirect" title="Theropod">theropod</a> dinosaurs.<sup id="cite_ref-padian2004_244-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-padian2004-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first birds inherited teeth and long, bony tails from their dinosaur ancestors,<sup id="cite_ref-padian2004_244-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-padian2004-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but some had developed horny, toothless <a href="/wiki/Beak" title="Beak">beaks</a> by the very Late Jurassic<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and short <a href="/wiki/Pygostyle" title="Pygostyle">pygostyle</a> tails by the <a href="/wiki/Early_Cretaceous" title="Early Cretaceous">Early Cretaceous</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mammals">Mammals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Mammals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the archosaurs and dinosaurs were becoming more dominant in the Triassic, the <a href="/wiki/Mammaliaform" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammaliaform">mammaliaform</a> successors of the therapsids evolved into small, mainly nocturnal <a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">insectivores</a>. This ecological role may have promoted the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">evolution of mammals</a>, for example nocturnal life may have accelerated the development of <a href="/wiki/Endotherm" title="Endotherm">endothermy</a> ("warm-bloodedness") and hair or fur.<sup id="cite_ref-RubenJones2000_247-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RubenJones2000-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=195">195</a> Ma</span> in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Jurassic" title="Early Jurassic">Early Jurassic</a> there were animals that were very like today's mammals in a number of respects.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unfortunately, there is a gap in the fossil record throughout the Middle Jurassic.<sup id="cite_ref-Cifelli2001_249-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cifelli2001-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, fossil teeth discovered in <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> indicate that the split between the lineage leading to <a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">monotremes</a> and the one leading to other living mammals had occurred by <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=167">167</a> Ma</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After dominating land vertebrate niches for about 150 Ma, the non-avian dinosaurs perished in the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (<span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=66">66</a> Ma</span>) along with many other groups of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mammals throughout the time of the dinosaurs had been restricted to a narrow range of <a href="/wiki/Taxa" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxa">taxa</a>, sizes and shapes, but increased rapidly in size and diversity after the extinction,<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a> taking to the air within 13 million years,<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cetacea" title="Cetacea">cetaceans</a> to the sea within 15 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flowering_plants">Flowering plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Flowering plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">Flowering plant</a></div> <table align="right" border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3"> <tbody><tr valign="top"> <td><div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:2px; margin:2px;"> <div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:5px"> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperms</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gnetum" title="Gnetum">Gnetales</a><br />(gymnosperm) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Welwitschia" title="Welwitschia">Welwitschia</a></i><br />(gymnosperm) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ephedra_(plant)" title="Ephedra (plant)">Ephedra</a></i><br />(gymnosperm) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">Angiosperms</a><br />(flowering plants) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div>One possible family tree of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a><sup id="cite_ref-CraneFriisPedersen2000_256-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CraneFriisPedersen2000-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td> <td><div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:2px; margin:2px;"> <div style="width:auto; border:solid 1px silver; padding:5px"> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">Gymnosperms</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">Angiosperms</a><br />(flowering plants) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Cycad" title="Cycad">Cycads</a><br />(gymnosperm) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Bennettitales" title="Bennettitales">Bennettitales</a> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo" title="Ginkgo">Ginkgo</a></i> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1261294616"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Gnetales" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnetales">Gnetales</a><br />(gymnosperm) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <p><a href="/wiki/Conifer" title="Conifer">Conifers</a><br />(gymnosperm) </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div>Another possible family tree<sup id="cite_ref-Crepet2000_257-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crepet2000-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The first flowering plants appeared around 130 Ma.<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 250,000 to 400,000 species of flowering plants outnumber all other ground plants combined, and are the dominant vegetation in most terrestrial ecosystems. There is fossil evidence that flowering plants diversified rapidly in the Early Cretaceous, from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=130–90">130 to 90</a> Ma</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-CraneFriisPedersen2000_256-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CraneFriisPedersen2000-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crepet2000_257-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crepet2000-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that their rise was associated with that of <a href="/wiki/Pollinating" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollinating">pollinating</a> insects.<sup id="cite_ref-Crepet2000_257-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crepet2000-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among modern flowering plants <i><a href="/wiki/Magnoliaceae" title="Magnoliaceae">Magnolia</a></i> are thought to be close to the common ancestor of the group.<sup id="cite_ref-CraneFriisPedersen2000_256-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CraneFriisPedersen2000-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, paleontologists have not succeeded in identifying the earliest stages in the evolution of flowering plants.<sup id="cite_ref-CraneFriisPedersen2000_256-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CraneFriisPedersen2000-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Crepet2000_257-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Crepet2000-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_insects">Social insects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Social insects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Termite_cathedral_mounds_in_a_bushfire_blackened_tropical_savanna.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Termite_cathedral_mounds_in_a_bushfire_blackened_tropical_savanna.jpg/170px-Termite_cathedral_mounds_in_a_bushfire_blackened_tropical_savanna.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Termite_cathedral_mounds_in_a_bushfire_blackened_tropical_savanna.jpg/255px-Termite_cathedral_mounds_in_a_bushfire_blackened_tropical_savanna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Termite_cathedral_mounds_in_a_bushfire_blackened_tropical_savanna.jpg/340px-Termite_cathedral_mounds_in_a_bushfire_blackened_tropical_savanna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1385" data-file-height="2047" /></a><figcaption>These <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termite</a> mounds have survived a bush fire.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eusociality" title="Eusociality">Eusociality</a></div> <p>The social insects are remarkable because the great majority of individuals in each colony are sterile. This appears contrary to basic concepts of evolution such as natural selection and the <a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">selfish gene</a>. In fact, there are very few <a href="/wiki/Eusocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusocial">eusocial</a> insect species: only 15 out of approximately 2,600 living <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a> of insects contain eusocial species, and it seems that eusociality has evolved independently only 12 times among arthropods, although some eusocial lineages have diversified into several families. Nevertheless, social insects have been spectacularly successful; for example although <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a> account for only about 2% of known insect species, they form over 50% of the total mass of insects. Their ability to control a territory appears to be the foundation of their success.<sup id="cite_ref-WilsonHölldobler2005_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilsonHölldobler2005-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The sacrifice of breeding opportunities by most individuals has long been explained as a consequence of these species' unusual <a href="/wiki/Haplodiploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplodiploid">haplodiploid</a> method of <a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">sex determination</a>, which has the paradoxical consequence that two sterile worker daughters of the same queen share more genes with each other than they would with their offspring if they could breed.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bert_H%C3%B6lldobler" title="Bert Hölldobler">Bert Hölldobler</a> argue that this explanation is faulty: for example, it is based on <a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">kin selection</a>, but there is no evidence of <a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">nepotism</a> in colonies that have multiple queens. Instead, they write, eusociality evolves only in species that are under strong pressure from predators and competitors, but in environments where it is possible to build "fortresses"; after colonies have established this security, they gain other advantages through co-operative <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a>. In support of this explanation they cite the appearance of eusociality in <a href="/wiki/Blesmol" title="Blesmol">bathyergid</a> mole rats,<sup id="cite_ref-WilsonHölldobler2005_259-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilsonHölldobler2005-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which are not haplodiploid.<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The earliest fossils of insects have been found in Early Devonian rocks from about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=400">400</a> Ma</span>, which preserve only a few varieties of flightless insect. The <a href="/wiki/Mazon_Creek_fossil_beds" title="Mazon Creek fossil beds">Mazon Creek lagerstätten</a> from the Late Carboniferous, about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=300">300</a> Ma</span>, include about 200 species, some gigantic by modern standards, and indicate that insects had occupied their main modern ecological niches as <a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">herbivores</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">detritivores</a> and insectivores. Social termites and ants first appeared in the Early Cretaceous, and advanced social bees have been found in Late Cretaceous rocks but did not become abundant until the Middle <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humans">Humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div> <p>The idea that, along with other life forms, modern-day humans evolved from an ancient, common ancestor was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(journalist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Chambers (journalist)">Robert Chambers</a> in 1844 and taken up by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> in 1871.<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern humans evolved from a lineage of upright-walking <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">apes</a> that has been traced back over <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=6">6</a> Ma</span> to <i><a href="/wiki/Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first known <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a> were made about <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=2.5">2.5</a> Ma</span>, apparently by <i><a href="/wiki/Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Australopithecus garhi</a></i>, and were found near animal bones that bear scratches made by these tools.<sup id="cite_ref-265" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest <a href="/wiki/Hominine" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominine">hominines</a> had <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a>-sized brains, but there has been a fourfold increase in the last 3 Ma; a statistical analysis suggests that hominine brain sizes depend almost completely on the date of the fossils, while the species to which they are assigned has only slight influence.<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a long-running debate about whether modern humans evolved <a href="/wiki/Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">all over the world</a> simultaneously from existing advanced hominines or are descendants of a <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">single small population in Africa</a>, which then migrated all over the world less than 200,000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species.<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also debate about whether anatomically modern humans had an intellectual, cultural and technological <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">"Great Leap Forward"</a> under 40,000–50,000 years ago and, if so, whether this was due to neurological changes that are not visible in fossils.<sup id="cite_ref-Klein_1995_268-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Klein_1995-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-269" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mass_extinctions">Mass extinctions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Mass extinctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Extinction event</a></div> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:332px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:252px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:10px; top:30px; width:320px; position:absolute;"> <figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Extinction_intensity.svg" title="File:Extinction intensity.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/320px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/480px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/640px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="324" usemap="#ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3" /></a><map name="ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3"><area href="/wiki/Cambrian" shape="rect" coords="16,0,46,14" alt="Cambrian" title="Cambrian" /><area href="/wiki/Ordovician" shape="rect" coords="47,0,70,14" alt="Ordovician" title="Ordovician" /><area href="/wiki/Silurian" shape="rect" coords="71,0,86,14" alt="Silurian" title="Silurian" /><area href="/wiki/Devonian" shape="rect" coords="87,0,117,14" alt="Devonian" title="Devonian" /><area href="/wiki/Carboniferous" shape="rect" coords="118,0,151,14" alt="Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous" /><area href="/wiki/Permian" shape="rect" coords="151,0,178,14" alt="Permian" title="Permian" /><area href="/wiki/Triassic" shape="rect" coords="178,0,206,14" alt="Triassic" title="Triassic" /><area href="/wiki/Jurassic" shape="rect" coords="207,0,236,14" alt="Jurassic" title="Jurassic" /><area href="/wiki/Cretaceous" shape="rect" coords="237,0,280,14" alt="Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous" /><area href="/wiki/Paleogene" shape="rect" coords="281,0,304,14" alt="Paleogene" title="Paleogene" /><area href="/wiki/Neogene" shape="rect" coords="304,0,316,14" alt="Neogene" title="Neogene" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_30x10" style="position:absolute; left:30px; top:10px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Marine extinction intensity during <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_10x15" style="position:absolute; left:10px; top:15px; font-weight:normal; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="apparent percentage of readily fossilized marine genera becoming extinct">%</span></span></div> <div id="annotation_115x235" style="position:absolute; left:115px; top:235px; font-weight:normal; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Millions of years ago</span></div> <div id="annotation_312x135" style="position:absolute; left:312px; top:135px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction"><small>(H)</small></a></span></div> <div id="annotation_275x105" style="position:absolute; left:275px; top:105px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">K–Pg</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_203x110" style="position:absolute; left:203px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic%E2%80%93Jurassic_extinction_event" title="Triassic–Jurassic extinction event">Tr–J</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_175x50" style="position:absolute; left:175px; top:50px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Permian%E2%80%93Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian–Triassic extinction event">P–Tr</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_158x96" style="position:absolute; left:158px; top:96px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Capitanian_mass_extinction_event" title="Capitanian mass extinction event">Cap</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_97x130" style="position:absolute; left:97px; top:130px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">Late D</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_70x110" style="position:absolute; left:70px; top:110px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Late_Ordovician_mass_extinction" title="Late Ordovician mass extinction">O–S</a></span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Extinction_intensity.svg" title="File:Extinction intensity.svg"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/320px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/480px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Extinction_intensity.svg/640px-Extinction_intensity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="324" usemap="#ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3" /></a><map name="ImageMap_dd6b8fd031a424b3"><area href="/wiki/Cambrian" shape="rect" coords="16,0,46,14" alt="Cambrian" title="Cambrian" /><area href="/wiki/Ordovician" shape="rect" coords="47,0,70,14" alt="Ordovician" title="Ordovician" /><area href="/wiki/Silurian" shape="rect" coords="71,0,86,14" alt="Silurian" title="Silurian" /><area href="/wiki/Devonian" shape="rect" coords="87,0,117,14" alt="Devonian" title="Devonian" /><area href="/wiki/Carboniferous" shape="rect" coords="118,0,151,14" alt="Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous" /><area href="/wiki/Permian" shape="rect" coords="151,0,178,14" alt="Permian" title="Permian" /><area href="/wiki/Triassic" shape="rect" coords="178,0,206,14" alt="Triassic" title="Triassic" /><area href="/wiki/Jurassic" shape="rect" coords="207,0,236,14" alt="Jurassic" title="Jurassic" /><area href="/wiki/Cretaceous" shape="rect" coords="237,0,280,14" alt="Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous" /><area href="/wiki/Paleogene" shape="rect" coords="281,0,304,14" alt="Paleogene" title="Paleogene" /><area href="/wiki/Neogene" shape="rect" coords="304,0,316,14" alt="Neogene" title="Neogene" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption">Apparent extinction intensity, i.e. the fraction of <a href="/wiki/Genera" class="mw-redirect" title="Genera">genera</a> going extinct at any given time, as reconstructed from the <a href="/wiki/Fossil#Dating" title="Fossil">fossil record</a>. (Graph not meant to include the recent, ongoing <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a> event).</div> </div></div> <p>Life on Earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=542">542</a> Ma</span>. Although they were disasters at the time, mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on Earth. When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another, it is rarely because the new dominant group is "superior" to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Valkenburgh_1999_463–493_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Valkenburgh_1999_463–493-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="noresize thumb tright" style=";"> <div class="thumbinner" style="overflow:hidden;width:302px;"> <div class="thumbimage" style="height:182px; overflow:hidden; position:relative; background-color:white;"> <div style=";left:0px; top:0px; width:300px; position:absolute;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Phanerozoic biodiversity as shown by the fossil record"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png/300px-Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png/450px-Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png/600px-Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="464" /></a></span></div> <div style="text-align:left; background-color:transparent; line-height:110%;"> <div id="annotation_20x0" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:0px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">All <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genera</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_20x14" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:14px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">"Well-defined" genera</span></div> <div id="annotation_20x28" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:28px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Trend line</span></div> <div id="annotation_20x42" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:42px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">"Big Five" <a href="/wiki/Mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass extinction">mass extinctions</a></span></div> <div id="annotation_20x56" style="position:absolute; left:20px; top:56px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Other mass extinctions</span></div> <div id="annotation_50x165" style="position:absolute; left:50px; top:165px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Million years ago</span></div> <div id="annotation_180x165" style="position:absolute; left:180px; top:165px; line-height:110%;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit;">Thousands of genera</span></div> </div> <div style="visibility:hidden"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png/300px-Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png/450px-Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png/600px-Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png 2x" data-file-width="784" data-file-height="464" /></a></span></div> </div> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Phanerozoic_biodiversity_blank_01.png" title="File:Phanerozoic biodiversity blank 01.png"> </a></div>Phanerozoic biodiversity as shown by the fossil record</div> </div></div> <p>The fossil record appears to show that the gaps between mass extinctions are becoming longer and that the average and background rates of extinction are decreasing. Both of these phenomena could be explained in one or more ways:<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod2001_271-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod2001-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 Ma and less vulnerable to mass extinctions: dissolved oxygen became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths; the development of life on land reduced the run-off of nutrients and hence the risk of <a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">eutrophication</a> and anoxic events; and marine ecosystems became more diversified so that food chains were less likely to be disrupted.<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>272<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Reasonably complete fossils are very rare, most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils, and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks. So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera, which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds—the story of <i><a href="/wiki/Anomalocaris" title="Anomalocaris">Anomalocaris</a></i> is an example of this. The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often both unlike parts of any living organism and poorly conserved. Many of the "superfluous" genera are represented by fragments which are not found again and the "superfluous" genera appear to become extinct very quickly.<sup id="cite_ref-MacLeod2001_271-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MacLeod2001-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a> in the fossil record, which is "...the number of distinct genera alive at any given time; that is, those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time"<sup id="cite_ref-RohdeMuller2005_274-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RohdeMuller2005-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shows a different trend: a fairly swift rise from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=542–400">542 to 400</a> Ma</span>; a slight decline from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=400–200">400 to 200</a> Ma</span>, in which the devastating Permian–Triassic extinction event is an important factor; and a swift rise from <span class="nourlexpansion plainlinks" style="white-space:nowrap;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geoltime.github.io/?Ma=200">200</a> Ma</span> to the present.<sup id="cite_ref-RohdeMuller2005_274-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RohdeMuller2005-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>273<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History of evolutionary thought</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_of_commonly_fossilised_invertebrates" title="Taxonomy of commonly fossilised invertebrates">Taxonomy of commonly fossilised invertebrates</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Treatise_on_Invertebrate_Paleontology" title="Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology">Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viral evolution</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Footnotes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a> were thought to be an exception, but are now thought to be heavily modified members of the <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJímenez-GuriPhilippeOkamuraHolland2007" class="citation journal cs1">Jímenez-Guri, Eva; Philippe, Hervé; Okamura, Beth; et al. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-12-11</span></span>. <q><span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Our results show that this leaves 100,000 times more microorganisms awaiting discovery -- and 100 million to be fully explored.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Researchers+find+that+Earth+may+be+home+to+1+trillion+species%3A+Largest+analysis+of+microbial+data+reveals+that+99.999+percent+of+all+species+remain+undiscovered&rft.place=Alexandria%2C+VA&rft.pub=National+Science+Foundation&rft.date=2016-05-02&rft.aulast=Dybas&rft.aufirst=Cheryl&rft.au=Fryling%2C+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fnews%2Fnews_summ.jsp%3Fcntn_id%3D138446&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoceyLennon2016" class="citation journal cs1">Locey, Kenneth J.; Lennon, Jay T. 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(2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/paleobiology/article/bangiomorpha-pubescens-n-gen-n-sp-implications-for-the-evolution-of-sex-multicellularity-and-the-mesoproterozoicneoproterozoic-radiation-of-eukaryotes/E61F0C87E1F2CD5A622AEF57ADCC97EF">"Bangiomorpha pubescensn. Gen., n. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-11-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Paleobiology&rft.atitle=Bangiomorpha+pubescensn.+Gen.%2C+n.+Sp.%3A+Implications+for+the+evolution+of+sex%2C+multicellularity%2C+and+the+Mesoproterozoic%2FNeoproterozoic+radiation+of+eukaryotes&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E386-%3C%2Fspan%3E404&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36648568%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1666%2F0094-8373%282000%29026%3C0386%3ABPNGNS%3E2.0.CO%3B2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000Pbio...26..386B&rft.aulast=Butterfield&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fpaleobiology%2Farticle%2Fbangiomorpha-pubescens-n-gen-n-sp-implications-for-the-evolution-of-sex-multicellularity-and-the-mesoproterozoicneoproterozoic-radiation-of-eukaryotes%2FE61F0C87E1F2CD5A622AEF57ADCC97EF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButterfield2000" class="citation journal cs1">Butterfield, Nicholas J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Toxic+oxygen%3A+The+radical+life-giver&rft.volume=420&rft.issue=6911&rft.pages=27&rft.date=2002-11-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4317378%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002Natur.420...27A&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F420027a&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12422197&rft.aulast=Abele&rft.aufirst=Doris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fepic.awi.de%2Fid%2Feprint%2F6249%2F1%2FAbe2002b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesterdahl2007" class="citation web cs1">Westerdahl, Becky B. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-07-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Biological+Science+10V&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Aerobic+Respiration&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Westerdahl&rft.aufirst=Becky+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftrc.ucdavis.edu%2Fbiosci10v%2Fbis10v%2Fweek3%2F06aerobicrespirintro.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li>Textbook used for lecture: <a href="#CITEREFStarrEversStarr2007">Starr, Evers & Starr 2007</a>.</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-Blankenship2001-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blankenship2001_132-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlankenship2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Blankenship" title="Robert E. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_62056.htm">the original</a> on 2016-04-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-05-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=A+Billion-Year-Old+Fungus+May+Hold+Clues+to+Life%27s+Arrival+on+Land&rft.date=2019-05-22&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2019%2F05%2F22%2Fscience%2Ffungi-fossils-plants.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span> "A version of this article appears in print on May 28, 2019, Section D, Page 3 of the New York edition with the headline: Finding a Clue to Life's Arrival."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NAT-20190522-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NAT-20190522_208-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoronFrançoisRainbirdTurner2019" class="citation journal cs1">Loron, Corentin C.; François, Camille; Rainbird, Robert H.; et al. 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U.S.A.</a></i> <b>105</b> (19): <span class="nowrap">6954–</span>6958. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..105.6954K">2008PNAS..105.6954K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0709959105">10.1073/pnas.0709959105</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2383960">2383960</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18458346">18458346</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proc.+Natl.+Acad.+Sci.+U.S.A.&rft.atitle=Iodide+accumulation+provides+kelp+with+an+inorganic+antioxidant+impacting+atmospheric+chemistry&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=19&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E6954-%3C%2Fspan%3E6958&rft.date=2008-05-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2383960%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008PNAS..105.6954K&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18458346&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.0709959105&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=K%C3%BCpper&rft.aufirst=Frithjof+C.&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+Lucy+J.&rft.au=McFiggans%2C+Gordon+B.&rft.au=Palmer%2C+Carl+J.&rft.au=Waite%2C+Tim+J.&rft.au=Boneberg%2C+Eva-Maria&rft.au=Woitsch%2C+Sonja&rft.au=Weiller%2C+Markus&rft.au=Abela%2C+Rafael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2383960&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lidmar-Bergstrometal2013-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lidmar-Bergstrometal2013_214-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLidmar-BergströmBonowJapsen2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karna_Lidmar-Bergstr%C3%B6m" title="Karna Lidmar-Bergström">Lidmar-Bergström, Karna</a>; Bonow, Johan M.; Japsen, Peter (January 2013). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-09-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Cycles+in+fossil+diversity&rft.volume=434&rft.issue=7030&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E208-%3C%2Fspan%3E210&rft.date=2005-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32520208%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005Natur.434..208R&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature03339&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15758998&rft.aulast=Rohde&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Muller%2C+Richard+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuller.lbl.gov%2Fpapers%2FRohde-Muller-Nature.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArrhenius1980" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Arrhenius, Svante</a> (1980) [Arrhenius paper originally published 1903]. "The Propagation of Life in Space". In Goldsmith, Donald (ed.). <i>The Quest for Extraterrestrial Life: A Book of Readings</i>. Foreword by Sir <a href="/wiki/Fred_Hoyle" title="Fred Hoyle">Fred Hoyle</a>. Mill Valley, CA: University Science Books. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980qel..book...32A">1980qel..book...32A</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-935702-02-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-935702-02-6"><bdi>978-0-935702-02-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/79057423">79057423</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/7121102">7121102</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Propagation+of+Life+in+Space&rft.btitle=The+Quest+for+Extraterrestrial+Life%3A+A+Book+of+Readings&rft.place=Mill+Valley%2C+CA&rft.pub=University+Science+Books&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F7121102&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F79057423&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980qel..book...32A&rft.isbn=978-0-935702-02-6&rft.aulast=Arrhenius&rft.aufirst=Svante&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBengtson2004" class="citation book cs1">Bengtson, Stefan (2004). "Early Skeletal Fossils". In <a href="/wiki/Jere_H._Lipps" title="Jere H. Lipps">Lipps, Jere H.</a>; Waggoner, Benjamin M. (eds.). <i>Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Biological Revolutions: Presented as a Paleontological Society Short Course at the Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of America, Denver, Colorado, November 6, 2004</i>. Paleontological Society Papers. Vol. 10. New Haven, CT: Yale University Reprographics & Imaging Service; <a href="/wiki/Paleontological_Society" title="Paleontological Society">Paleontological Society</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/57481790">57481790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Skeletal+Fossils&rft.btitle=Neoproterozoic-Cambrian+Biological+Revolutions%3A+Presented+as+a+Paleontological+Society+Short+Course+at+the+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Geological+Society+of+America%2C+Denver%2C+Colorado%2C+November+6%2C+2004&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.series=Paleontological+Society+Papers&rft.pub=Yale+University+Reprographics+%26+Imaging+Service%3B+Paleontological+Society&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F57481790&rft.aulast=Bengtson&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett2008" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Jeffrey O. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beyondufossearch00benn"><i>Beyond UFOs: The Search for Extraterrestrial Life and Its Astonishing Implications for Our Future</i></a>. Princeton, NJ: <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008buse.book.....B">2008buse.book.....B</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13549-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13549-6"><bdi>978-0-691-13549-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2007037872">2007037872</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/172521761">172521761</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+UFOs%3A+The+Search+for+Extraterrestrial+Life+and+Its+Astonishing+Implications+for+Our+Future&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F172521761&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2007037872&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2008buse.book.....B&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13549-6&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeyondufossearch00benn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenton1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Benton" title="Michael Benton">Benton, Michael J.</a> (1997). <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate_Palaeontology_(Benton)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrate Palaeontology (Benton)"><i>Vertebrate Palaeontology</i></a> (2nd ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Chapman_%26_Hall" title="Chapman & Hall">Chapman & Hall</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-73800-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-73800-5"><bdi>978-0-412-73800-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37378512">37378512</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vertebrate+Palaeontology&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Chapman+%26+Hall&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37378512&rft.isbn=978-0-412-73800-5&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenton2005" class="citation book cs1">Benton, Michael J. (2005) [Originally published 2003]. <i>When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time</i> (1st paperback ed.). London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28573-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-28573-2"><bdi>978-0-500-28573-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2002109744">2002109744</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62145244">62145244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Life+Nearly+Died%3A+The+Greatest+Mass+Extinction+of+All+Time&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st+paperback&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62145244&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2002109744&rft.isbn=978-0-500-28573-2&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenton2005a" class="citation book cs1">Benton, Michael J. 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Malden, MA: <a href="/wiki/Blackwell_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackwell Science">Blackwell Science</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-05637-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-05637-8"><bdi>978-0-632-05637-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2003028152">2003028152</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53970617">53970617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vertebrate+Palaeontology&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Blackwell+Science&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53970617&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2003028152&rft.isbn=978-0-632-05637-8&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernsteinBernsteinMichod2012" class="citation book cs1">Bernstein, Harris; Bernstein, Carol; Michod, Richard E. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029202307/https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=31918">"DNA Repair as the Primary Adaptive Function of Sex in Bacteria and Eukaryotes"</a>. In Kimura, Sakura; Shimizu, Sora (eds.). <i>DNA Repair: New Research</i>. Hauppauge, NY: <a href="/wiki/Nova_Science_Publishers" title="Nova Science Publishers">Nova Science Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62100-808-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62100-808-8"><bdi>978-1-62100-808-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011038504">2011038504</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/828424701">828424701</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=31918">the original</a> on 2013-10-29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-07-21</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=DNA+Repair+as+the+Primary+Adaptive+Function+of+Sex+in+Bacteria+and+Eukaryotes&rft.btitle=DNA+Repair%3A+New+Research&rft.place=Hauppauge%2C+NY&rft.pub=Nova+Science+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F828424701&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011038504&rft.isbn=978-1-62100-808-8&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Harris&rft.au=Bernstein%2C+Carol&rft.au=Michod%2C+Richard+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.novapublishers.com%2Fcatalog%2Fproduct_info.php%3Fproducts_id%3D31918&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernsteinHopfMichod1987" class="citation book cs1">Bernstein, Harris; Hopf, Frederic A.; Michod, Richard E. (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex". In Scandalios, John G. (ed.). <i>Molecular Genetics of Development</i>. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. San Diego, CA: <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">323–</span>70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0065-2660%2808%2960012-7">10.1016/s0065-2660(08)60012-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-017624-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-017624-3"><bdi>978-0-12-017624-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/646754753">646754753</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3324702">3324702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Molecular+Basis+of+the+Evolution+of+Sex&rft.btitle=Molecular+Genetics+of+Development&rft.place=San+Diego%2C+CA&rft.series=Advances+in+Genetics&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E323-%3C%2Fspan%3E70&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F646754753&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3324702&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0065-2660%2808%2960012-7&rft.isbn=978-0-12-017624-3&rft.aulast=Bernstein&rft.aufirst=Harris&rft.au=Hopf%2C+Frederic+A.&rft.au=Michod%2C+Richard+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBirdsellWills2003" class="citation book cs1">Birdsell, John A.; <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wills" title="Christopher Wills">Wills, Christopher</a> (2003). 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Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82149-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-82149-0"><bdi>978-0-521-82149-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004054605">2004054605</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56057971">56057971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution+of+the+Insects&rft.place=Cambridge%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56057971&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004054605&rft.isbn=978-0-521-82149-0&rft.aulast=Grimaldi&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Engel%2C+Michael+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinde2001" class="citation book cs1">Hinde, Rosalind T. 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Pretoria: Gondwana Alive Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-919795-43-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-919795-43-0"><bdi>978-1-919795-43-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2001385090">2001385090</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44822625">44822625</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.santafe.edu/media/workingpapers/00-08-044.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2016-04-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: <a href="/wiki/Basic_Books" title="Basic Books">Basic Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03135-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-03135-1"><bdi>978-0-465-03135-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94003617">94003617</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/30739453">30739453</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Humankind&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Science+Masters+Series&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F30739453&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94003617&rft.isbn=978-0-465-03135-1&rft.aulast=Leakey&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginofhumankin00leak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargulis1981" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Margulis, Lynn</a> (1981). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/symbiosisincelle00marg"><i>Symbiosis in Cell Evolution: Life and its Environment on the Early Earth</i></a></span>. San Francisco, CA: <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman_and_Company" title="W. H. Freeman and Company">W. H. 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Belmont, CA: <a href="/wiki/Brooks/Cole" class="mw-redirect" title="Brooks/Cole">Brooks/Cole</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-98893-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-98893-7"><bdi>978-1-111-98893-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2011934330">2011934330</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/741539226">741539226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Science&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.edition=14th&rft.pub=Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F741539226&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2011934330&rft.isbn=978-1-111-98893-7&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=G.+Tyler&rft.au=Spoolman%2C+Scott+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewman2007" class="citation web cs1">Newman, William L. (July 9, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html">"Age of the Earth"</a>. <i>Geologic Time</i>. Reston, VA: Publications Services, <a href="/wiki/USGS" class="mw-redirect" title="USGS">USGS</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/18792528">18792528</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051223072700/http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2005-12-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-08-29</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Geologic+Time&rft.atitle=Age+of+the+Earth&rft.date=2007-07-09&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F18792528&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=William+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpubs.usgs.gov%2Fgip%2Fgeotime%2Fage.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary2008" class="citation book cs1">O'Leary, Margaret R. (2008). <i>Anaxagoras and the Origin of Panspermia Theory</i>. Bloomington, IN: <a href="/wiki/IUniverse" title="IUniverse">iUniverse</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-595-49596-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-595-49596-2"><bdi>978-0-595-49596-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/757322661">757322661</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anaxagoras+and+the+Origin+of+Panspermia+Theory&rft.place=Bloomington%2C+IN&rft.pub=iUniverse&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F757322661&rft.isbn=978-0-595-49596-2&rft.aulast=O%27Leary&rft.aufirst=Margaret+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadian2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kevin_Padian" title="Kevin Padian">Padian, Kevin</a> (2004). "Basal Avialae". In <a href="/wiki/David_B._Weishampel" title="David B. Weishampel">Weishampel, David B.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Dodson" title="Peter Dodson">Dodson, Peter</a>; <a href="/wiki/Halszka_Osm%C3%B3lska" title="Halszka Osmólska">Osmólska, Halszka</a> (eds.). <a href="/wiki/The_Dinosauria" title="The Dinosauria"><i>The Dinosauria</i></a> (2nd ed.). Berkeley: <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24209-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24209-8"><bdi>978-0-520-24209-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004049804">2004049804</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55000644">55000644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Basal+Avialae&rft.btitle=The+Dinosauria&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55000644&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004049804&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24209-8&rft.aulast=Padian&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSansomSmithSmith2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Sansom" title="Ivan Sansom">Sansom, Ivan J.</a>; Smith, Moya M.; <a href="/wiki/M._Paul_Smith" title="M. Paul Smith">Smith, M. Paul</a> (2001). "The Ordovician radiation of vertebrates". In <a href="/wiki/Per_E._Ahlberg" title="Per E. Ahlberg">Ahlberg, Per Erik</a> (ed.). <i>Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution: Palaeontology, phylogeny, genetics and development</i>. Systematics Association special volume series. Vol. 61. London; New York: <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23370-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-23370-5"><bdi>978-0-415-23370-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/00062919">00062919</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51667292">51667292</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ordovician+radiation+of+vertebrates&rft.btitle=Major+Events+in+Early+Vertebrate+Evolution%3A+Palaeontology%2C+phylogeny%2C+genetics+and+development&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.series=Systematics+Association+special+volume+series&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51667292&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F00062919&rft.isbn=978-0-415-23370-5&rft.aulast=Sansom&rft.aufirst=Ivan+J.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Moya+M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+M.+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarrEversStarr2007" class="citation book cs1">Starr, Cecie; Evers, Christine A.; Starr, Lisa (2007). <i>Biology Today and Tomorrow with Physiology</i> (2nd ed.). Southbank, Australia; Belmont, CA: <a href="/wiki/Thomson_Corporation" title="Thomson Corporation">Thomson Brooks/Cole</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01654-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-01654-0"><bdi>978-0-495-01654-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2005936176">2005936176</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/68043255">68043255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biology+Today+and+Tomorrow+with+Physiology&rft.place=Southbank%2C+Australia%3B+Belmont%2C+CA&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thomson+Brooks%2FCole&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F68043255&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2005936176&rft.isbn=978-0-495-01654-0&rft.aulast=Starr&rft.aufirst=Cecie&rft.au=Evers%2C+Christine+A.&rft.au=Starr%2C+Lisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStearnsStearns1999" class="citation book cs1">Stearns, Beverly Peterson; <a href="/wiki/Stephen_C._Stearns" title="Stephen C. Stearns">Stearns, Stephen C.</a> (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300084696"><i>Watching, from the Edge of Extinction</i></a></span>. New Haven, CT: <a href="/wiki/Yale_University_Press" title="Yale University Press">Yale University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08469-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-08469-6"><bdi>978-0-300-08469-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/98034087">98034087</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/803522914">803522914</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Watching%2C+from+the+Edge+of+Extinction&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F803522914&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F98034087&rft.isbn=978-0-300-08469-6&rft.aulast=Stearns&rft.aufirst=Beverly+Peterson&rft.au=Stearns%2C+Stephen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780300084696&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThewissenMadarHussain1996" class="citation book cs1">Thewissen, J. G. M.; Madar, S. I.; Hussain, S. T. (1996). <i>Ambulocetus natans, an Eocene cetacean (Mammalia) from Pakistan</i>. Courier Forschungsinstitut Senckenberg. Vol. 191. Frankfurt: <a href="/wiki/Senckenbergische_Naturforschende_Gesellschaft" class="mw-redirect" title="Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft">Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-929907-32-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-929907-32-2"><bdi>978-3-929907-32-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/97151576">97151576</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/36463214">36463214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ambulocetus+natans%2C+an+Eocene+cetacean+%28Mammalia%29+from+Pakistan&rft.place=Frankfurt&rft.series=Courier+Forschungsinstitut+Senckenberg&rft.pub=Senckenbergische+Naturforschende+Gesellschaft&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F36463214&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F97151576&rft.isbn=978-3-929907-32-2&rft.aulast=Thewissen&rft.aufirst=J.+G.+M.&rft.au=Madar%2C+S.+I.&rft.au=Hussain%2C+S.+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeberBüdelBelnap2016" class="citation book cs1">Weber, Bettina; Büdel, Burkhard; Belnap, Jayne, eds. (2016). <i>Biological Soil Crusts: An Organizing Principle in Drylands</i>. Ecological Studies (Analysis and Synthesis). Vol. 226. Springer International Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-30212-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-30212-6"><bdi>978-3-319-30212-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2016941282">2016941282</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/995222892">995222892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Biological+Soil+Crusts%3A+An+Organizing+Principle+in+Drylands&rft.series=Ecological+Studies+%28Analysis+and+Synthesis%29&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F995222892&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2016941282&rft.isbn=978-3-319-30212-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Dawkins, Richard</a> (1989). <a href="/wiki/The_Selfish_Gene" title="The Selfish Gene"><i>The Selfish Gene</i></a> (New ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286092-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-286092-7"><bdi>978-0-19-286092-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/89016077">89016077</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/20012195">20012195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Selfish+Gene&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F20012195&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F89016077&rft.isbn=978-0-19-286092-7&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Dawkins, Richard (2004). <a href="/wiki/The_Ancestor%27s_Tale" title="The Ancestor's Tale"><i>The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life</i></a>. Boston: <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin Company">Houghton Mifflin Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-618-00583-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-618-00583-3"><bdi>978-0-618-00583-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2004059864">2004059864</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56617123">56617123</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancestor%27s+Tale%3A+A+Pilgrimage+to+the+Dawn+of+Life&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56617123&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2004059864&rft.isbn=978-0-618-00583-3&rft.aulast=Dawkins&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Ruse, Michael</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Travis" title="Joseph Travis">Travis, Joseph</a>, eds. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionfirstfo00mich"><i>Evolution: The First Four Billion Years</i></a>. Foreword by <a href="/wiki/Edward_O._Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Edward O. Wilson">Edward O. Wilson</a>. Cambridge, MA: <a href="/wiki/Belknap_Press_of_Harvard_University_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Belknap Press of Harvard University Press">Belknap Press of Harvard University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03175-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03175-3"><bdi>978-0-674-03175-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008030270">2008030270</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/225874308">225874308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolution%3A+The+First+Four+Billion+Years&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pub=Belknap+Press+of+Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F225874308&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008030270&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03175-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionfirstfo00mich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">Smith, John Maynard</a>; <a href="/wiki/E%C3%B6rs_Szathm%C3%A1ry" title="Eörs Szathmáry">Szathmáry, Eörs</a> (1997) [1995; Oxford: <a href="/wiki/W._H._Freeman_and_Company" title="W. H. Freeman and Company">W. H. Freeman/Spektrum</a>]. <a href="/wiki/The_Major_Transitions_in_Evolution" title="The Major Transitions in Evolution"><i>The Major Transitions in Evolution</i></a>. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850294-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850294-4"><bdi>978-0-19-850294-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/94026965">94026965</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/715217397">715217397</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Major+Transitions+in+Evolution&rft.place=Oxford%3B+New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F715217397&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F94026965&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850294-4&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=John+Maynard&rft.au=Szathm%C3%A1ry%2C+E%C3%B6rs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_life&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_van_Wyhe" title="John van Wyhe">van Wyhe, John</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/">"The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Work+of+Charles+Darwin+Online&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1">Price, R. G. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/understanding_evolution.htm">"Understanding Evolution: History, Theory, Evidence, and Implications"</a>. <i>rationalrevolution.net</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-02-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=rationalrevolution.net&rft.atitle=Understanding+Evolution%3A+History%2C+Theory%2C+Evidence%2C+and+Implications&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=R.+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rationalrevolution.net%2Farticles%2Funderstanding_evolution.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fossilmuseum.net/Evolution.htm">"Evolution"</a>. <i>The Virtual Fossil Museum</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-02-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Virtual+Fossil+Museum&rft.atitle=Evolution&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fossilmuseum.net%2FEvolution.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span> General information on evolution compiled by Roger Perkins.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211110135435/https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/home.php">"Understanding Evolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" title="University of California, Berkeley">University of California, Berkeley</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/home.php">the original</a> on 2021-11-10<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Understanding+Evolution&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Berkeley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fevolution.berkeley.edu%2Fevolibrary%2Fhome.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalacademies.org/evolution">"Evolution Resources"</a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine" title="National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine">National Academies</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Evolution+Resources&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Academies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalacademies.org%2Fevolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tellapallet.com/tree-of-life/">"Tree of Life"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201215235925/https://tellapallet.com/tree-of-life/">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-12-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tree+of+Life&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftellapallet.com%2Ftree-of-life%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span> Tree of life diagram by Neal Olander.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article-topic/evolution/">"Evolution"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/New_Scientist" title="New Scientist">New Scientist</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Evolution&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle-topic%2Fevolution%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marshall_Brain" title="Marshall Brain">Brain, Marshall</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.howstuffworks.com/life/evolution/evolution.htm">How Evolution Works</a> at <a href="/wiki/HowStuffWorks" title="HowStuffWorks">HowStuffWorks</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/synthetic/default.htm">"Modern Theories of Evolution: An Introduction to the Concepts and Theories That Led to Our Current Understanding of Evolution"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Palomar_College" title="Palomar College">Palomar College</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Modern+Theories+of+Evolution%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Concepts+and+Theories+That+Led+to+Our+Current+Understanding+of+Evolution&rft.pub=Palomar+College&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.palomar.edu%2Fanthro%2Fsynthetic%2Fdefault.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+life" class="Z3988"></span> Tutorial created by Dennis O'Neil.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Evolutionary_biology753" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolution" title="Template:Evolution"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolution" title="Template talk:Evolution"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolution"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_biology753" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Introduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_evolution" title="Outline of evolution">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_evolutionary_history_of_life" title="Timeline of the evolutionary history of life">Timeline of evolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_evolutionary_biology_articles" title="Index of evolutionary biology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_radiation" title="Adaptive radiation">Adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism" title="Reciprocal altruism">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">Cladistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">Common descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">Convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence_of_common_descent" title="Evidence of common descent">Evidence of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_arms_race" title="Evolutionary arms race">Evolutionary arms race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">Evolutionary pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">Extinction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_event" title="Extinction event">Event</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homology_(biology)" title="Homology (biology)">Homology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Last_universal_common_ancestor" title="Last universal common ancestor">Last universal common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonadaptive_radiation" title="Nonadaptive radiation">Non-adaptive radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panspermia" title="Panspermia">Panspermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_evolution" title="Parallel evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Handicap_principle" title="Handicap principle">Handicap principle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene-centered view of evolution</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population<br />genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Artificial selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness" title="Inclusive fitness">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_flowering_plants" title="Sexual selection in flowering plants">Flowering plants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_fungi" title="Sexual selection in fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Variation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canalisation_(genetics)" title="Canalisation (genetics)">Canalisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_assimilation" title="Genetic assimilation">Genetic assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inversion_(evolutionary_biology)" title="Inversion (evolutionary biology)">Inversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modularity_(biology)" title="Modularity (biology)">Modularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenotypic_plasticity" title="Phenotypic plasticity">Phenotypic plasticity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Taxon" title="Taxon">taxa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_bacteria" title="Evolution of bacteria">Bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_birds" title="Evolution of birds">Birds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_birds" title="Origin of birds">origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_brachiopods" title="Evolution of brachiopods">Brachiopods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_molluscs" title="Evolution of molluscs">Molluscs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cephalopods" title="Evolution of cephalopods">Cephalopods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinosaur#Evolutionary_history" title="Dinosaur">Dinosaurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fish" title="Evolution of fish">Fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_fungi" title="Evolution of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_insects" title="Evolution of insects">Insects</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_butterflies" title="Evolution of butterflies">butterflies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammals" title="Evolution of mammals">Mammals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cat_gap" title="Cat gap">cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canidae#Evolution" title="Canidae">canids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_wolf" title="Evolution of the wolf">wolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_dog" title="Domestication of the dog">dogs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyena#Evolution" title="Hyena">hyenas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">dolphins and whales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_horse" title="Evolution of the horse">horses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Macropodidae" title="Evolution of Macropodidae">Kangaroos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">primates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_lemurs" title="Evolution of lemurs">lemurs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sirenians" title="Evolution of sirenians">sea cows</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_history_of_plants" title="Evolutionary history of plants">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pollinator-mediated_selection" title="Pollinator-mediated selection">pollinator-mediated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_reptiles" title="Evolution of reptiles">Reptiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_spiders" title="Evolution of spiders">Spiders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_tetrapods" title="Evolution of tetrapods">Tetrapods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_evolution" title="Viral evolution">Viruses</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cells" title="Evolution of cells">Cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Models_of_DNA_evolution" title="Models of DNA evolution">DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella" title="Evolution of flagella">Flagella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote#Origin_of_eukaryotes" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Eukaryotes" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system#Evolution" title="Endomembrane system">endomembrane system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion#Origin_and_evolution" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus#Evolution" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid#Origin" title="Plastid">plastids</a></li></ul></li> <li>In animals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hair#Evolution" title="Hair">hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_mammalian_auditory_ossicles" title="Evolution of mammalian auditory ossicles">auditory ossicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">nervous system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">brain</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Of <a href="/wiki/Biological_process" title="Biological process">processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_ageing" title="Evolution of ageing">Aging</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death#Evolution_of_aging_and_mortality" title="Death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death#Evolutionary_origin_of_mitochondrial_apoptosis" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_avian_flight" title="Origin of avian flight">Avian flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_biological_complexity" title="Evolution of biological complexity">Biological complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation_(evolution)" title="Cooperation (evolution)">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Color vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">in primates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathy#Evolution_across_species" title="Empathy">Empathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_eusociality" title="Evolution of eusociality">Eusociality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_system#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolism#Evolution" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monogamy_in_animals" title="Monogamy in animals">Monogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_evolution" title="Mosaic evolution">Mosaic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicellular_organism#Evolutionary_history" title="Multicellular organism">Multicellularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy#Evolution" title="Anisogamy">Gamete differentiation/sexes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles/nuclear phases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system#Evolution" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_snake_venom" title="Evolution of snake venom">Snake venom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tempo_and_Mode_in_Evolution" title="Tempo and Mode in Evolution">Tempo and modes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phyletic_gradualism" title="Phyletic gradualism">Gradualism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a>/<a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_mutation" title="Point mutation">Micromutation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mutationism#Later_mutationist_theories" title="Mutationism">Macromutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">Allopatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagenesis" title="Anagenesis">Anagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catagenesis_(biology)" title="Catagenesis (biology)">Catagenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cladogenesis" title="Cladogenesis">Cladogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_speciation" title="Ecological speciation">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_speciation" title="Hybrid speciation">Hybrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonecological_speciation" title="Nonecological speciation">Non-ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parapatric_speciation" title="Parapatric speciation">Parapatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatric_speciation" title="Peripatric speciation">Peripatric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinforcement_(speciation)" title="Reinforcement (speciation)">Reinforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympatric_speciation" title="Sympatric speciation">Sympatric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ideas_of_the_Renaissance_and_Enlightenment" title="Evolutionary ideas of the Renaissance and Enlightenment">Renaissance and Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmutation_of_species" title="Transmutation of species">Transmutation of species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Dialogues_Concerning_Natural_Religion" title="Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion">Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_paleontology" title="History of paleontology">History of paleontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blending_inheritance" title="Blending inheritance">Blending inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_eclipse_of_Darwinism" title="The eclipse of Darwinism">The eclipse of Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_molecular_evolution" title="History of molecular evolution">History of molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_evolutionary_synthesis" title="Extended evolutionary synthesis">Extended evolutionary synthesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltation_(biology)" title="Saltation (biology)">Saltationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology in biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory of evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">Tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">Polymorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protocell" title="Protocell">Protocell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_biology" title="Category:Evolutionary biology">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Evolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Elements_of_nature202" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nature" title="Template:Nature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nature" title="Template talk:Nature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Elements_of_nature202" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Elements of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical elements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle" title="Particle">particles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">Change</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geological_history_of_Earth" title="Geological history of Earth">geological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_structure_of_Earth" title="Internal structure of Earth">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaia_hypothesis" title="Gaia hypothesis">Gaia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_Earth" title="Future of Earth">Future</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Weather" title="Weather">Weather</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere <span style="font-size:85%;">(Earth)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Clouds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moonlight" title="Moonlight">Moonlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">Sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">Tides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">tropical cyclone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(physics)" title="Field (physics)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Origin <span style="font-size:85%;">(abiogenesis)</span></a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Evolutionary history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">protista</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td 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vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of life</span></div> 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cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-7cf7cb559d-56mmr","wgBackendResponseTime":153,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"4.173","walltime":"4.522","ppvisitednodes":{"value":52842,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1267017,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":17555,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":26,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":43,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":1462576,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 3879.533 1 -total"," 52.75% 2046.558 2 Template:Reflist"," 37.74% 1464.007 205 Template:Cite_journal"," 15.42% 598.164 42 Template:Clade"," 6.85% 265.760 44 Template:Cite_book"," 6.80% 263.950 3 Template:Sfn"," 4.83% 187.541 31 Template:Ma"," 4.59% 177.902 78 Template:Period_start"," 3.59% 139.215 2 Template:Graphical_timeline"," 3.19% 123.949 1 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[\"CITEREFBengtsonRasmussenIvarssonMuhling2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBennett2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenton1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenton1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenton1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenton2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBenton2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBentonDonoghue2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeraldi-Campesi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernsteinBernstein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernsteinBernsteinMichod2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernsteinHopfMichod1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBirdsellWills2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlankenship2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonner1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorenstein2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrasierMcLoughlinGreenWacey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBritt2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrocksLoganBuickSummons1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrookfieldCatlosSuarez2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrunetGuyPilbeamMackaye2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBuatoisManganoGeniseTaylor1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBudd1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBudd2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurcarBargeTrailWatson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButterfield2000\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFButterfield2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButterfield2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCairns-Smith1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavosieValleyWildeEdinburgh_Ion_Microprobe_Facility2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCech2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChen2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristie2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCiccarelliDoerksvon_MeringCreevey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCifelli2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClack2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClancyBrackHorneck2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarkeZhouZhang2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohenSwindleKring2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColín-GarcíaHerediaCorderoCamprubí2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConway_Morris2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowen2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrepet2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrickOrgel1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrockford2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunninghamLiuBengtsonDonoghue2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD-G.H-L.Conway_MorrisX-L._Zhang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFD.-G._ShuConway_MorrisJ._HanZ.-F._Zhang2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaeschlerShubinJenkins2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalrymple1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalrymple2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDamerDeamer2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDauphasRobertMarty2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavidson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_MiguelHenneberg2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeamer2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDes_MaraisWalter2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDickey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDjokicVan_KranendonkCampbellWalter2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoddPapineauGrenneSlack2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDybasFryling2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl_AlbaniBengtsonCanfieldBekker2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErwin2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFastovskySheehan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFedoWhitehouse2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFedonkin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFedonkinSimonettaIvantsov2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFedonkinWaggoner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerris1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynnParrishRakotosamimananaSimpson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForterreBenachenhou-LahfaConfalonieriDuguet1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFutuyma2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGalimovKrivtsov2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarwood2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarwoodEdgecombe2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGauthierCannatellade_QueirozKluge1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiribetEdgecombe2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlansdorffYingLabedan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldblattLentonWatson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordonGrahamWang2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGould1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGray2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrayBurgerLang1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrazhdankin2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrimaldiEngel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrotzingerRothman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGulbrandsen1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanczycFujikawaSzostak2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHanleyFisherCase1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisonBlichert-ToftMüllerAlbarede2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisonLane2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrisonPalmeiraHalpernLane2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHawksworth2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHedgesBlairVenturiShoe2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHinde2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoehlerBeboutDes_Marais2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoenigsberg2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmesJobling1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHomannSansjofreVan_Zuilen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorneckKlausMancinelli2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHouZhouMartinFeduccia1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyleWickramasinghe1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoyt1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughesOldroydBeekmanRatnieks2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanvier2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJavauxKnollWalter2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJih-PaiGonGehlingBabcock2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJinpuKunXingZhe2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsborgEldholmHåvarstein2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnstonUnrauLawrenceGlasner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordanRammuZheludevHartley2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoyce2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJun-YuanOliveriChia-WeiGui-Qing_Zhou2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJun-YuanOliveriFengDornbos2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJun-Yuan_ChenDi-Ying_HuangQing-Qing_PengHui-Mei_Chi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJímenez-GuriPhilippeOkamuraHolland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiser2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKandler1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKandler1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKandler1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenrickCrane1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnollJavauxHewittCohen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoschwanezFosterMurray2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrumbeinBrehmGerdesGorbushina2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKüpperCarpenterMcFiggansPalmer2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLabandeiraEble1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaneAllenMartin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaneMartin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLarraldeRobertsonMiller1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeakey1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeplandvan_ZuilenArrheniusWhitehouse2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLetunicBork\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLetunicBork2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLetunicBork2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevyMiller1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLidmar-Bergström1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLidmar-BergströmBonowJapsen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLin_DongShuhai_XiaoBing_ShenChuanming_Zhou2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindahl1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoceyLennon2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLoronFrançoisRainbirdTurner2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovegrove1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLuisiFerriStano2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacLeod1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacLeodRawsonForeyBanner1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacNaughtonColeDalrympleBraddy2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargulis1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarshall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinGrazhdankinBowringEvans2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinRussell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKayGibsonThomas-KeprtaVali1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKinney1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcMenamin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMellars2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichodBernsteinNedelcu2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillerSpoolman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilshteynDamerHavigDeamer2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMojzsisArrheniusMcKeeganHarrison1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMontgomery2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooiDavid1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulkidjanianBychkovDibrovaGalperin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakagakiYamadaTóth2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNathanSass1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeimanJokela2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelsonLevyMiller2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNemchinWhitehouseMennekenGeisler2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNisbetFowler1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNovacek2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNutmanBennettFriendVan_Kranendonk2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Leary2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOhtomoKakegawaIshidaNagase2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrgel1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrgel2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOttoGerstein2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOttoLenormand2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPadian2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapineauDe_GregorioCodyO\u0026#039;Neil2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatelPercivalleRitsonDuffy2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearcePudritzSemenovHenning2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearceTupperPudritzHiggs2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeretó2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPisaniCottonMcInerney2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRameshMalikLogsdon2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRasmussenFletcherBrocksKilburn2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRetallackFeakes1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRisattiCapmanStahl1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoach2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRohdeMuller2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosing1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossDeamer2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubenJones2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahneyBenton2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSansomSmithSmith2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaupe2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScalice2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopf1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchopf2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchulze-MakuchIrwin2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegréBen-EliDeamerLancet2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeilacher1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSelosseAbertGodelle2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShearEdgecombe2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSidorO\u0026#039;KeefeDamianiSteyer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmonsSeymourHabersetzerGunnell2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithBotha2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStarrEversStarr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStearnsStearns1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrotherBattisonBrasierWellman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzathmáry2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTannerLucasChapman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorOsborn1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThan2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThewissenMadarHussain1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimmer2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTonerCatling2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevorsAbel2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevorsPsenner2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTsu-MingRunnegar1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaccariEdgecombeEscudero2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValleyPeckKingWilde2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_KranendonkBaumgartnerDjokicOta2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Valkenburgh1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVellaiVida1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenturi2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenturiDonatiVenturiVenturi2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarmflashWeiss2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeberBüdelBelnap2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeissPreinerXavierZimorski2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeissSousaMrnjavacNeukirchen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestallHickman-LewisHinmanGautret2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWesterdahl2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWibleRougierNovacekAsher2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWickramasingheWickramasinghe2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilsonHölldobler2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWise2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoeseKandlerWheelis1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWächtershäuser2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZahnleSchaeferFegley2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhe-XiCromptonAi-Lin2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2019\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFdeBragaRieppel1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_HeinzelinClarkWhiteHart1999\"] = 1,\n [\"Cunnane_and_Stewart_2010\"] = 1,\n [\"Gee_2000\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"=\"] = 2,\n [\"Annotated image\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotated image/Extinction\"] = 1,\n [\"Annotation\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 44,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 205,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 6,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 10,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 22,\n [\"Clade\"] = 42,\n [\"Clear\"] = 6,\n [\"Color box\"] = 2,\n [\"Convert\"] = 6,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:History Of Life\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Doi\"] = 1,\n [\"Earth\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Evolutionary biology\"] = 1,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Graphical timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 2,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 34,\n [\"HowStuffWorks\"] = 1,\n [\"Life timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Ma\"] = 31,\n [\"Main\"] = 18,\n [\"Nature\"] = 1,\n [\"Period color\"] = 1,\n [\"Period start\"] = 2,\n [\"Phanerozoic biodiversity\"] = 1,\n [\"PhylomapA\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect-distinguish\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"See also\"] = 2,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slink\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 3,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","440","16.3"],["?","380","14.1"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","280","10.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","180","6.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","160","5.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","120","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","120","4.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","120","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","100","3.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","100","3.7"],["[others]","700","25.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-595dcdd986-qx9pp","timestamp":"20250220164248","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of life","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_life","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1098275","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1098275","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2007-07-18T09:13:57Z","dateModified":"2025-02-07T00:56:46Z","headline":"processes by which organisms evolved on Earth"}</script> </body> </html>