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aria-controls="toc-Organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Organization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Leadership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Major organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tactical_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tactical_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Tactical organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tactical_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personnel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personnel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Personnel</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personnel-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Personnel subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Personnel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Regulars_vs._volunteers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulars_vs._volunteers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Regulars vs. volunteers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulars_vs._volunteers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Officers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Officers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Officers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Officers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enlisted_personnel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enlisted_personnel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Enlisted personnel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enlisted_personnel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southern_Unionists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southern_Unionists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Southern Unionists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southern_Unionists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Ethnic composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italian_Americans_in_the_Union_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian_Americans_in_the_Union_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>Italian Americans in the Union army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian_Americans_in_the_Union_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-African_Americans_in_the_Union_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#African_Americans_in_the_Union_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>African Americans in the Union army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-African_Americans_in_the_Union_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_in_the_Union_army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_in_the_Union_army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Women in the Union army</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_in_the_Union_army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motivations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motivations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Motivations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Motivations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Motivations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Motivations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anti-slavery_sentiment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anti-slavery_sentiment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Anti-slavery sentiment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anti-slavery_sentiment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Army_administration_and_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Army_administration_and_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Army administration and issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Army_administration_and_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Army administration and issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Army_administration_and_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adjutant_General's_Department" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjutant_General's_Department"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Adjutant General's Department</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjutant_General's_Department-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureau_of_Military_Justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureau_of_Military_Justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Bureau of Military Justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureau_of_Military_Justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureau_of_Refugees,_Freedmen,_and_Abandoned_Lands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureau_of_Refugees,_Freedmen,_and_Abandoned_Lands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureau_of_Refugees,_Freedmen,_and_Abandoned_Lands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corps_of_Engineers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corps_of_Engineers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Corps of Engineers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corps_of_Engineers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corps_of_Topographical_Engineers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corps_of_Topographical_Engineers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Corps of Topographical Engineers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corps_of_Topographical_Engineers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inspector_General's_Department" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inspector_General's_Department"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Inspector General's Department</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inspector_General's_Department-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_Department" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_Department"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Medical Department</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_Department-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ordnance_Department" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ordnance_Department"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Ordnance Department</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ordnance_Department-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pay_Department" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pay_Department"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.9</span> <span>Pay Department</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pay_Department-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Provost_Marshal_General's_Bureau" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Provost_Marshal_General's_Bureau"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.10</span> <span>Provost Marshal General's Bureau</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Provost_Marshal_General's_Bureau-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quartermaster's_Department" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quartermaster's_Department"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.11</span> <span>Quartermaster's Department</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quartermaster's_Department-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signal_Corps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signal_Corps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.12</span> <span>Signal Corps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signal_Corps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subsistence_Department" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subsistence_Department"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.13</span> <span>Subsistence Department</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subsistence_Department-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_tactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_tactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Military tactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_tactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Desertions_and_draft_riots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Desertions_and_draft_riots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Desertions and draft riots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Desertions_and_draft_riots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Union army</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" 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Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF" title="جيش الاتحاد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جيش الاتحاد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army" title="Union Army – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Union Army" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex%C3%A8rcit_de_la_Uni%C3%B3" title="Exèrcit de la Unió – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Exèrcit de la Unió" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionsheer_im_Sezessionskrieg" title="Unionsheer im Sezessionskrieg – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Unionsheer im Sezessionskrieg" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%88%CE%BD%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Στρατός της Ένωσης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στρατός της Ένωσης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ej%C3%A9rcito_de_la_Uni%C3%B3n" title="Ejército de la Unión – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ejército de la Unión" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unia_armeo_(Usona_Enlanda_Milito)" title="Unia armeo (Usona Enlanda Milito) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Unia armeo (Usona Enlanda Milito)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%B4_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%87" title="ارتش اتحادیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ارتش اتحادیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army" title="Union Army – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Union Army" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B6%81%EA%B5%B0" title="북군 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="북군" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Միության բանակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միության բանակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tentara_Serikat" title="Tentara Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tentara Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army" title="Union Army – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Union Army" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%90_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%97%D7%95%D7%93" title="צבא האיחוד – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צבא האיחוד" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exercitus_Unionis" title="Exercitus Unionis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Exercitus Unionis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savien%C4%ABbas_armija" title="Savienības armija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Savienības armija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angkatan_Tentera_Kesatuan" title="Angkatan Tentera Kesatuan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Angkatan Tentera Kesatuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army" title="Union Army – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Union Army" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%97%E8%BB%8D" title="北軍 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="北軍" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army" title="Union Army – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Union Army" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armia_Unii" title="Armia Unii – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Armia Unii" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex%C3%A9rcito_da_Uni%C3%A3o" title="Exército da União – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Exército da União" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%8E%D0%B7%D0%B0" title="Армия Союза – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Армия Союза" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Army" title="Union Army – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Union Army" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%BE%D8%A7%DB%8C_%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DB%8E%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="سوپای یەکێتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سوپای یەکێتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionin_armeija" title="Unionin armeija – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Unionin armeija" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordstatsarm%C3%A9n" title="Nordstatsarmén – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nordstatsarmén" 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_Army&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Army">Union Army</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Land force that fought for the Union (the North) during the American Civil War</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the current active service branch, see <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Union army</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States_of_America_(1863%E2%80%931865).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Flag_of_the_United_States_of_America_%281863%E2%80%931865%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_United_States_of_America_%281863%E2%80%931865%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Flag_of_the_United_States_of_America_%281863%E2%80%931865%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_United_States_of_America_%281863%E2%80%931865%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Flag_of_the_United_States_of_America_%281863%E2%80%931865%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_United_States_of_America_%281863%E2%80%931865%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="539" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption"><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag of the United States</a> from 1863 until 1865 (35 states/stars)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Country</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281865%E2%80%931867%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281865%E2%80%931867%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281865%E2%80%931867%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281865%E2%80%931867%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281865%E2%80%931867%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281865%E2%80%931867%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Type</th><td class="infobox-data">Army</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Size</th><td class="infobox-data">2,128,948 (700,000 peak)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">U.S. Department of War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Colors</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00008B; color:white;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue#Dark_blue" title="Shades of blue">Dark Blue</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">March</th><td class="infobox-data">"<a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a>"</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Engagements</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1214851843">.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{box-sizing:border-box;width:100%;padding:5px;border:none;font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .hidden-title{font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .hidden-content{text-align:left}@media all and (max-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .hidden-begin{width:auto!important;clear:none!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="hidden-begin mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center;"><div class="hidden-title skin-nightmode-reset-color" style="text-align:center; background:#dbdbdb"><i>See battles</i></div><div class="hidden-content mw-collapsible-content" style=""> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1116488514">.mw-parser-output .treeview ul{padding:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .treeview li{padding:0;margin:0;list-style-type:none;list-style-image:none}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li{background:url("https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Treeview-grey-line.png")no-repeat 0 -2981px;padding-left:21px;text-indent:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .treeview li li:last-child{background-position:0 -5971px}.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>.mw-empty-elt:first-child+.emptyline,.mw-parser-output .treeview li.emptyline>ul>li:first-child{background-position:0 9px}</style><div class="treeview"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">American Indian Wars</a></b> </p> <hr /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">First Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek" title="Battle of Wilson's Creek">Wilson's Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Henry" title="Battle of Fort Henry">Forts Henry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Donelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Peninsula Campaign">Shenandoah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Mills" title="Battle of South Mills">South Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Richmond" title="Battle of Richmond">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Harpers_Ferry" title="Battle of Harpers Ferry">Harpers Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Munfordville" title="Battle of Munfordville">Munfordville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shepherdstown" title="Battle of Shepherdstown">Shepherdstown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chambersburg_Raid" class="mw-redirect" title="Chambersburg Raid">Chambersburg Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River_campaigns_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mississippi River campaigns in the American Civil War">Mississippi River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Peninsula Campaign">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Shiloh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson%27s_Valley_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackson's Valley Campaign">Jackson's Valley Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="Second Battle of Bull Run">Second Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Mountain" title="Battle of South Mountain">South Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Antietam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hartsville" title="Battle of Hartsville">Hartsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville" title="Battle of Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Champion_Hill" title="Battle of Champion Hill">Champion Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Vicksburg siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corydon" title="Battle of Corydon">Corydon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Chickamauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattanooga Campaign">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness" title="Battle of the Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Campaign">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House" title="Battle of Spotsylvania Court House">Spotsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Sabine_Pass" title="Second Battle of Sabine Pass">Sabine Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Hope_Church" title="Battle of New Hope Church">New Hope Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pickett%27s_Mill" title="Battle of Pickett's Mill">Pickett's Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor" title="Battle of Cold Harbor">Cold Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Plymouth_(1864)" title="Battle of Plymouth (1864)">Plymouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Petersburg siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kennesaw_Mountain" title="Battle of Kennesaw Mountain">Kennesaw Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jonesborough" title="Battle of Jonesborough">Jonesborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_(1864)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Franklin (1864)">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville" title="Battle of Nashville">Nashville</a></li></ul> <hr /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Appomattox_Court_House" title="Battle of Appomattox Court House">Appomattox Court House</a></b> </p> </div> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States#Commander-in-chief" title="Powers of the president of the United States">Commander-in-Chief</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> (1861–1865)<br />President <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Johnson" title="Andrew Johnson">Andrew Johnson</a> (1865)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">Commanding General</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)" title="Major general (United States)">MG</a> <a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a> (1841–1861)<br />MG <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">George B. McClellan</a> (1861–1862)<br />MG <a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Halleck" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry W. Halleck">Henry W. Halleck</a> (1862–1864)<br /><a href="/wiki/General_of_the_Army_(United_States)" title="General of the Army (United States)">GA</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a> (1864–1869)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a>, the land force that fought to preserve the collective <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a> of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a>, was often referred to as the <b>Union army</b>, the <b>federal army</b>, or the <b>northern army</b>. It proved essential to the restoration and preservation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> as a working, viable republic. </p><p>The Union Army was made up of the permanent <a href="/wiki/Regular_Army_(United_States)" title="Regular Army (United States)">regular army of the United States</a>, but further fortified, augmented, and strengthened by the many temporary units of dedicated <a href="/wiki/United_States_Volunteers" title="United States Volunteers">volunteers</a>, as well as including those who were drafted in to service as <a href="/wiki/Conscription_in_the_United_States" title="Conscription in the United States">conscripts</a>. To this end, the Union army fought and ultimately triumphed over the efforts of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate States Army</a>. </p><p>Over the course of the war, 2,128,948 men enlisted in the Union army,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including 178,895, or about 8.4% being <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">colored troops</a>; 25% of the white men who served were immigrants, and a further 18% were second-generation Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-McPherson,_pp.36–37_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPherson,_pp.36–37-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 596,670 Union soldiers were killed, wounded or went missing during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The initial call-up in 1861 was for just three months, after which many of these men chose to reenlist for an additional three years. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Private_infantry_uniform.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Union_Private_infantry_uniform.png/220px-Union_Private_infantry_uniform.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="459" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Union_Private_infantry_uniform.png/330px-Union_Private_infantry_uniform.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Union_Private_infantry_uniform.png/440px-Union_Private_infantry_uniform.png 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="1966" /></a><figcaption>An illustration of a Union army private infantry uniform</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Recruiting_poster_New_York_Mounted_Rifles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Recruiting_poster_New_York_Mounted_Rifles.jpg/220px-Recruiting_poster_New_York_Mounted_Rifles.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="346" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Recruiting_poster_New_York_Mounted_Rifles.jpg/330px-Recruiting_poster_New_York_Mounted_Rifles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Recruiting_poster_New_York_Mounted_Rifles.jpg/440px-Recruiting_poster_New_York_Mounted_Rifles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Recruiting poster for the <a href="/wiki/1st_New_York_Mounted_Rifles_Regiment" title="1st New York Mounted Rifles Regiment">1st New York Mounted Rifles Regiment</a></figcaption></figure> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a> began in April 1861, the U.S. Army included ten regiments of <a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">infantry</a>, four of <a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">artillery</a>, two of <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, two of <a href="/wiki/Dragoons" class="mw-redirect" title="Dragoons">dragoons</a>, and one of <a href="/wiki/Mounted_rifles" class="mw-redirect" title="Mounted rifles">mounted rifles</a>. The regiments were scattered widely. Of the 197 companies in the U.S. Army, 179 occupied 79 isolated posts in the <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">West</a>, and the remaining 18 manned garrisons east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a>, mostly along the <a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93United_States_border" title="Canada–United States border">Canada–United States border</a> and on the <a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">U.S. East Coast</a>. There were only 16,367 servicemen in the U.S. Army, including 1,108 commissioned officers. Approximately 20% of these officers, most of them <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southerners</a>, resigned, choosing to tie their lives and fortunes to the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Confederate army</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Almost 200 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">United States Military Academy</a> graduates who previously left the U.S. Army, including <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Braxton_Bragg" title="Braxton Bragg">Braxton Bragg</a>, returned to service at the outbreak of the Civil War. This group's loyalties were far more evenly divided. Clayton R. Newell (2014) states, 92 wore Confederate gray and 102 put on the blue of the United States Army.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hattaway and Jones (1983), John and David Eicher (2001), and Jennifer M. Murray (2012), state that 99 joined the Confederate army and 114 returned to the Union forces.<sup id="cite_ref-Hattaway9_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hattaway9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Southern slave states</a> declaring secession from the United States, and with a shortage of soldiers in the army, President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> <a href="/wiki/President_Lincoln%27s_75,000_volunteers" title="President Lincoln's 75,000 volunteers">called on the states to raise a force of 75,000 troops</a> for three months to put down the Confederate insurrection and defend the national capital in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> </p><p>Lincoln's call forced the border states to choose sides, and four seceded, making the Confederacy eleven states strong. It turned out that the war itself proved to be much longer and far more extensive in scope and scale than anyone on either side, Union North or Confederate South, expected or even imagined at the outset on the date of July 22, 1861. That was the day that <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Congress</a> initially approved and authorized subsidy to allow and support a volunteer army of up to 500,000 troops to the cause. </p><p>The call for volunteers initially was easily met by patriotic Northerners, <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">abolitionists</a>, and even immigrants who enlisted for a steady income and meals. Over 10,000 <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a> immediately responded to Lincoln's call, along with Northern <a href="/wiki/French_Americans" title="French Americans">French Americans</a>, who were also quick to volunteer. As more men were needed, however, the number of volunteers fell and both money bounties and forced conscription had to be turned to. Many <a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionist" title="Southern Unionist">Southern Unionists</a> would also fight for the Union army. An estimated 100,000 white soldiers from states within the Confederacy served in Union army units.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between April 1861 and April 1865, at least 2,128,948 men served in the United States Army, of whom the majority were volunteers. </p><p>It is a misconception that the South held an advantage because of the large percentage of professional officers who resigned to join the Confederate army. At the start of the war, there were 824 graduates of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">U.S. Military Academy</a> on the active list; of these, 296 resigned or were dismissed, and 184 of those became Confederate officers. Of the approximately 900 West Point graduates who were then civilians, 400 returned to the U.S. Army and 99 to the Confederacy. The ratio of U.S. Army to Confederate professional officers was 642 to 283.<sup id="cite_ref-Hattaway9_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hattaway9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the resigning officers was <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Robert E. Lee</a>, who initially was offered the assignment as commander of a field army to suppress the rebellion. Lee disapproved of secession, but refused to bear arms against his native state, <a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia</a>, and resigned to accept the position as commander of the Virginian Confederate forces. Lee eventually became the overall commander of the Confederate army. </p><p>The Confederacy had the advantage of having several military colleges, including <a href="/wiki/The_Citadel_(military_college)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Citadel (military college)">The Citadel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Military_Institute" title="Virginia Military Institute">Virginia Military Institute</a>, but they produced fewer officers. Though officers were able to resign, enlisted soldiers did not have this right. As they usually had to either desert or wait until their enlistment term was over in order to join the Confederate States Army; though few are believed to have done so, their total number is unknown. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GeorgeMcClellan1861a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/GeorgeMcClellan1861a.jpg/220px-GeorgeMcClellan1861a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/GeorgeMcClellan1861a.jpg/330px-GeorgeMcClellan1861a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/GeorgeMcClellan1861a.jpg/440px-GeorgeMcClellan1861a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="939" /></a><figcaption>General <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">George B. McClellan</a> with staff and dignitaries, including from left to right: Gen. George W. Morell, Lt. Col. A.V. Colburn, Gen. McClellan, Lt. Col. N.B. Sweitzer, <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans,_Prince_of_Joinville" title="François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville">Prince de Joinville</a> (son of King <a href="/wiki/Louis_Philippe_I" title="Louis Philippe I">Louis Philippe of France</a>), and the prince's nephew, <a href="/wiki/Prince_Philippe,_Count_of_Paris" title="Prince Philippe, Count of Paris">Count de Paris</a> (on far right)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leadership">Leadership</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">U.S. President</a> <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> exercised supreme <a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">command and control</a> over the army in his capacity as <a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States#Commander-in-chief" title="Powers of the president of the United States">commander-in-chief</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">United States Armed Forces</a>. Below him was the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary of War">Secretary of War</a>, who oversaw the administration of the army, and the <a href="/wiki/General-in-chief#United_States" title="General-in-chief">general-in-chief</a>, who directed the field operations of the army. </p><p>At the start of the war, <a href="/wiki/Simon_Cameron" title="Simon Cameron">Simon Cameron</a> served as Secretary of War before being replaced in January 1862 by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Edwin Stanton</a>. The role of general-in-chief was filled by several men during the course of the war:<sup id="cite_ref-USAL195_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL195-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Winfield Scott</a>: July 5, 1841 – November 1, 1861</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">George B. McClellan</a>: November 1, 1861 – March 11, 1862</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Halleck" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry W. Halleck">Henry W. Halleck</a>: July 23, 1862 – March 9, 1864</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>: March 9, 1864 – March 4, 1869</li></ul> <p>The gap from March 11 to July 23, 1862, was filled with direct control of the army by President Lincoln and Secretary Stanton, with the help of an unofficial "War Board" that was established on March 17, 1862. The board consisted of <a href="/wiki/Ethan_A._Hitchcock_(general)" title="Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)">Ethan A. Hitchcock</a>, the chairman, with Department of War bureau chiefs <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Thomas" title="Lorenzo Thomas">Lorenzo Thomas</a> (Adjutant General), <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_C._Meigs_(1816%E2%80%931892)" class="mw-redirect" title="Montgomery C. Meigs (1816–1892)">Montgomery C. Meigs</a> (Quartermaster General), <a href="/wiki/Joseph_G._Totten" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph G. Totten">Joseph G. Totten</a> (Chief of Engineers), <a href="/wiki/James_Wolfe_Ripley" title="James Wolfe Ripley">James W. Ripley</a> (Chief of Ordnance), and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_P._Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph P. Taylor">Joseph P. Taylor</a> (Commissary General).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reporting directly to the Secretary of War were the bureau chiefs or heads of staff departments which made up the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of War">Department of War</a>. These included, at the onset of the war, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Adjutant_General%27s_Corps" title="United States Army Adjutant General's Corps">adjutant general</a>, <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Inspector_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Office of the Inspector General of the United States Army">inspector general</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paymaster-General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Paymaster-General of the United States Army">paymaster-general</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps,_United_States_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps, United States Army">judge advocate general</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_engineers" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief of engineers">chief of engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Topographical_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers">chief of topographical engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quartermaster_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Quartermaster General of the United States Army">quartermaster general</a>, commissary general of subsistence, <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_Ordnance_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Chief of Ordnance of the United States Army">chief of ordnance</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Surgeon General of the United States Army">surgeon general</a>. </p><p>After the war started, the position of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Provost_Marshal_General" title="United States Army Provost Marshal General">Provost Marshal General</a> was also created.<sup id="cite_ref-USAL195_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL195-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Originally established on September 24, 1862, as an office in the Adjutant General's department under <a href="/wiki/Simeon_Draper" title="Simeon Draper">Simeon Draper</a>, it was made an independent department in its own right on May 1, 1863, under <a href="/wiki/James_B._Fry" class="mw-redirect" title="James B. Fry">James B. Fry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher58_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher58-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_(United_States_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal Corps (United States Army)">Signal Corps</a> was created and deployed for the first time, through the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Albert_J._Myer" title="Albert J. Myer">Albert J. Myer</a>. </p><p>One drawback to this system was that the authority and responsibilities of the Secretary of War, his <a href="/wiki/United_States_Assistant_Secretary_of_War" title="United States Assistant Secretary of War">Assistant Secretaries</a>, and the General-in-Chief were not clearly delineated. Additionally, the efforts of the four "supply" departments (Quartermaster, Subsistence, Ordnance & Medical) were not coordinated with each other, a condition that would last throughout the war. Although the "War Board" could provide military advice and help coordinate military policy, it was not until the appointment of Ulysses Grant as General-in-Chief was there more than the vaguest coordination of military strategy and logistics.<sup id="cite_ref-USAL195_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL195-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_organizations">Major organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Major organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Union army was composed of numerous organizations, which were generally organized geographically. </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Divisions,_Departments_and_Districts" title="Union Army Divisions, Departments and Districts">Military division</a></dt> <dd>A collection of Departments reporting to one commander (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Military_Division_of_the_Mississippi" title="Military Division of the Mississippi">Military Division of the Mississippi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Military_Division" title="Middle Military Division">Middle Military Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Military_Division_of_the_James" title="Military Division of the James">Military Division of the James</a>). Military Divisions were similar to the more modern term <a href="/wiki/Theater_(warfare)" title="Theater (warfare)">Theater</a>; and were modeled close to, though not synonymous with, the existing theaters of war.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Divisions,_Departments_and_Districts" title="Union Army Divisions, Departments and Districts">Department</a></dt> <dd>An organization that covered a defined region, including responsibilities for the Federal installations therein and for the field armies within their borders. Those named for states usually referred to Southern states that had been occupied. It was more common to name departments for rivers (such as <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Tennessee" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of the Tennessee">Department of the Tennessee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Cumberland" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of the Cumberland">Department of the Cumberland</a>,) or regions (<a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Pacific" title="Department of the Pacific">Department of the Pacific</a>, <a href="/wiki/Department_of_New_England" title="Department of New England">Department of New England</a>, <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_East" title="Department of the East">Department of the East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_West" title="Department of the West">Department of the West</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Department" title="Middle Department">Middle Department</a>).</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Divisions,_Departments_and_Districts" title="Union Army Divisions, Departments and Districts">District</a></dt> <dd>A territorial subdivision of a Department (e.g., District of Cairo, District of East Tennessee). There were also Subdistricts for smaller regions.</dd> <dt>Army</dt> <dd>The fighting force that was usually, but not always, assigned to a District or Department but could operate over wider areas. An army could contain between one and eight corps, with an average of three.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher66_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher66-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some of the most prominent armies were: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Cumberland" title="Army of the Cumberland">Army of the Cumberland</a>, the army operating primarily in <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, and later <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/William_S._Rosecrans" class="mw-redirect" title="William S. Rosecrans">William S. Rosecrans</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">George Henry Thomas</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Georgia" title="Army of Georgia">Army of Georgia</a>, operated in the March to the Sea and the Carolinas commanded by <a href="/wiki/Henry_W._Slocum" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry W. Slocum">Henry W. Slocum</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Gulf" title="Army of the Gulf">Army of the Gulf</a>, the army operating in the region bordering the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexico" title="Gulf of Mexico">Gulf of Mexico</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Butler (politician)">Benjamin Butler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_P._Banks" title="Nathaniel P. Banks">Nathaniel P. Banks</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Canby" title="Edward Canby">Edward Canby</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_James" title="Army of the James">Army of the James</a>, the army operating on the <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Peninsula" title="Virginia Peninsula">Virginia Peninsula</a>, 1864–65, commanded by Benjamin Butler and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Ord" title="Edward Ord">Edward Ord</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Mississippi" title="Army of the Mississippi">Army of the Mississippi</a>, a briefly existing army operating on the Mississippi River, in two incarnations—under <a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">John Pope</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_S._Rosecrans" class="mw-redirect" title="William S. Rosecrans">William S. Rosecrans</a> in 1862; under <a href="/wiki/John_A._McClernand" title="John A. McClernand">John A. McClernand</a> in 1863.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Ohio" title="Army of the Ohio">Army of the Ohio</a>, the army operating primarily in <a href="/wiki/Kentucky" title="Kentucky">Kentucky</a> and later Tennessee and Georgia, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell" title="Don Carlos Buell">Don Carlos Buell</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_E._Burnside" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrose E. Burnside">Ambrose E. Burnside</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_G._Foster" title="John G. Foster">John G. Foster</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_M._Schofield" class="mw-redirect" title="John M. Schofield">John M. Schofield</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac" title="Army of the Potomac">Army of the Potomac</a>, the principal army in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Theater of the American Civil War">Eastern Theater</a>, commanded by <a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">George B. McClellan</a>, Ambrose E. Burnside, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker" title="Joseph Hooker">Joseph Hooker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/George_G._Meade" class="mw-redirect" title="George G. Meade">George G. Meade</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Shenandoah_(Union)" title="Army of the Shenandoah (Union)">Army of the Shenandoah</a>, the army operating in the <a href="/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley" title="Shenandoah Valley">Shenandoah Valley</a>, under <a href="/wiki/David_Hunter" title="David Hunter">David Hunter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Horatio_G._Wright" class="mw-redirect" title="Horatio G. Wright">Horatio G. Wright</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Tennessee" title="Army of the Tennessee">Army of the Tennessee</a>, the most famous army in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Theater of the American Civil War">Western Theater</a>, operating through Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Georgia, and the <a href="/wiki/Carolinas" title="Carolinas">Carolinas</a>; commanded by <a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_T._Sherman" class="mw-redirect" title="William T. Sherman">William T. Sherman</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_B._McPherson" title="James B. McPherson">James B. McPherson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Oliver_O._Howard" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver O. Howard">Oliver O. Howard</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Virginia" title="Army of Virginia">Army of Virginia</a>, the army assembled under <a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">John Pope</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Virginia_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Virginia Campaign">Northern Virginia Campaign</a>.</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>Each of these armies was usually commanded by a <a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)" title="Major general (United States)">major general</a>. Typically, the Department or District commander also had field command of the army of the same name, but some conflicts within the ranks occurred when this was not true, particularly when an army crossed a geographic boundary. </p><p>The commanding officer of an army was authorized a number of <a href="/wiki/Aides-de-camp" class="mw-redirect" title="Aides-de-camp">aides-de-camp</a> as their personal staff and a general <a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">staff</a>. The general staff included representatives of the other combat arms, such as a chief of artillery and chief of cavalry (the infantry being typically represented by the commanding officer) and representatives of the staff bureaus and offices.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher40_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher40-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The staff department officers typically assigned to an army or military department included an assistant adjutant general, a chief quartermaster, a chief commissary of subsistence, an assistant inspector general, an ordnance officer (all with the rank of <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">colonel</a>) and a medical director.<sup id="cite_ref-newell71_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newell71-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The actual number of personnel assigned to an army's headquarters could be quite large: at Gettysburg the headquarters of General Meade (excluding engineers, the artillery reserve and the headquarters of each corps) was no less than 3,486 strong.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tactical_organizations">Tactical organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tactical organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">military organization</a> of the United States Army was based on the traditions developed in Europe, with the <a href="/wiki/Regiment" title="Regiment">regiment</a> being the basis of recruitment, training and maneuvering. However, for a variety of reasons there could be vast differences in the number of actual soldiers organized even into units of the same type. Changes in how units were structured during the course of the war, contrasts in organizational principals between regular and volunteer units, and even simple misnaming all played a role. Thus for example, comparing two infantry regiments at their full authorized strength one might have twice as many soldiers as the other. Furthermore, even when units were of equivalent size, their actual effectiveness depended greatly on training, leadership, equipment and other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher66_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher66-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:center; background:#acc;">Name </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">Commander </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">Sub-units </th> <th style="text-align:center; background:#acc;">Soldiers </th> <th style="text-align:center; background:#acc;">Notes </th></tr> </tbody><caption>Union army tactical organizations<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher66_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher66-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NCMuseum_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCMuseum-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McGrath_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGrath-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Corps#American_Civil_War" title="Corps">Corps</a> </td> <td>Major general </td> <td>2–6 divisions </td> <td>36,000 </td> <td>Averaged three divisions, included a dedicated artillery brigade after 1863. See also <a href="/wiki/Cavalry_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavalry Corps (Union Army)">Cavalry Corps</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Divisions_of_the_United_States_Army#American_Civil_War" title="Divisions of the United States Army">Division</a> </td> <td>Major general </td> <td>2–6 brigades </td> <td>12,000 </td> <td>Averaged three brigades for infantry divisions, two brigades for cavalry. Also included attached <a href="/wiki/Artillery_battery" title="Artillery battery">artillery batteries</a> until 1863. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Brigade_(United_States_Army)" title="Brigade (United States Army)">Brigade</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)" title="Brigadier general (United States)">Brigadier general</a> </td> <td>2–12 regiments </td> <td>4,000 </td> <td>Averaged four regiments for both infantry and cavalry. Artillery brigades consisted of between four and six batteries. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Regiment_(United_States_Army)" title="Regiment (United States Army)">Regiment</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)" title="Colonel (United States)">Colonel</a> </td> <td>10 companies </td> <td>1,000 </td> <td>Actual size would vary as attrition reduced the regiment down to several hundred soldiers or fewer. Artillery regiments consisted of twelve batteries but were purely administrative units. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Battalion_(United_States_Army)" title="Battalion (United States Army)">Battalion</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Major_(United_States)" title="Major (United States)">Major</a> </td> <td>Varied </td> <td>Varied </td> <td>With some exceptions, a battalion may refer to any two or more companies of a regiment or if a regiment consisted of between four and eight companies total. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Company_(United_States_Army)" title="Company (United States Army)">Company</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)" title="Captain (United States O-3)">Captain</a> </td> <td>2 platoons </td> <td>100 </td> <td>Cavalry equivalent referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Troop" title="Troop">troop</a>. Artillery equivalent referred to as <a href="/wiki/Artillery_battery" title="Artillery battery">battery</a>, contain between four and six artillery pieces. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Formations_of_the_Union_army" style=";wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><div id="Formations_of_the_Union_army" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Formations of the Union army</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Independent<br />departments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_East" title="Department of the East">Department of the East</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Central_New_York&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Central New York (page does not exist)">District of Central New York</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Massachusetts_(military)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Massachusetts (military) (page does not exist)">District of Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Western_New_York&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Western New York (page does not exist)">District of Western New York</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Pacific" title="Department of the Pacific">Department of the Pacific</a>: <a href="/wiki/District_of_Arizona" title="District of Arizona">District of Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Military_District" title="Humboldt Military District">District of Humboldt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Oregon_(military)" title="District of Oregon (military)">District of Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_California" title="District of California">District of California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Southern_California" title="District of Southern California">District of Southern California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Utah" title="District of Utah">District of Utah</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac" title="Army of the Potomac">Department of the Potomac</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_South" title="Department of the South">Department of the South</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Florida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Florida (page does not exist)">District of Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Hilton_Head&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Hilton Head (page does not exist)">District of Hilton Head</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="District of North Carolina">District of North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Savannah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Savannah (page does not exist)">District of Savannah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_District_(Charleston)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern District (Charleston) (page does not exist)">Northern District (Charleston)</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Virginia_and_North_Carolina" title="Department of Virginia and North Carolina">Department of Virginia and North Carolina</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Eastern_Virginia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Eastern Virginia (page does not exist)">District of Eastern Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_North_Carolina" class="mw-redirect" title="District of North Carolina">District of North Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.svg/120px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.svg/180px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.svg/240px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War_and_Ordnance.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="719" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Military_Division" title="Middle Military Division">Middle Military<br />Division</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Department" title="Middle Department">Middle Department</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Department_of_Rappahannock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Department of Rappahannock (page does not exist)">Department of Rappahannock</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Department_of_Shenandoah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Department of Shenandoah (page does not exist)">Department of Shenandoah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mountain_Department&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mountain Department (page does not exist)">Mountain Department</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Baltimore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Baltimore (page does not exist)">District of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Eastern_Shore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Eastern Shore (page does not exist)">District of Eastern Shore</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Pennsylvania" title="Department of Pennsylvania">Department of Pennsylvania</a>: <a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Monongahela" title="Department of the Monongahela">Department of the Monongahela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Susquehanna" title="Department of the Susquehanna">Department of the Susquehanna</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Washington" title="Department of Washington">Department of Washington</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Alexandria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Alexandria (page does not exist)">District of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Saint_Mary%27s&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Saint Mary's (page does not exist)">District of Saint Mary's</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Washington&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Washington (page does not exist)">District of Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Annapolis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Annapolis (page does not exist)">District of Annapolis</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Department_of_West_Virginia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Department of West Virginia (page does not exist)">Department of West Virginia</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Harper%27s_Ferry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Harper's Ferry (page does not exist)">District of Harper's Ferry</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kanawha_District&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kanawha District (page does not exist)">Kanawha District</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Military_Division_of_the_Mississippi" title="Military Division of the Mississippi">Military Division<br />of the<br />Mississippi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilson%27s_Raid" title="Wilson's Raid">Cavalry Corps of the Military Division of the Mississippi</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Cumberland" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of the Cumberland">Department of the Cumberland</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_the_Etowah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of the Etowah (page does not exist)">District of the Etowah</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Middle_Tennessee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Middle Tennessee (page does not exist)">District of Middle Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Northern_Alabama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Northern Alabama (page does not exist)">District of Northern Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_West_Tennessee" class="mw-redirect" title="District of West Tennessee">District of West Tennessee</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Ohio" title="Department of the Ohio">Department of the Ohio</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_East_Tennessee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of East Tennessee (page does not exist)">District of East Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Department_of_Kentucky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Department of Kentucky (page does not exist)">Department of Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Cairo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Cairo (page does not exist)">District of Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Western_Kentucky&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Western Kentucky (page does not exist)">District of Western Kentucky</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Northern_Department_(United_States)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Northern Department (United States) (page does not exist)">Northern Department</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Indiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Indiana (page does not exist)">District of Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Illinois_(Military)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Illinois (Military) (page does not exist)">District of Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Michigan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Michigan (page does not exist)">District of Michigan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_Division_of_West_Mississippi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Military Division of West Mississippi (page does not exist)">Military Division<br />of West<br />Mississippi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Arkansas" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Arkansas">Department of Arkansas</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Eastern_Arkansas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Eastern Arkansas (page does not exist)">District of Eastern Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_the_Frontier" class="mw-redirect" title="District of the Frontier">District of the Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Little_Rock&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Little Rock (page does not exist)">District of Little Rock</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Gulf" title="Department of the Gulf">Department of the Gulf</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Baton_Rouge_and_Port_Hudson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Baton Rouge and Port Hudson (page does not exist)">District of Baton Rouge and Port Hudson</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Carrollton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Carrollton (page does not exist)">District of Carrollton</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Key_West_and_Tortugas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Key West and Tortugas (page does not exist)">District of Key West and Tortugas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_La_Fourche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of La Fourche (page does not exist)">District of La Fourche</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_West_Florida_and_South_Alabama&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of West Florida and South Alabama (page does not exist)">District of West Florida and South Alabama</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Kansas" title="Department of Kansas">Department of Kansas</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Colorado_(military)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Colorado (military) (page does not exist)">District of Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Nebraska">District of Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_North_Kansas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of North Kansas (page does not exist)">District of North Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_South_Kansas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of South Kansas (page does not exist)">District of South Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Upper_Arkansas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Upper Arkansas (page does not exist)">District of Upper Arkansas</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Missouri">Department of Missouri</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Central_Missouri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Central Missouri (page does not exist)">District of Central Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_North_Missouri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of North Missouri (page does not exist)">District of North Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Rolla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Rolla (page does not exist)">District of Rolla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Saint_Louis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Saint Louis (page does not exist)">District of Saint Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Southwest_Missouri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Southwest Missouri (page does not exist)">District of Southwest Missouri</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_New_Mexico" title="Department of New Mexico">Department of New Mexico</a>: <a href="/wiki/District_of_Arizona" title="District of Arizona">District of Arizona</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_the_Northwest" title="Department of the Northwest">Department of the Northwest</a>: <a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Iowa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Iowa (page does not exist)">District of Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_of_Minnesota" class="mw-redirect" title="District of Minnesota">District of Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Wisconsin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Wisconsin (page does not exist)">District of Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=District_of_Dakota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="District of Dakota (page does not exist)">District of Dakota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Field armies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Arkansas" title="Army of Arkansas">Army of Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Border" title="Army of the Border">Army of the Border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Cumberland" title="Army of the Cumberland">Army of the Cumberland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Frontier" title="Army of the Frontier">Army of the Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Georgia" title="Army of Georgia">Army of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Gulf" title="Army of the Gulf">Army of the Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_James" title="Army of the James">Army of the James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_of_Kentucky" title="Union Army of Kentucky">Army of Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Mississippi" title="Army of the Mississippi">Army of the Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Ohio" title="Army of the Ohio">Army of the Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Potomac" title="Army of the Potomac">Army of the Potomac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Shenandoah_(Union)" title="Army of the Shenandoah (Union)">Army of the Shenandoah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Southwest" title="Army of the Southwest">Army of the Southwest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Tennessee" title="Army of the Tennessee">Army of the Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_Virginia" title="Army of Virginia">Army of Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_West_Mississippi" title="Army of West Mississippi">Army of West Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_West_Virginia" title="Army of West Virginia">Army of West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Army corps</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="I Corps (Union Army)">First Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/II_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="II Corps (Union Army)">Second Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/III_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="III Corps (Union Army)">Third Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="IV Corps (Union Army)">Fourth Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="V Corps (Union Army)">Fifth Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="VI Corps (Union Army)">Sixth Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="VII Corps (Union Army)">Seventh Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="VIII Corps (Union Army)">Eighth Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IX_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="IX Corps (Union Army)">Ninth Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="X Corps (Union Army)">10th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XI Corps (Union Army)">11th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XII Corps (Union Army)">12th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XIII Corps (Union Army)">13th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XIV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XIV Corps (Union Army)">14th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XV Corps (Union Army)">15th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XVI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XVI Corps (Union Army)">16th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XVII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XVII Corps (Union Army)">17th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XVIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XVIII Corps (Union Army)">18th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XIX_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XIX Corps (Union Army)">19th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XX_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XX Corps (Union Army)">20th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXI Corps (Union Army)">21st Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXII Corps (Union Army)">22d Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXIII Corps (Union Army)">23d Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXIV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXIV Corps (Union Army)">24th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXV Corps (Union Army)">25th Army Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavalry Corps (Union Army)">Cavalry Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personnel">Personnel</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Personnel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regulars_vs._volunteers">Regulars vs. volunteers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Regulars vs. volunteers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Currier_%26_Ives_-_The_champions_of_the_Union_1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Currier_%26_Ives_-_The_champions_of_the_Union_1861.jpg/220px-Currier_%26_Ives_-_The_champions_of_the_Union_1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Currier_%26_Ives_-_The_champions_of_the_Union_1861.jpg/330px-Currier_%26_Ives_-_The_champions_of_the_Union_1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Currier_%26_Ives_-_The_champions_of_the_Union_1861.jpg/440px-Currier_%26_Ives_-_The_champions_of_the_Union_1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6648" data-file-height="5160" /></a><figcaption><i>The champions of the Union</i>, an 1861 lithograph by <a href="/wiki/Currier_and_Ives" title="Currier and Ives">Currier and Ives</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the course of the Civil War, the vast majority of soldiers fighting to preserve the Union were in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Volunteers" title="United States Volunteers">volunteer units</a>. The pre-war regular army numbered approximately 16,400 soldiers, but by the end while the Union army had grown to over a million soldiers, the number of regular personnel was still approximately 21,699, of whom several were serving with volunteer forces. Only 62,000 commissions and enlistments in total were issued for the regular army during the war as most new personnel preferred volunteer service.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Newell76_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell76-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since before the Civil War, the American public had a generally negative view of the nation's armed forces, attributable to a <a href="/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy" title="Jeffersonian democracy">Jeffersonian</a> ideal which saw <a href="/wiki/Standing_armies" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing armies">standing armies</a> as a threat to democracy and instead valorized the "<a href="/wiki/Citizen_soldier" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen soldier">citizen soldier</a>" as being more in keeping with American ideals of equality and <a href="/wiki/Rugged_individualism" title="Rugged individualism">rugged individualism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell3_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This attitude remained unchanged during the Civil War, and afterwards many would attribute the Union's victory to the volunteers rather than the leadership and staff work provided by the regular army.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell312_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell312-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In return, officers of the regular army despised the militia and saw them as having dubious value. Commentators such as <a href="/wiki/Emory_Upton" title="Emory Upton">Emory Upton</a> would later argue that the reliance on militia for the nation's defense was responsible for prolonging conflicts and making them more expensive in both money and lives spent.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell3_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell3-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Newell312_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell312-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite these attitudes towards the regulars, they would serve as an important foundation around which the Union army was built. In the disastrous <a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">First Battle of Bull Run</a>, it was the regulars who acted as rearguard during the retreat while the volunteers fled, and when George McClellan was put in charge of what became the Army of the Potomac he used regular officers and non-commissioned officers to train the volunteers.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Training the volunteers, especially in regards to critical administrative and logistical matters, remained an important function of the regulars during the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell308_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell308-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was particularly the case with regular army artillery, as they were more widely dispersed than the infantry and cavalry (making them more visible to the olunteers) and were assigned to specific units to train their volunteer counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell285_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell285-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In battle, the regulars' performance could impress even the most battle-hardened volunteers.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell218_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell218-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/The_Wheatfield" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wheatfield">The Wheatfield</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a>, the regulars' fighting skill and orderly retirement under fire drew the admiration of many observers, including <a href="/wiki/Prince_Philippe,_Count_of_Paris" title="Prince Philippe, Count of Paris">Prince Philippe, Count of Paris</a>. As one volunteer put it, "For two years the U.S. Regulars taught us how to be soldiers [;] in the Wheatfield at Gettysburg, they taught us how to die like soldiers."<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The regulars became the standard by which the Volunteers were measured, and to be described as being as good or better than them was considered the highest compliment.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Officers">Officers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Officers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Washington,_District_of_Columbia._Officers_of_3d_Regiment_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Washington%2C_District_of_Columbia._Officers_of_3d_Regiment_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery.jpg/220px-Washington%2C_District_of_Columbia._Officers_of_3d_Regiment_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Washington%2C_District_of_Columbia._Officers_of_3d_Regiment_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery.jpg/330px-Washington%2C_District_of_Columbia._Officers_of_3d_Regiment_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Washington%2C_District_of_Columbia._Officers_of_3d_Regiment_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery.jpg/440px-Washington%2C_District_of_Columbia._Officers_of_3d_Regiment_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7500" data-file-height="5762" /></a><figcaption>Officers of the <a href="/wiki/3rd_Massachusetts_Heavy_Artillery_Regiment" title="3rd Massachusetts Heavy Artillery Regiment">3rd Massachusetts Heavy Artillery Regiment</a> defending the national capital of <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, in 1865, the final year of the Civil War</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Commissioned_officers" class="mw-redirect" title="Commissioned officers">Commissioned officers</a> in the Union army could be divided in several categories: <a href="/wiki/General_officer" title="General officer">general officers</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_general" title="Lieutenant general">lieutenant general</a>, which was added on March 2, 1864, <a href="/wiki/Major_general" title="Major general">major generals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general" title="Brigadier general">brigadier generals</a>; <a href="/wiki/Field_officers" class="mw-redirect" title="Field officers">field officers</a> including <a href="/wiki/Colonel" title="Colonel">colonels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel" title="Lieutenant colonel">lieutenant colonels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Major_(rank)" title="Major (rank)">majors</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Company-grade_officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Company-grade officer">company officers</a> including <a href="/wiki/Captain_(military_rank)" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain (military rank)">captains</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_lieutenant" title="First lieutenant">first lieutenants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant" title="Second lieutenant">second lieutenants</a>. There was further differentiation between line officers, who were members of the artillery, cavalry or infantry branches, and staff officers, who were part of the various departments and bureaus of the War Department. All line officers outranked staff officers except in cases pertaining to their staff assignment, in which they received their orders from their respective department chiefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher30_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher30-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regular general officers outranked volunteer general officers of the same grade regardless of their date of commission, a feature which could have become a subject of contention.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher23_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher23-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)#American_Civil_War" title="Brevet (military)">brevet ranks</a> was also a common feature of the Union army. </p><p>Officer appointments depended on the commission grade and whether it was in the regular or volunteer forces. The President reserved the right to issue commission for all regular officers and for general officers in the volunteer forces. volunteer field and company-grade officers could be commissioned by either the president or their respective governor. Company officers were also unique in that they were usually elected by members of their company.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher30_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher30-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political appointment and/or election of volunteer officers was part of a long-standing militia tradition and of a <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">political patronage system</a> common in the United States. While many of these officers were West Point graduates or had prior military experience, others had none, nor was military leadership a primary consideration in such appointments.<sup id="cite_ref-Perryville_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perryville-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a policy inevitably resulted in the promotion of inept officers over more able commanders. As the war dragged on and casualties mounted, governors reacted to their constituents' complaints and instead began to issue commissions on the basis of battlefield rather than political competence.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Officers tended to suffer a higher percentage of battle wounds on account of either the necessity of leading their units into combat and their conspicuousness when accompanied by staff and escorts.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher61_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher61-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among memorable field leaders of the army were <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Lyon" title="Nathaniel Lyon">Nathaniel Lyon</a> (first Union general to be killed in battle during the war), <a href="/wiki/William_Rosecrans" title="William Rosecrans">William Rosecrans</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">George Henry Thomas</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">William Tecumseh Sherman</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phil_Sheridan" class="mw-redirect" title="Phil Sheridan">Phil Sheridan</a>. Others include <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler_(politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin Butler (politician)">Benjamin F. Butler</a>. </p> <dl><dt>Officer ranks</dt></dl> <table style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"> <tbody><tr style="background-color:#CCCCCC; width: 100%"> <th>Rank group </th> <th colspan="10">General / flag officers </th> <th colspan="6">Senior officers </th> <th colspan="8">Junior officers </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td rowspan="2"><b>1861–1864</b><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O9_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O8_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O7_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O6_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O5_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O4_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O3_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O2_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O1_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)" title="Major general (United States)">Major general</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army#Commanding_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Commanding General of the United States Army">Commanding the Army</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)" title="Major general (United States)">Major general</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)" title="Brigadier general (United States)">Brigadier general</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)" title="Colonel (United States)">Colonel</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel (United States)">Lieutenant colonel</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Major_(United_States)" title="Major (United States)">Major</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Captain_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain (Union Army)">Captain</a> </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/First_lieutenant#United_States" title="First lieutenant">First lieutenant</a> </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant#United_States" title="Second lieutenant">Second lieutenant</a> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td rowspan="2"><b>1864–1866</b><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O9_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O9_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O8_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O8_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O7_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O7_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O6_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O6_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O5_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O5_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O4_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O4_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O3_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O3_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O2_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O2_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td> <td colspan="3"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Army_O1_(1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg/100px-US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg/150px-US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg/200px-US_Army_O1_%281861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="66" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_general_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant general (United States)">Lieutenant general</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)" title="Major general (United States)">Major general</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)" title="Brigadier general (United States)">Brigadier general</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)" title="Colonel (United States)">Colonel</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel (United States)">Lieutenant colonel</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Major_(United_States)" title="Major (United States)">Major</a> </td> <td colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Captain_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain (Union Army)">Captain</a> </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/First_lieutenant#United_States" title="First lieutenant">First lieutenant</a> </td> <td colspan="3"><a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant#United_States" title="Second lieutenant">Second lieutenant</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_general_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant general (United States)">Lieutenant general</a>: The rank of lieutenant general did not exist in the Union army for most of the war until February 1864, when an <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a> allowed for its creation. A single lieutenant general was authorized to serve as the commander of all the field armies and geographic departments of the United States, under the direction and at the pleasure of the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a>. By law, they were allowed two secretaries and four <a href="/wiki/Aide-de-camp" title="Aide-de-camp">aides-de-camp</a> with the rank of lieutenant colonel, and a <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_staff#In_the_United_States_2" title="Chief of staff">chief of staff</a> with the rank of brigadier general.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_general_(United_States)" title="Major general (United States)">Major general</a>: Major generals were nominally the commanding officer of a division, although given the lack of higher grades of general officers they were also given command of army corps, field armies and geographic departments. In the event two or more officers of the same grade were present in the same army or department, command was decided by seniority. In an exception to this practice, the president was authorized by law to appoint a junior officer to command over his seniors. A major general was allowed a personal staff of three aides-de-camp. These were personally chosen by the general from among the captains and lieutenants of the army and would accompany him whenever his command changed, being separate from the general staff of the unit he commanded.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigadier_general_(United_States)" title="Brigadier general (United States)">Brigadier general</a>: A brigadier general was typically in command of a brigade, but like major generals it was not uncommon for them to command larger units. They were responsible for the organization and administration of their command, particularly when operating independently. As with major generals they were also allowed a personal staff of two aides-de-camp of lieutenant grade.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)" title="Colonel (United States)">Colonel</a>: A colonel was the commanding officer of a regiment, though they might also be assigned the commanding officer of larger units or expeditions.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They oversaw the recruitment, organization and training of their regiment; conducted parades, reviews and inspections; and managed the administration of the unit, ensuring that soldiers were clothed, fed, armed and paid.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant colonel (United States)">Lieutenant colonel</a>: A lieutenant colonel was the senior assistant to their regiment's colonel in carrying out his duties and taking command in his absence. When the regiment was split among several posts, the lieutenant colonel would command a <a href="/wiki/Detachment_(military)" title="Detachment (military)">detachment</a> of four companies. Of those duties specific to a lieutenant colonel were taking care of the personal property of deceased officers; act as <a href="/wiki/Officer_of_the_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Officer of the day">officer of the day</a> for a brigade; and conduct regimental <a href="/wiki/Court_martial" class="mw-redirect" title="Court martial">courts martial</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_(United_States)" title="Major (United States)">Major</a>: A major acted as an assistant to their regiment's colonel in carrying out his duties and commanded <a href="/wiki/Detachment_(military)" title="Detachment (military)">detachments</a> of two or more companies. The specific duties of a major were also the same as a lieutenant colonel.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)" title="Captain (United States O-3)">Captain</a>: A captain was the commanding officer of a company and saw to its administration. This included selecting (with the colonel's approval) and training non-commissioned officers, issuing punishments and conducting courts martial, and maintaining company <a href="/wiki/Recordkeeping" class="mw-redirect" title="Recordkeeping">records and books</a> such as inventories and the <a href="/wiki/Muster_roll" class="mw-redirect" title="Muster roll">muster roll</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They also served as the officer of the day at a regimental camp or small post.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant#Lieutenant" title="Lieutenant">Lieutenant</a>: In the US Army there were three grades of lieutenant – <a href="/wiki/First_lieutenant#United_States" title="First lieutenant">first</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_lieutenant#United_States" title="Second lieutenant">second</a> and brevet second. The last grade, limited to one per company, was given to West Point graduates and others worthy of the promotion but for whom there was no vacancy. Regardless of grade, lieutenants acted as assistants to the captain, and in his absence the senior-most lieutenant took command.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among their various duties they might be assigned to take the daily roll-call, conduct inspections of the troops, and assist with recordkeeping;<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> oversee the posting of guards when in camp or <a href="/wiki/Picket_(military)" title="Picket (military)">pickets</a> in the field, command <a href="/wiki/Patrolling" title="Patrolling">patrols</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bodyguard" title="Bodyguard">escorts</a> for general officers;<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and command <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_duty" title="Fatigue duty">fatigue parties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lieutenants were also chosen to serve on their regiment's staff,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and may be assigned in an acting capacity to serve on the general staff of a higher unit.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enlisted_personnel">Enlisted personnel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Enlisted personnel"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UnionOfficers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/UnionOfficers.jpg/220px-UnionOfficers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/UnionOfficers.jpg/330px-UnionOfficers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/63/UnionOfficers.jpg/440px-UnionOfficers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="832" /></a><figcaption>Non-commissioned officers of the <a href="/wiki/93rd_New_York_Infantry_Regiment" title="93rd New York Infantry Regiment">93rd New York Infantry Regiment</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bealeton,_Virginia" title="Bealeton, Virginia">Bealeton, Virginia</a>, in August 1863</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Non-commissioned_officers" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-commissioned officers">Non-commissioned officers</a> (NCOs) were important in the Union army in maintaining the order and alignment of formations during marches, battles, and transitioning between the two. <a href="/wiki/Sergeants" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergeants">Sergeants</a> in particular were vital in this role as general guides and their selection ideally reserved for the most distinguished soldiers. NCOs were also charged with training individuals in how to be soldiers. While the captain or other company-level officers were responsible for training the soldiers when assembled into squads, platoons or as a company, experienced NCOs could take over this training as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher119_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher119-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NCOs were also responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Regimental_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Regimental colors">regimental colors</a>, which helped the unit maintain formation and serve as a rally point for the regiment. Typically a sergeant was designated the <a href="/wiki/Standard-bearer" title="Standard-bearer">standard-bearer</a> and protected by a <a href="/wiki/Color_guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Color guard">color guard</a> of <a href="/wiki/Corporal" title="Corporal">corporals</a> who only opened fire in defense of the colors.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were a number of staff NCO positions including <a href="/wiki/Quartermaster_sergeant" title="Quartermaster sergeant">quartermaster sergeant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_sergeant" title="Ordnance sergeant">ordnance sergeant</a>, and commissary sergeant. </p><p>NCOs in the volunteer forces were quite different from their regular counterparts as the war began. Appointed to their role as each regiment was created, they were often on a first-name basis with both their superior officers and the enlisted men they were tasked to lead. Discipline among friends and neighbors was not enforced as strictly as in the regular army, and while some NCOs brought with them prior battlefield experience (whether from the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> or foreign military service) many at the start of the war were as equally ignorant as their officers in military matters.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher119_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher119-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher114_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher114-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Training for these NCOs took place during off-duty hours and often involved lessons based on manuals such as <a href="/wiki/William_J._Hardee" title="William J. Hardee"><i>Hardee's Tactics</i></a>. One notable exception was <a href="/wiki/Michigan_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Michigan in the American Civil War">Michigan</a>, which designated <a href="/wiki/Fort_Wayne_(Detroit)" title="Fort Wayne (Detroit)">Fort Wayne</a> as a training center for both officers and NCOs. As the war progressed NCOs gained valuable experience and even drastic disciplinary measures such as <a href="/wiki/Execution_by_firing_squad" title="Execution by firing squad">execution by firing squad</a> were carried out when deemed necessary. The promotion of soldiers to NCOs (and NCOs to officers) was also increasingly based on battlefield performance, although each state maintained their own standards for when and where promotions could be granted.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher119_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher119-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fisher114_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher114-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Enlisted ranks</dt></dl> <table border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" style="margin:auto; width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="11"><b>Enlisted Rank Structure</b> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Sergeant_Major#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergeant Major">Sergeant Major</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Quartermaster_Sergeant#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartermaster Sergeant">Quartermaster Sergeant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Sergeant" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance Sergeant">Ordnance Sergeant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/First_Sergeant#United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="First Sergeant">First Sergeant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Sergeant#United_States" title="Sergeant">Sergeant</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Corporal#United_States" title="Corporal">Corporal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Musician_(rank)" title="Musician (rank)">Musician</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Private_E-2" class="mw-redirect" title="Private E-2">Private</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant_Major.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant_Major.svg/80px-Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant_Major.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant_Major.svg/120px-Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant_Major.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant_Major.svg/160px-Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant_Major.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="575" /></a></span> </th> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_Infantry_Quartermaster_Sergeant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Union_Army_Infantry_Quartermaster_Sergeant.svg/80px-Union_Army_Infantry_Quartermaster_Sergeant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Union_Army_Infantry_Quartermaster_Sergeant.svg/120px-Union_Army_Infantry_Quartermaster_Sergeant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Union_Army_Infantry_Quartermaster_Sergeant.svg/160px-Union_Army_Infantry_Quartermaster_Sergeant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="425" /></a></span> </th> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_Infantry_Ordnance_Sergeant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Union_Army_Infantry_Ordnance_Sergeant.svg/80px-Union_Army_Infantry_Ordnance_Sergeant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Union_Army_Infantry_Ordnance_Sergeant.svg/120px-Union_Army_Infantry_Ordnance_Sergeant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Union_Army_Infantry_Ordnance_Sergeant.svg/160px-Union_Army_Infantry_Ordnance_Sergeant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="425" /></a></span> </th> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_Infantry_First_Sergeant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Union_Army_Infantry_First_Sergeant.svg/80px-Union_Army_Infantry_First_Sergeant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Union_Army_Infantry_First_Sergeant.svg/120px-Union_Army_Infantry_First_Sergeant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Union_Army_Infantry_First_Sergeant.svg/160px-Union_Army_Infantry_First_Sergeant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="425" /></a></span> </th> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant.svg/80px-Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant.svg/120px-Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant.svg/160px-Union_Army_Infantry_Sergeant.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="425" /></a></span> </th> <th><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Union_Army_Infantry_Corporal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Union_Army_Infantry_Corporal.svg/80px-Union_Army_Infantry_Corporal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Union_Army_Infantry_Corporal.svg/120px-Union_Army_Infantry_Corporal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Union_Army_Infantry_Corporal.svg/160px-Union_Army_Infantry_Corporal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="365" /></a></span> </th> <th>No insignia </th> <th>No insignia </th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sergeant_major_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergeant major (United States)">Sergeant Major</a>: The sergeant major was the senior-most enlisted soldier of a regiment and was expected to serve as a model for the other enlisted personnel. Appointed by the regiment's colonel, among his responsibilities was to issue orders to the first sergeants, maintain a roster of the sergeants and corporals detailed to various tasks, and assist the regimental adjutant in his duties. If a regiment didn't have a drum major or chief musician, he also had responsibility for overseeing the musicians.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartermaster_sergeant#American_Civil_War" title="Quartermaster sergeant">Quartermaster Sergeant</a>: The quartermaster sergeant was appointed by the regimental quartermaster to assist him in carrying out his duties. This included maintaining the store of supplies and serving as foreman for various work parties. Separately, each Union cavalry company was also authorized a quartermaster sergeant who performed similar tasks but was answerable to the company commander and first sergeant.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Commissary Sergeant: Appointed by the regimental commissary, the commissary sergeant was responsible for assisting him in requisitioning and issuing rations to the regiment. Union cavalry companies and some artillery companies were also authorized a commissary sergeant to perform similar tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital_Steward" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospital Steward">Hospital Steward</a>: Regimental hospital stewards were responsible for the care of sick and wounded soldiers and their transportation to a general hospital, along with overseeing of any hospital property and medicines. Appointed by the colonel on the advice of the regiment's senior surgeon, they could direct any musicians (and later any <a href="/wiki/U.S._Ambulance_Corps" title="U.S. Ambulance Corps">Ambulance Corps</a> assets) to assist in carrying out these duties.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hospital stewards assigned to general hospitals acted as supervisors to the rest of the hospital staff (except for the doctors). A single steward was considered sufficient for a 150-bed hospital, while a 500-bed hospital would require three stewards: a chief steward charged with administration, one to act as pharmacist and a third overseeing the preparation of meals.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Sergeant_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="First Sergeant (United States)">First Sergeant</a>: The first sergeant was the senior NCO of a company and appointed by the captain to serve as its immediate supervisor. Among his duties were taking roll call, arresting and confining soldiers for offenses committed, and overseeing the company stores (assisted by the company commissary and/or quartermaster sergeants if present).<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sergeant_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sergeant (United States)">Sergeant</a>: Sergeants were chosen from among a company's corporals and important for supervising the other soldiers. Each sergeant was in command of a squad of soldiers and directed them in carrying out their duties while in camp or garrison. In battle, sergeants kept the soldiers in ranks and prevented them from falling out; if necessary this included shooting them if they attempted to run away.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sergeants oversaw the changing of guards and pickets, confinement of prisoners (which, if numerous enough, would require one sergeant assigned as provost-sergeant), and led patrols and fatigue parties.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One sergeant in the regiment would be chosen as the <a href="/wiki/Color_sergeant" class="mw-redirect" title="Color sergeant">color sergeant</a> and, protected by the <a href="/wiki/Color_guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Color guard">color guard</a>, carried the <a href="/wiki/Regimental_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Regimental colors">regimental colors</a> on parade and in battle.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p130_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p130-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dd>Sergeants in the artillery branch commanded individual cannons as the Chief of Piece and were responsible for keeping it maintained and directing its use in battle.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sergeants of the Ordnance Department (distinct from the separate rank of <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Sergeant" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordnance Sergeant">Ordnance Sergeant</a>) were employed at the various arsenals and armories with manufacturing and caring for the various arms and equipment. They were referred to as master armorers, master carriage-makers or master blacksmiths early in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p65_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p65-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sergeants of the Corps of Engineers, in addition to the normal duties of a sergeant, also had to be knowledgeable in the construction of bridges, forts and other military engineering projects.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautzp66_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautzp66-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Signal Corps, a sergeant was assigned to each signal officer, from whom he took instruction in order to assist with the sending and receiving of signals and performing mounted reconnaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p67_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p67-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporal_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporal (United States)">Corporal</a>: The lowest grade of NCO, corporals would be chosen from among a company's most competent privates and given charge of various tasks and duties. They might be given charge of small parties carrying out fatigue, police or guard duties, and in the absence of the sergeant they may take on their duties.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p102_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p102-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The five most distinguished corporals of a regiment would be chosen to act as the color guard and accompany the color sergeant.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p130_64-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p130-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dd>Artillery corporals acted as gunners and would assist the Chief of Piece in maintaining and aiming the cannon.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p102_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p102-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As with sergeants, corporals of the Ordnance Department were employed at its various facilities. Their formal titles were armorer, carriage-maker or blacksmith until revised later in the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p65_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p65-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, corporals in the Corps of Engineers were also required to be knowledgeable in practical military engineering in addition to their soldierly skills.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautzp66_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautzp66-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Private_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Private (United States)">Private</a>: Privates carried out the basic functions of being a soldier in the Union army. When in camp or garrison they filled in on the various work details and fatigue parties, stood guard and policed the local area. They might be assigned to extra duties such as the company cook, tailor, clerk or as orderlies.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the field they were employed in tasks commiserate with their roles as infantry, cavalry or artillery soldiers. This included being deployed as pickets, skirmishers or flankers.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <dl><dd>Soldiers could also be employed in special duties that were not strictly military in nature: mechanics and laborers, hospital attendants and cooks, regimental armorers, officers' servants, <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_(military)" title="Pioneer (military)">pioneers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Courier" title="Courier">couriers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">scouts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">spies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Corps of Engineers, Ordnance Department, and Signal Corps, privates were further differentiated as first class or second class. First class Engineer and Ordnance privates were formerly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Armed-forces_artificer" title="Armed-forces artificer">artificers</a>, while second class privates were formerly referred to as laborers.<sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p65_66-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p65-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kautz64p67_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kautz64p67-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Southern_Unionists">Southern Unionists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Southern Unionists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Southerners who were against the Confederate cause during the Civil War were known as <a href="/wiki/Southern_Unionists" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern Unionists">Southern Unionists</a>. They were also known as Union Loyalists or Lincoln's Loyalists. Within the eleven Confederate states, states such as <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> (especially <a href="/wiki/East_Tennessee" title="East Tennessee">East Tennessee</a>), <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">Virginia</a> (which included <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> at the time), and <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> were home to the largest populations of Unionists. Many areas of <a href="/wiki/Appalachia" title="Appalachia">Southern Appalachia</a> harbored pro-Union sentiment as well. As many as 100,000 men living in states under Confederate control would serve in the Union army or pro-Union guerilla groups. Although Southern Unionists came from all classes, most differed socially, culturally, and economically from the region's dominant pre-war <a href="/wiki/Planter_class" title="Planter class">planter class</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethnic_composition">Ethnic composition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ethnic composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Us_colored_volunteer_infantry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Us_colored_volunteer_infantry.jpg/220px-Us_colored_volunteer_infantry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Us_colored_volunteer_infantry.jpg/330px-Us_colored_volunteer_infantry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d3/Us_colored_volunteer_infantry.jpg/440px-Us_colored_volunteer_infantry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1450" data-file-height="1058" /></a><figcaption>The 26th U.S. Colored Volunteer Infantry of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">U.S. Colored Troops</a> at <a href="/wiki/Camp_William_Penn" title="Camp William Penn">Camp William Penn</a> in present-day <a href="/wiki/Cheltenham_Township,_Montgomery_County,_Pennsylvania" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheltenham Township, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania">Cheltenham Township, Pennsylvania</a>, in 1865</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Haag,_Co._B,_26th_Wis._Volunteer_Infantry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/John_Haag%2C_Co._B%2C_26th_Wis._Volunteer_Infantry.jpg/220px-John_Haag%2C_Co._B%2C_26th_Wis._Volunteer_Infantry.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/John_Haag%2C_Co._B%2C_26th_Wis._Volunteer_Infantry.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>John Haag, a 21-year-old immigrant from <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, affiliated with Company B of the <a href="/wiki/26th_Wisconsin_Infantry_Regiment" title="26th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment">26th Wisconsin Infantry Regiment</a> in August 1862<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Native-born White Americans made up roughly two-thirds of the soldiers in the Union army, with the rest of many different ethnic groups, including large numbers of immigrants. About 25% of the white men who served in the Union army were foreign-born.<sup id="cite_ref-McPherson,_pp.36–37_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McPherson,_pp.36–37-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. experienced its heaviest rate of immigration during the 1850s, and the vast majority of these people moved to the <a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a> states. </p><p>Among these immigrants, <a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">Germans</a> constituted the largest group with a million arrivals between 1850 and 1860, many of them <a href="/wiki/Forty-Eighters" class="mw-redirect" title="Forty-Eighters">Forty-Eighters</a>. Nearly as many <a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish</a> immigrants arrived during the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immigrant soldiers were among the most enthusiastic in the Union army, not only from a desire to help save their adoptive home but to prove their patriotism towards it.<sup id="cite_ref-Axelrod73_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Axelrod73-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To help cement immigrant enthusiasm and loyalty to the Union, several generals were appointed from these communities, including <a href="/wiki/Franz_Sigel" title="Franz Sigel">Franz Sigel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Corcoran" title="Michael Corcoran">Michael Corcoran</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"> <caption>Ethnic composition of Union enlistments<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Estimates </th> <th>Origin </th></tr> <tr> <td>1,400,000</td> <td align="left">Native-born <a href="/wiki/White_American" class="mw-redirect" title="White American">White American</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>216,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a>/<a href="/wiki/German-American" class="mw-redirect" title="German-American">German-American</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>210,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>150,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Irish-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish-American">Irish</a>-born<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>18,000 – 50,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Americans" title="Canadian Americans">Canadian</a><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>50,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/English_Americans" title="English Americans">English</a>-born </td></tr> <tr> <td>49,000</td> <td align="left">Other (<a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandinavian American">Scandinavian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italian_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian American">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jewish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish American">Jewish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexican_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Mexican American">Mexican</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish American">Polish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td>40,000</td> <td align="left"><a href="/wiki/French_Americans" title="French Americans">French</a>/<a href="/wiki/French-Canadian_Americans" title="French-Canadian Americans">French-Canadian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alternative estimates place the number of enlistees much lower.<sup id="cite_ref-Reid_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reid-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Winks_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winks-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Many immigrant soldiers formed their own regiments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Brigade_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish Brigade (United States)">Irish Brigade</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/69th_Infantry_Regiment_(New_York)" title="69th Infantry Regiment (New York)">69th New York</a>, 63rd New York, 88th New York, 28th Massachusetts, 116th Pennsylvania; the Swiss Rifles (15th Missouri); the <a href="/wiki/55th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="55th New York Volunteer Infantry">Gardes de Lafayette</a> (55th New York); the Garibaldi Guard (39th New York); the Martinez Militia (1st New Mexico); the Polish Legion (58th New York); the <a href="/w/index.php?title=German_Rangers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="German Rangers (page does not exist)">German Rangers</a>; Sigel Rifles (52nd New York, inheriting the 7th); the Cameron Highlanders (<a href="/wiki/79th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="79th New York Volunteer Infantry">79th New York Volunteer Infantry</a>); and the Scandinavian Regiment (15th Wisconsin).<sup id="cite_ref-Axelrod73_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Axelrod73-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But for the most part, the foreign-born soldiers were scattered as individuals throughout units.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Confederate army was less diverse: 91% of its soldiers were native-born white men and only 9% were foreign-born white men, with Irish being the largest group, other groups included Germans, French, British, and Mexicans. Most Mexicans happened to have been born when the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a> was still part of <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a>. Some Confederate propaganda condemned foreign-born soldiers in the Union army, likening them to the German <a href="/wiki/Hessian_(soldiers)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hessian (soldiers)">Hessian</a> troops who fought alongside the <a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_the_American_Revolutionary_War" title="British Army during the American Revolutionary War">British Army during the American Revolutionary War</a>. A relatively smaller number of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a>, including members of <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a> peoples, fought for the Confederacy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italian_Americans_in_the_Union_army">Italian Americans in the Union army</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Italian Americans in the Union army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans in the Civil War</a></div> <p>The great majority of <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italian Americans</a>, for both demographic and ideological reasons, served in the Union army (including generals <a href="/wiki/Edward_Ferrero" title="Edward Ferrero">Edward Ferrero</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_B._Spinola" title="Francis B. Spinola">Francis B. Spinola</a>). Six Italian Americans received the <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor" title="Medal of Honor">Medal of Honor</a> during the war, among whom was Colonel <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Palma_di_Cesnola" title="Luigi Palma di Cesnola">Luigi Palma di Cesnola</a>, who later became the first Director of the <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Metropolitan Museum of Arts">Metropolitan Museum of Arts</a> in New York (1879-1904). Most of the Italian-Americans who joined the Union army were recruited from <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>. Many Italians of note were interested in the war and joined the army, reaching positions of authority. Brigadier General <a href="/wiki/Edward_Ferrero" title="Edward Ferrero">Edward Ferrero</a> was the original commander of the <a href="/wiki/51st_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="51st New York Volunteer Infantry">51st New York Regiment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He commanded both brigades and divisions in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Theater of the American Civil War">eastern</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Theater of the American Civil War">western</a> theaters of war and later commanded a division of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a>. Colonel Enrico Fardella, of the same and later of the <a href="/wiki/85th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry" class="mw-redirect" title="85th New York Volunteer Infantry">85th New York</a> regiment, was made a <a href="/wiki/Brevet_(military)" title="Brevet (military)">brevet</a> brigadier general when the war ended. <a href="/wiki/Francis_B._Spinola" title="Francis B. Spinola">Francis B. Spinola</a> recruited four <a href="/wiki/Regiment" title="Regiment">regiments</a> in New York, was soon appointed Brigadier General by President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a> and given command of the <a href="/wiki/Spinola_Brigade" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinola Brigade">Spinola Brigade</a>. Later he commanded another unit, the famed <a href="/wiki/Excelsior_Brigade" title="Excelsior Brigade">Excelsior Brigade</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:March_past_of_the_%27Garibaldi_Guard%27_before_President_Lincoln,_1861-1865_(c1880).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/March_past_of_the_%27Garibaldi_Guard%27_before_President_Lincoln%2C_1861-1865_%28c1880%29.jpg/220px-March_past_of_the_%27Garibaldi_Guard%27_before_President_Lincoln%2C_1861-1865_%28c1880%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/March_past_of_the_%27Garibaldi_Guard%27_before_President_Lincoln%2C_1861-1865_%28c1880%29.jpg/330px-March_past_of_the_%27Garibaldi_Guard%27_before_President_Lincoln%2C_1861-1865_%28c1880%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/March_past_of_the_%27Garibaldi_Guard%27_before_President_Lincoln%2C_1861-1865_%28c1880%29.jpg/440px-March_past_of_the_%27Garibaldi_Guard%27_before_President_Lincoln%2C_1861-1865_%28c1880%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5800" data-file-height="3942" /></a><figcaption>Review of the <a href="/wiki/Garibaldi_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Garibaldi Guard">Garibaldi Guard</a> by President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Garibaldi_Guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Garibaldi Guard">Garibaldi Guard</a> recruited volunteers for the Union army from Italy and other European countries to form the <a href="/wiki/39th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment">39th New York Infantry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the outbreak of the American Civil War, <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Garibaldi" title="Giuseppe Garibaldi">Giuseppe Garibaldi</a> was a very popular figure. The <a href="/wiki/39th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment">39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment</a>, of whose 350 members were Italian, was nicknamed <i>Garibaldi Guard</i> in his honor. The unit wore red shirts and <i><a href="/wiki/Bersaglieri" title="Bersaglieri">bersaglieri plumes</a>.</i> They carried with them both a Union Flag as well as an <a href="/wiki/Italian_flag" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian flag">Italian flag</a> with the words <i>Dio e popolo,</i> meaning "God and people."<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1861 Garibaldi himself volunteered his services to President <a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a>. Garibaldi was offered a major general's commission in the U.S. Army through the letter from Secretary of State <a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">William H. Seward</a> to <a href="/wiki/Henry_Sanford" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Sanford">H. S. Sanford</a>, the U.S. Minister at <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>, July 17, 1861.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colonel <a href="/wiki/Luigi_Palma_di_Cesnola" title="Luigi Palma di Cesnola">Luigi Palma di Cesnola</a>, a former Italian and British soldier and veteran of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, commanded the 4th New York Cavalry and would rise to become one of the highest ranking Italian officer in the Union army.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He established a military school in New York City where many young Italians were trained and later served in the Union army. Di Cesnola received the <a href="/wiki/Medal_of_Honor" title="Medal of Honor">Medal of Honor</a> for his actions during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aldie" title="Battle of Aldie">Battle of Aldie</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two more famous examples were Francesco Casale and Luigi Tinelli, who were instrumental in the formation of the <a href="/wiki/39th_New_York_Volunteer_Infantry_Regiment" class="mw-redirect" title="39th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment">39th New York Infantry Regiment</a>. According to one evaluation of the <a href="/wiki/Official_Records_of_the_Union_and_Confederate_Armies" title="Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies">Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies</a>, there were over 200 Italians who served as officers in the U.S. army.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="African_Americans_in_the_Union_army">African Americans in the Union army</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: African Americans in the Union army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Unidentified_African_American_Union_soldier_with_a_rifle_and_revolver_in_front_of_painted_backdrop_showing_weapons_and_American_flag_at_Benton_Barracks,_Saint_Louis,_Missouri_LOC_5229147154_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Unidentified_African_American_Union_soldier_with_a_rifle_and_revolver_in_front_of_painted_backdrop_showing_weapons_and_American_flag_at_Benton_Barracks%2C_Saint_Louis%2C_Missouri_LOC_5229147154_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Unidentified_African_American_Union_soldier_with_a_rifle_and_revolver_in_front_of_painted_backdrop_showing_weapons_and_American_flag_at_Benton_Barracks%2C_Saint_Louis%2C_Missouri_LOC_5229147154_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Unidentified_African_American_Union_soldier_with_a_rifle_and_revolver_in_front_of_painted_backdrop_showing_weapons_and_American_flag_at_Benton_Barracks%2C_Saint_Louis%2C_Missouri_LOC_5229147154_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="681" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of an African American Union soldier at <a href="/wiki/Benton_Barracks" title="Benton Barracks">Benton Barracks</a></figcaption></figure> <p>By 1860, the <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> or Black population of the United States consisted of four million <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">enslaved</a> and half a million <a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">free Blacks</a>. When the Civil War began, many freedmen in the North attempted to enlist in federal service but were barred from doing so. Popularly-held prejudices doubted whether Black people could be effective soldiers, and President Lincoln believed allowing their enlistment would anger Northern whites and alienate not just the South but the <a href="/wiki/Border_states_(American_Civil_War)" title="Border states (American Civil War)">Border States</a> too. However he eventually changed his mind and persuaded Congress to authorize the first official Black enlistment system in late 1862, which evolved into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USCT_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCT-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Before they were allowed to enlist, many Black people volunteered their services to the Union army as cooks, nurses, and in other informal roles, and several volunteer regiments of Black troops were raised by the states. These included the <a href="/wiki/1st_Kansas_Colored_Infantry_Regiment" title="1st Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment">1st Kansas Colored Infantry Regiment</a>, the first Black regiment to be raised and the first to engage in combat; the <a href="/wiki/1st_Louisiana_Native_Guard_(Union)" title="1st Louisiana Native Guard (Union)">1st Louisiana Native Guard</a>, raised from both freedmen and escaped slaves after the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_New_Orleans" title="Capture of New Orleans">Capture of New Orleans</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/54th_Massachusetts_Infantry_Regiment" title="54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment">54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment</a>, which became the most famous Black unit after their valiant participation in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Wagner,_Morris_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Fort Wagner, Morris Island">Battle of Fort Wagner</a>. Their efforts helped to dispel the notion that Black soldiers were a liability, allowing about 200,000 Black soldiers to serve in the Union army during the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-USCT_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCT-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even as they served their country, Black soldiers were subject to discrimination. They were more often assigned to menial labor. Some Union officers refused to employ them in combat, but when they were they often had to use inferior weapons and equipment. Black soldiers were paid less than white soldiers ($10 vs $16 per month) until Congress yielded to public pressure and approved equal pay in June 1864. Black units were led predominantly by white officers, and while more than a hundred Black men were eventually made officers (not counting those <a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">passing</a> as white), none were promoted to a rank higher than major. If captured by Confederate forces, Black soldiers risked being made slaves or <a href="/wiki/Summarily_executed" class="mw-redirect" title="Summarily executed">summarily executed</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USCT_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USCT-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_in_the_Union_army">Women in the Union army</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Women in the Union army"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kady_Brownell_CDV.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kady_Brownell_CDV.jpg/220px-Kady_Brownell_CDV.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kady_Brownell_CDV.jpg/330px-Kady_Brownell_CDV.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Kady_Brownell_CDV.jpg/440px-Kady_Brownell_CDV.jpg 2x" data-file-width="588" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Kady_Brownell" title="Kady Brownell">Kady Brownell</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Vivandi%C3%A8re" title="Vivandière">vivandière</a> from <a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Rhode Island in the American Civil War">Rhode Island</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Women took on many significant roles in the Union army and were important to its ultimate success on the battlefield. The most direct way they could help was to enlist and fight as soldiers, although women were officially barred from doing so. Nevertheless, it is believed <a href="/wiki/List_of_female_American_Civil_War_soldiers" title="List of female American Civil War soldiers">hundreds of women</a> disguised themselves as men in order to enlist. While many were discovered and forced to quit, others were only found out after they were killed in combat, and a number managed to serve throughout the entire war with their true identity successfully concealed. </p><p>One of the more traditional roles played by women in the Union army was that of <a href="/wiki/Camp_follower" title="Camp follower">camp followers</a>. Thousands of white and Black women accompanied Union armies in an unofficial capacity to provide their services as <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laundress" class="mw-redirect" title="Laundress">laundresses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">nurses</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/Prostitute" class="mw-redirect" title="Prostitute">prostitutes</a>. Many were the wives or other female relatives of the soldiers themselves who saw to their personal needs and (if time allowed) looked to the well-being of other soldiers. A somewhat more formal role for some camp followers was that of <i><a href="/wiki/Vivandi%C3%A8re" title="Vivandière">vivandière</a></i>. Originally a female <a href="/wiki/Sutler" title="Sutler">sutler</a>, the role of <i>vivandière</i> expanded to include other responsibilities, including on the battlefield. Armed for their own protection, they brought water to thirsty soldiers, carried the <a href="/wiki/Regimental_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Regimental colors">regimental colors</a> and rallied their fellow soldiers to fight, provided <a href="/wiki/First_aid" title="First aid">first aid</a> or helped the wounded back to a field hospital. A related (and sometimes conflated) role was that of "daughter of the regiment". Often literally a daughter of one of the regimental officers, these women looked to the soldiers' well-being but also served as their regiment's "mascot" who inspired the men by wearing stylish clothing and enduring the same hardships as them. Some of the most prominent women to accompany the Union armies in the field include <a href="/wiki/Anna_Etheridge" title="Anna Etheridge">Anna Etheridge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marie_Tepe" title="Marie Tepe">Marie Tepe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nadine_Turchin" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadine Turchin">Nadine Turchin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women also sought to serve more formally as nurses in the Union army, many having been inspired by the work of <a href="/wiki/Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>. However, there was strong resistance against these efforts at first. Societal prejudices saw women as too delicate and the job too unsuitable for women of social rank, particularly at the thought of unmarried women surrounded by thousands of men in close quarters. Nevertheless, Congress eventually approved for women to serve as nurses, to which <a href="/wiki/Dorothea_Dix" title="Dorothea Dix">Dorothea Dix</a> – appointed Superintendent of Army Nurses – was responsible for setting hiring guidelines and starting a training program for prospective candidates. For the women who served, nursing during the Civil War was a hazardous occupation: grueling hours spent in close proximity to deadly diseases and nearby battlefields resulted in many suffering permanent disabilities or death. Added to this were the prejudices of the male medical officers in charge who did not want them there and frequently clashed with the nurses over issues of <a href="/wiki/Triage" title="Triage">triage</a>, patient treatments and <a href="/wiki/Hospice_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospice care">hospice care</a>. Tens of thousands of women served as nurses for the Union army, among whom are included <a href="/wiki/Clara_Barton" title="Clara Barton">Clara Barton</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susie_King_Taylor" title="Susie King Taylor">Susie King Taylor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Edwards_Walker" title="Mary Edwards Walker">Mary Edwards Walker</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Louisa_May_Alcott" title="Louisa May Alcott">Louisa May Alcott</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No less vital were the thousands of women who provided service to the Union army in the field of <a href="/wiki/Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage</a>. Early in the war, women were at a distinct advantage as <a href="/wiki/Spying" class="mw-redirect" title="Spying">spies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">scouts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smuggler" class="mw-redirect" title="Smuggler">smugglers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Saboteur" class="mw-redirect" title="Saboteur">saboteurs</a>: the idea of women participating in such dangerous lines of work was simply not considered. Eventually though their opponents recognized their existence, and while female spies caught in the act were not typically executed like their male colleagues, they still faced the threat of lengthy prison sentences. For self-evident reasons many of these activities were kept secret and any documentation (if it existed) was often destroyed. As such the identity of many of these women will never be known. Of those who became famous for their espionage work during or after the end of the war, prominent examples include <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mary_Louvestre" title="Mary Louvestre">Mary Louvestre</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Cushman" title="Pauline Cushman">Pauline Cushman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Van_Lew" title="Elizabeth Van Lew">Elizabeth Van Lew</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mary_Bowser" title="Mary Bowser">Mary Bowser</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Motivations">Motivations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Motivations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-slavery_sentiment">Anti-slavery sentiment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anti-slavery sentiment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In his 1997 book examining the motivations of the American Civil War's soldiers, <a href="/wiki/For_Cause_and_Comrades:_Why_Men_Fought_in_the_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War"><i>For Cause and Comrades</i></a>, historian <a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">James M. McPherson</a> states that Union soldiers fought to preserve the United States, as well as to end slavery, stating that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>While restoration of the Union was the main goal for which they fought, <i>they became convinced that this goal was unattainable without striking against slavery.</i></p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>James M. McPherson, <i><a href="/wiki/For_Cause_and_Comrades:_Why_Men_Fought_in_the_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War">For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War</a></i> (1997), p. 118, emphasis added.<sup id="cite_ref-JMMcPherson1997p118_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JMMcPherson1997p118-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>McPherson states that witnessing the slave system of the Confederacy first-hand also strengthened the <a href="/wiki/Anti-slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-slavery">anti-slavery</a> views of Union soldiers,<sup id="cite_ref-JMMcPherson1997p118_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JMMcPherson1997p118-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who were appalled by its brutality.<sup id="cite_ref-JMMcPherson1997p118_102-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JMMcPherson1997p118-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He stated that "Experience in the South reinforced the antislavery sentiments of many soldiers."<sup id="cite_ref-JMMcPherson1997p118_102-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JMMcPherson1997p118-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pennsylvania in the American Civil War">Pennsylvanian</a> Union soldier spoke to a slave woman whose husband was whipped, and was appalled by what she had to tell him of slavery. He stated that "I thought I had hated slavery as much as possible before I came here, but here, where I can see some of its workings, I am more than ever convinced of the cruelty and inhumanity of the system."<sup id="cite_ref-JMMcPherson1997p118_102-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JMMcPherson1997p118-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Army_administration_and_issues">Army administration and issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Army administration and issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjutant_General's_Department"><span id="Adjutant_General.27s_Department"></span>Adjutant General's Department</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Adjutant General's Department"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Adjutant_General%27s_Corps" title="United States Army Adjutant General's Corps">United States Army Adjutant General's Corps</a></div> <p>The responsibilities and functions of the Adjutant General's Department (AGD) were many and varied during the course of the Civil War, but principle among them was handling military correspondence between the President, Secretary of War and General-in-Chief, and the rest of the army. Other functions included administering recruitment, overseeing the appointment of <a href="/wiki/Chaplain" title="Chaplain">chaplains</a>, maintaining personnel records, and issuing instruction books and other <a href="/wiki/Form_(document)" title="Form (document)">forms</a>. During the war, some of the department's responsibilities and functions were spun off to new offices while new ones were added. The recruitment of new white volunteers and draftees, and the suppression and punishment of <a href="/wiki/Absenteeism" title="Absenteeism">absenteeism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">desertion</a>, was given to the newly formed Provost Marshal General's Bureau in May 1863, while the position of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Commissioner_for_the_Exchange_of_Prisoners&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Commissioner for the Exchange of Prisoners (page does not exist)">Commissioner for the Exchange of Prisoners</a> was created to take over this function from the AGD. The <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Colored_Troops" title="Bureau of Colored Troops">Bureau of Colored Troops</a> was created within the AGD specifically to oversee the creation of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Colored_Troops" title="United States Colored Troops">United States Colored Troops</a>, and in the final year of the war the AGD was given the responsibility for collecting and editing documents which would constitute <i>The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell90_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell90-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the start of the Civil War, the AGD numbered just fourteen regular officers: the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Adjutant_General%27s_Corps" title="United States Army Adjutant General's Corps">Adjutant General</a> (AG) with the rank of colonel, a lieutenant-colonel, four brevet majors, and eight brevet captains. In August 1861 the AG was raised to major-general and the strength of the AGD increased to twenty officers, and a year later it was reorganized to constitute the AG, two colonels, four lieutenant-colonels, and thirteen majors. The small number of civilian clerical staff supporting the officers was also increased as the war progressed, including the addition of up to ten noncommissioned officers by 1862. However to meet the need for assistant adjutant generals authorized for each corps, division and brigade, appointments were made from among the volunteer forces, and by 1865 there were an additional 85 majors and 256 captains serving in these capacities. At the regimental level, one of the unit's lieutenants would be selected to serve as its adjutant.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell90_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell90-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In spite of the rapid increase of the army at the start presenting numerous challenges and being perpetually understaffed throughout the war, the AGD appears to have handled its responsibilities competently and with little disruption. The AGD also had fewer conflicts with field commanders compared to some of the other departments, partly because its authority was well-established and issued few controversial orders itself, and it was less affected by matters of procurement and emerging technologies.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell90_103-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell90-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>Colonel <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Thomas" title="Lorenzo Thomas">Lorenzo Thomas</a> was named Adjutant General of the army on March 7, 1861, one day after Col. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Cooper_(general)" title="Samuel Cooper (general)">Samuel Cooper</a> resigned the join the Confederacy. While Thomas served as the AG throughout the entirety of the war, he eventually ran afoul of Secretary Stanton, who reassigned him to the job of recruiting soldiers for black regiments in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Theater of the American Civil War">western theater</a>. From March 1863 on then, the assistant adjutant general Colonel <a href="/wiki/Edward_D._Townsend" title="Edward D. Townsend">Edward D. Townsend</a> essentially was the acting AG in Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell90_103-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell90-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bureau_of_Military_Justice">Bureau of Military Justice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bureau of Military Justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General%27s_Corps,_United_States_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Judge Advocate General's Corps, United States Army">Judge Advocate General's Corps, United States Army</a></div> <p>An office of the <a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate" class="mw-redirect" title="Judge Advocate">Judge Advocate</a> had existed in the US Army since its founding, consisting at the start of the Civil War of a single officer with the rank of major and small civilian clerical staff in Washington. It was not until after the war began however that Congress formally authorized the appointment of a <a href="/wiki/Judge_Advocate_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Judge Advocate General">Judge Advocate General</a> (JAG) and creation of the Bureau of Military Justice, a <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> department and forerunner to a true Judge Advocate General's Department. The principle functions of the JAG included conducting <a href="/wiki/Courts-martial_of_the_United_States" title="Courts-martial of the United States">courts-martial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">inquiries</a>; codifying the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_war" title="Law of war">laws of war</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Code_of_Military_Justice" title="Uniform Code of Military Justice">military laws of the United States</a>; reviewing the records of courts-martial, military commissions and inquiries; and asserting the jurisdiction of military commissions over civilians in times of war.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell98_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell98-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To meet the demands of a vastly larger army, Congress authorized in July 1862 the appointment of a JAG with the rank of colonel and for President Lincoln to appoint a judge advocate of volunteers with the rank of major for each army in the field. These judge advocates were to advise commanders on legal issues, prosecute offenses, and review and maintain the records of courts-martial and other proceedings in the field. A year later, Congress legislated the creation of the Bureau of Military Justice, gave it an <a href="/wiki/Appellant" class="mw-redirect" title="Appellant">appellant</a> function, and authorized the JAG to head it as a brigadier general alongside an assistant JAG with the rank of colonel. With these authorizations came a small increase in the size of the clerical staff assisting the JAG.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell98_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell98-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war the JAG and his subordinates were able to satisfactorily handle the increased volume and complexity of legal matters that came with the exponential growth of the army. Among their most important accomplishments was the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Lieber_Code" title="Lieber Code">Lieber Code</a> and, for the first time, collecting all precedents, decisions and opinions which had become US military law into a single digest and publishing it in early 1865. One of the most controversial issues associated with the bureau was the use of military commissions to try civilians, an issue which would not be settled until <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Milligan" title="Ex parte Milligan">Ex parte Milligan</a></i> was decided in 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell98_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell98-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>The Civil War began with brevet Major <a href="/wiki/John_F._Lee" title="John F. Lee">John F. Lee</a> serving as the judge advocate of the army until September 3, 1862, when <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Holt" title="Joseph Holt">Joseph Holt</a> was formally appointed as JAG. Holt played an important parts in helping to expanding the office of the JAG and oversaw some of the most important and sensitive trials of the war. However Holt also made many enemies while JAG and was severely criticized for his handling of the <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Abraham_Lincoln#Conspirators'_trial_and_execution" title="Assassination of Abraham Lincoln">trial of President Lincoln's assassins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell98_104-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell98-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bureau_of_Refugees,_Freedmen,_and_Abandoned_Lands"><span id="Bureau_of_Refugees.2C_Freedmen.2C_and_Abandoned_Lands"></span>Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></div> <p>In March 1865 the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands was created by Congress with a mandate to see to the needs of all Black freedmen and white refugees, and the management of all lands within the rebel states which had been abandoned or otherwise come into the possession of the United States. It consisted of a commissioner as head of the bureau, an assistant commissioner for each of the rebel states, and a small staff of one chief and nine other clerks. Additionally, any military officer could be assigned to duty on behalf of the bureau. Major General <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Otis_Howard" title="Oliver Otis Howard">Oliver Otis Howard</a> was appointed to head the bureau at its creation and lead it throughout its lifetime. While the Freedmen's Bureau was the center of much controversy during the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> and some of the relief it provided was less than satisfactory, its most important contribution was in providing education to many Blacks and poor whites.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell107_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell107-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corps_of_Engineers">Corps of Engineers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Corps of Engineers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Engineers">United States Army Corps of Engineers</a></div> <p>The Corps of Engineers was a small part of the army prior to the Civil War but played an important role not only in the conflict but for the nation as a whole. The Corps was responsible for running the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Academy" title="United States Military Academy">United States Military Academy</a> at <a href="/wiki/West_Point,_New_York" title="West Point, New York">West Point</a>, which supplied officers to all branches but whose top graduates were commissioned into the Corps. They were not only involved with <a href="/wiki/Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">military engineering</a> such as constructing <a href="/wiki/Fortifications" class="mw-redirect" title="Fortifications">fortifications</a> and harbor defenses but also oversaw <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a> including building canals, bridges and similar projects. This focus on civil works did prevent the Corps from devoting its entire effort to the war though.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin18_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin18-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Corps personnel acted as <a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">combat engineers</a> during battle, helping to construct <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridges</a>, repair roads and bridges, dig <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trenches</a>, and conduct <a href="/wiki/Engineer_reconnaissance" title="Engineer reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a>. The Corps also exerted an influence beyond its small size as many of the Union's most prominent officers, including McClellan and Meade, were themselves trained as engineers and used their knowledge to influence the outcome of battles.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin110-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the war, the Corps of Engineers consisted of just forty-eight officers and a single company of 150 engineer troops. Engineer Company A was first created for the <a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a> and guarded President Lincoln at his <a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Abraham_Lincoln" title="First inauguration of Abraham Lincoln">first inauguration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin110-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was organized with ten sergeants (master-workmen), ten corporals (overseers), two musicians, sixty-four first-class privates (<a href="/wiki/Armed-forces_artificer" title="Armed-forces artificer">artificers</a>) and sixty-four second-class privates (laborers).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In August 1861 Congress authorized the formation of three more companies to be organized the same as Engineer Company A, with all four organized into a single battalion (the US Engineer Battalion, later <a href="/wiki/1st_Engineer_Battalion_(United_States)" title="1st Engineer Battalion (United States)">1st Engineer Battalion)</a>, and the addition of two lieutenant colonels, four majors and six lieutenants to the Corps. The battalion had no formal headquarters but fell under the command of the most senior officer present. In March 1863, when the Corps of Topographical Engineers was disbanded and its function merged with the Corps of Engineers, Congress further revised the Corps to consist of a brigadier-general as Chief Engineer, four colonels, ten lieutenant-colonels, twenty majors, thirty captains, thirty first lieutenants and ten second lieutenants.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin110-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The US Engineer Battalion served ably as part of the Army of the Potomac, but on its own was insufficient to see to the army's need for engineers throughout the different theaters of war. A small number of volunteer engineer regiments were formed during the war, including the <a href="/wiki/1st_Michigan_Engineers_and_Mechanics_Regiment" title="1st Michigan Engineers and Mechanics Regiment">1st Michigan Engineers and Mechanics Regiment</a>, the <a href="/wiki/1st_New_York_Engineer_Regiment" title="1st New York Engineer Regiment">1st New York Engineer Regiment</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=1st_United_States_Veteran_Volunteer_Engineer_Regiment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="1st United States Veteran Volunteer Engineer Regiment (page does not exist)">1st United States Veteran Volunteer Engineer Regiment</a>. However, in many cases engineering work was carried out by line soldiers under the supervision of officers with engineering backgrounds, if any were available.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin110-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most types of engineering work, such as digging simple <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthworks (military)">earthworks</a> or laying small bridges, did not require the specialized skills of engineers, which were required for complex endeavors like constructing pontoon bridges or forts. Union armies typically detailed soldiers to form company-sized detachments of <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_(military)" title="Pioneer (military)">pioneers</a> to repair roads or bury the dead after a battle.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Gilbert_Totten" title="Joseph Gilbert Totten">Joseph Gilbert Totten</a>: December 7, 1838 – April 22, 1864</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Delafield" title="Richard Delafield">Richard Delafield</a>: April 22, 1864 – August 8, 1866</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corps_of_Topographical_Engineers">Corps of Topographical Engineers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Corps of Topographical Engineers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Corps_of_Topographical_Engineers" title="United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers">United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers</a></div> <p>The Corps of Topographical Engineers had been established in 1831 with the mission of <a href="/wiki/Exploration" title="Exploration">exploration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/American_West" class="mw-redirect" title="American West">American West</a>. Topographical engineers (or "topogs") including <a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">John C. Frémont</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Stansbury" title="Howard Stansbury">Howard Stansbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_H._Emory" title="William H. Emory">William H. Emory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gouverneur_K._Warren" title="Gouverneur K. Warren">Gouverneur K. Warren</a> were instrumental in the westward expansion of the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin27_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin27-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the war, the civilian nature of the Corps' mission was largely suspended and it undertook the role of reconnaissance, construction of defensive works and supplying maps to the army. In these conditions drawing a distinction between the two corps became increasingly impractical, until in March 1863 the Corps of Topographical Engineers was disbanded and its mission taken up by the Corps of Engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Topographical Engineers numbered forty-five officers before the Civil War. In August 1861 an additional two lieutenant colonels, four majors and six lieutenants were authorized by Congress. There were no enlisted men in the Corps, although when the Corps was expanded Congress also authorized a company of engineers for the Topographical Engineers to be modeled after the Corps of Engineers. However this company was never formed, and the actual size of the Corps shrank as a number retired, died, defected to the Confederacy or became general officers of the volunteers, until eventually the remaining officers were absorbed by the Corps of Engineers.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most important role played by the Topographical Engineers, even after their merger with the regular Corps, was providing desperately-needed maps to army commanders. Each field army headquarters established their own topographical departments under the supervision of engineer officers, which would provide the army with maps necessary for a given campaign. Such departments themselves were staffed with teams of <a href="/wiki/Draughtsmen" class="mw-redirect" title="Draughtsmen">draughtsmen</a> and assistants and stocked with <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing presses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Photographic">photographic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lithographic" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithographic">lithographic</a> equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell292_106-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell292-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>The Chief of Topographical Engineers at the start of the Civil War was Colonel <a href="/wiki/John_James_Abert" title="John James Abert">John James Abert</a>. Colonel Abert had been responsible for lobbying Congress to make the Corps an independent branch of War Department and was appointed to lead his creation in 1838. He retired in September 1861 and was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Harriman_Long" title="Stephen Harriman Long">Stephen Harriman Long</a>, who remained in the position until the Corps was disbanded. Thereafter he continued to serve in the Corps of Engineers as the senior officer to the Chief Engineer.<sup id="cite_ref-Baldwin27_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baldwin27-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inspector_General's_Department"><span id="Inspector_General.27s_Department"></span>Inspector General's Department</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Inspector General's Department"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Inspector_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Office of the Inspector General of the United States Army">Office of the Inspector General of the United States Army</a></div> <p>At the start of the Civil War, there was technically no Inspector General's Department, with neither a set of operating practices or centralized direction. Instead there were two <a href="/wiki/Inspector_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Inspector General">Inspector Generals</a> (IGs) with the rank of colonel whose duty was to conduct inspections and investigations to ensure the army was organized and operating at full readiness, but these were done in an ad-hoc manner at the discretion of the Secretary of War. As the war progressed and membership in the inspectorate increased, the duties of IGs and assistant IGs were continually redefined, to the extent that any time a problem was identified the common response was simply to assign an inspector to it. Eventually in January 1863 a permanent office of the IG was established in Washington, and it was from here that the process of exerting a centralized control over IGs in the field and crafting standard policies and procedures was started.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell94_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell94-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1861, Congress authorized an increase of two additional IGs with the rank of colonel and five assistant IGs with the rank of major from among the regular army. This number stayed the same throughout the entire war, with the addition of a small civilian clerical staff once the Washington office was established. Congress eventually determined that each geographical department, army, corps, division and brigade would also be assigned an IG or assistant IG, however these positions were to be filled by regular or volunteer officers detailed from line units of the army or from the other staff departments.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell94_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell94-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The inspectorate faced many challenges during the Civil War, including hostility and lack of cooperation from some commanders and the mixed performance of some IGs in the field. Despite these issues it was able to successfully meet the challenges of the war overall, particularly with bringing under control the waste, fraud and abuse which had been rampant at the start of the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell94_113-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell94-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>At the start of the war the inspectorate consisted of Colonel <a href="/wiki/Sylvester_Churchill" title="Sylvester Churchill">Sylvester Churchill</a>, the senior IG of the army, and Colonel <a href="/wiki/Joseph_K._Mansfield" title="Joseph K. Mansfield">Joseph K. Mansfield</a>, the junior IG. Churchill however took leave in April 1861 on account of his health and formally retired in September that year, while Mansfield was promoted to major-general and left to command troops in May. Colonel <a href="/wiki/Henry_Lee_Scott" title="Henry Lee Scott">Henry Lee Scott</a> replaced Mansfield that same month, but when Churchill retired his position was given to Colonel <a href="/wiki/Randolph_Marcy" class="mw-redirect" title="Randolph Marcy">Randolph Marcy</a>, father-in-law to George McClellan, in the same month. Serving as the chief of staff to McClellan, Marcy did not formally take up his duties as senior IG until after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a>, by which point however his association with McClellan had soured Marcy's relationship with Secretary Stanton, who sent him on inspection tours of various geographical departments. Instead, the <a href="/wiki/De_facto" title="De facto">de facto</a> leader of the inspectorate was whoever was the IG in charge of the Washington office, which was Colonel <a href="/wiki/Delos_Sacket" class="mw-redirect" title="Delos Sacket">Delos Sacket</a> between January 1863 and March 1864, and Colonel <a href="/wiki/James_Allen_Hardie" title="James Allen Hardie">James Allen Hardie</a> for the remainder of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell94_113-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell94-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_Department">Medical Department</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Medical Department"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medical_Corps_(United_States_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Corps (United States Army)">Medical Corps (United States Army)</a></div> <p>The Army Medical Department (AMD) was rivaled only by the Quartermaster's Department in the scope and complexity of its responsibilities: caring for sick and wounded soldiers, operating <a href="/wiki/Field_hospital" title="Field hospital">field</a> and <a href="/wiki/General_hospital" class="mw-redirect" title="General hospital">general hospitals</a>, and acquiring and distributing medicine, medical equipment, hospital food and similar supplies. Functions such as <a href="/wiki/Casualty_evacuation" title="Casualty evacuation">evacuating</a> soldiers off the battlefield or constructing hospitals were handled were handled by other departments, though later in the war the AMD assumed many of these roles. In March 1864 it was placed in charge of casualty evacuation (<a href="/wiki/U.S._Ambulance_Corps" title="U.S. Ambulance Corps">U.S. Ambulance Corps</a>) and the organization and operation of <a href="/wiki/Train_(military)" title="Train (military)">medical supply trains</a>. In December it was given control over the construction and equipping of military hospitals, and of <a href="/wiki/Hospital_train" title="Hospital train">hospital trains</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hospital_ship" title="Hospital ship">hospital ships</a> in February 1865. Other responsibilities assumed during the war included care for disabled veterans and their families, prisoners of war, refugees and freed slaves; maintaining medical records of the dead and wounded; and preparing a medical and surgical history of the war. The AMD started out the war staffed by a conservative and inflexible leadership which negatively impacted its functioning, but would eventually be rectified by war's end.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell163_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell163-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right"> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">Position </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">1862 </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">1863 </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">1864 </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">1865 </th></tr> </tbody><caption>Regular army medical personnel<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>Surgeon General (<a href="/wiki/Brigadier_General_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Brigadier General (United States)">BG</a>) </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Assistant Surgeon General (<a href="/wiki/Colonel_(United_States)" title="Colonel (United States)">COL</a>) </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Medical Inspector General (COL) </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td> <td>1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Medical Inspector (<a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lieutenant Colonel (United States)">LTC</a>) </td> <td>8 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td> <td>16 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Surgeon (<a href="/wiki/Major_(United_States)" title="Major (United States)">MAJ</a>) </td> <td>50 </td> <td>50 </td> <td>50 </td> <td>50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Assistant Surgeon (<a href="/wiki/Captain_(United_States_O-3)" title="Captain (United States O-3)">CPT</a>) </td> <td>14 </td> <td>5 </td> <td>3 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Assistant Surgeon (<a href="/wiki/First_lieutenant#United_States" title="First lieutenant">1LT</a>) </td> <td>100 </td> <td>109 </td> <td>111 </td> <td>114 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Medical Storekeeper </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td> <td>6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Medical Cadet </td> <td>70 </td> <td>70 </td> <td>70 </td> <td>70 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Hospital_Steward" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospital Steward">Hospital Steward</a> </td> <td>201 </td> <td>471 </td> <td>650 </td> <td>931 </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>In April 1861 the AMD was the largest of the staff departments in the regular army: a <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States_Army" title="Surgeon General of the United States Army">Surgeon General</a> (with the rank of colonel), thirty surgeons, eighty-three assistant surgeons, and fifty-nine <a href="/wiki/Hospital_Steward" class="mw-redirect" title="Hospital Steward">Hospital Stewards</a>. However this number was barely adequate to meet the needs of the army in peacetime, and in May 1861 an additional ten surgeons and twenty assistant surgeons were added to cover the new regular army regiments being raised. Later that year in August, Congress authorized the appointment of fifty medical <a href="/wiki/Cadet" title="Cadet">cadets</a> to be chosen from young men with a liberal education and prior medical experience. They had the rank and pay of West Point cadets and were to act as <a href="/wiki/Ambulance_attendant" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambulance attendant">ambulance attendants</a> in the field and assistants in general hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell166_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell166-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 1862, Congress authorized a substantial reorganization of the AMD. Beyond promoting the surgeon general to brigadier general and adding additional staff, one of the most controversial was the introduction of medical inspectors, as a number of these were appointed by Secretary Stanton for "political" purposes. Charged with supervising all aspects of sanitary conditions within the army, their purview included the inspection of quarters, camps, hospitals and transports; their duties were later expanded to include issuing certificates of <a href="/wiki/Military_discharge" title="Military discharge">discharge</a> for reasons of disability. Congress also gave the surgeon general the authority to hire as many hospital stewards as necessary, and a month later they authorized the addition of six trained <a href="/wiki/Apothecaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Apothecaries">apothecaries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Druggists" class="mw-redirect" title="Druggists">druggists</a> as medical storekeepers.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell166_116-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell166-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most regular army medical officers served in staff positions, whether at the office in Washington or out in the field as regimental surgeons, <a href="/wiki/Attending_physician" title="Attending physician">attending physicians</a> in general hospitals, medical purveyors who ran medical supply depots and laboratories, or as the medical director of a division, corps, field army or military department. Medical directors oversaw the operation of field hospitals and the associate medical personnel, field sanitation and medical supply within their command. However, there was no statutory basis for their assignment, and it wasn't until February 1865 when Congress bowed to pressure and provided for officers serving in these capacities to receive rank, pay and emoluments appropriate to their responsibilities.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell166_116-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell166-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Added to the relatively small number of regular army medical personnel were a further 546 surgeons and assistant surgeons volunteers, appointed by the president to supplement regular army personnel in staff positions; another 5,532 civilian doctors employed under contract (mainly in general hospitals) as acting assistant surgeons; a small number of medical officers of the <a href="/wiki/Veteran_Reserve_Corps" title="Veteran Reserve Corps">Veteran Reserve Corps</a>; and the thousands of regimental surgeons and assistant surgeons appointed to the volunteer regiments by their respective state governors. Thousands more civilians were employed by the AMD as nurses, clerks, hospital attendants, laborers, etc. The AMD was further augmented by a number of private and semi-official philanthropic organizations, foremost among which was the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Sanitary_Commission" title="United States Sanitary Commission">United States Sanitary Commission</a> (USCC).<sup id="cite_ref-Newell166_116-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell166-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The chaotic aftermath of the first Battle of Bull Run – no coordination between field hospitals and casualty evacuation, regimental surgeons refusing to treat soldiers from other units, and the few ambulance drivers robbing their charges or fleeing – exemplified the inadequacies of pre-war planning and preparations. Burdened with an aged and conservative leadership, it took the injection of more enlightened leaders to make the necessary reforms for the AMD to meet these new challenges. By the war's end, the AMD had implemented a better method of evacuating battlefield casualties to field hospitals and general hospitals, established laboratories to test and certify drugs and other medicines, identified reliable sources of supply and implemented effective contracting procedures, and increased the number of medical personnel to see to the needs of over a million men under arms.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell192_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell192-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some challenges remained however, against which only small progress was made. Although improved <a href="/wiki/Field_sanitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Field sanitation">field sanitation</a> reduced disease rates and some advances like the use of <a href="/wiki/Chloroform" title="Chloroform">chloroform</a> proved helpful, a lack of <a href="/wiki/Aseptic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aseptic surgery">aseptic surgery</a> or general understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory">germ theory</a> led to many deaths from disease, <a href="/wiki/Shock_(circulatory)" title="Shock (circulatory)">shock</a> or <a href="/wiki/Secondary_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary infection">secondary infection</a>. <a href="/wiki/Psychological_trauma" title="Psychological trauma">Psychological trauma</a> was not well understood and the average soldier made due with an inadequate diet for maintaining their health. The AMD's reliance on the Quartermaster and Subsistence departments for transportation and rations respectively left these subject to interdepartmental rivalry until late in the war, and personal conflict between military commanders and their supporting medical personnel could lead to problematic health outcomes. Despite these faults, AMD personnel did their best to alleviate the suffering of their fellow soldiers and laid the groundwork for future improvement.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell192_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell192-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>The Surgeon General at the start of the war was Colonel <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lawson_(military_physician)" title="Thomas Lawson (military physician)">Thomas Lawson</a>, who at 97 years was on his deathbed and his duties were being carried out Major Robert C. Wood, one of his assistants. When he passed in May 1861 Lawson was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Clement_Finley" title="Clement Finley">Clement Finley</a>, another old soldier who was characterized by contemporaries as "utterly ossified and useless". Finley was slow to act, failed to reform the AMD to address the needs of the war, and particularly opposed to the use of female nurses. He was forced to retire by Secretary Stanton in April 1862 and replaced with <a href="/wiki/William_A._Hammond" title="William A. Hammond">William A. Hammond</a>, who immediately went about reorganizing the AMD, eliminating <a href="/wiki/Red_tape" title="Red tape">red tape</a> and promoting competent young men to positions of authority. His strong independent streak also earned the enmity of Secretary Stanton, who in September 1863 sent him on an extended tour of the western theater and made Colonel <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Barnes_(American_physician)" title="Joseph Barnes (American physician)">Joseph Barnes</a> the acting Surgeon General. When Hammond was arrested, court-martialed and dismissed in August 1864, Barnes was promoted to fill his position. Barnes remained the Surgeon General until after the war's end and succeeded in continuing Hammond's reforms by maintaining an excellent relationship with Secretary Stanton.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ordnance_Department">Ordnance Department</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Ordnance Department"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Ordnance_Corps" title="United States Army Ordnance Corps">United States Army Ordnance Corps</a></div> <p>The principal mission of the Ordnance Department (ORDD) during the Civil War was the development, procurement, storage, distribution and repair of all army <a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of weapons in the American Civil War">ordnance</a> and ordnance-related equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Limbers_and_caissons" title="Limbers and caissons">limbers and caissons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accoutrements" title="Accoutrements">accoutrements</a>. It was also responsible for the procurement of horses to pull artillery until June 1861 when the Quartermaster Department took over that job. The department faced challenges during the war, particularly during the early months as it struggled to arm the vastly expanded Union army whilst traitorous forces seized control of a number of arsenals and depots. Eventually it was able to resolve many of these challenges and succeeded in providing thousands of <a href="/wiki/Field_artillery" title="Field artillery">field artillery</a> pieces and millions of <a href="/wiki/Small_arms" class="mw-redirect" title="Small arms">small arms</a> for the Union army.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher64_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher64-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USAL200_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL200-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the Civil War began the Ordnance Department was commanded by a Chief of Ordnance and authorized forty officers, many in command of the army's arsenals and depots; fifteen ORDD military storekeepers; seventy <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_sergeant" title="Ordnance sergeant">ordnance sergeants</a>, often placed in supervisory roles including command of some depots and arsenals; and four hundred enlisted men, most of whom were employed as technicians at the armories and arsenals. Hundreds of civilians were also employed, not only as clerks and laborers but also technicians and supervisors. There were also <a href="/wiki/Armed-forces_artificer" title="Armed-forces artificer">artificiers</a> on the rolls of the army's artillery regiments who were responsible for the maintenance of weapons within their regiments.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell127_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell127-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even in peacetime the size of the ORDD was insufficient, as fifty-six officers alone would've been required to bring the arsenals to their full authorized strength, and it proved inadequate once the war began. In August 1861 Congress increased the authorized number of officers to forty-five: the Chief of Ordnance (brigadier general), two colonels, two lieutenant colonels, four majors, twelve captains, twelve first lieutenants, and twelve second lieutenants. This still was not enough, and so in March 1863 an additional lieutenant colonel, two majors, eight captains and eight first lieutenants were added, bringing the authorized strength to sixty-four officers where it would remain for the rest of the war. The number of ordnance sergeants and enlisted personnel were similarly increased on a yearly basis, until by 1865 they numbered 163 and 560 respectively, and the civilian staff was likewise increased.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell127_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell127-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the field, each regiment was authorized an ordnance officer (to be chosen from among the unit's lieutenants) who, assisted by an ordnance sergeant, saw to the requisition and issuing of arms to the troops and management of the regimental ammunition <a href="/wiki/Train_(military)" title="Train (military)">train</a>. For brigades and higher echelons of command, an ordnance officer was authorized to serve on the unit's staff with similar responsibilities. However unlike with the other supply departments, the ordnance department did not commission any volunteer officers to this role, instead relying on ORRD officers or (at division level and below) relying on regular officers filling the role as acting ordnance officers or combining the role with the assigned quartermaster.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell127_122-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell127-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ORDD maintained a number of arsenals, armories and depots, where the majority of the army's arms, ammunition and other ordnance-related supplies were manufactured and/or stored. A number were seized before or at the war's outbreak, but more were created after fighting began and existing ones were expanded. By the middle of the war, the largest arsenals employed between one and two thousand civilians each. A substantial number of these employees were women and children, partly because they could be paid less than adult male workers, their small hands were thought to be better suited to assembling <a href="/wiki/Cartridge_(firearms)" title="Cartridge (firearms)">cartridges</a>, and women were believed to be more safety-oriented. Their line of work was dangerous for obvious reasons, and a number died in accidental explosions during the war. In the single-worst accident of the war, the <a href="/wiki/Allegheny_Arsenal#Explosion" title="Allegheny Arsenal">explosion at the Allegheny Arsenal</a>, 70 of the 78 victims were women and girls.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell127_122-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell127-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="display: inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="text-align:center; background:#acc;">Name </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">Location </th> <th style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;">Established </th> <th style="text-align:center; background:#acc;">Notes </th></tr> </tbody><caption>United States Arsenals, Armories and Depots<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher64_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher64-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Springfield_Armory" title="Springfield Armory">Springfield Armory</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Springfield,_MA" class="mw-redirect" title="Springfield, MA">Springfield, MA</a> </td> <td>1794 </td> <td>Principal US Army armory </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_Armory" title="Harpers Ferry Armory">Harpers Ferry Armory</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Ferry,_WV" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper's Ferry, WV">Harper's Ferry, VA</a> </td> <td>1796 </td> <td>Destroyed April 1861, seized by <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">CSA</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Allegheny_Arsenal" title="Allegheny Arsenal">Allegheny Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh,_PA" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh, PA">Pittsburgh, PA</a> </td> <td>1814 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Watervliet_Arsenal" title="Watervliet Arsenal">Watervliet Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Watervliet,_NY" class="mw-redirect" title="Watervliet, NY">Watervliet, NY</a> </td> <td>1814 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Champlain_Arsenal" title="Champlain Arsenal">Champlain Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vergennes,_VT" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergennes, VT">Vergennes, VT</a> </td> <td>1816 </td> <td>Discontinued 1855, reestablished 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Frankford_Arsenal" title="Frankford Arsenal">Frankford Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia, PA</a> </td> <td>1816 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rome_Arsenal" title="Rome Arsenal">Rome Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rome,_NY" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome, NY">Rome, NY</a> </td> <td>1816 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bellona_Arsenal" title="Bellona Arsenal">Bellona Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Richmond,_VA" class="mw-redirect" title="Richmond, VA">Richmond, VA</a> </td> <td>1816 </td> <td>Discontinued 1835, seized by Virginia April 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Washington_Arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington Arsenal">Washington Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> </td> <td>1816 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Watertown_Arsenal" title="Watertown Arsenal">Watertown Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Watertown,_MA" class="mw-redirect" title="Watertown, MA">Watertown, MA</a> </td> <td>1816 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pikesville_Arsenal" title="Pikesville Arsenal">Pikesville Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pikesville,_MD" class="mw-redirect" title="Pikesville, MD">Pikesville, MD</a> </td> <td>1819 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Augusta_Arsenal" title="Augusta Arsenal">Augusta Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Augusta,_GA" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta, GA">Augusta, GA</a> </td> <td>1826 </td> <td>Seized by Georgia militia January 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_Arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Baton Rouge Arsenal">Baton Rouge Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_LA" class="mw-redirect" title="Baton Rouge, LA">Baton Rouge, LA</a> </td> <td>1826 </td> <td>Seized by Louisiana militia January 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kennebec_Arsenal" title="Kennebec Arsenal">Kennebec Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Augusta,_ME" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusta, ME">Augusta, ME</a> </td> <td>1827 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/St._Louis_Arsenal" title="St. Louis Arsenal">St. Louis Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/St._Louis,_MO" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Louis, MO">St. Louis, MO</a> </td> <td>1827 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon_Arsenal" title="Mount Vernon Arsenal">Mount Vernon Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mount_Vernon,_AL" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Vernon, AL">Mount Vernon, AL</a> </td> <td>1829 </td> <td>Seized by Alabama militia January 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Arsenal_(Dearborn)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detroit Arsenal (Dearborn)">Detroit Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dearborn,_MI" class="mw-redirect" title="Dearborn, MI">Dearborn, MI</a> </td> <td>1832 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Apalachicola_Arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Apalachicola Arsenal">Apalachicola Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apalachicola,_FL" class="mw-redirect" title="Apalachicola, FL">Apalachicola, FL</a> </td> <td>1833 </td> <td>Seized by Florida militia January 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Governors_Island#Mid-19th_century_and_Civil_War" title="Governors Island">New York Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Governors_Island" title="Governors Island">Governors Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_(state)" title="New York (state)">NY</a> </td> <td>1836 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_Arsenal" title="Fayetteville Arsenal">Fayetteville Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville,_NC" class="mw-redirect" title="Fayetteville, NC">Fayetteville, NC</a> </td> <td>1836 </td> <td>Seized by North Carolina militia April 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Rock Arsenal">Little Rock Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock,_AR" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Rock, AR">Little Rock, AR</a> </td> <td>1837 </td> <td>Seized by Arkansas authorities February 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Old_Point_Comfort" title="Old Point Comfort">Old Point Comfort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virginia" title="Virginia">VA</a> </td> <td>1838 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Charleston_Arsenal" title="Charleston Arsenal">Charleston Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Charleston,_SC" class="mw-redirect" title="Charleston, SC">Charleston, SC</a> </td> <td>1841 </td> <td>Seized by South Carolina militia December 1860 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Leavenworth" title="Fort Leavenworth">Leavenworth Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Leavenworth,_KS" class="mw-redirect" title="Leavenworth, KS">Leavenworth, KS</a> </td> <td>1847 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Benicia_Arsenal" title="Benicia Arsenal">Benicia Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Benicia,_CA" class="mw-redirect" title="Benicia, CA">Benicia, CA</a> </td> <td>1851 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>San Antonio Arsenal </td> <td><a href="/wiki/San_Antonio,_TX" class="mw-redirect" title="San Antonio, TX">San Antonio, TX</a> </td> <td>1855 </td> <td>Seized by Texas militia February 1861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Vancouver_National_Historic_Site" title="Fort Vancouver National Historic Site">Vancouver Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Vancouver" title="Fort Vancouver">Fort Vancouver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington_(state)" title="Washington (state)">WA</a> </td> <td>1859 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fort_Union_National_Monument" title="Fort Union National Monument">Fort Union Arsenal</a> </td> <td>Fort Union, <a href="/wiki/New_Mexico" title="New Mexico">NM</a> </td> <td>1860 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Louisville Depot </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Louisville,_KY" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisville, KY">Louisville, KY</a> </td> <td>1861 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nashville Depot </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nashville,_TN" class="mw-redirect" title="Nashville, TN">Nashville, TN</a> </td> <td>1862 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Columbus_Arsenal" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbus Arsenal">Columbus Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Columbus,_OH" class="mw-redirect" title="Columbus, OH">Columbus, OH</a> </td> <td>1863 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indianapolis Arsenal </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indianapolis,_IN" class="mw-redirect" title="Indianapolis, IN">Indianapolis, IN</a> </td> <td>1863 </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rock_Island_Arsenal" title="Rock Island Arsenal">Rock Island Arsenal</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rock_Island,_IL" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock Island, IL">Rock Island, IL</a> </td> <td>1863 </td> <td> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The ORDD faced an immediate crisis when the war began as it was suddenly responsible for arming the rapidly-expanding number of troops being brought into Federal service. This job was made more difficult by actions taken by Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/John_B._Floyd" title="John B. Floyd">John B. Floyd</a> before the war, when he ordered the transfer of large numbers of arms from Northern to Southern arsenals and the sale of Federal arms to various Southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell135_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell135-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Southern states did seize the arsenals within their territory, in addition to the gun-making equipment at Harper's Ferry they were able to acquire about 159,000 small arms, 429 cannons, and 4.5 million rounds of small arms ammunition.<sup id="cite_ref-USAL200_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL200-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ORDD was forced to make up the immediate shortfall by contracting with private companies or purchasing from European powers; many weapons bought under contract proved to be inferior to government standards or sold at inflated prices, while European governments were happy to get rid of their obsolete weapons. Eventually the fraud and corruption was brought under control and ORDD was able to bring its arsenals' productions levels up to where they could meet the army's need. This can be seen with the rapid expansion of the Springfield Armory, which before the war averaged 800 muskets a month but by January 1863 was producing 24,000 muskets and rifles a month.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell135_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell135-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A more persistent issue faced by ORDD were efforts by members of Congress, the general public, and even President Lincoln to get them to adopt many new military technologies, particularly <a href="/wiki/Breechloader" title="Breechloader">breech-loading</a> and <a href="/wiki/Repeating_rifle" title="Repeating rifle">repeating rifles</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Spencer_repeating_rifle" title="Spencer repeating rifle">Spencer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_rifle" title="Henry rifle">Henry rifle</a>. The department's senior leadership was unwilling to wholeheartedly embrace this technology without extensive field testing, and worried over delays from retooling manufacturing equipment and other logistical concerns that went with their adoption. Nevertheless, a limited number of these weapons were purchased and distributed to troops in the field, and trials were undertaken to determine which one would become the army's standard rifle for general use, although these weren't completed until well after the war ended.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell135_125-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell135-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the war ORDD came under harsh criticisms, particularly over their conservatism in regards to new technology. However it did meet the challenge of equipping the Union army with many modern weapons and other materiel. From the beginning of the war to the end, Federal arsenals produced 7,892 cannons with over six million artillery <a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">shot and shell</a> and six million pounds of <a href="/wiki/Grapeshot" title="Grapeshot">grapeshot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canister_shot" title="Canister shot">canister shot</a>; more than 4 million small arms with over a billion rounds of small arms ammunition; over 13,000 tons of gunpowder and 45,000 tons of lead; and nearly 3 million complete sets of infantry and cavalry accoutrements and horse equipment.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher64_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher64-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Newell135_125-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell135-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Henry_K._Craig" title="Henry K. Craig">Henry K. Craig</a> was the Chief of Ordnance when the Civil War began, having served in that position since 1851. Craig received much of the blame for the poor state of affairs at the time, and angered many special interests by resisting the purchase of new and untested weapons in favor of increasing arsenal production and limiting purchases to reputable domestic and international sources. His obstinate behavior saw Craig relieved and replaced with <a href="/wiki/James_Wolfe_Ripley" title="James Wolfe Ripley">James Wolfe Ripley</a> on April 23, 1861. However Ripley was similarly resistant to these same private contractors and their Congressional backers, particularly with adopting breech-loading rifles, and so was forced to retire on September 15, 1863. His replacement, <a href="/wiki/George_D._Ramsay" title="George D. Ramsay">George D. Ramsay</a>, was more open to the new weaponry but did not have the confidence of Secretary Stanton, who inserted Captain George T Balch into Ramsay's headquarters to "call the shots". Ramsay endured this situation until forced to retire on September 12, 1864. <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Brydie_Dyer" title="Alexander Brydie Dyer">Alexander Brydie Dyer</a> took over as Chief of Ordnance and served out the remainder of the war heading the department. While resistant to the lobbyists like his predecessors, Dyer was a more enthusiastic proponent of breech-loading and repeating rifles. He was also more bureaucratically adept and able to remain on good terms with Secretary Stanton.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pay_Department">Pay Department</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pay Department"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Finance_Corps" title="Finance Corps">Finance Corps</a></div> <p>The Pay Department had the responsibility of accounting for, maintaining records regarding, and disbursing of funds for payment to army personnel, including allowances and bounties, as well as settling claims against the government related to pay and allowances. It was not however responsible for payments on contracts and other obligations incurred by the Army as those were handled by the respective department. Payments to officers and soldiers was supposed to be made on a bi-monthly basis, although circumstances might see these delayed significantly (as much as by eight months in some cases).<sup id="cite_ref-Newell104_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell104-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As originally organized the Pay Department was headed by a paymaster general with the rank of colonel, two deputy paymasters general with the rank of lieutenant colonel, and twenty-five paymasters with the rank of major. There were also a small number of civilian clerks, but no enlisted personnel assigned to the department. Cash was received directly by the paymaster general from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Treasury" title="United States Department of the Treasury">Treasury Department</a> and forwarded to the supervising paymaster of a given "pay district" or field headquarters. These funds were then distributed under armed guard to the officers and soldiers within the pay district. Pay districts generally coincided with the boundaries of military divisions, departments and districts, which as the army grew the number and size of pay districts grew likewise. This required the appointment of more paymasters during the course of the war and an increase in the number of civilian clerks, the latter of which reached a peak of 155 by 1864.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell104_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell104-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rapid increase in the size of the army presented a significant challenge to the Pay Department, as the number of soldiers needed to be paid was over fifty times greater than the pre-war size. This was particularly the case for sick and wounded soldiers who were separated from their units and so harder to located. However while payments were occasionally delayed, it never got to the point where soldiers felt compelled to mutiny as had been done during the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">Revolution</a>. In the four years and four months of the Civil War, the Pay Department disbursed $1,029,239,000 of which $541,000 was lost due to embezzlements and other causes, at an expense of $6,429,600.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell104_127-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell104-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>When the Civil War began, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_F._Larned" class="mw-redirect" title="Benjamin F. Larned">Benjamin F. Larned</a> served as Paymaster General but was in poor health. He was temporarily relieved of duty in July 1862 due to illness and would die a few months later. From July until December of that year, Major Cary H. Fry served as the acting Paymaster General, when <a href="/wiki/Timothy_Andrews_(general)" title="Timothy Andrews (general)">Timothy Andrews</a> was appointed to the position. He would remain in that position until retiring in November 1864, when <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Brice" title="Benjamin Brice">Benjamin Brice</a> was appointed in his place and finished out the war as Paymaster General. Both Andrews and Brice argued that the position of Paymaster General should made a brigadier general and the number and rank of subordinate paymasters similarly increased, commensurate with the type of expansion other administrative departments experienced during the war, but their recommendations were ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell104_127-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell104-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Provost_Marshal_General's_Bureau"><span id="Provost_Marshal_General.27s_Bureau"></span>Provost Marshal General's Bureau</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Provost Marshal General's Bureau"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Provost_Marshal_General" title="United States Army Provost Marshal General">United States Army Provost Marshal General</a></div> <p>The Provost Marshal General's Bureau (PMGB) was created to oversee the apprehension of deserters, conduct <a href="/wiki/Counterespionage" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterespionage">counterespionage</a>, and recover stolen government property. Originally established as an office of the AGD in September 1862, it was made an independent department in May 1863 as part of the Conscription Act of 3 March 1863. The Conscription Act also made it responsible for the administration of the draft system, with two other responsibilities added later that year: first with the management of the <a href="/wiki/Invalid_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="Invalid Corps">Invalid Corps</a> in April, and then the recruitment of white volunteers in May. Intended only as temporary organization for the duration of the war the PMGB was effectively terminated in August 1866, whereupon all records, funds and responsibilities were transferred to the AGD.<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher58_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher58-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Newell106_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell106-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Initially consisting of a single officer, the provost marshal general (PMG) himself, eventually the bureau was authorized fourteen additional officers split between several branches. However, a mix of officers from the regulars, volunteers, and Invalid Corps were also detailed to the PMGB to fulfill a number of rolls. Each congressional district was appointed a provost marshal who served on a "board of enrollment". The board included two other persons (one of whom was to be a licensed physician) and was charged with overseeing the enrollment of men for the draft. An enrolling officer could also be appointed per subdistrict (town, township or ward) on a temporary basis, as could special agents tasked with apprehending deserters. Additionally, all provost marshals and special agents were empowered to arrest any stragglers and send them to the nearest military post. By November 1864 the PMGB (not counting the Invalid Corps) included 4,716 officers and employees.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell106_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell106-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the aggregate, the PMGB was successful in the enrollment and maintenance of sufficient manpower for the Union army. Over one million men were brought into the Union army at a cost of $9.84 per man (versus $34.01 per man prior to the bureau's formation) and the arrest and return to duty of over 76,500 deserters. The bureau was also able to raise $26 million to fully fund its enrollment and draft duties.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell106_128-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell106-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>When originally created as an office of the AGD, Colonel Simeon Draper was named the Provost Marshal General, which he held from October 1862 to March 1863. However, the PMGB did not live up to expectations under Draper's leadership. When it was made an independent department he was replaced with <a href="/wiki/James_Barnet_Fry" title="James Barnet Fry">James Barnet Fry</a>, who served as the PMG until the bureau's dissolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell106_128-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell106-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quartermaster's_Department"><span id="Quartermaster.27s_Department"></span>Quartermaster's Department</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Quartermaster's Department"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Quartermaster_Corps_(United_States_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)">Quartermaster Corps (United States Army)</a></div> <p>The Quartermaster's Department (QMD) was the most important and extensive department of the Union army, not least because it provided transportation services to the entire army, including the other supply departments. The QMD was responsible for the procurement, storage and distribution of supplies not already covered by another supply department, including various <a href="/wiki/Equipage" title="Equipage">equipage</a> (clothing, tents, stoves, etc.), horses and mules (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Army_Remount_Service#Early_history" title="United States Army Remount Service">Cavalry Bureau</a>), <a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">forage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fuel" title="Fuel">fuel</a>, and non-Ordnance vehicles including wagons, ambulances and <a href="/wiki/Traveling_forge" title="Traveling forge">traveling forges</a>. Other assumed responsibilities included the acquisition, construction and maintenance of various military structures such as barracks, hospitals, wharves, storehouses, etc.; the charter, purchase and maintenance of all <a href="/wiki/Riverine" class="mw-redirect" title="Riverine">riverine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ocean-going_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean-going vessel">ocean-going vessels</a> used by the army and the <a href="/wiki/Western_Gunboat_Flotilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Gunboat Flotilla">Western Gunboat Flotilla</a>; the construction, maintenance and management of all military railroad transportation (<a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Railroad" title="United States Military Railroad">United States Military Railroad</a>); the construction, maintenance and management of military telegraph lines (<a href="/wiki/U.S._Military_Telegraph_Corps" title="U.S. Military Telegraph Corps">U.S. Military Telegraph Corps</a>); management of all <a href="/wiki/Train_(military)" title="Train (military)">wagon trains</a> in the field; the collection and burial of the dead and maintenance of <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Cemetery_System" title="United States National Cemetery System">national cemeteries</a>; and any expenses associated with army movement and operations that did not fall under another department's purview.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell139_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell139-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Eicher61_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher61-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The QMD at the start of the war consisted of just thirty-seven officers, seven military storekeepers, and thirteen civilian clerks at the office of the Quartermaster-General (QMG), a situation which was considered understaffed even for peacetime requirements. Within a month of the conflict's start, Congress passed an act to raise the number of officers to forty-nine, and again several months later it was raised to seventy-six, adding an assistant quartermaster-general (colonel) and additional numbers of deputy quartermaster-generals (lieutenant colonel), quartermasters (major) and assistant quartermasters (captain) to support the QMG (brigadier-general). Although a substantial increase, this was not enough to meet the needs of the QMD, and so more than nine hundred assistant quartermasters of volunteers were commissioned and a large number of regular and volunteer officers were detailed to serve as acting quartermasters during the war. Congress also authorized the number of storekeepers increased to twelve and the hiring of additional clerks and other civilian workers for the office (including women), which would grow to over 200 by 1863 and close to 600 by the war's end. To this were added the many civilians working at the quartermaster depots or with quartermasters in the field. Many of these workers were rowdy and difficult to manage, especially before Congress made QMD employees subject to military law and discipline. One exception were Black workers who proved more reliable and whom Quartermaster-General Meigs considered a great aid; by 1864 the QMD was largely reliant on them to fulfill various unskilled positions.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell142_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell142-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Officers of the QMD were assigned as commanders of the various quartermaster depots or to the staff of various field units (with the exception of regiments, whose quartermaster personnel were selected from among its own officers and NCOs). Depot commanders were responsible for the acquisition, storage and distribution of supplies and the disbursement of funds for transportation and other services. Supplies could be manufactured within the depot or purchased from commercial interests, usually as part of a low-bid contract but in an emergency on the open market. In the first three years of the war depot commanders themselves were responsible for managing these contracts, but by July 1864 a more centralized system requiring approval from the QMG's office had been implemented to improve accountability. Based on unit quartermasters' requests, supplies would be shipped to advanced depots or railheads, where the unit quartermasters arraigned to have them picked up and issued to the unit.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell142_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell142-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USAL202_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL202-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The principal depots of the QMD were located in <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Milwaukee" title="Milwaukee">Milwaukee</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quincy,_Illinois" title="Quincy, Illinois">Quincy, Illinois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Steubenville,_Ohio" title="Steubenville, Ohio">Steubenville, Ohio</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Louis" title="St. Louis">St. Louis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Eicher61_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eicher61-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with other major depots located in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicago" title="Chicago">Chicago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisville,_Kentucky" title="Louisville, Kentucky">Louisville</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco">San Francisco</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-USAL202_131-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL202-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New York, Philadelphia, and Washington were the primary depots supporting Union armies in the eastern theater, with Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Louisville the primary support depots in the western theater. Many advanced and temporary depots were established as needed, including at <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Virginia" title="Alexandria, Virginia">Alexandria, Virginia</a>, Fort Monroe, <a href="/wiki/City_Point,_Virginia" title="City Point, Virginia">City Point, Virginia</a>, and Nashville, which could become as large and busy as any general depot. However, despite these depots being responsible for thousands of soldiers and millions of dollars in supplies, many of their commanders were only captains. Congress approved in July 1864 the appointment of ten depot commanders to the rank of colonel, while other commanders either received a volunteer commission or brevet rank of brigadier general for as long as they remained at their depot.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell142_130-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell142-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the early months of the conflict, the QMD struggled to clothe, equip and transport the rapidly-growing Union army, especially as fraud, war profiteering and political interference was rampant. Under the able leadership of Quartermaster-General Meigs and legislation passed by Congress, this corruption was quickly brought under control and most quartermasters (with notable exceptions such as <a href="/wiki/Justus_McKinstry" title="Justus McKinstry">Justus McKinstry</a>) proved to be able and law-abiding.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell151_132-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell151-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Undoubtedly this was due in part to the requirement that quartermasters file a <a href="/wiki/Bond_(finance)" title="Bond (finance)">bond</a> worth $10,000 that made them personally liable for their supplies. The exception to this was when the supplies were destroyed due to natural causes or to prevent them falling into enemy hands, a situation which perversely caused celebration among some quartermasters.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there were inevitably mistakes and other mishaps, the Union army was rarely deprived of the supplies and services provided by the QMD. Although the scope and scale of the Civil War was beyond any prewar planning, the professional competence of the department allowed it to quickly meet every challenge. It also exploited emerging technologies like railroads and steamboats with expertise to support the Union army like never before at a strategic and operational level.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell151_132-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell151-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of the $1.8 billion spent by the Federal government during the war, over a billion of that was distributed by the Quartermaster Department.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the staggering number of supplies and services acquired by the QMD include approximately a million horses and half a million mules; the movement by rail of over 1.2 million troops; 590 ocean-going vessels under charter or owned outright providing over 190,000 tons of shipping, with another 599 riverine vessels; over 1.6 million tons of coal and 500,000 <a href="/wiki/Cord_(unit)" title="Cord (unit)">cords</a> of wood; over 22 million <a href="/wiki/Bushel" title="Bushel">bushels</a> of corn, 78 million of oat, 1.5 million tons of hay and 21,000 tons of straw and other fodder; more than $23 million for the rental, construction and maintenance of army property; and over 51,000 standard army wagons and 5,300 ambulances.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell151_132-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell151-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>The Quartermaster General at the start of the war was <a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston" title="Joseph E. Johnston">Joseph E. Johnston</a>, who resigned shortly after on April 22, 1861, to join the Confederate army. Major Ebenezer S. Sibly served as acting QMG until <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_C._Meigs" title="Montgomery C. Meigs">Montgomery C. Meigs</a> was appointed and took up his new duties on June 13, 1861. Considered one of the most effective leaders to serve in the Union army, Meigs oversaw the expansion of the QMD to meet the demands of the war and continued to lead it well after its end. Meigs was also a <a href="/wiki/Hands-on_management" title="Hands-on management">hands-on manager</a> and from August 1863 to January 1864 he was busy handling logistical matters in the western theatre. During his absence, Colonel <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomas_(1797%E2%80%931878)" title="Charles Thomas (1797–1878)">Charles Thomas</a> served as acting QMG in Washington.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signal_Corps">Signal Corps</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Signal Corps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Signal Corps in the American Civil War">Signal Corps in the American Civil War</a></div> <p>The creation of a <a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_(United_States_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal Corps (United States Army)">Signal Corps</a> for the US Army was the result of <a href="/wiki/Albert_James_Myer" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert James Myer">Albert James Myer</a>, an army surgeon who had developed a system of <a href="/wiki/Military_signals" class="mw-redirect" title="Military signals">military signals</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">sign language</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Wigwag_(flag_signals)" title="Wigwag (flag signals)">wigwag</a>. Myer was appointed to the rank of major and to lead the Signal Corps (albeit as its only officer) effective June 27, 1860. During the early years of the Civil War the Signal Corps did not have any personnel other than Myer appointed to it. Instead, officers and enlisted men were sent from other units to <a href="/wiki/Fort_Monroe" title="Fort Monroe">Fort Monroe</a> to learn his system and in turn teach others. Myer continued to campaign for a more formal and permanent Signal Corps, which was finally granted by Congress on March 3, 1863. However, a dispute between the Signal Corps and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Military_Telegraph_Corps" title="U.S. Military Telegraph Corps">U.S. Military Telegraph Corps</a> over who controlled <a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">electrical telegraphy</a> led Secretary Stanton to replace Myer with Maj. William Nicodemus in November of that year. After an inadvertent release of confidential information, Nicodemus was in turn replaced by Colonel Bejamin Fisher, who would remain the Corps' commander until the end of the war. The Signal Corps proved instrumental in coordinating the actions of the Union army during the Civil War and afterwards Congress appointed Myers to once again lead it in 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell303_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell303-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsistence_Department">Subsistence Department</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Subsistence Department"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mission of the Subsistence Department was the purchase, storage and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Foods_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Foods of the American Civil War">rations</a> and related items in a timely manner. It was the smallest of the four supply departments, and even as the army grew to encompass over a million soldiers the department itself barely expanded in size. Yet it was able to meet its mission to such an extent that President Lincoln once remarked to an officer "Your department we scarcely hear of; it is like a well-regulated stomach, works so smoothly we are not conscious of having it."<sup id="cite_ref-Newell111_137-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell111-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The authorized strength of the department at the war's start was a Commissary General of Subsistence (CGS) with the rank of colonel, an assistant CGS with the rank of lieutenant colonel, and ten commissaries of subsistence (CS), two with the rank of major and the rest captains. Those not assigned to work at the office of the CGS in Washington were in charge of one of the subsistence depots or purchasing offices, or assigned to the staff of one of the military departments. Although there were no enlisted personnel in the department (all commissary positions at the regimental level being fulfilled by members of the regiment), a small civilian staff of clerks and laborers was assigned to the department.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell111_137-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell111-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To meet the needs of feeding the rapidly-expanding Union army, Congress authorized a CS with the rank of captain to be assigned to each brigade in July 1861, and in August 1861 the department was expanded with twelve additional officers, four majors and eight captains. A year later when army corps were officially created a CS with the rank of lieutenant colonel was authorized to serve on their staff, and in February 1863 the department was further expanded when the CGS was promoted to brigadier general, a second assistant CGS was added with the rank of colonel, and two additional majors were authorized. Eventually in March 1865 Congress formally recognized wartime requirements by authorizing a chief CS with the rank of colonel for each field army, military department and division, and principle subsistence depot; an assistant CS with the rank of colonel assigned to Washington; up to six CS with the rank of lieutenant colonel to serve as inspectors or special duty assignment; a chief CS with the rank of lieutenant colonel for each army corps; and a CS with the rank of major for each division.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell111_137-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell111-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The need to fill CS positions among the field units primarily came from volunteer officers or regular officers detailed to the duty, and by the end of the war there were 535 commissaries of subsistence of volunteers, bringing the total complement of officers in the department to 564.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell111_137-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell111-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although educating them in the principles of their duty was a constant problem, it was a minor one eventually fixed with time and experience, and those who could not meet the standards of the department were relieved of duty.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell118_138-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell118-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war the principle subsistence depots and purchasing offices were located in Baltimore, <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, Chicago, Cincinnati, Louisville, Philadelphia, St. Louis, San Francisco and Washington, D.C. Depot commissaries, assisted by civilian clerks and laborers, received purchases in bulk at these locations and repackaged them for shipment to armies in the field. The actual transportation of rations was handled by the Quartermaster Department, requiring close cooperation between the two. Major beef depots were also established in Alexandria, Virginia, Louisville and Washington. During the war the department developed a highly effective system of base, advanced, and temporary depots, and mobile beef herds which followed behind Union forces in the field.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell118_138-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell118-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-USAL202_131-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USAL202-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The success of the Subsistence Department in meeting the challenges of the war was noted by Secretary Stanton, who observed in 1865 that no operation conducted by the Union army failed on account of the department being unable to meet its obligations. In total, the department purchased over $361 million in foodstuff and miscellaneous subsistence items from July 1, 1861, to June 30, 1865. The vast quantities of items managed by the department included over 504 million pounds of hardtack, 223 million pounds of bacon, 200 million pounds of brown sugar, 106 million pounds of fresh beef, 64 million pounds of roasted coffee and more than 322,000 live beef cattle.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell118_138-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell118-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Leadership</dt></dl> <p>At the Civil War's start, the CGS was <a href="/wiki/George_Gibson_(Commissary_General)" title="George Gibson (Commissary General)">George Gibson</a>. Gibson, who at eighty-six was the oldest serving officer in the army, had been in this position since the department was first created in April 1818 and as such was responsible for establishing its procurement and distribution methods. When he died on September 29, 1861, he was succeeded by his deputy, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Pannell_Taylor" title="Joseph Pannell Taylor">Joseph Pannell Taylor</a>. Taylor oversaw the department's expansion during the most eventful years of its history and served until his death on June 29, 1864. The senior assistant CGS <a href="/wiki/Amos_Beebe_Eaton" title="Amos Beebe Eaton">Amos Beebe Eaton</a> was promoted to the position upon Taylor's death and served as CGS for the rest of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-Newell111_137-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Newell111-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_tactics">Military tactics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Military tactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">tactics</a> of the Union army, as with their Confederate opponents, was derived from <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">traditions</a> developed in Europe around the use of <a href="/wiki/Smoothbore_musket" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoothbore musket">smoothbore muskets</a>: soldiers marching shoulder-to-shoulder in <a href="/wiki/Line_(formation)" title="Line (formation)">lines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Column_(formation)" title="Column (formation)">columns</a> and other formations in order to deliver <a href="/wiki/Volley_fire" title="Volley fire">volley fire</a> on the enemy. The most notable development though was the widespread use of <a href="/wiki/Rifled_musket" title="Rifled musket">rifled muskets</a>, which had an effective range of 500 yards versus the smoothbore's 100 yards. This led to predictions the defense would have the advantage over an attacker and render such linear tactics obsolete, which many contemporaries and early historians echoed. More recently, historians have questioned this narrative and argued based on research that most combat still took place at the range of smoothbore muskets and casualty rates were little different from during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>. Instead they assert these tactics still remained relevant during the Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first stage of an attack, preparatory fire would be carried out by <a href="/wiki/Field_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Field artillery in the American Civil War">field artillery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Skirmishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Skirmishers">skirmishers</a>. When possible a <a href="/wiki/Flanking_maneuver" title="Flanking maneuver">flanking maneuver</a> was preferred, but if necessary a <a href="/wiki/Frontal_assault" title="Frontal assault">frontal assault</a> was conducted, with <a href="/wiki/Feint" title="Feint">feints</a> to draw off the enemy's attention. Successive lines of <a href="/wiki/Infantry_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Infantry in the American Civil War">infantry</a> would advance on the enemy at a walking pace until the first line got to within 200 yards or less, whereupon (ideally) they broke into a charge to overrun the enemy's position, stopping only once to fire a volley. If successful the first line would regroup in place as the succeeding lines pass through to attack the next position; if they became bogged down or forced to retreat, the next line would pass through to continue the attack.<sup id="cite_ref-Griffith59_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Griffith59-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More likely, the attackers stopped within 100 yards of the enemy and begin exchanging fire with them until using up their ammunition and either be driven off or press home with a <a href="/wiki/Bayonet_charge" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayonet charge">bayonet charge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fieldworks" class="mw-redirect" title="Fieldworks">Fieldworks</a> were used extensively on the defensive thanks to the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Hart_Mahan" title="Dennis Hart Mahan">Dennis Hart Mahan</a> at West Point. Even when not conducting a siege, such defensive fortifications would be constructed if time allowed. Examples included <a href="/wiki/Rifle_pit" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifle pit">rifle pits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Abatis" title="Abatis">abatises</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wire_obstacle" title="Wire obstacle">wire obstacles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_mines" class="mw-redirect" title="Land mines">land mines</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palisade" title="Palisade">palisades</a>. Truly impressive <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench systems</a> could be constructed thanks to the widespread use of Black laborers.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If field fortifications were not available, the main defensive line would be formed around a strong terrain feature (stone wall, <a href="/wiki/Embankment_(earthworks)" title="Embankment (earthworks)">embankment</a>, etc.) which ideally allowed for <a href="/wiki/Flanking_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Flanking fire">flanking fire</a>. Supporting lines were placed behind the main line, on a hill overlooking it if possible but otherwise providing a ready reserve. <a href="/wiki/Counter-battery_fire" title="Counter-battery fire">Counter-battery fire</a> would attempt to knock out the enemy's artillery while skirmishers harassed the attacker as they advanced. Once within range, the defending infantry attempted to drive off the enemy with superior firepower or, if timed right, a counter-charge of their own.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Union <a href="/wiki/Cavalry_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cavalry in the American Civil War">cavalry</a> were rarely used in actual battle in the first years of the war, instead being parceled out on scouting and raiding missions and often at a disadvantage against their Confederate counterparts. Under energetic commanders like <a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Philip Sheridan</a> however the Union cavalry grew into its own and developed tactics unique from their European counterparts. Instead of masses of <a href="/wiki/Heavy_cavalry" title="Heavy cavalry">heavy cavalry</a> charging enemy infantry, a cavalry force would leave a portion of its troopers mounted while the rest dismounted to engage the enemy in a firefight. The widespread employment of <a href="/wiki/Repeating_firearm" title="Repeating firearm">repeating firearms</a> gave Union cavalry a particular advantage, especially when utilizing <a href="/wiki/Marching_fire" title="Marching fire">marching fire</a>. If the firefight did not achieve success, the dismounted portion could clear any obstacles to allow the mounted portion to charge with revolvers and sabers, and if not successful the force could remount and use their mobility to attack from another direction. In this way an enemy could be <a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">defeated in detail</a> as these successive attacks forced them to spread out and allowed isolated elements to eventually be overwhelmed.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Desertions_and_draft_riots">Desertions and draft riots</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Desertions and draft riots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg/250px-Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg/375px-Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg/500px-Anti_Civil_War_Draft_Rioters_in_Lexington_Avenue_New_York_1863.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Rioters attacking a building during the New York anti-draft riots of 1863</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Desertion" title="Desertion">Desertion</a> was a major problem for both sides. The daily hardships of war, forced marches, thirst, suffocating heat, disease, delay in pay, solicitude for family, impatience at the monotony and futility of inactive service, panic on the eve of battle, the sense of <a href="/wiki/War-weariness" title="War-weariness">war-weariness</a>, the lack of confidence in commanders, and the discouragement of defeat (especially early on for the Union army), all tended to lower the morale of the Union army and to increase desertion.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1861 and 1862, the war was going badly for the Union army and there were, by some counts, 180,000 desertions. In 1863 and 1864, the bitterest two years of the war, the Union army suffered over 200 desertions every day, for a total of 150,000 desertions during those two years. This puts the total number of desertions from the Union army during the four years of the war at nearly 350,000. Using these numbers, 15% of Union soldiers deserted during the war. Official numbers put the number of deserters from the Union army at 200,000 for the entire war, or about 8% of Union army soldiers. Since desertion is defined as being AWOL for 30 or more days and some soldiers returned within that time period, as well as some deserters being labeled missing-in-action or vice versa, accurate counts are difficult to determine. Many historians estimate the "real" desertion rate in the Union army as between 9–12%.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 1 out of 3 deserters returned to their regiments, either voluntarily or after being arrested and being sent back. Many deserters were professional "<a href="/wiki/Bounty_jumper" title="Bounty jumper">bounty jumpers</a>" who would enlist to collect the cash bonus and then desert to do the same elsewhere. If not caught and executed, this crime could pay well.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Irish immigrants were the main participants in the famous "<a href="/wiki/New_York_Draft_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Draft riots">New York Draft riots</a>" of 1863.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stirred up by the instigating rhetoric of Democratic politicians,<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Irish had shown the strongest support for Southern aims prior to the start of the war and had long opposed abolitionism and the free black population, regarding them as competition for jobs and blaming them for driving down wages. Alleging that the war was merely an upper-class abolitionist war to free slaves who might move north and compete for jobs and housing, the poorer classes did not welcome a draft, especially one from which a richer man could buy an exemption. The poor formed clubs that would buy exemptions for their unlucky members. As a result of the <a href="/wiki/Enrollment_Act" title="Enrollment Act">Enrollment Act</a>, rioting began in several Northern cities, the most heavily hit being New York City. A mob reported as consisting principally of Irish immigrants rioted in the summer of 1863, with the worst violence occurring in July during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a>. The mob set fire to African American churches and the <a href="/wiki/Colored_Orphan_Asylum" title="Colored Orphan Asylum">Colored Orphan Asylum</a> as well as the homes of prominent Protestant abolitionists. A mob was reportedly repulsed from the offices of the staunchly pro-Union <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Tribune">New York Tribune</a></i> by workers firing two Gatling guns. The principal victims of the rioting were African Americans and activists in the anti-slavery movement. Not until victory was achieved at Gettysburg could the Union army be sent in; some units had to open fire to quell the violence and stop the rioters. Casualties were estimated as up to 1,000 killed or wounded.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were a few small scale draft riots in rural areas of the Midwest and in the coal regions of Pennsylvania.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/28px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/42px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png/56px-United_states_confederate_flag_hybrid.png 2x" data-file-width="1875" data-file-height="1875" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:American_Civil_War" title="Portal:American Civil War">American Civil War portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation" style="width: 45%;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_soldiers_and_veterans_in_the_United_States" title="Social history of soldiers and veterans in the United States">Social history of soldiers and veterans in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Corps_Badges" title="American Civil War Corps Badges">American Civil War Corps Badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War">Commemoration of the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">German Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanics_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hispanics in the American Civil War">Hispanics in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans in the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history of African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_of_the_Union_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniform of the Union Army">Uniform of the Union army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Cemeteries" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Cemeteries">United States National Cemeteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a>, the temporary party that Lincoln led to victory in the 1864 election</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Frontier" title="Army of the Frontier">Army of the Frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Southwest" title="Army of the Southwest">Army of the Southwest</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="I Corps (Union Army)">I Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/II_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="II Corps (Union Army)">II Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/III_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="III Corps (Union Army)">III Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="IV Corps (Union Army)">IV Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="V Corps (Union Army)">V Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="VI Corps (Union Army)">VI Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="VII Corps (Union Army)">VII Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="VIII Corps (Union Army)">VIII Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IX_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="IX Corps (Union Army)">IX Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="X Corps (Union Army)">X Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XI Corps (Union Army)">XI Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XII Corps (Union Army)">XII Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XIII Corps (Union Army)">XIII Corps</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XIV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XIV Corps (Union Army)">XIV Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XV Corps (Union Army)">XV Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XVI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XVI Corps (Union Army)">XVI Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XVII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XVII Corps (Union Army)">XVII Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XVIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XVIII Corps (Union Army)">XVIII Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XIX_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XIX Corps (Union Army)">XIX Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XX_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XX Corps (Union Army)">XX Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXI_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXI Corps (Union Army)">XXI Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXII Corps (Union Army)">XXII Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXIII_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXIII Corps (Union Army)">XXIII Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXIV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXIV Corps (Union Army)">XXIV Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XXV_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="XXV Corps (Union Army)">XXV Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_Corps_(Union_Army)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cavalry Corps (Union Army)">Cavalry Corps</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">After the end of the American Civil War, Grant remained Commanding General of the United States Army until March 4, 1869 when he resigned to be sworn in as eighteenth President of the United States.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.civilwar.org/learn/articles/civil-war-facts">"Civil War Facts"</a>. <i>American Battlefield Trust</i>. August 16, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft.atitle=Civil+War+Facts&rft.date=2011-08-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilwar.org%2Flearn%2Farticles%2Fcivil-war-facts&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnion+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McPherson,_pp.36–37-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McPherson,_pp.36–37_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-McPherson,_pp.36–37_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McPherson, pp.36–37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.civilwar.org/learn/articles/civil-war-casualties">"Civil War Casualties"</a>. <i>American Battlefield Trust</i>. September 15, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=American+Battlefield+Trust&rft.atitle=Civil+War+Casualties&rft.date=2023-09-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilwar.org%2Flearn%2Farticles%2Fcivil-war-casualties&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnion+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewell" class="citation book cs1">Newell, Clayton R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-1/CMH_Pub_75-1.pdf"><i>The Regular Army before the Civil War, 1845–1860</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. US Army Campaigns of the Civil War. US Army Center of Military History. pp. 50, 52<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 26,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Regular+Army+before+the+Civil+War%2C+1845%E2%80%931860&rft.series=US+Army+Campaigns+of+the+Civil+War&rft.pages=50%2C+52&rft.pub=US+Army+Center+of+Military+History&rft.aulast=Newell&rft.aufirst=Clayton+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.army.mil%2Fhtml%2Fbooks%2F075%2F75-1%2FCMH_Pub_75-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnion+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hattaway9-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hattaway9_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hattaway9_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hattaway & Jones, pp. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eicher, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurray2012" class="citation book cs1">Murray, Jennifer M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.army.mil/html/books/075/75-2/CMH_Pub_75-2.pdf"><i>The Civil War Begins, Opening Clashes 1861</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. US Army Campaigns of the Civil War. US Army Center of Military History. p. 9<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(2008). <i>The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: A History</i>. United States: Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Office of History. p. 15–18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baldwin110-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baldwin110_108-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin, p. 107–110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Callan, J. F. (1864). The Military Laws of the United States, Relating to the Army, Volunteers, Militia, and to Bounty Lands and Pensions, from the Foundation of the Government to 4 July 1864: To which are Prefixed the Constitution of the United States (with an Index Thereto,) and a Synopsis of the Military Legislation of Congress During the Revolutionary War. United States: G.W. Childs. p. 24–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hess, E. J. (2005). <i>Field Armies and Fortifications in the Civil War: The Eastern Campaigns, 1861–1864</i> (Civil War America). United Kingdom: University of North Carolina Press. p. 15–16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baldwin27-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baldwin27_111-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baldwin27_111-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin, p. 21-27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin, p. 283</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell94-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell94_113-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell94_113-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell94_113-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell94_113-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 90-94</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell163-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newell163_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 163-164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell166-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell166_116-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell166_116-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell166_116-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell166_116-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 168-177</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell192-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell192_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell192_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 188-192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 164-166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eicher64-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eicher64_119-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eicher64_119-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eicher64_119-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Eicher, p. 63-64</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, page 119</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USAL200-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USAL200_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USAL200_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">United States Army Logistics (1997), pages 199–200</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell127-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell127_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell127_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell127_122-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell127_122-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 122-127</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beers, H. P., Munden, K. W. (1998). The Union: A Guide to Federal Archives Relating to the Civil War. Washington: National Archives and Records Administration. p. 284-287</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, p. 124</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell135-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell135_125-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell135_125-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell135_125-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell135_125-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 127–135</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 109–110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell104-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell104_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell104_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell104_127-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell104_127-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 98–104</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell106-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell106_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell106_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell106_128-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell106_128-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 104–106</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell139-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newell139_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, page 139</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell142-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell142_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell142_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell142_130-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 142–151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USAL202-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USAL202_131-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USAL202_131-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-USAL202_131-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">United States Army Logistics, pages 202–204</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell151-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell151_132-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell151_132-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell151_132-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 151–161</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hess, E. J. (2017). Civil War Logistics: A Study of Military Transportation. United States: LSU Press. page 22</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hess (2017), page 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, page 140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell303-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Newell303_136-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 292–303</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell111-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell111_137-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell111_137-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell111_137-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell111_137-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell111_137-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 109–111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Newell118-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Newell118_138-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell118_138-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Newell118_138-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Newell & Shrader, pages 112–118</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEarl_J._Hess2015" class="citation book cs1">Earl J. Hess (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=o1njBgAAQBAJ&pg=PG1"><i>Civil War Infantry Tactics: Training, Combat, and Small-Unit Effectiveness</i></a>. LSU Press. p. xi–xxi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807159385" title="Special:BookSources/9780807159385"><bdi>9780807159385</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Civil+War+Infantry+Tactics%3A+Training%2C+Combat%2C+and+Small-Unit+Effectiveness&rft.pages=xi-xxi&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780807159385&rft.au=Earl+J.+Hess&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Do1njBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPG1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnion+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Griffith59-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Griffith59_140-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaddy_Griffith2021" class="citation book cs1">Paddy Griffith (2021). <i>Battle in the Civil War: Generalship and Tactics in the American Civil War 1861–65</i>. Amazon Digital Services LLC – KDP Print US. pp. 46–59. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9798534453355" title="Special:BookSources/9798534453355"><bdi>9798534453355</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Battle+in+the+Civil+War%3A+Generalship+and+Tactics+in+the+American+Civil+War+1861%E2%80%9365&rft.pages=46-59&rft.pub=Amazon+Digital+Services+LLC+%E2%80%93+KDP+Print+US&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9798534453355&rft.au=Paddy+Griffith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnion+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffith (2021), pages 76-81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffith (2021), pages 70–72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffith (2021), page 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griffith (2021), pages 85–89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ella Lonn, <i>Desertion During the Civil War</i> (U of Nebraska Press, 1928)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chris Walsh, "'Cowardice Weakness or Infirmity, Whichever It May Be Termed': A Shadow History of the Civil War." <i><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_History" title="Civil War History">Civil War History</a></i> (2013) 59#4 pages: 492–526.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/civil_war_history/v059/59.4.walsh.html">Online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopediavirginia.org/Desertion_Confederate_during_the_Civil_War#start_entry">"Desertion (Confederate) during the Civil War"</a>. <i>encyclopediavirginia.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 13,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=encyclopediavirginia.org&rft.atitle=Desertion+%28Confederate%29+during+the+Civil+War&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediavirginia.org%2FDesertion_Confederate_during_the_Civil_War%23start_entry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnion+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon Smith Bennett, "Draft Resistance and Rioting." in Maggi M. Morehouse and Zoe Trodd, eds., <i>Civil War America: A Social and Cultural History with Primary Sources</i> (2013) ch 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Levine, "Draft evasion in the North during the Civil War, 1863–1865." <i>Journal of American History</i> (1981): 816–834. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oah.org/site/assets/documents/08_JAH_1981_levine.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192058/http://www.oah.org/site/assets/documents/08_JAH_1981_levine.pdf">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adrian Cook, <i>The armies of the streets: the New York City draft riots of 1863</i> (1974).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcPherson1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">McPherson, James M.</a> (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drawnwithswordre00mcph"><i>Drawn with the Sword: Reflections on the American Civil War</i></a></span>. New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/drawnwithswordre00mcph/page/91">91</a>–92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509679-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509679-8"><bdi>978-0-19-509679-8</bdi></a>. <q>Rioters were mostly Irish Catholic immigrants and their children. They mainly attacked the members of New York's small black population. For a year, Democratic leaders had been telling their Irish-American constituents that the wicked 'Black Republicans' were waging the war to free the slaves who would come north and take away the jobs of Irish workers. The use of black stevedores as scabs in a recent strike by Irish dockworkers made this charge seem plausible. The prospect of being drafted to fight to free the slaves made the Irish even more receptive to demogogic rhetoric.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drawn+with+the+Sword%3A+Reflections+on+the+American+Civil+War&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=91-92&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+Inc.&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509679-8&rft.aulast=McPherson&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdrawnwithswordre00mcph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUnion+army" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Iver Bernstein, <i>The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War</i> (1990)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon M. Smith, "Teaching Civil War Union Politics: Draft Riots in the Midwest." <i>OAH Magazine of History</i> (2013) 27#2 pages: 33–36. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20150407173123/http://maghis.oxfordjournals.org/content/27/2/33.short">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenneth H. Wheeler, "Local Autonomy and Civil War Draft Resistance: Holmes County, Ohio." <i>Civil War History.</i> v.45#2 1999. pages 147+ <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001276214">online edition</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Bibliography</b> </p> <ul><li>Eicher, John H., and <a href="/wiki/David_J._Eicher" title="David J. Eicher">David J. Eicher</a>. <i>Civil War High Commands</i>. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-3641-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-3641-3">0-8047-3641-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant, Ulysses S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4367"><i>Personal Memoirs of U.S. Grant</i></a>. 2 vols. Charles L. Webster & Company, 1885–86. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-914427-67-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-914427-67-9">0-914427-67-9</a>.</li> <li>Glatthaar, Joseph T. <i>Forged in Battle: The Civil War Alliance of Black Soldiers and White Officers</i>. New York: Free Press, 1990. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-911815-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-911815-3">978-0-02-911815-3</a>.</li> <li>Hattaway, Herman, and Archer Jones. <i>How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War</i>. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1983. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-252-00918-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-252-00918-5">0-252-00918-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_M._McPherson" title="James M. McPherson">McPherson, James M.</a> <i>What They Fought For, 1861–1865</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-1904-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-1904-4">978-0-8071-1904-4</a>.</li> <li>McGrath, John J. <i>The Brigade: A History, Its Organization and Employment in the US Army.</i> Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, US Army Command and General Staff College, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781428910225" title="Special:BookSources/9781428910225">9781428910225</a></li> <li>Shrader, C. R., Newell, C. R. (2011). <i>Of Duty Well and Faithfully Done: A History of the Regular Army in the Civil War.</i> University of Nebraska, 2011. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1910-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1910-6">978-0-8032-1910-6</a>.</li> <li>Wagner, Margaret E., <a href="/wiki/Gary_W._Gallagher" title="Gary W. Gallagher">Gary W. Gallagher</a>, and Paul Finkelman. <i>The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, Inc., 2009 edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-4884-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4391-4884-6">978-1-4391-4884-6</a>. First Published 2002.</li> <li>Wilson, J. B. (1998). <i>Maneuver and Firepower: The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigades.</i> Washington, DC: Center of Military History, U.S. Army, 1998.</li></ul> <p><b>Further reading</b> </p> <ul><li>Bledsoe, Andrew S. <i>Citizen-Officers: The Union and Confederate Volunteer Junior Officer Corps in the American Civil War</i>. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press, 2015. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-6070-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-6070-1">978-0-8071-6070-1</a>.</li> <li>Canfield, Daniel T. "Opportunity Lost: Combined Operations and the Development of Union Military Strategy, April 1861 – April 1862." <i>Journal of Military History</i> 79.3 (2015).</li> <li>Kahn, Matthew E., and Dora L. Costa. "Cowards and Heroes: Group Loyalty in the American Civil War." <i>Quarterly journal of economics</i> 2 (2003): 519–548. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150114000603/http://qje.oxfordjournals.org/content/118/2/519.abstract">online version</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Nevins" title="Allan Nevins">Nevins, Allan</a>. <i>The War for the Union</i>. Volume 1, <i>The Improvised War 1861–1862</i>. <i>The War for the Union</i>. Volume 2, <i>War Becomes Revolution 1862–1863</i>. Volume 3, <i>The Organized War 1863–1864</i>. Volume 4, <i>The Organized War to Victory 1864–1865</i>. (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1960–71. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56852-299-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-56852-299-1">1-56852-299-1</a>.)</li> <li>Prokopowicz, Gerald J. <i>All for the Regiment: the Army of the Ohio, 1861–1862</i> (UNC Press, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/library/1P3-218627361/all-for-the-regiment-the-army-of-the-ohio-1861-1862">online</a></li> <li>Shannon, Fred A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015001813651"><i>The Organization and Administration of the Union Army 1861–1865</i></a>. 2 volumes. Gloucester, Massachusetts: P. Smith, 1965. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/428886">428886</a>. First published 1928 by A.H. Clark Co.</li> <li>Welcher, Frank J. <i>The Union Army, 1861–1865 Organization and Operations</i>. Vol. 1, <i>The Eastern Theater</i>. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-36453-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-36453-1">0-253-36453-1</a>; . <i>The Union Army, 1861–1865 Organization and Operations</i>. Volume 2, <i>The Western Theater</i>. (1993). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-36454-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-36454-X">0-253-36454-X</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Union_army&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Union_Army" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Union Army">Union Army</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.civilwarhome.com/ethnic.htm">Civil War Home: Ethnic groups in the Union Army</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historynet.com/who-was-the-common-soldier-of-americas-civil-war.htm">"The Common Soldier", HistoryNet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jdc.jefferson.edu/milsurgusa/"><i>A Manual of Military Surgery</i></a>, by Samuel D. Gross, MD (1861), the manual used by doctors in the Union Army.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130605120519/http://www.civilwarsoldier.com/cws_gallery_007.htm">Union Army Historical Pictures</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://battleofolustee.org/uniforms/uniforms.html">U.S. Civil War Era Uniforms and Accoutrements</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www2.hsp.org/collections/manuscripts/r/Rosenthal3128.html">Louis N. Rosenthal lithographs</a>, depicting over 50 Union Army camps, are available for research use at the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Society_of_Pennsylvania" title="Historical Society of Pennsylvania">Historical Society of Pennsylvania</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/officialarmyregi00unitrich#page/n3/mode/2up">Official Army register of the Volunteer Force 1861; 1862; 1863; 1864; 1865</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://civilwarroster.com/cw/cw-bury.htm">Civil War National Cemeteries</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/recordoffederald00unit">Christian Commission of Union Dead</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hUN3AAAAMAAJ">Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers who died in Defense of the Union Volumes 1–8</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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text" href="https://archive.org/stream/rollofhonornames21unit#page/n5/mode/2up">Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers who died in Defense of the Union Volumes 20–21</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/rollofhonornames23unit#page/n5/mode/2up">Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers who died in Defense of the Union Volumes 22–23</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/rollofhonornames27unit#page/n7/mode/2up">Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers who died in Defense of the Union Volumes 24–27</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dgF-AAAAMAAJ&dq=National+Cemetery+at+Vicksburg+Mississippi&pg=RA6-PA85">Roll of Honor: Names of Soldiers who died in defense of the Union Volumes XXVII</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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Anthony">Susan B. Anthony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_G._Birney" title="James G. Birney">James G. Birney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown_(abolitionist)" title="John Brown (abolitionist)">John Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lloyd_Garrison" title="William Lloyd Garrison">William Lloyd Garrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_Debates_on_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Lane Debates on Slavery">Lane Debates on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Parish_Lovejoy" title="Elijah Parish Lovejoy">Elijah Parish Lovejoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Sella_Martin" title="J. Sella Martin">J. Sella Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysander_Spooner" title="Lysander Spooner">Lysander Spooner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Luther_Stearns" title="George Luther Stearns">George Luther Stearns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Thaddeus Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sumner" title="Charles Sumner">Charles Sumner</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caning_of_Charles_Sumner" title="Caning of Charles Sumner">Caning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="CombatantsTheatersCampaignsBattlesStates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Combatants</li><li>Theaters</li><li>Campaigns</li><li>Battles</li><li>States</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Combatants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Union</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Navy" title="Union Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Revenue_Cutter_Service" title="United States Revenue Cutter Service">Revenue Cutter Service</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederacy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army" title="Confederate States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Navy" title="Confederate States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Marine_Corps" title="Confederate States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Theaters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Eastern theater of the American Civil War">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Western theater of the American Civil War">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_seaboard_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War">Lower Seaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Mississippi_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War">Trans-Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific_coast_theater_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pacific coast theater of the American Civil War">Pacific Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_blockade" title="Union blockade">Union naval blockade</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/Campaigns_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Campaigns of the American Civil War">campaigns</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaconda_Plan" title="Anaconda Plan">Anaconda Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_runners_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Blockade runners of the American Civil War">Blockade runners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_campaign" title="New Mexico campaign">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson%27s_Valley_campaign" title="Jackson's Valley campaign">Jackson's Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_campaign" title="Peninsula campaign">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Virginia_campaign" title="Northern Virginia campaign">Northern Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_campaign" title="Maryland campaign">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicksburg_campaign" title="Vicksburg campaign">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullahoma_campaign" title="Tullahoma campaign">Tullahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gettysburg_campaign" title="Gettysburg campaign">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan%27s_Raid" title="Morgan's Raid">Morgan's Raid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bristoe_campaign" title="Bristoe campaign">Bristoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_campaign" title="Knoxville campaign">Knoxville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_campaign" title="Red River campaign">Red River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overland_Campaign" title="Overland Campaign">Overland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_campaign" title="Atlanta campaign">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_campaigns_of_1864" title="Valley campaigns of 1864">Valley 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda_Hundred_campaign" title="Bermuda Hundred campaign">Bermuda Hundred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Petersburg" title="Siege of Petersburg">Richmond-Petersburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin%E2%80%93Nashville_campaign" title="Franklin–Nashville campaign">Franklin–Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price%27s_Missouri_Expedition" title="Price's Missouri Expedition">Price's Missouri Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sherman%27s_March_to_the_Sea" title="Sherman's March to the Sea">Sherman's March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_of_the_Carolinas" class="mw-redirect" title="Campaign of the Carolinas">Carolinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_campaign_(1865)" title="Mobile campaign (1865)">Mobile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appomattox_campaign" title="Appomattox campaign">Appomattox</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Major <a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_battles" title="List of American Civil War battles">battles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Sumter" title="Battle of Fort Sumter">Fort Sumter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="First Battle of Bull Run">1st Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wilson%27s_Creek" title="Battle of Wilson's Creek">Wilson's Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Donelson" title="Battle of Fort Donelson">Fort Donelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pea_Ridge" title="Battle of Pea Ridge">Pea Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hampton_Roads" title="Battle of Hampton Roads">Hampton Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shiloh" title="Battle of Shiloh">Shiloh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Forts_Jackson_and_St._Philip" title="Battle of Forts Jackson and St. Philip">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Corinth" title="Siege of Corinth">Corinth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Seven_Pines" title="Battle of Seven Pines">Seven Pines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Days_Battles" title="Seven Days Battles">Seven Days</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Bull_Run" title="Second Battle of Bull Run">2nd Bull Run</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Antietam" title="Battle of Antietam">Antietam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Perryville" title="Battle of Perryville">Perryville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fredericksburg" title="Battle of Fredericksburg">Fredericksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stones_River" title="Battle of Stones River">Stones River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chancellorsville" title="Battle of Chancellorsville">Chancellorsville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gettysburg" title="Battle of Gettysburg">Gettysburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Vicksburg" title="Siege of Vicksburg">Vicksburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chickamauga" title="Battle of Chickamauga">Chickamauga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_campaign" title="Chattanooga campaign">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Wilderness" title="Battle of the Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fort_Pillow" title="Battle of Fort Pillow">Fort Pillow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Spotsylvania_Court_House" title="Battle of Spotsylvania Court House">Spotsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cold_Harbor" title="Battle of Cold Harbor">Cold Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Atlanta" title="Battle of Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Crater" title="Battle of the Crater">Crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mobile_Bay" title="Battle of Mobile Bay">Mobile Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Franklin_(1864)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Franklin (1864)">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nashville" title="Battle of Nashville">Nashville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Five_Forks" title="Battle of Five Forks">Five Forks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Involvement</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">States and<br />territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Alabama in the American Civil War">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Arkansas in the American Civil War">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Arizona" title="Confederate Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/California_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="California in the American Civil War">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Colorado in the American Civil War">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connecticut_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Connecticut in the American Civil War">Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dakota_Territory#Dakota_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Dakota Territory">Dakota Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Delaware#Delaware_in_the_Civil_War" title="History of Delaware">Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Florida in the American Civil War">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Georgia in the American Civil War">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaii_and_the_American_Civil_War" title="Hawaii and the American Civil War">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idaho_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Idaho in the American Civil War">Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Illinois in the American Civil War">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indian Territory in the American Civil War">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Indiana in the American Civil War">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iowa_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Iowa in the American Civil War">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kansas in the American Civil War">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Kentucky in the American Civil War">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Louisiana in the American Civil War">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maine in the American Civil War">Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Maryland in the American Civil War">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Massachusetts in the American Civil War">Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Michigan in the American Civil War">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Minnesota#Civil_War_era_and_Dakota_War_of_1862" title="History of Minnesota">Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Mississippi in the American Civil War">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Missouri in the American Civil War">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montana_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Montana in the American Civil War">Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nebraska_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nebraska Territory in the American Civil War">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nevada_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Nevada in the American Civil War">Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Hampshire#Civil_War:_1861–1865" title="History of New Hampshire">New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Jersey_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Jersey in the American Civil War">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Mexico_Territory_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Mexico Territory in the American Civil War">New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New York in the American Civil War">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="North Carolina in the American Civil War">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohio_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Ohio in the American Civil War">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oregon_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Oregon in the American Civil War">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Pennsylvania in the American Civil War">Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhode_Island_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Rhode Island in the American Civil War">Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="South Carolina in the American Civil War">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Tennessee in the American Civil War">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Texas in the American Civil War">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utah_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Utah in the American Civil War">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermont_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Vermont in the American Civil War">Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Virginia in the American Civil War">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington in the American Civil War">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="West Virginia in the American Civil War">West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Wisconsin in the American Civil War">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Atlanta in the American Civil War">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charleston_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Charleston in the American Civil War">Charleston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattanooga_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Chattanooga in the American Civil War">Chattanooga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="New Orleans in the American Civil War">New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richmond_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Richmond in the American Civil War">Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C.,_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War">Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winchester,_Virginia_in_the_American_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Winchester, Virginia in the American Civil War">Winchester</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Leaders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military_leadership_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military leadership in the American Civil War">Leaders</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_H._Anderson_(general)" title="Richard H. Anderson (general)">R. H. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Beauregard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Braxton_Bragg" title="Braxton Bragg">Bragg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_Buchanan" title="Franklin Buchanan">Buchanan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Cooper_(general)" title="Samuel Cooper (general)">Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jubal_Early" title="Jubal Early">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_S._Ewell" title="Richard S. Ewell">Ewell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Bedford_Forrest" title="Nathan Bedford Forrest">Forrest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Gorgas" title="Josiah Gorgas">Gorgas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Hill" title="A. P. Hill">Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bell_Hood" title="John Bell Hood">Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stonewall_Jackson" title="Stonewall Jackson">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Sidney_Johnston" title="Albert Sidney Johnston">A. S. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Johnston" title="Joseph E. Johnston">J. E. Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee" title="Robert E. Lee">Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Longstreet" title="James Longstreet">Longstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Hunt_Morgan" title="John Hunt Morgan">Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_S._Mosby" title="John S. Mosby">Mosby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonidas_Polk" title="Leonidas Polk">Polk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterling_Price" title="Sterling Price">Price</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raphael_Semmes" title="Raphael Semmes">Semmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Kirby_Smith" title="Edmund Kirby Smith">E. K. Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._E._B._Stuart" title="J. E. B. Stuart">Stuart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Taylor_(Confederate_general)" title="Richard Taylor (Confederate general)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Wheeler" title="Joseph Wheeler">Wheeler</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judah_P._Benjamin" title="Judah P. Benjamin">Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_S._Bocock" title="Thomas S. Bocock">Bocock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Breckinridge" title="John C. Breckinridge">Breckinridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Davis" title="Jefferson Davis">Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._T._Hunter" title="Robert M. T. Hunter">Hunter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Mallory" title="Stephen Mallory">Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Memminger" title="Christopher Memminger">Memminger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Seddon" title="James Seddon">Seddon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_H._Stephens" title="Alexander H. Stephens">Stephens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Anderson_(Civil_War)" title="Robert Anderson (Civil War)">Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Don_Carlos_Buell" title="Don Carlos Buell">Buell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrose_Burnside" title="Ambrose Burnside">Burnside</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Butler" title="Benjamin Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Francis_Du_Pont" title="Samuel Francis Du Pont">Du Pont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Farragut" title="David Farragut">Farragut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Hull_Foote" title="Andrew Hull Foote">Foote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_C._Fr%C3%A9mont" title="John C. Frémont">Frémont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulysses_S._Grant" title="Ulysses S. Grant">Grant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Halleck" title="Henry Halleck">Halleck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooker" title="Joseph Hooker">Hooker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Jackson_Hunt" title="Henry Jackson Hunt">Hunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_B._McClellan" title="George B. McClellan">McClellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irvin_McDowell" title="Irvin McDowell">McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Meade" title="George Meade">Meade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_C._Meigs" title="Montgomery C. Meigs">Meigs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Ord" title="Edward Ord">Ord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pope_(military_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pope (military officer)">Pope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Dixon_Porter" title="David Dixon Porter">D. D. Porter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Rosecrans" title="William Rosecrans">Rosecrans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winfield_Scott" title="Winfield Scott">Scott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Sheridan" title="Philip Sheridan">Sheridan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Tecumseh_Sherman" title="William Tecumseh Sherman">Sherman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Henry_Thomas" title="George Henry Thomas">Thomas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Civilian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Francis_Adams_Sr." title="Charles Francis Adams Sr.">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_P._Chase" title="Salmon P. Chase">Chase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ericsson" title="John Ericsson">Ericsson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannibal_Hamlin" title="Hannibal Hamlin">Hamlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln" title="Abraham Lincoln">Lincoln</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Pinkerton" title="Allan Pinkerton">Pinkerton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_H._Seward" title="William H. Seward">Seward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Stanton" title="Edwin Stanton">Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaddeus_Stevens" title="Thaddeus Stevens">Stevens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wade" title="Benjamin Wade">Wade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gideon_Welles" title="Gideon Welles">Welles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">14th Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">15th Amendment</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Claims" title="Alabama Claims">Alabama Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brooks%E2%80%93Baxter_War" title="Brooks–Baxter War">Brooks–Baxter War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpetbagger" title="Carpetbagger">Carpetbaggers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colfax_massacre" title="Colfax massacre">Colfax riot of 1873</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compromise_of_1877" title="Compromise of 1877">Compromise of 1877</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_colonies" title="Confederate colonies">Confederate refugees</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederados" title="Confederados">Confederados</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election_riot_of_1874" class="mw-redirect" title="Election riot of 1874">Eufaula riot of 1874</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman%27s_Savings_Bank" title="Freedman's Savings Bank">Freedman's Savings Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homestead_Acts" title="Homestead Acts">Homestead Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Homestead_Act_of_1866" title="Southern Homestead Act of 1866">Southern Homestead Act of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timber_Culture_Act" title="Timber Culture Act">Timber Culture Act</a> of 1873</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment of Andrew Johnson">Impeachment of Andrew Johnson</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impeachment_trial_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson">trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efforts_to_impeach_Andrew_Johnson" title="Efforts to impeach Andrew Johnson">efforts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_impeachment_of_Andrew_Johnson" title="Timeline of the impeachment of Andrew Johnson">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">first inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_impeachment_inquiry_into_Andrew_Johnson" title="Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson">second inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1868_impeachment_managers_investigation" title="1868 impeachment managers investigation">impeachment managers investigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirk%E2%80%93Holden_war" title="Kirk–Holden war">Kirk–Holden war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_of_the_White_Camelia" title="Knights of the White Camelia">Knights of the White Camelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic violence">Ethnic violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_riots_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="Memphis riots of 1866">Memphis riots of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meridian_race_riot_of_1871" title="Meridian race riot of 1871">Meridian riot of 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_massacre_of_1866" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans massacre of 1866">New Orleans riot of 1866</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulaski_riot" title="Pulaski riot">Pulaski (Tennessee) riot of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Acts" title="Reconstruction Acts">Reconstruction acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Act_of_1867" title="Habeas Corpus Act of 1867">Habeas Corpus Act of 1867</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enforcement_Act_of_1870" title="Enforcement Act of 1870">Enforcement Act of 1870</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Enforcement_Act" title="Second Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of February 1871</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Enforcement Act of April 1871</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_military_districts" title="Reconstruction military districts">Reconstruction military districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Treaties" title="Reconstruction Treaties">Reconstruction Treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Smith_Council" title="Fort Smith Council">Indian Council at Fort Smith</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redeemers" title="Redeemers">Redeemers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scalawag" title="Scalawag">Scalawags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_civil_disturbances_of_1876" title="South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876">South Carolina riots of 1876</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Claims_Commission" title="Southern Claims Commission">Southern Claims Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Post-<br />Reconstruction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commemoration_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Commemoration of the American Civil War">Commemoration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Centennial" title="American Civil War Centennial">Centennial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Discovery_Trail" title="Civil War Discovery Trail">Civil War Discovery Trail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Roundtable" title="Civil War Roundtable">Civil War Roundtables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trails_Program" title="Civil War Trails Program">Civil War Trails Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil War Trust">Civil War Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_History_Month" title="Confederate History Month">Confederate History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Day" title="Confederate Memorial Day">Confederate Memorial Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorial_Day" title="Memorial Day">Decoration Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_reenactment" title="American Civil War reenactment">Historical reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Lee_Day" title="Robert E. Lee Day">Robert E. Lee Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disenfranchisement_after_the_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disenfranchisement after the Reconstruction era">Disenfranchisement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiographic_issues_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="Historiographic issues about the American Civil War">Historiographic issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lost_Cause_of_the_Confederacy" title="Lost Cause of the Confederacy">Lost Cause mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_display_of_the_Confederate_battle_flag" title="Modern display of the Confederate battle flag">Modern display of the Confederate flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Shirts_(United_States)" title="Red Shirts (United States)">Red Shirts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Confederate_Veterans" title="Sons of Confederate Veterans">Sons of Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sons_of_Union_Veterans_of_the_Civil_War" title="Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War">Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Historical_Society" title="Southern Historical Society">Southern Historical Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Daughters_of_the_Confederacy" title="United Daughters of the Confederacy">United Daughters of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_Confederacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Children of the Confederacy">Children of the Confederacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilmington_insurrection_of_1898" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilmington insurrection of 1898">Wilmington insurrection of 1898</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Monuments<br />and memorials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Union</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Union_Civil_War_monuments_and_memorials" title="List of Union Civil War monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_the_Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="List of memorials to the Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Abraham_Lincoln" title="List of memorials to Abraham Lincoln">memorials to Lincoln</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal;">Confederate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Confederate monuments and memorials">List</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_artworks_in_the_United_States_Capitol" title="Confederate artworks in the United States Capitol">artworks in Capitol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Jefferson_Davis" title="List of memorials to Jefferson Davis">memorials to Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Robert_E._Lee" title="List of memorials to Robert E. Lee">memorials to Lee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Removal_of_Confederate_monuments_and_memorials" title="Removal of Confederate monuments and memorials">Removal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Cemeteries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Memorial_Association" title="Ladies' Memorial Association">Ladies' Memorial Associations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Era_National_Cemeteries_MPS" title="Civil War Era National Cemeteries MPS">U.S. national cemeteries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Veterans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1913_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1913 Gettysburg reunion">1913 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Gettysburg_reunion" title="1938 Gettysburg reunion">1938 Gettysburg reunion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Memorial_Hall" title="Confederate Memorial Hall">Confederate Memorial Hall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Veteran" title="Confederate Veteran">Confederate Veteran</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Army_of_the_Republic" title="Grand Army of the Republic">Grand Army of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Order_of_the_Loyal_Legion_of_the_United_States" title="Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States">Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_soldiers%27_home" title="Old soldiers' home">Old soldiers' homes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Cross_of_Honor" title="Southern Cross of Honor">Southern Cross of Honor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Confederate_Veterans" title="United Confederate Veterans">United Confederate Veterans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_weapons_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of weapons in the American Civil War">Arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_Campaign_Medal" title="Civil War Campaign Medal">Campaign Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cavalry in the American Civil War">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Home_Guard" title="Confederate Home Guard">Confederate Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_railroads_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Confederate railroads in the American Civil War">Confederate railroads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_revolving_cannon" title="Confederate revolving cannon">Confederate revolving cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Field artillery in the American Civil War">Field artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_American_Civil_War_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients">Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Medicine in the American Civil War">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_battles_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of naval battles of the American Civil War">Naval battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_Records_of_the_Union_and_Confederate_Armies" title="Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies">Official Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partisan_Ranger_Act" title="Partisan Ranger Act">Partisan rangers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_prison_camps" title="American Civil War prison camps">POW camps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foods_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Foods of the American Civil War">Rations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_Corps_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Signal Corps in the American Civil War">Signal Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_point_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Turning point of the American Civil War">Turning point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_Corps_Badges" title="American Civil War Corps Badges">Union corps badges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_Army_Balloon_Corps" title="Union Army Balloon Corps">U.S. Balloon Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_Guard_(Union)" title="Home Guard (Union)">U.S. Home Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Military_Railroad" title="United States Military Railroad">U.S. Military Railroad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress_Joint_Committee_on_the_Conduct_of_the_War" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War">Committee on the Conduct of the War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_presidential_election" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate States presidential election">Confederate States presidential election of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1861" title="Confiscation Act of 1861">Confiscation Act of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confiscation_Act_of_1862" title="Confiscation Act of 1862">Confiscation Act of 1862</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copperhead_(politics)" title="Copperhead (politics)">Copperheads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Diplomacy of the American Civil War">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habeas_Corpus_Suspension_Act_(1863)" title="Habeas Corpus Suspension Act (1863)">Habeas Corpus Act of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Roads_Conference" title="Hampton Roads Conference">Hampton Roads Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Party_(United_States)" title="National Union Party (United States)">National Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_politicians_killed_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of politicians killed in the American Civil War">Politicians killed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Republicans" title="Radical Republicans">Radical Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trent_Affair" title="Trent Affair">Trent Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_League" title="Union League">Union Leagues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1864_United_States_presidential_election" title="1864 United States presidential election">U.S. Presidential Election of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Democrat" title="War Democrat">War Democrats</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Music of the American Civil War">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Hymn_of_the_Republic" title="Battle Hymn of the Republic">Battle Hymn of the Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_(song)" title="Dixie (song)">Dixie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Brown%27s_Body" title="John Brown's Body">John Brown's Body</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Lincoln_Portrait" class="mw-redirect" title="A Lincoln Portrait">A Lincoln Portrait</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marching_Through_Georgia" title="Marching Through Georgia">Marching Through Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maryland,_My_Maryland" title="Maryland, My Maryland">Maryland, My Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/When_Johnny_Comes_Marching_Home" title="When Johnny Comes Marching Home">When Johnny Comes Marching Home</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daar_kom_die_Alibama" title="Daar kom die Alibama">Daar kom die Alibama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">By ethnicity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="German Americans in the American Civil War">German Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Irish Americans in the American Civil War">Irish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans_in_the_Civil_War" title="Italian Americans in the Civil War">Italian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catawba_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Catawba in the American Civil War">Catawba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Cherokee in the American Civil War">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Choctaw in the American Civil War">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Seminole in the American Civil War">Seminole</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltimore_riot_of_1861" title="Baltimore riot of 1861">Baltimore riot of 1861</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_battlefield_preservation" title="American Civil War battlefield preservation">Battlefield preservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Bibliography of the American Civil War">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_war_finance" title="Confederate war finance">Confederate war finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_dollar" title="Confederate States dollar">Confederate States dollar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War_spies" title="American Civil War spies">Espionage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_Secret_Service" title="Confederate Secret Service">Confederate Secret Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Hanging_at_Gainesville" title="Great Hanging at Gainesville">Great Hanging at Gainesville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_Army_revival" title="Confederate States Army revival">Great Revival of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_issues_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Gender issues in the American Civil War">Gender issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Names of the American Civil War">Naming the war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_gold_hoax" title="Civil War gold hoax">New York City Gold Hoax of 1864</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_City_draft_riots" title="New York City draft riots">New York City riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographers_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Photographers of the American Civil War">Photographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_bread_riots" title="Southern bread riots">Richmond riots of 1863</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Salt in the American Civil War">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_cases_of_the_American_Civil_War" title="Supreme Court cases of the American Civil War">Supreme Court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_War_token" title="Civil War token">Tokens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Sanitary_Commission" title="United States Sanitary Commission">U.S. Sanitary Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_American_Civil_War_soldiers" title="List of female American Civil War soldiers">Women soldiers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_and_television_shows_about_the_American_Civil_War" title="List of films and television shows about the American Civil War">List of films and television shows about the American Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" 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