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<span>Asphalt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asphalt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concrete" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concrete"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Concrete</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concrete-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Composite_pavement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Composite_pavement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Composite pavement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Composite_pavement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recycling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recycling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Recycling</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Recycling subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Recycling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In-place_recycling_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In-place_recycling_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>In-place recycling methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In-place_recycling_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bituminous_surface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bituminous_surface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Bituminous surface</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bituminous_surface-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Bituminous surface subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Bituminous_surface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Thin_membrane_surface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thin_membrane_surface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Thin membrane surface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Thin_membrane_surface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Otta_seal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Otta_seal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Otta seal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Otta_seal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gravel_surface" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gravel_surface"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gravel surface</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gravel_surface-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_surfaces" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_surfaces"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Other surfaces</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_surfaces-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Acoustical_implications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acoustical_implications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Acoustical implications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acoustical_implications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Surface_deterioration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surface_deterioration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Surface deterioration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surface_deterioration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Markings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Markings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Markings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Markings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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surface</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 25 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-25" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">25 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82" title="تعبيد الطريق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعبيد الطريق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vozovka" title="Vozovka – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vozovka" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bel%C3%A6gning_(trafik)" title="Belægning (trafik) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Belægning (trafik)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decke_(Stra%C3%9Fenbau)" title="Decke (Straßenbau) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Decke (Straßenbau)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teekate" title="Teekate – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teekate" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firme" title="Firme – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Firme" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidezoru" title="Bidezoru – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Bidezoru" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%8C" title="روسازی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روسازی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%EC%9E%A5%EB%8F%84%EB%A1%9C" title="포장도로 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포장도로" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%BC%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B9" title="सड़क सतह – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सड़क सतह" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkerasan_jalan" title="Perkerasan jalan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Perkerasan jalan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavimentazione_stradale" title="Pavimentazione stradale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pavimentazione stradale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%83%D1%83" title="Замын гадаргуу – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Замын гадаргуу" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wegverharding" title="Wegverharding – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wegverharding" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%88%97%E8%A3%85" title="舗装 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="舗装" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nawierzchnia_drogowa" title="Nawierzchnia drogowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nawierzchnia drogowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Дорожная одежда – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Дорожная одежда" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road_surface" title="Road surface – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Road surface" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laami" title="Laami – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Laami" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%D9%88%D9%88%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%8E%DA%AF%DB%95" title="ڕووی ڕێگە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕووی ڕێگە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%96%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="ถนนลาดยาง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ถนนลาดยาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yol_y%C3%BCzeyi" title="Yol yüzeyi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yol yüzeyi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B9_%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%B3" title="Дорожній одяг – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дорожній одяг" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E9%9D%A2" title="路面 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="路面" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%AF%E9%9D%A2" title="路面 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="路面" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1049667#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Road_surface" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about road surface pavement material. For other uses of the term "pavement", see <a href="/wiki/Pavement_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Pavement (disambiguation)">Pavement (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Road covered with durable surface material</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Road_resurfacing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Road_resurfacing.jpg/220px-Road_resurfacing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Road_resurfacing.jpg/330px-Road_resurfacing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Road_resurfacing.jpg/440px-Road_resurfacing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1092" /></a><figcaption>A road being resurfaced using a <a href="/wiki/Road_roller" title="Road roller">road roller</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2004feb20_Aanleg_rood_fietspad.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/2004feb20_Aanleg_rood_fietspad.jpg/220px-2004feb20_Aanleg_rood_fietspad.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/2004feb20_Aanleg_rood_fietspad.jpg/330px-2004feb20_Aanleg_rood_fietspad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/2004feb20_Aanleg_rood_fietspad.jpg/440px-2004feb20_Aanleg_rood_fietspad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3476" data-file-height="2358" /></a><figcaption>Red surfacing for a <a href="/wiki/Bicycle_lane" class="mw-redirect" title="Bicycle lane">bicycle lane</a> in the Netherlands</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stealth_Communications_laying_down_asphalt_over_fiber-optic_trench_in_NYC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Stealth_Communications_laying_down_asphalt_over_fiber-optic_trench_in_NYC.jpg/220px-Stealth_Communications_laying_down_asphalt_over_fiber-optic_trench_in_NYC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Stealth_Communications_laying_down_asphalt_over_fiber-optic_trench_in_NYC.jpg/330px-Stealth_Communications_laying_down_asphalt_over_fiber-optic_trench_in_NYC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Stealth_Communications_laying_down_asphalt_over_fiber-optic_trench_in_NYC.jpg/440px-Stealth_Communications_laying_down_asphalt_over_fiber-optic_trench_in_NYC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3840" data-file-height="2160" /></a><figcaption>Construction crew laying down asphalt over fiber-optic trench, in New York City</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>road surface</b> (<a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>) or <b>pavement</b> (<a href="/wiki/North_American_English" title="North American English">North American English</a>) is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot <a href="/wiki/Traffic" title="Traffic">traffic</a>, such as a <a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">road</a> or <a href="/wiki/Walkway" title="Walkway">walkway</a>. In the past, <a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">gravel road</a> surfaces, <a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">macadam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hoggin" title="Hoggin">hoggin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">cobblestone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sett_(paving)" title="Sett (paving)">granite setts</a> were extensively used, but these have mostly been replaced by <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt</a> or <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> laid on a compacted <a href="/wiki/Base_course" title="Base course">base course</a>. Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since the beginning of the 20th century and are of two types: metalled (hard-surfaced) and unmetalled roads. Metalled roadways are made to sustain vehicular load and so are usually made on frequently used roads. Unmetalled roads, also known as gravel roads or dirt roads, are rough and can sustain less weight. Road surfaces are frequently <a href="/wiki/Road_surface_marking" title="Road surface marking">marked to guide traffic</a>. </p><p>Today, <a href="/wiki/Permeable_paving" title="Permeable paving">permeable paving</a> methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways to prevent flooding. Pavements are crucial to countries such as <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, which heavily depend on road transportation. Therefore, research projects such as <a href="/wiki/Long-Term_Pavement_Performance" title="Long-Term Pavement Performance">Long-Term Pavement Performance</a> have been launched to optimize the life cycle of different road surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Pavement</b>, in construction, is an outdoor floor or superficial surface covering. Paving materials include <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>, stones such as <a href="/wiki/Flagstone" title="Flagstone">flagstone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">cobblestone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sett_(paving)" title="Sett (paving)">setts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_stone" title="Artificial stone">artificial stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">bricks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tile" title="Tile">tiles</a>, and sometimes wood. In <a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">landscape architecture</a>, pavements are part of the <a href="/wiki/Hardscape" title="Hardscape">hardscape</a> and are used on <a href="/wiki/Sidewalk" title="Sidewalk">sidewalks</a>, <a class="mw-selflink selflink">road surfaces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patio" title="Patio">patios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Courtyard" title="Courtyard">courtyards</a>, etc. </p><p>The term <i>pavement</i> comes from Latin <i><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pavimentum" class="extiw" title="wikt:pavimentum">pavimentum</a></i>, meaning a floor beaten or rammed down, through Old French <i>pavement</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meaning of a beaten-down floor was obsolete before the word entered English.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pavement, in the form of beaten <a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a>, dates back before the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern humans">anatomically modern humans</a>. Pavement laid in patterns like <a href="/wiki/Mosaics" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaics">mosaics</a> were commonly used by the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Bearing_capacity" title="Bearing capacity">bearing capacity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Service_life" title="Service life">service life</a> of a pavement can be raised dramatically by arranging good <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> by an open <a href="/wiki/Ditch" title="Ditch">ditch</a> or covered <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drains</a> to reduce moisture content in the pavements <a href="/wiki/Subbase" title="Subbase">subbase</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">subgrade</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_road_transport" title="History of road transport">History of road transport</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Carved_steps_along_Ancient_Roman_Road.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Carved_steps_along_Ancient_Roman_Road.jpg/220px-Carved_steps_along_Ancient_Roman_Road.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Carved_steps_along_Ancient_Roman_Road.jpg/330px-Carved_steps_along_Ancient_Roman_Road.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Carved_steps_along_Ancient_Roman_Road.jpg/440px-Carved_steps_along_Ancient_Roman_Road.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Old Roman road, leading from <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bayt_Jibrin" title="Bayt Jibrin">Beit Gubrin</a>, adjacent to regional highway 375 in Israel</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pavement_layers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Pavement_layers.png/220px-Pavement_layers.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Pavement_layers.png/330px-Pavement_layers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Pavement_layers.png/440px-Pavement_layers.png 2x" data-file-width="1916" data-file-height="959" /></a><figcaption>Different layers of road including asphalt layer. The total thickness of a pavement can be measured using <a href="/wiki/Granular_base_equivalency" title="Granular base equivalency">granular base equivalency</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Wheeled transport created the need for better roads. Generally, natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in <a href="/wiki/Ur" title="Ur">Ur</a> in 4000 BC. <a href="/wiki/Corduroy_road" title="Corduroy road">Corduroy roads</a> were built in <a href="/wiki/Glastonbury" title="Glastonbury">Glastonbury</a>, <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> in 3300 BC,<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and brick-paved roads were built in the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a> from around the same time. Improvements in <a href="/wiki/Metallurgy" title="Metallurgy">metallurgy</a> meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the Middle East and <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> allowing local streets to be paved.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, in about 2000 BC, the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoans</a> built a 50 km paved road from <a href="/wiki/Knossos" title="Knossos">Knossos</a> in northern <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a> through the mountains to <a href="/wiki/Gortyn" title="Gortyn">Gortyn</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leben_(Crete)" title="Leben (Crete)">Lebena</a>, a port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of <a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">sandstone</a> blocks bound with <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>-<a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">gypsum</a> <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>, covered by a layer of <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basaltic</a> <a href="/wiki/Flagstone" title="Flagstone">flagstones</a> and had separate <a href="/wiki/Shoulder_(road)" title="Shoulder (road)">shoulders</a>. This road could be considered superior to any <a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roman road</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as the water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. </p><p>Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century. The first professional road builder to emerge during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> was <a href="/wiki/John_Metcalf_(civil_engineer)" title="John Metcalf (civil engineer)">John Metcalf</a>, who constructed about 290 kilometres (180 mi) of <a href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">turnpike road</a>, mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Great_Britain" title="Parliament of Great Britain">Parliament</a> passed an act authorising the creation of <a href="/wiki/Turnpike_trust" title="Turnpike trust">turnpike trusts</a> to build <a href="/wiki/Toll_(road_usage)" class="mw-redirect" title="Toll (road usage)">toll</a> funded roads in the <a href="/wiki/Knaresborough" title="Knaresborough">Knaresborough</a> area. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Marie-J%C3%A9r%C3%B4me_Tr%C3%A9saguet" title="Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet">Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet</a> is widely credited with establishing the first <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific approach</a> to road building in France at the same time as Metcalf. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved a layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel. </p><p>By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two British engineers: <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Telford" title="Thomas Telford">Thomas Telford</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Loudon_McAdam" title="John Loudon McAdam">John Loudon McAdam</a>. Telford's method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. McAdam developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as <a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">macadam</a>). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear.<sup id="cite_ref-ColossusofRoads_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ColossusofRoads-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Size of stones was central to McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (7.9 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in). </p><p>Modern <a href="/wiki/Tarmacadam" title="Tarmacadam">tarmac</a> was patented by British civil engineer <a href="/wiki/Edgar_Purnell_Hooley" title="Edgar Purnell Hooley">Edgar Purnell Hooley</a>, who noticed that spilled tar on the roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Morton2002_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morton2002-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrison2004_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrison2004-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hooley's 1901 patent for tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, and then compacting the mixture with a <a href="/wiki/Steamroller" title="Steamroller">steamroller</a>. The tar was modified by adding small amounts of <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resin" title="Resin">resin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pitch_(resin)" title="Pitch (resin)">pitch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asphalt">Asphalt</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Asphalt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Closeup_of_pavement_with_grass.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Closeup_of_pavement_with_grass.JPG/220px-Closeup_of_pavement_with_grass.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Closeup_of_pavement_with_grass.JPG/330px-Closeup_of_pavement_with_grass.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Closeup_of_pavement_with_grass.JPG/440px-Closeup_of_pavement_with_grass.JPG 2x" data-file-width="563" data-file-height="422" /></a><figcaption>Closeup of asphalt on a driveway</figcaption></figure> <p>Asphalt (specifically, <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt concrete</a>), sometimes called flexible pavement since its viscosity causes minute deformations as it distributes loads, has been widely used since the 1920s. The viscous nature of the <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant <a href="/wiki/Deformation_(engineering)" title="Deformation (engineering)">plastic deformation</a>, although <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a> from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism. Most asphalt surfaces are laid on a gravel base, which is generally at least as thick as the asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are laid directly on the native <a href="/wiki/Subgrade" title="Subgrade">subgrade</a>. In areas with very soft or <a href="/wiki/Expansive_clay" title="Expansive clay">expansive</a> subgrades such as <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a> or <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a>, thick gravel bases or stabilization of the subgrade with <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a> may be required. Polypropylene and polyester <a href="/wiki/Geosynthetics" title="Geosynthetics">geosynthetics</a> are also used for this purpose,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in some northern countries a layer of <a href="/wiki/Polystyrene" title="Polystyrene">polystyrene</a> boards are used to delay and minimize frost penetration into the subgrade.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix, warm mix, half warm mix, or cold mix. Hot mix asphalt is applied at temperatures over 150 °C (300 °F) with a <a href="/wiki/Free_floating_screed" title="Free floating screed">free floating screed</a>. Warm mix asphalt is applied at temperatures of 95–120 °C (200–250 °F), resulting in reduced energy usage and emissions of <a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">volatile organic compounds</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cold mix asphalt is often used on lower-volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too much on the long trip from the <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_plant" title="Asphalt plant">asphalt plant</a> to the construction site.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1,200 vehicles per day.<sup id="cite_ref-cold_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cold-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather, and a certain amount of <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbon</a> pollution to soil and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> or <a href="/wiki/Waterway" title="Waterway">waterways</a>.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Road_resurfacing_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Road_resurfacing_%282%29.jpg/220px-Road_resurfacing_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Road_resurfacing_%282%29.jpg/330px-Road_resurfacing_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Road_resurfacing_%282%29.jpg/440px-Road_resurfacing_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>Laying asphalt</figcaption></figure><p>In the mid-1960s, <a href="/wiki/Rubberized_asphalt" title="Rubberized asphalt">rubberized asphalt</a> was used for the first time, mixing crumb rubber from used tires with asphalt.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While a potential use for tires that would otherwise fill landfills and present a fire hazard, rubberized asphalt has shown greater incidence of wear in freeze-thaw cycles in temperate zones because of the non-homogeneous expansion and contraction with non-rubber components. The application of rubberized asphalt is more temperature-sensitive and in many locations can only be applied at certain times of the year.<sup id="cite_ref-jordanssurfacing.co.uk_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jordanssurfacing.co.uk-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Study results of the long-term acoustic benefits of rubberized asphalt are inconclusive. Initial application of rubberized asphalt may provide a reduction of 3–5 decibels (dB) in tire-pavement-source noise emissions; however, this translates to only 1–3 dB in total traffic-noise reduction when combined with the other components of traffic noise. Compared to traditional passive attenuating measures (e.g., noise walls and earth berms), rubberized asphalt provides shorter-lasting and lesser acoustic benefits at typically much greater expense.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concrete">Concrete</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Concrete"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">Concrete</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CASR85_SanJose.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/CASR85_SanJose.jpg/220px-CASR85_SanJose.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/CASR85_SanJose.jpg/330px-CASR85_SanJose.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/CASR85_SanJose.jpg/440px-CASR85_SanJose.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="679" /></a><figcaption>Concrete roadway in <a href="/wiki/San_Jose,_CA" class="mw-redirect" title="San Jose, CA">San Jose</a>, <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2014-08-29_15_31_39_View_southeast_along_Stuyvesant_Avenue_in_Ewing,_New_Jersey,_with_concrete_pavement_likely_dating_to_the_1950s.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/2014-08-29_15_31_39_View_southeast_along_Stuyvesant_Avenue_in_Ewing%2C_New_Jersey%2C_with_concrete_pavement_likely_dating_to_the_1950s.JPG/220px-2014-08-29_15_31_39_View_southeast_along_Stuyvesant_Avenue_in_Ewing%2C_New_Jersey%2C_with_concrete_pavement_likely_dating_to_the_1950s.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/2014-08-29_15_31_39_View_southeast_along_Stuyvesant_Avenue_in_Ewing%2C_New_Jersey%2C_with_concrete_pavement_likely_dating_to_the_1950s.JPG/330px-2014-08-29_15_31_39_View_southeast_along_Stuyvesant_Avenue_in_Ewing%2C_New_Jersey%2C_with_concrete_pavement_likely_dating_to_the_1950s.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/2014-08-29_15_31_39_View_southeast_along_Stuyvesant_Avenue_in_Ewing%2C_New_Jersey%2C_with_concrete_pavement_likely_dating_to_the_1950s.JPG/440px-2014-08-29_15_31_39_View_southeast_along_Stuyvesant_Avenue_in_Ewing%2C_New_Jersey%2C_with_concrete_pavement_likely_dating_to_the_1950s.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>A concrete road in <a href="/wiki/Ewing_Township,_New_Jersey" title="Ewing Township, New Jersey">Ewing</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Jersey" title="New Jersey">New Jersey</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Concrete surfaces (specifically, <a href="/wiki/Portland_cement" title="Portland cement">Portland cement</a> concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement, <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">coarse aggregate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a>, and water. In virtually all modern mixes there will also be various admixtures added to increase workability, reduce the required amount of water, mitigate harmful chemical reactions, and for other beneficial purposes. In many cases there will also be Portland cement substitutes added, such as <a href="/wiki/Fly_ash" class="mw-redirect" title="Fly ash">fly ash</a>. This can reduce the cost of the concrete and improve its physical properties. The material is applied in a freshly mixed slurry and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the cement slurry to the surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine molecularly in a chemical reaction called <a href="/wiki/Mineral_hydration" title="Mineral hydration">hydration</a>. </p><p>Concrete surfaces have been classified into three common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP). The one item that distinguishes each type is the jointing system used to control crack development. </p><p>One of the major advantages of concrete pavements is they are typically stronger and more durable than asphalt roadways. The surface can be grooved to provide a durable skid-resistant surface. Concrete roads are more economical to drive in terms of fuel consumption, they reflect light better, and they last significantly longer than other paving surfaces; but they have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern paving methods and design methods have changed the economics of concrete paving so that a well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be cheaper in initial cost and significantly cheaper over the life cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another important advantage is that waterproof concrete can be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains next to the road and reduces the need for a slightly sloped driveway to drain rainwater. Avoiding rainwater discharge by using runoff also means less electricity is needed (otherwise more pumps would be needed in the water distribution system) and rainwater is not polluted because it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the earth.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A previous disadvantage was that they had a higher initial cost and could be more time-consuming to construct. This cost can typically be offset through the long life cycle of the pavement and the higher cost of bitumen. Concrete pavement can be maintained over time utilizing a series of methods known as <a href="/wiki/Concrete_Pavement_Restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Concrete Pavement Restoration">concrete pavement restoration</a> which include <a href="/wiki/Diamond_grinding_of_pavement" title="Diamond grinding of pavement">diamond grinding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dowel_bar_retrofit" title="Dowel bar retrofit">dowel bar retrofits</a>, joint and crack sealing, cross-stitching, etc. Diamond grinding is also useful in reducing noise and restoring skid resistance in older concrete pavement.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first street in the United States to be paved with concrete was <a href="/wiki/Court_Avenue" title="Court Avenue">Court Avenue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bellefontaine,_Ohio" title="Bellefontaine, Ohio">Bellefontaine, Ohio</a> in 1893.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first mile of concrete pavement in the United States was on <a href="/wiki/M-1_(Michigan_highway)" title="M-1 (Michigan highway)">Woodward Avenue</a> in <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit, Michigan</a> in 1909.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following these pioneering uses, the <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Highway#Concept_and_promotion" title="Lincoln Highway">Lincoln Highway Association</a>, established in October 1913 to oversee the creation of one of the United States' earliest east-west transcontinental highways for the automobile, began to establish <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Highway#Seedling_miles_and_the_ideal_section" title="Lincoln Highway">"seedling miles"</a> of specifically concrete-paved roadbed in various places in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">American Midwest</a>, starting in 1914 west of <a href="/wiki/Malta,_Illinois" title="Malta, Illinois">Malta, Illinois</a>, while using concrete with the specified concrete "ideal section" for the Lincoln Highway in <a href="/wiki/Lake_County,_Indiana" title="Lake County, Indiana">Lake County, Indiana</a>, during 1922 and 1923.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Concrete roadways may produce more noise than asphalt from tire noise on cracks and expansion joints. A concrete pavement composed of multiple slabs of uniform size will produce a periodic sound and vibration in each vehicle as its tires pass over each expansion joint. These monotonous repeated sounds and vibrations can cause a <a href="/wiki/Highway_hypnosis" title="Highway hypnosis">fatiguing or hypnotic effect</a> upon the driver over the course of a long journey. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composite_pavement">Composite pavement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Composite pavement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Composite_pavement_x-sect.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Composite_pavement_x-sect.jpg/220px-Composite_pavement_x-sect.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Composite_pavement_x-sect.jpg/330px-Composite_pavement_x-sect.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Composite_pavement_x-sect.jpg/440px-Composite_pavement_x-sect.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1552" /></a><figcaption>An example of composite pavement: hot-mix asphalt overlaid onto Portland cement concrete pavement</figcaption></figure> <p>Composite pavements combine a Portland cement concrete sublayer with an asphalt overlay. They are usually used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than in new construction. Asphalt overlays are sometimes laid over distressed concrete to restore a smooth wearing surface.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A disadvantage of this method is that movement in the joints between the underlying concrete slabs, whether from thermal expansion and contraction, or from deflection of the concrete slabs from truck <a href="/wiki/Axle_load" title="Axle load">axle loads</a>, usually causes <i><a href="/wiki/Reflective_crack" title="Reflective crack">reflective cracks</a></i> in the asphalt. </p><p>To decrease reflective cracking, concrete pavement is broken apart through a <i>break and seat,</i> <i>crack and seat</i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Rubblization" title="Rubblization">rubblization</a></i> process. Geosynthetics can be used for reflective crack control.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With break and seat and crack and seat processes, a heavy weight is dropped on the concrete to induce cracking, then a heavy roller is used to seat the resultant pieces into the subbase. The main difference between the two processes is the equipment used to break the concrete pavement and the size of the resulting pieces. The theory is that frequent small cracks will spread thermal stress over a wider area than infrequent large joints, reducing the stress on the overlying asphalt pavement. "Rubblization" is a more complete fracturing of the old, worn-out concrete, effectively converting the old pavement into an aggregate base for a new asphalt road.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Whitetopping" title="Whitetopping">whitetopping</a> process uses Portland cement concrete to resurface a distressed asphalt road. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Recycling">Recycling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Recycling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm/176px--AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="176" height="144" data-durationhint="14" data-mwtitle="AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="176" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="176" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="176" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/62/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm/AsphaltMillingMachineSEBoise.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="176" data-height="144" /></video></span><figcaption>An asphalt milling machine in <a href="/wiki/Boise,_Idaho" title="Boise, Idaho">Boise, Idaho</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Distressed pavement can be reused when rehabilitating a roadway. The existing pavement is broken up and may be ground on-site through a process called <a href="/wiki/Pavement_milling" title="Pavement milling">milling</a>. This pavement is commonly referred to as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). RAP can be transported to an asphalt plant, where it will be stockpiled for use in new pavement mixes,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or it may be recycled in-place using the techniques described below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In-place_recycling_methods">In-place recycling methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In-place recycling methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><b>Rubblizing of pavement:</b> Existing concrete pavement is milled into gravel-sized particles. Any steel reinforcing is removed, and the ground pavement is compacted to form the base and/or sub-base layers for new asphalt pavement.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ground pavement may also be compacted for use on <a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">gravel roads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  </li> <li><b>Cold in-place recycling:</b> Bituminous pavement is ground or milled into small particles. The asphalt millings are blended with asphalt emulsion, foamed bitumen, or soft bitumen to rejuvenate the aged asphalt binder.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New aggregate may also be added. The resulting asphalt mix is paved and compacted. It may serve as the top pavement layer, or it may be overlaid with new asphalt after curing.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Hot in-place recycling:</b> Bituminous pavement is heated to 120–150 °C (250–300 °F), milled, combined with a rejuvenating agent and/or virgin asphalt binder, and compacted. It may then be overlaid with new asphalt concrete.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This process typically recycles the top 50 mm (2 in) or less and may be used to correct surface defects, such as rutting or polishing.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To preserve the condition of the asphalt binder and avoid excessive hydrocarbon emissions, heating is typically achieved gradually through the use of infrared or hot air heaters.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Full_depth_recycling" title="Full depth recycling">Full depth reclamation</a>:</b> The full thickness of the asphalt pavement and underlying material is pulverized to provide a uniform blend of material.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A binding agent or stabilizing material may be mixed in to form a base course for the new pavement, or it may be left unbound to form a sub-base course. Common binding agents include asphalt emulsion, fly ash, hydrated lime, Portland cement, and calcium chloride.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Virgin aggregate, RAP, or crushed Portland cement may also be added to improve the <a href="/wiki/Soil_gradation" title="Soil gradation">gradation</a> and mechanical properties of the mix.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This technique is typically used to address structural failures in the pavement, such as alligator cracking, deep rutting, and shoulder drop-off.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_37-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bituminous_surface">Bituminous surface</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bituminous surface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chipseal" title="Chipseal">Chipseal</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gravel_road_with_no_dust.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Gravel_road_with_no_dust.webp/220px-Gravel_road_with_no_dust.webp.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Gravel_road_with_no_dust.webp/330px-Gravel_road_with_no_dust.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Gravel_road_with_no_dust.webp/440px-Gravel_road_with_no_dust.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="4032" /></a><figcaption>newly installed chipseal surface on Ellsworth Road in <a href="/wiki/Tomah,_Wisconsin" title="Tomah, Wisconsin">Tomah, Wisconsin</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Bituminous surface treatment</b> (BST) or <b>chipseal</b> is used mainly on low-traffic roads, but also as a sealing coat to rejuvenate an asphalt concrete pavement. It generally consists of aggregate spread over a sprayed-on asphalt <a href="/wiki/Emulsion" title="Emulsion">emulsion</a> or cut-back asphalt cement. The aggregate is then embedded into the asphalt by rolling it, typically with a rubber-tired <a href="/wiki/Road_roller" title="Road roller">roller</a>. This type of surface is described by a wide variety of regional terms including "chip seal", "tar and chip", "oil and stone", "seal coat", "sprayed seal",<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "surface dressing",<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "microsurfacing",<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "seal",<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or simply as "bitumen". </p><p>BST is used on hundreds of miles of the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Highway" title="Alaska Highway">Alaska Highway</a> and other similar roadways in <a href="/wiki/Alaska" title="Alaska">Alaska</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yukon_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Yukon Territory">Yukon Territory</a>, and northern <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>. The ease of application of BST is one reason for its popularity, but another is its flexibility, which is important when roadways are laid down over unstable terrain that thaws and softens in the spring. </p><p>Other types of BSTs include micropaving, slurry seals and Novachip. These are laid down using specialized and proprietary equipment. They are most often used in urban areas where the roughness and loose stone associated with chip seals is considered undesirable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Thin_membrane_surface">Thin membrane surface</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Thin membrane surface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A thin membrane surface (TMS) is an <a href="/wiki/Oil" title="Oil">oil</a>-treated <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">aggregate</a> which is laid down upon a <a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">gravel road</a> bed, producing a dust-free road.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A TMS road reduces mud problems and provides stone-free roads for local residents where loaded truck traffic is negligible. The TMS layer adds no significant structural strength, and so is used on secondary highways with low traffic volume and minimal weight loading. Construction involves minimal subgrade preparation, following by covering with a 50-to-100-millimetre (2–4 in) cold mix <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">asphalt</a> aggregate.<sup id="cite_ref-cold_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cold-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Operation Division of the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Highways_and_Infrastructure_(Saskatchewan)" title="Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure (Saskatchewan)">Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saskatchewan" title="Saskatchewan">Saskatchewan</a> has the responsibility of maintaining 6,102 kilometres (3,792 mi) of thin membrane surface (TMS) highways.<sup id="cite_ref-MHI_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MHI-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Otta_seal">Otta seal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Otta seal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Otta_seal" title="Otta seal">Otta seal</a> is a low-cost road surface using a <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style>16–30-millimetre-thick (<span class="frac"><span class="num">5</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span>–<span class="frac">1<span class="sr-only">+</span><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">8</span></span> in) mixture of <a href="/wiki/Bitumen" title="Bitumen">bitumen</a> and crushed rock.<sup id="cite_ref-otta_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-otta-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gravel_surface">Gravel surface <span class="anchor" id="Metalling"></span></h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gravel surface"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">Gravel road</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gravel_road,_Namibia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Gravel_road%2C_Namibia.jpg/220px-Gravel_road%2C_Namibia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Gravel_road%2C_Namibia.jpg/330px-Gravel_road%2C_Namibia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Gravel_road%2C_Namibia.jpg/440px-Gravel_road%2C_Namibia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">Gravel road</a> in <a href="/wiki/Namibia" title="Namibia">Namibia</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">Gravel</a> is known to have been used extensively in the construction of roads by soldiers of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Roman_road" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman road">Roman road</a>) but in 1998 a limestone-surfaced road, thought to date back to the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, was found at <a href="/wiki/Yarnton" title="Yarnton">Yarnton</a> in Oxfordshire, Britain.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Applying gravel, or "<b>metalling</b>", has had two distinct usages in road surfacing. The term <b>road metal</b> refers to the broken <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stone</a> or <a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">cinders</a> used in the <a href="/wiki/Road#Construction" title="Road">construction or repair of roads</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rail_track" class="mw-redirect" title="Rail track">railways</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <i>metallum</i>, which means both "<a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mine</a>" and "<a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">quarry</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term originally referred to the process of creating a gravel roadway. The route of the roadway would first be dug down several feet and, depending on local conditions, <a href="/wiki/French_drain" title="French drain">French drains</a> may or may not have been added. Next, large stones were placed and compacted, followed by successive layers of smaller stones, until the road surface was composed of small stones compacted into a hard, durable surface. "Road metal" later became the name of <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">stone</a> chippings mixed with <a href="/wiki/Tar" title="Tar">tar</a> to form the road-surfacing material <a href="/wiki/Tarmacadam" title="Tarmacadam">tarmac</a>. A road of such material is called a "<b>metalled road</b>" in Britain, a "<b>paved road</b>" in Canada and the US, or a "<b>sealed road</b>" in parts of Canada, Australia and New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A granular surface can be used with a traffic volume where the annual average daily traffic is 1,200 vehicles per day or less.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> There is some structural strength if the road surface combines a sub base and base and is topped with a double-graded seal aggregate with emulsion.<sup id="cite_ref-cold_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cold-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-aggregate_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aggregate-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the 4,929 kilometres (3,063 mi) of granular pavements maintained in Saskatchewan, around 40% of <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a> roads are unbound granular pavement structures.<sup id="cite_ref-MHI_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MHI-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The decision whether to pave a gravel road or not often hinges on traffic volume. It has been found that maintenance costs for gravel roads often exceed the maintenance costs for paved or surface-treated roads when traffic volumes exceed 200 vehicles per day.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gravel_road_ahead_-_Road_60_Iceland.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Gravel_road_ahead_-_Road_60_Iceland.JPG/220px-Gravel_road_ahead_-_Road_60_Iceland.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Gravel_road_ahead_-_Road_60_Iceland.JPG/330px-Gravel_road_ahead_-_Road_60_Iceland.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Gravel_road_ahead_-_Road_60_Iceland.JPG/440px-Gravel_road_ahead_-_Road_60_Iceland.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Pavement ends and turns into gravel surface road</figcaption></figure> <p>Some communities are finding it makes sense to convert their low-volume paved roads to aggregate surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_surfaces">Other surfaces</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other surfaces"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Pavers</b> (or <b>paviours</b>), generally in the form of pre-cast concrete blocks, are often used for aesthetic purposes, or sometimes at <a href="/wiki/Harbor" title="Harbor">port</a> facilities that see long-duration pavement loading. <a href="/wiki/Block_paving" class="mw-redirect" title="Block paving">Pavers</a> are rarely used in areas that see high-speed vehicle traffic.</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brick_paving_machine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Brick_paving_machine.jpg/220px-Brick_paving_machine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Brick_paving_machine.jpg/330px-Brick_paving_machine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Brick_paving_machine.jpg/440px-Brick_paving_machine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption>Brick paving machine</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Brick" title="Brick">Brick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">cobblestone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sett_(paving)" title="Sett (paving)">sett</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plank_road" title="Plank road">wood plank</a>, and wood block pavements such as <a href="/wiki/Nicolson_pavement" title="Nicolson pavement">Nicolson pavement</a>, were once common in <a href="/wiki/Urban_area" title="Urban area">urban areas</a> throughout the world, but fell out of fashion in most countries, due to the high cost of labor required to lay and maintain them, and are typically only kept for historical or aesthetic reasons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In some countries, however, they are still common in local streets. In the <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a>, brick paving has made something of a comeback since the adoption of a major nationwide <a href="/wiki/Traffic_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic safety">traffic safety</a> program in 1997. From 1998 through 2007, more than 41,000 km of city streets were converted to local access roads with a speed limit of 30 km/h, for the purpose of <a href="/wiki/Traffic_calming" title="Traffic calming">traffic calming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One popular measure is to use brick paving - the noise and vibration slows motorists down. At the same time, it is not uncommon for cycle paths alongside a road to have a smoother surface than the road itself.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although rarely constructed today, early-style <a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">macadam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tarmacadam" title="Tarmacadam">tarmac</a> pavements are sometimes found beneath modern asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete pavements, because the cost of their removal at the time of renovation would not significantly benefit the durabilty and longevity of the newer surface. </p><p>There are ways to create the appearance of brick pavement, without the expense of actual bricks. The first method to create brick texture is to heat an asphalt pavement and use metal wires to imprint a brick pattern using a <a href="/wiki/Compactor" title="Compactor">compactor</a> to create <a href="/wiki/Stamped_asphalt" title="Stamped asphalt">stamped asphalt</a>. A similar method is to use rubber imprinting tools to press over a thin layer of cement to create <a href="/wiki/Decorative_concrete" title="Decorative concrete">decorative concrete</a>. Another method is to use a brick pattern stencil and apply a surfacing material over the stencil. Materials that can be applied to give the color of the brick and skid resistance can be in many forms. An example is to use colored <a href="/wiki/Polymer_concrete" title="Polymer concrete">polymer-modified concrete slurry</a> which can be applied by <a href="/wiki/Screed" title="Screed">screeding</a> or spraying.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another material is <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">aggregate</a>-reinforced <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastic</a> which can be heat applied to the top layer of the brick-pattern surface.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other coating materials over stamped asphalt are paints and two-part <a href="/wiki/Epoxy" title="Epoxy">epoxy</a> coating.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brick_sidewalk_in_Chicago.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Concrete pavers"><img alt="Concrete pavers" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Brick_sidewalk_in_Chicago.JPG/200px-Brick_sidewalk_in_Chicago.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Brick_sidewalk_in_Chicago.JPG/300px-Brick_sidewalk_in_Chicago.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Brick_sidewalk_in_Chicago.JPG/400px-Brick_sidewalk_in_Chicago.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Concrete pavers</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Paving_in_Haikou_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Replacing the old road with concrete blocks in Bo'ao Road area, Haikou City, Hainan, China"><img alt="Replacing the old road with concrete blocks in Bo'ao Road area, Haikou City, Hainan, China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Paving_in_Haikou_02.jpg/200px-Paving_in_Haikou_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Paving_in_Haikou_02.jpg/300px-Paving_in_Haikou_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Paving_in_Haikou_02.jpg/400px-Paving_in_Haikou_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Replacing the old road with concrete blocks in Bo'ao Road area, <a href="/wiki/Haikou" title="Haikou">Haikou</a> City, <a href="/wiki/Hainan" title="Hainan">Hainan</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 235px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 230px; height: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Construction_of_a_crosswalk_using_polymer_modified_cement_slurry.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Polymer cement overlaying to change asphalt pavement to brick texture and color to create decorative crosswalk"><img alt="Polymer cement overlaying to change asphalt pavement to brick texture and color to create decorative crosswalk" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Construction_of_a_crosswalk_using_polymer_modified_cement_slurry.jpg/200px-Construction_of_a_crosswalk_using_polymer_modified_cement_slurry.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Construction_of_a_crosswalk_using_polymer_modified_cement_slurry.jpg/300px-Construction_of_a_crosswalk_using_polymer_modified_cement_slurry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Construction_of_a_crosswalk_using_polymer_modified_cement_slurry.jpg/400px-Construction_of_a_crosswalk_using_polymer_modified_cement_slurry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Polymer cement overlaying to change asphalt pavement to brick texture and color to create decorative crosswalk</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Acoustical_implications">Acoustical implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Acoustical implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Roadway surfacing choices are known to affect the intensity and spectrum of sound emanating from the tire/surface interaction.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initial applications of noise studies occurred in the early 1970s. Noise phenomena are highly influenced by vehicle speed. </p><p>Roadway surface types contribute differential noise effects of up to 4 <a href="/wiki/Decibel" title="Decibel">dB</a>, with chip seal type and grooved roads being the loudest, and <a href="#Concrete">concrete surfaces</a> without spacers being the quietest. <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">Asphaltic</a> surfaces perform intermediately relative to concrete and <a href="/wiki/Chip_seal" class="mw-redirect" title="Chip seal">chip seal</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rubberized_asphalt" title="Rubberized asphalt">Rubberized asphalt</a> has been shown to give a 3–5 dB reduction in tire-pavement noise emissions, and a marginally discernible 1–3 dB reduction in total road noise emissions when compared to conventional asphalt applications. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Small_cobbles.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cobbles"><img alt="Cobbles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Small_cobbles.jpg/240px-Small_cobbles.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Small_cobbles.jpg/360px-Small_cobbles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Small_cobbles.jpg/480px-Small_cobbles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cobbles</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rambla_waves_IMG_2089.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Decorative wavy pattern on La Rambla"><img alt="Decorative wavy pattern on La Rambla" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rambla_waves_IMG_2089.JPG/240px-Rambla_waves_IMG_2089.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rambla_waves_IMG_2089.JPG/360px-Rambla_waves_IMG_2089.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Rambla_waves_IMG_2089.JPG/480px-Rambla_waves_IMG_2089.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Decorative wavy pattern on <a href="/wiki/La_Rambla,_Barcelona" title="La Rambla, Barcelona">La Rambla</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 154px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 152px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallpaper_group-pgg-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Decorative mock-brick pattern"><img alt="Decorative mock-brick pattern" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Wallpaper_group-pgg-2.jpg/228px-Wallpaper_group-pgg-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="152" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Wallpaper_group-pgg-2.jpg/341px-Wallpaper_group-pgg-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Wallpaper_group-pgg-2.jpg/455px-Wallpaper_group-pgg-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1150" data-file-height="910" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Decorative mock-brick pattern</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 127.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 125.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Decorative pentagonal brickwork pattern"><img alt="Decorative pentagonal brickwork pattern" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg/188px-Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="126" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg/281px-Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg/375px-Wallpaper_group-p3-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Decorative pentagonal brickwork pattern</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surface_deterioration">Surface deterioration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Surface deterioration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pothole" title="Pothole">Pothole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crocodile_cracking" title="Crocodile cracking">Crocodile cracking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rut_(roads)" title="Rut (roads)">Rut (roads)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bleeding_(roads)" title="Bleeding (roads)">Bleeding (roads)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pavement_performance_modeling" title="Pavement performance modeling">Pavement performance modeling</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asphalt_deterioration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Asphalt_deterioration.jpg/170px-Asphalt_deterioration.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Asphalt_deterioration.jpg/255px-Asphalt_deterioration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Asphalt_deterioration.jpg/340px-Asphalt_deterioration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>Deteriorating <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt</a></figcaption></figure> <p>As pavement systems primarily fail due to <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(material)" title="Fatigue (material)">fatigue</a> (in a manner similar to <a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metals</a>), the damage done to pavement increases with the fourth power of the <a href="/wiki/Axle_load" title="Axle load">axle load</a> of the vehicles traveling on it. According to the <a href="/wiki/AASHO_Road_Test" title="AASHO Road Test">AASHO Road Test</a>, heavily loaded <a href="/wiki/Truck" title="Truck">trucks</a> can do more than 10,000 times the damage done by a normal passenger car. <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">Tax</a> rates for trucks are higher than those for cars in most countries for this reason, though they are not levied in proportion to the damage done.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Passenger cars are considered to have little practical effect on a pavement's service life, from a materials fatigue perspective. </p><p>Other failure modes include aging and surface abrasion. As years go by, the binder in a bituminous <a href="/wiki/Wearing_course" title="Wearing course">wearing course</a> gets stiffer and less flexible. When it gets "old" enough, the surface will start losing aggregates, and <a href="/wiki/Macrotexture" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrotexture">macrotexture</a> depth increases dramatically. If no maintenance action is done quickly on the wearing course, <a href="/wiki/Pothole" title="Pothole">potholes</a> will form. The <a href="/wiki/Freeze-thaw" class="mw-redirect" title="Freeze-thaw">freeze-thaw</a> cycle in cold climates will dramatically accelerate pavement deterioration, once water can penetrate the surface. Clay and fumed silica <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticle" title="Nanoparticle">nanoparticles</a> may potentially be used as efficient UV-anti aging coatings in asphalt pavements. </p><p>If the road is still structurally sound, a bituminous surface treatment, such as a <a href="/wiki/Chipseal" title="Chipseal">chipseal</a> or surface dressing can prolong the life of the road at low cost. In areas with cold climate, <a href="/wiki/Studded_tire" class="mw-redirect" title="Studded tire">studded tires</a> may be allowed on passenger cars. In Sweden and Finland, studded passenger car tires account for a very large share of pavement <a href="/wiki/Rut_(roads)" title="Rut (roads)">rutting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The physical properties of a stretch of pavement can be tested using a <a href="/wiki/Falling_weight_deflectometer" title="Falling weight deflectometer">falling weight deflectometer</a>. </p><p>Several design methods have been developed to determine the thickness and composition of road surfaces required to carry predicted traffic loads for a given period of time. Pavement design methods are continuously evolving. Among these are the <a href="/wiki/Shell_Pavement_design" class="mw-redirect" title="Shell Pavement design">Shell Pavement design</a> method, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Association_of_State_Highway_and_Transportation_Officials" title="American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials">American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials</a> (AASHTO) 1993/98 "Guide for Design of Pavement Structures". A mechanistic-empirical design guide was developed through the NCHRP process, resulting in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), which was adopted by AASHTO in 2008, although MEPDG implementation by state departments of transportation has been slow.<sup id="cite_ref-Li_Xiao_Wang_Hall_2011_pp._114–133_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Li_Xiao_Wang_Hall_2011_pp._114–133-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further research by <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a> into pavements has led to the development of an indoor, 80-sq-metre artificial pavement at a research centre called <a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_Accessibility_and_Movement_Environment_Laboratory" title="Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory">Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory</a> (PAMELA). It is used to simulate everyday scenarios, from different pavement users to varying pavement conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There also exists a research facility near <a href="/wiki/Auburn_University" title="Auburn University">Auburn University</a>, the <a href="/wiki/NCAT_Pavement_Test_Track" title="NCAT Pavement Test Track">NCAT Pavement Test Track</a>, that is used to test experimental asphalt pavements for durability. </p><p>In addition to repair costs, the condition of a road surface has economic effects for road users. <a href="/wiki/Rolling_resistance" title="Rolling resistance">Rolling resistance</a> increases on rough pavement, as does wear and tear of vehicle components. It has been estimated that poor road surfaces cost the average US driver $324 per year in vehicle repairs, or a total of $67 billion. Also, it has been estimated that small improvements in road surface conditions can decrease fuel consumption between 1.8 and 4.7%.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Markings">Markings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Markings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Road_surface_marking" title="Road surface marking">Road surface marking</a></div> <p>Road surface markings are used on paved roadways to provide guidance and information to drivers and pedestrians. It can be in the form of mechanical markers such as <a href="/wiki/Cat%27s_eye_(road)" title="Cat's eye (road)">cat's eyes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Botts%27_dots" title="Botts' dots">botts' dots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rumble_strip" title="Rumble strip">rumble strips</a>, or non-mechanical markers such as paints, <a href="/wiki/Thermoplastic" title="Thermoplastic">thermoplastic</a>, plastic and <a href="/wiki/Epoxy" title="Epoxy">epoxy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">Asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">Cobblestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_grinding_of_pavement" title="Diamond grinding of pavement">Diamond grinding of pavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecogrid" title="Ecogrid">Ecogrid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_Roads_Movement" title="Good Roads Movement">Good Roads Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_road_types_by_features" class="mw-redirect" title="List of road types by features">List of road types by features</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavement_management" title="Pavement management">Pavement management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_armour" title="Plastic armour">Plastic armour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_pavement" title="Portuguese pavement">Portuguese pavement</a> (mosaic-like)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_construction" class="mw-redirect" title="Road construction">Road construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_slipperiness" title="Road slipperiness">Road slipperiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sealcoat" title="Sealcoat">Sealcoat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sett_(paving)" title="Sett (paving)">Sett (paving)</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFNehme2017" class="citation web cs1">Nehme, Jean (14 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://highways.dot.gov/research/research-programs/infrastructure/infrastructure-overview">"About Long-Term Pavement Performance"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Highway_Administration" title="Federal Highway Administration">Federal Highway Administration</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bellefontaine%2C+Ohio%3A+Court+Avenue+photo&rft.pub=City+Profile&rft.date=2011-02-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cityprofile.com%2Fohio%2Fphotos%2F4358-bellefontaine-court_avenue2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeLee2004" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, B. J.; Lee, H. (2004). "Position-Invariant Neural Network for Digital Pavement Crack Analysis". <i>Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 105–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8667.2004.00341.x">10.1111/j.1467-8667.2004.00341.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109522695">109522695</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer-Aided+Civil+and+Infrastructure+Engineering&rft.atitle=Position-Invariant+Neural+Network+for+Digital+Pavement+Crack+Analysis&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=105-118&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8667.2004.00341.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A109522695%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=B.+J.&rft.au=Lee%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulseaShawver1980" class="citation book cs1">Kulsea, Bill; Shawver, Tom (1980). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Making_Michigan_Move#4"><i>Making Michigan Move: A History of Michigan Highways and the Michigan Department of Transportation</i></a>. Lansing, Michigan: Michigan Department of Transportation. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8169232">8169232</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 January</span> 2021</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Michigan+Move%3A+A+History+of+Michigan+Highways+and+the+Michigan+Department+of+Transportation&rft.place=Lansing%2C+Michigan&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=Michigan+Department+of+Transportation&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8169232&rft.aulast=Kulsea&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft.au=Shawver%2C+Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FMaking_Michigan_Move%234&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeingroff2011" class="citation web cs1">Weingroff, Richard F. (7 April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://highways.dot.gov/highway-history/general-highway-history/lincoln-highway">"The Lincoln Highway"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Highway_Administration" title="Federal Highway Administration">Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)</a></i>. Federal Highway Administration<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 September</span> 2017</span>. <q>The LHA also sponsored short concrete "Seedling Mile" object lesson roads in many locations (the first, built in the fall of 1914, was just west of Malta, Illinois). The "Seedling Miles," according to the LHA's 1924 guide, were intended "to demonstrate the desirability of this permanent type of road construction" and "crystallize public sentiment" for "further construction of the same character." Generally, the LHA worked with the Portland Cement Association to arrange donations of cement for the seeding mileage...The most famous "seedling" and one of the most talked about portions of the Lincoln Highway was the 1.3-mile "Ideal Section" between Dyer and Schererville in Lake County, Indiana. In 1920, the LHA decided to develop a model section of road that would be adequate not only for current traffic but for highway transportation over the following 2 decades. The LHA assembled 17 of the country's foremost highway experts for meetings in December 1920 and February 1921 to decide design details of the Ideal Section. They agreed on such features as: A 110-foot right-of-way; A 40-foot wide concrete pavement 10 inches thick (maximum loads of 8,000 pounds per wheel were the basis for the pavement design); Minimum radius for curves of 1,000 feet, with guardrail at all embankments; Curves superelevated (i.e., banked) for a speed of 35 miles per hour; No grade crossings or advertising signs; and A footpath for pedestrians.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Highway+Administration+%28FHWA%29&rft.atitle=The+Lincoln+Highway&rft.date=2011-04-07&rft.aulast=Weingroff&rft.aufirst=Richard+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhighways.dot.gov%2Fhighway-history%2Fgeneral-highway-history%2Flincoln-highway&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhazanovichLederleTompkinsHarvey2012" class="citation book cs1">Khazanovich, L.; Lederle, R.; Tompkins, D.; Harvey, J.T.; Signore, J. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=A+view+from+the+cycle+path&rft.atitle=Road+noise%2C+cobbles+and+smooth+asphalt&rft.date=2011-04-25&rft.aulast=Hembrow&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aviewfromthecyclepath.com%2F2011%2F04%2Froad-noise-cobbles-and-smooth-asphalt.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation audio-visual cs1">Fred Young (23 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l0GA901oGe4"><i>What can Seattle learn from Dutch street design?</i></a> (presentation video). Seattle Neighborhood Greenways. Event occurs at 3:49 and 9:19 min. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211113/l0GA901oGe4">Archived</a> from the original on 13 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 August</span> 2014</span>. <q>... the cycle track is asphalt (...) and the lane for cars is brick ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+can+Seattle+learn+from+Dutch+street+design%3F&rft.pub=Seattle+Neighborhood+Greenways&rft.date=2013-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dl0GA901oGe4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pavementsurfacecoatings.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/EB_FLY_COLOR_4.11.pdf">"Endurablend Systems for Color Surfacing - Colors, Seals, Textures and Protects to Extend Service Life of Asphalt and Concrete Pavement Surfaces"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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P.; Hall, Kevin D.; Qiu, Yanjun (27 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf03325749">"Mechanistic-empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG): a bird's-eye view"</a>. <i>Journal of Modern Transportation</i>. <b>19</b> (2): 114–133. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fbf03325749">10.1007/bf03325749</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Modern+Transportation&rft.atitle=Mechanistic-empirical+pavement+design+guide+%28MEPDG%29%3A+a+bird%27s-eye+view&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=114-133&rft.date=2013-09-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fbf03325749&rft.aulast=Li&rft.aufirst=Qiang&rft.au=Xiao%2C+Danny+X.&rft.au=Wang%2C+Kelvin+C.+P.&rft.au=Hall%2C+Kevin+D.&rft.au=Qiu%2C+Yanjun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fbf03325749&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5333936.stm">"Scientists walk on tech pavement"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 12 September 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Scientists+walk+on+tech+pavement&rft.date=2006-09-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fsci%2Ftech%2F5333936.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalmagazinetechnology.com/a/?KEY=betterroads-11-08august&fp=38&title=August%25202011#page=7">"The Value of Smooth"</a>. <i>Better Roads</i>. Randall Reilly. August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Better+Roads&rft.atitle=The+Value+of+Smooth&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalmagazinetechnology.com%2Fa%2F%3FKEY%3Dbetterroads-11-08august%26fp%3D38%26title%3DAugust%2525202011%23page%3D7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARoad+surface" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Road_surface&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pavements" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pavements">Pavements</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paveshare.org">PaveShare - Concrete Paver Education</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/index.cfm">"Pavements" website of the US Department of Transportation's Federal Highway Administration</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Long-life Surfacings for Roads</i>. 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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Road_types" title="Template:Road types"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Road_types" title="Template talk:Road types"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Road_types" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Road types"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Road_hierarchy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Road" title="Road">Road</a> <a href="/wiki/Road_hierarchy" title="Road hierarchy">hierarchy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_road" title="Types of road">Types of road</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Limited-access_road" title="Limited-access road">Limited-access</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_highway" title="Bicycle highway">Bicycle highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controlled-access_highway" title="Controlled-access highway">Freeway / Motorway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_carriageway" title="Dual carriageway">Dual carriageway / Divided highway / Expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elevated_highway" title="Elevated highway">Elevated highway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Limited-access_roads_by_country" title="Category:Limited-access roads by country">By country</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Australia" title="Highways in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Belgium#Road_transport" title="Transport in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Highway_System" title="Brazilian Highway System">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Canada" title="Roads in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressways_of_China" title="Expressways of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Croatia" title="Highways in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Highways in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autobahn" title="Autobahn">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Greece" title="Highways in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_and_roads_in_Hong_Kong" title="List of streets and roads in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_India" title="Roads in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-quality_dual_carriageway" title="High-quality dual carriageway">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_roads_in_Nepal" title="List of roads in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Pakistan" title="Roads in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Poland" title="Highways in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Portugal" title="Roads in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highways_in_Spain" title="Highways in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway_system_in_Taiwan" title="Highway system in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Roads in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numbered_highways_in_the_United_States" title="Numbered highways in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main roads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arterial_road" title="Arterial road">Arterial road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collector_road" title="Collector road">Collector road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_highway" title="County highway">County highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local%E2%80%93express_lanes" title="Local–express lanes">Express–collector setup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farm-to-market_road" title="Farm-to-market road">Farm-to-market road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway" title="Highway">Highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Link_road" title="Link road">Link road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-lane_expressway" title="Two-lane expressway">Two-lane expressway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2%2B1_road" title="2+1 road">2+1 road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2%2B2_road" title="2+2 road">2+2 road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkway" title="Parkway">Parkway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_road" title="Ring road">Ring road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_two" title="Super two">Super two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trunk_road" title="Trunk road">Trunk road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highway_systems_by_country" title="Highway systems by country">Highway systems by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Local roads</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Alley</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avenue_(landscape)" title="Avenue (landscape)">Avenue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_road" title="Back road">Back road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bicycle_boulevard" title="Bicycle boulevard">Bicycle boulevard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boulevard" title="Boulevard">Boulevard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Country_lane" title="Country lane">Country lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_end_street" title="Dead end street">Dead end</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driveway" title="Driveway">Driveway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontage_road" title="Frontage road">Frontage road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_lane_(road)" title="Green lane (road)">Green lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Street" title="Main Street">Main street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_road" title="Primitive road">Primitive road</a></li> <li>Road</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side_road" title="Side road">Side road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_carriageway" title="Single carriageway">Single carriageway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-track_road" title="Single-track road">Single-track road</a></li> <li>Street</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunken_lane" title="Sunken lane">Sunken lane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(road)" title="Concurrency (road)">Concurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detour" title="Detour">Detour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_hierarchy" title="Road hierarchy">Road hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_highway" title="Private highway">Private highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Route_number" title="Route number">Route number</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Special_route" title="Special route">special route</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_route" title="Business route">business route</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_hierarchy" title="Street hierarchy">Street hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stroad" title="Stroad">Stroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toll_road" title="Toll road">Toll road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_road" title="Winter road">Winter road</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Road_junction" title="Road junction">Road junctions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Interchange_(road)" title="Interchange (road)">Interchanges</a><br /><span class="nobold">(<a href="/wiki/Grade_separation" title="Grade separation">grade-separated</a>)</span></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloverleaf_interchange" title="Cloverleaf interchange">Cloverleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_interchange" title="Diamond interchange">Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-flow_interchange" title="Free-flow interchange">Free-flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interchange_(road)#Directional_T_interchange" title="Interchange (road)">Directional T</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diverging_diamond_interchange" title="Diverging diamond interchange">Diverging diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_cloverleaf_interchange" title="Partial cloverleaf interchange">Parclo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raindrop_interchange" class="mw-redirect" title="Raindrop interchange">Raindrop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundabout_interchange" title="Roundabout interchange">Roundabout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-point_urban_interchange" title="Single-point urban interchange">Single-point urban (SPUI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_interchange" title="Stack interchange">Stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-level_diamond_interchange" title="Three-level diamond interchange">Three-level diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interchange_(road)#Trumpet_interchange" title="Interchange (road)">Trumpet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Intersection_(road)" title="Intersection (road)">Intersections<br /><span class="nobold">(at-grade)</span></a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three-way_junction" title="Three-way junction">3-way junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowtie_(road)" title="Bowtie (road)">Bowtie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_junction" title="Box junction">Box junction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channelization_(roads)" title="Channelization (roads)">Channelization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuous-flow_intersection" title="Continuous-flow intersection">Continuous flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hook_turn" title="Hook turn">Hook turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jughandle" title="Jughandle">Jughandle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michigan_left" title="Michigan left">Michigan left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offset_T-intersection" title="Offset T-intersection">Offset T-intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_intersection" title="Protected intersection">Protected intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrant_roadway_intersection" title="Quadrant roadway intersection">Quadrant roadway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-in/right-out" title="Right-in/right-out">Right-in/right-out (RIRO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roundabout" title="Roundabout">Roundabout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagull_intersection" title="Seagull intersection">Seagull intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_intersection" title="Split intersection">Split intersection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstreet" title="Superstreet">Superstreet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_U-turn" title="Texas U-turn">Texas U-turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turnaround_(road)" title="Turnaround (road)">Turnaround</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Surfaces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">Asphalt concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioasphalt" title="Bioasphalt">Bioasphalt</a></li> <li>Brick</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chipseal" title="Chipseal">Chipseal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobblestone" title="Cobblestone">Cobblestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete#Roads" title="Concrete">Concrete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced concrete</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corduroy_road" title="Corduroy road">Corduroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crocodile_cracking" title="Crocodile cracking">Crocodile cracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crushed_stone" title="Crushed stone">Crushed stone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_grinding_of_pavement" title="Diamond grinding of pavement">Diamond grinding of pavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirt_road" title="Dirt road">Dirt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full_depth_recycling" title="Full depth recycling">Full depth recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassphalt" title="Glassphalt">Glassphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel_road" title="Gravel road">Gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_road" title="Ice road">Ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macadam" title="Macadam">Macadam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavement_milling" title="Pavement milling">Pavement milling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permeable_paving" title="Permeable paving">Permeable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plank_road" title="Plank road">Plank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic_road" title="Plastic road">Plastic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubberized_asphalt" title="Rubberized asphalt">Rubberized asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sealcoat" title="Sealcoat">Sealcoat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sett_(paving)" title="Sett (paving)">Sett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamped_asphalt" title="Stamped asphalt">Stamped asphalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarmacadam" title="Tarmacadam">Tarmac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_texture" title="Road texture">Texture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Road_traffic_safety" title="Road traffic safety">Road safety<br />factors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Road and<br />environment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquaplaning" title="Aquaplaning">Aquaplaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_ice" title="Black ice">Black ice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bleeding_(roads)" title="Bleeding (roads)">Bleeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crosswind" title="Crosswind">Crosswind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_Man%27s_Curve" title="Dead Man's Curve">Dead Man's Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_joint" title="Expansion joint">Expansion joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ford_(crossing)" title="Ford (crossing)">Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hairpin_turn" title="Hairpin turn">Hairpin turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_crossing" title="Level crossing">Level crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manhole_cover" title="Manhole cover">Manhole cover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_spill" title="Oil spill">Oil spill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oversize_load" title="Oversize load">Oversize load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pothole" title="Pothole">Pothole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_debris" title="Road debris">Road debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_slipperiness" title="Road slipperiness">Road slipperiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_train" title="Road train">Road train</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadkill" title="Roadkill">Roadkill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rockfall" title="Rockfall">Rockfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rut_(roads)" title="Rut (roads)">Rut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speed_bump" title="Speed bump">Speed bump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">Storm drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_light" title="Traffic light">Traffic light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_sign" title="Traffic sign">Traffic sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washboarding" title="Washboarding">Washboarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washout_(erosion)" title="Washout (erosion)">Washout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteout_(weather)" title="Whiteout (weather)">Whiteout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snow_squall" title="Snow squall">Snow squall</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Traffic_psychology" title="Traffic psychology">Human factors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Driver%27s_education" title="Driver's education">Driver's education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_under_the_influence" title="Driving under the influence">Driving under the influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowsy_driving" title="Drowsy driving">Drowsy driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_rage" title="Road rage">Road rage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-vehicle_crash" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-vehicle crash">Single-vehicle crash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbag" title="Airbag">Airbag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_safety" title="Automotive safety">Automotive safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seat_belt" title="Seat belt">Seat belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_compensation#Road_transport" title="Risk compensation">Risk compensation (road transport)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underride_guard" class="mw-redirect" title="Underride guard">Underride guard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Traffic#Rules_of_the_road" title="Traffic">Space and<br />time allocation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_transfer_machine" title="Barrier transfer machine">Barrier transfer machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bike_lane" title="Bike lane">Bike lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climbing_lane" title="Climbing lane">Climbing lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complete_streets" title="Complete streets">Complete streets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraflow_lane" title="Contraflow lane">Contraflow lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraflow_lane_reversal" title="Contraflow lane reversal">Contraflow lane reversal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-occupancy_toll_lane" title="High-occupancy toll lane">High-occupancy toll lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-occupancy_vehicle_lane" title="High-occupancy vehicle lane">High-occupancy vehicle lane</a></li> <li>Lane</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_street" title="Living street">Living street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_lane" title="Managed lane">Managed lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_strip" title="Median strip">Median / Central reservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motorcycle_lane" title="Motorcycle lane">Motorcycle lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_lane" title="Passing lane">Passing lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_crossing" title="Pedestrian crossing">Pedestrian crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedestrian_zone" title="Pedestrian zone">Pedestrian zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_island" title="Refuge island">Refuge island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversible_lane" title="Reversible lane">Reversible lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_diet" title="Road diet">Road diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_verge" title="Road verge">Road verge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runaway_truck_ramp" title="Runaway truck ramp">Runaway truck ramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_space" title="Shared space">Shared space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidewalk" title="Sidewalk">Sidewalk / Pavement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder_(road)" title="Shoulder (road)">Shoulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_running_train" title="Street running train">Street-running railway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_calming" title="Traffic calming">Traffic calming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left-_and_right-hand_traffic" title="Left- and right-hand traffic">Traffic directionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_island" title="Traffic island">Traffic island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_lanes" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic lanes">Traffic lanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_signal_preemption" title="Traffic signal preemption">Traffic signal preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truck_bypass" title="Truck bypass">Truck bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unused_highway" title="Unused highway">Unused highway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide_outside_lane" title="Wide outside lane">Wide outside lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woonerf" title="Woonerf">Woonerf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demarcation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bollard" title="Bollard">Bollard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botts%27_dots" title="Botts' dots">Botts' dots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cable_barrier" title="Cable barrier">Cable barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cat%27s_eye_(road)" title="Cat's eye (road)">Cat's eye (road)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concrete_step_barrier" title="Concrete step barrier">Concrete step barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant-slope_barrier" title="Constant-slope barrier">Constant-slope barrier</a></li> <li>Curb</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-shape_barrier" title="F-shape barrier">F-shape barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guard_rail" title="Guard rail">Guard rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_barrier" title="Jersey barrier">Jersey barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassel_kerb" title="Kassel kerb">Kassel kerb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_barrier" title="Noise barrier">Noise barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_pavement_marker" title="Raised pavement marker">Raised pavement marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_surface_marking" title="Road surface marking">Road surface marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rumble_strip" title="Rumble strip">Rumble strip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_barrier" title="Traffic barrier">Traffic barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traffic_cone" title="Traffic cone">Traffic cone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Bridge</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causeway" title="Causeway">Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpass" title="Overpass">Overpass / Flyover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel" title="Tunnel">Underpass / Tunnel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Performance<br />indicators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pavement_condition_index" title="Pavement condition index">Pavement condition index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_roughness_index" title="International roughness index">International roughness index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Present_serviceability_index" title="Present serviceability index">Present serviceability index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pavement_performance_modeling" title="Pavement performance modeling">Pavement performance modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granular_base_equivalency" title="Granular base equivalency">Granular base equivalency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_road_transport_terms" title="Glossary of road transport terms">Glossary of road transport terms</a></li> <li><a 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